Ch07 Stress Strain

Chapter 7: Mechanical Properties Chapter 7: Mechanical Properties
Why mechanical properties? ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• Need to design materials that will withstand • Stress and strain: Normalized force and displacements.
applied load and in-service uses for… Engineering : σ e = Fi / A0 ε e = Δ /  0
Bridges for autos and people MEMS devices True : σ T = Fi / Ai εT = ln( f /  0 )
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small.

Young ' s Modulus : E [GPa]
Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM
• Plastic behavior: dislocations and permanent deformation
skyscrapers
Yield Strength : σ YS [MPa] (permanent deformation)
Ulitmate Tensile Strength : σ TS [MPa] (fracture)
• Toughness, ductility, resilience, toughness, and hardness:
Define and how do we measure?
Space exploration Space elevator? •  Mechanical behavior of the various classes of materials.
1 2
MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2010 MatSE 280: Introduction to Engineering Materials ©D.D. Johnson 2004/2006-2010
Engineering Stress
Stress and Strain
• Tensile stress, s: • Shear stress, t:
Stress: Force per unit area arising from applied load.
Tension, compression, shear, torsion or any combination.
Stress = σ = force/area
F
Strain: ε – physical deformation response of a σ= t
material to stress, e.g., elongation. Ao
original area
before loading Stress has units: N/m2 (or lb/in2 )
3 4
1
Pure Tension Pure Compression Common States of Stress
Fnormal
stress σ e = • Simple tension: cable
Ao
 − o
strain εe =
o
Elastic σ e = Eε
response F
σ=
Ao
Fshear Pure Shear Ski lift
stress τ e = • Simple shear: drive shaft
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao
strain γ = tan θ
Elastic τ e = Gγ
Fs
τ =
response Ao
Pure Torsional Shear
Note: t = M/AcR here.
5 6
Common States of Stress Common States of Stress

• Simple compression: • Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:
Ao
Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

Note: compressive (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Balanced Rock, Arches structural member (σ < 0).
National Park
P.M. Anderson)
σθ > 0
σz > 0 σh < 0
7 8
2
Engineering Strain Elastic Deformation
• Tensile strain: • Lateral (width) strain: 1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
• Shear strain: d
F
F Linear-
γ = tan θ Strain is always elastic
dimensionless. Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
9 10
Plastic Deformation of Metals Strain Testing

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload • Tensile specimen • Tensile test machine
bonds
stretch planes
Often 12.8 mm x 60 mm
& planes still
shear sheared Adapted from Fig. 7.2,
extensometer specimen
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
δ elastic + plastic δ plastic
gauge
F length
F
linear linear
• Other types:
Plastic means permanent! elastic elastic
d -compression: brittle materials (e.g., concrete)
δ plastic εelastic -torsion: cylindrical tubes, shafts.
11 12
3
Linear Elasticity Example: Hooke’s Law
• Hooke's Law: σ=Eε (linear elastic behavior)
• Modulus of Elasticity, E: Units: E [GPa] or [psi]
(also known as Young's modulus) Copper sample (305 mm long) is pulled in tension with stress of
276 MPa. If deformation is elastic, what is elongation?
• Hooke's Law: σ = E ε
For Cu (polycrystalline), E = 110 GPa.
s Axial strain Axial strain
 Δ  σ
E σ = Eε = E   ⇒ Δ = 0
 0  E
e (276MPa)(305mm)
Δ = = 0.77mm
Width strain 110x103 MPa Width strain
Linear-
elastic
Hooke’s law involves axial (parallel to applied tensile load) elastic deformation.
13 14
Elastic Deformation Mechanical Properties

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload •  Recall: Bonding Energy vs distance plots
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic tension
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear- compression
elastic Adapted from Fig. 2.8
d Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
15 16
4
Mechanical Properties Elasticity of Ceramics
•  Recall: Slope of stress strain plot (proportional to the E) • Elastic Behavior And Effects of Porosity
depends on bond strength of metal E= E0(1 - 1.9P + 0.9 P2)
E larger
E smaller Al2O3
Adapted from Fig. 7.7,

Neither Glass or Alumina experience plastic deformation before fracture!
17 18
Comparison of Elastic Moduli Polymers: Tangent and Secant Modulus

• Tangent Modulus is experienced in service.
•  Secant Modulus is effective modulus at 2% strain.

- grey cast iron is also an example
•  Modulus of polymer changes with time and strain-rate.
- must report strain-rate dε/dt for polymers.
- must report fracture strain εf before fracture.
Silicon (single xtal) 120-190 (depends on crystallographic direction) initial E

Glass (pyrex) 70 Stress (MPa)
SiC (fused or sintered) 207-483 secant E
Graphite (molded) ~12 tangent E
High modulus C-fiber 400
Carbon Nanotubes ~1000 Normalize by density, 20x steel wire.
strength normalized by density is 56x wire. %strain
1 2 3 4 5 …..
19 20
5
Young’s Modulus, E Poisson's ratio, 
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond • Poisson's ratio, ν: Units: n dimensionless
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide width strain Δw / w ε
400 Tungsten
Molybdenum
Al oxide Carbon fibers only
ν =− =− =− L
Δ / 
Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)* axial strain ε eL
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold Glass-soda AFRE(|| fibers)*
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium, GFRE(|| fibers)*
40 Tin
Concrete Axial strain
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
10
8
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
e
CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)* Based on data in Table B2, Callister 6e.
Polyester
4 Composite data based on metals: ν ~ 0.33
PET
PS reinforced epoxy with 60 vol% -ν
ceramics: ν ~ 0.25
PC Epoxy only
2 of aligned carbon (CFRE),
PP aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE) fibers.
1
0.8
HDPE
Width strain polymers: ν ~ 0.40
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
Why does ν have minus sign?
0.2 LDPE
21 22
Limits of the Poisson Ratio Poisson Ratio: materials specific

• Poisson Ratio has a range –1 ≤ ν ≤ 1/2 Metals: Ir W Ni Cu Al Ag Au
0.26 0.29 0.31 0.34 0.34 0.38 0.42
Look at extremes generic value ~ 1/3
•  No change in aspect ratio: Δw /w = Δ / Solid Argon: 0.25
Δw / w Covalent Solids: Si Ge Al2O3 TiC
ν =− = −1
Δ /  0.27 0.28 0.23 0.19 generic value ~ 1/4
€
•  Volume (V = AL) remains constant: ΔV =0. Ionic Solids: MgO 0.19
Hence, ΔV = (L ΔA+A ΔL) = 0. So, ΔA / A = −ΔL /L Silica Glass: 0.20
In terms of width, A = w2, then ΔA/A = 2 w Δw/w2 = 2Δw/w = –ΔL/L. Polymers: Network (Bakelite) 0.49 Chain (PE) 0.40 ~generic value
1 Elastomer: Hard Rubber (Ebonite) 0.39 (Natural) 0.49

Hence, (− Δ / ) Incompressible solid.
Δw / w €
2 1
ν =− =− = Water (almost).
Δ /  Δ /  2
23 24
6
Example: Poisson Effect Other Elastic Properties
Tensile stress is applied along cylindrical brass rod (10 mm
diameter). Poisson ratio is ν = 0.34 and E = 97 GPa. • Elastic Shear
•  Determine load needed for 2.5x10–3 mm change in diameter if
modulus, G: simple
Torsion test
the deformation is entirely elastic?
τ = Gγ
Width strain: (note reduction in diameter)
εx= Δd/d = –(2.5x10–3 mm)/(10 mm) = –2.5x10–4

• Elastic Bulk P
modulus, K:
Axial strain: Given Poisson ratio P P
Pressure test:
εz= –εx/ν = –(–2.5x10–4)/0.34 = +7.35x10–4 Init. vol = Vo.
Vol chg. = ΔV
Axial Stress: σz = Eεz = (97x103 MPa)(7.35x10–4) = 71.3 MPa.

• Special relations for isotropic materials:
E E
Required Load: F = σzA0 = (71.3 MPa) π(5 mm)2 = 5600 N. G= K= So, only 2 independent elastic
2(1+ ν) 3(1− 2ν) constants for isotropic media
25 26
Useful Linear Elastic Relationships Complex States of Stress in 3D

•  There are 3 principal components of stress and (small) strain.
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
•  For linear elastic, isotropic case, use “linear superposition”.
2M
L o
d = FL o dw
= - ν Fw o a = •  Strain || to load by Hooke’s Law: εi=σi/E, i=1,2,3 (maybe x,y,z).
E A o E A o πro 4 G •  Strain ε to load governed by Poisson effect: εwidth = –νεaxial.
F M = moment
d /2 a = angle of twist stress σ1 σ2 σ3 Total Strain
A o strain
ε1 σ1/E -νσ2/E -νσ3/E in x
Lo Lo
wo ε2 -νσ1/E σ2/E -νσ3/E in y
-νσ1/E -νσ2/E σ3/E
Poisson
ε3 in z
2ro
d w /2 In x-direction, total linear strain is: ε1 = 1 {σ 1 − ν (σ 2 + σ 3 )}
E σ3 , ε3
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all contribute to deflection. 1
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection. or = {(1+ ν )σ 1 − ν (σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 )}
E
27 28
7
Complex State of Stress and Strain in 3-D Solid Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
•  Hooke’s Law and Poisson effect gives total linear strain:
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)
1 1
ε1 = {σ − ν (σ 2 + σ 3 )} or {(1+ ν )σ 1 − ν (σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 )}
E 1 E • Simple tension test:
Elastic+Plastic
•  For uniaxial tension test σ1= σ2 =0, so ε3= σ3/E and ε1=ε2= –νε3.
engineering stress, s at larger stress
•  Hydrostatic Pressure:
Elastic
σ 1 + σ 2 + σ 3 Tr σ 1
P = σ Hyd = = ε1 = {(1+ ν )σ 1 − 3ν P} initially
3 3 E permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
•  For volume (V=l1l2l3) strain, ΔV/V = ε1+ ε2+ ε3 = (1-2ν)σ3/E
ΔV
= 3(1− 2ν )
P ep engineering strain, e
V E
plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 7.10 (a),
Bulk Modulus, B or K: P = –K ΔV/V so K = E/3(1-2ν) (sec. 7.5)
29 30
Yield Stress, σY Yield Points and σYS

• Stress where noticeable plastic deformation occurs. • Yield-point phenomenon occurs when elastic
plastic transition is abrupt.
For metals agreed upon 0.2% When εp = 0.002
No offset method required.
tensile stress, σ •  P is the proportional limit where
deviation from linear behavior occurs. •  In steels, this effect is seen when
σY dislocations start to move and unbind
Strain off-set method for Yield Stress for interstitial solute.
P
•  Start at 0.2% strain (for most metals).
•  Draw line parallel to elastic curve (slope of E). •  Lower yield point taken as σY.
•  σY is value of stress where dotted line
crosses stress-strain curve (dashed line). •  Jagged curve at lower yield point
Elastic For steels, take the avg.
stress of lower yield point occurs when solute binds dislocation
recovery since less sensitive to and dislocation unbinding again, until
testing methods. work-hardening begins to occur.
Note: for 2 in. sample
Eng. strain, ε ε = 0.002 = Δz/z
ε p = 0.002 Δz = 0.004 in
31 32
8
Stress-Strain in Polymers Compare Yield Stress, σYS
• 3 different types of behavior
For plastic polymers: σy(ceramics)
•  YS at maximum stress just
Brittle after elastic region. >>σy(metals)
•  TS is stress at fracture!
>> σy(polymers)
plastic
Room T values
Highly elastic Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a = annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
•  Highly elastic polymers: qt = quenched & tempered
•  Elongate to as much as 1000% (e.g. silly putty).
•  7 MPa < E < 4 GPa 3 order of magnitude!
•  TS(max) ~ 100 MPa some metal alloys up to 4 GPa
33 34
(Ultimate) Tensile Strength, σTS Metals: Tensile Strength, vTS

• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension. For Metals: max. stress in tension when necking starts,
which is the metals work-hardening tendencies vis-à-vis
TS those that initiate instabilities.
F = fracture or
 dF = 0 Maximum eng. Stress (at necking)
engineering
y ultimate
stress
strength dσ T dA
dF = 0 = σ T dAi + Ai dσ T =− i
σT Ai
Typical response of a metal Neck – acts Fractional fractional
Increase in decrease
as stress decreased force due to Increased force due to
Flow stress in load-
concentrator decrease in gage diameter increase in applied stress bearing
strain area
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when necking starts. At the point where these two competing changes dσ T dA d dσ T
= − i = i ≡ dεT ⇒ = σT
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts. in force equal, there is permanent neck. σT Ai i dεT
n
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are If σ T = K(εT ) , then n = εT
Determined by slope of “true stress” - “true strain” curve n = strain-hardening coefficient
aligned and about to break.
35 36
9
Compare Tensile Strength, σTS
Graphite/
Example for Metals: Determine E, YS, and TS
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys
Semicond
fibers Stress-Strain for Brass
5000 C fibers Room T values •  Young’s Modulus, E (bond stretch)
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib σ − σ 1 (150 − 0)MPa
TS(ceram) E= 2 = 93.8GPa
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)
=
2000 Steel (4140) qt ε2 − ε1 0.0016 − 0
1000 W (pure) Diamond
A FRE(|| fiber)
GFRE(|| fiber) ~TS(met)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cwa
Cu (71500)
Cu (71500) hr
Si nitride
Al oxide
~ TS(comp) € •  0ffset Yield-Stress, YS (plastic deformation)
Steel (1020)
300 Al (6061) ag
200
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
>> TS(poly) YS = 250 MPa
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber)
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET •  Max. Load from Tensile Strength TS
40 PVC GFRE( fiber)
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber) €
A FRE( fiber) d 2
HDPE Fmax = σTS A0 = σTS π  0 
20 Graphite 2
LDPE
 2
10 Based on data in Table B4, 12.8x 10−3 m 
= 450MPa π = 57,900N
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.  2 
•  Gage is 250 mm (10 in) in length and 12.8 mm  
(0.505 in) in diameter.
wood ( fiber) •  Subject to tensile stress of 345 MPa (50 ksi) •  Change in length at Point A, Δl = εl0
€
Δl = εl0 = (0.06)250 mm = 15 mm
1
37 38
Temperature matters (see Failure) Ductility (%EL and %RA)

Most metals are ductile at RT and above, but can become brittle at low T • Plastic tensile strain at failure: Lf − Lo
%EL = x100
Lo
bcc Fe
Adapted from Fig. 7.13,

Ao − Af
• Another ductility measure: %RA = x100
Ao
• Note: %RA and %EL are often comparable.
- Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
cup-and-cone fracture in Al brittle fracture in mild steel - %RA > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
39 40
10
Toughness Resilience, Ur
• Energy to break a unit volume of material, • Resilience is capacity to absorb energy when deformed elastically
or absorb energy to fracture. and recover all energy when unloaded (=σ2YS/2E).
• Approximate as area under the elastic stress-strain curve.
• Approximate as area under the stress-strain curve.
E ngineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
ε
Ur = ∫oY σ dε
stress, σ
very small toughness ε ε2 σ ε σ2
ε = ∫oY Eε dε ~ E Y = Y Y = Y
UT = ∫of σ dε (unreinforced polymers) 2 2 2E
Area up to 0.2% strain
Engineering tensile strain, ε If linear elastic
Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
41 42
Elastic Strain Recovery Ceramics Mechanical Properties

• Unloading in step 2 allows elastic strain to be recovered from bonds.
•  Reloading leads to higher YS, due to work-hardening already done. Ceramic materials are more brittle than metals.
Why?
syi D •  Consider mechanism of deformation
syo –  In crystalline materials, by dislocation motion
2. Unload –  In highly ionic solids, dislocation motion is difficult
Stress
due to too few slip systems

 Not {111}<110> as in fcc metal!
 Why is it {110}<110> (or{100} <110> )?
•  resistance to motion of ions of
1. Load 3. Reapply like charge (e.g., anions)
load
past one another.
Strain
Adapted from Fig. 7.17, Elastic strain
recovery
43 44
11
Strength of Ceramics - Elastic Modulus Strength of Ceramics - Flexural Strength
• RT behavior is usually elastic with brittle failure. •  3-point bend test employed for RT Flexural strength.
•  3-point bend test employed (tensile test not best for brittle materials).
Al2O3
cross section
d R
b d = midpoint
rect. circ. deflection
• Determine elastic modulus according to: Rectangular cross-section

d 3Ff L
F F L3 σ fs = • Typical values:
x E= (rect. cross section) b 2bd 2 Material s fs (MPa) E(GPa)
F δ 4bd 3 Si nitride 250-1000 304
slope = Circular cross-section
Si carbide 100-820 345
F L3
L= length between
d R 8Ff L load pts Al oxide 275-700 393
E= (circ. cross section) σ fs =
d δ 12πR 4 πd 3 b = width
d = height or glass (soda-lime) 69 69
linear-elastic behavior diameter Data from Table 7.2, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
45 46
Stress-Strain in Polymers Influence of T and Strain Rate on Thermoplastics
brittle polymer
• Decreasing T...
s (MPa)
-- increases E 80 4°C Plots for
-- increases TS semicrystalline
-- decreases %EL 60 PMMA (Plexiglas)
plastic 20°C
elastomer • Increasing 40 40°C
elastic moduli strain rate...
– less than for metals Adapted from Fig. 7.22,
Callister & Rethwisch 3e. -- same effects 20
as decreasing T. to 1.3
60°C
0
0 0.1 0.2 e 0.3
Adapted from Fig. 7.24, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. (Fig. 7.24 is from T.S.
• Fracture strengths of polymers ~ 10% of those for metals. Carswell and J.K. Nason, 'Effect of Environmental Conditions on the
Mechanical Properties of Organic Plastics", Symposium on Plastics,
• Deformation strains for polymers > 1000%. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1944.)
– for most metals, deformation strains < 10%.

47 48
12
Stress-Strain in Polymers Time-dependent deformation in Polymers
• Stress relaxation test: • Large decrease in Er for T > Tg.
• Necking appears along • Mechanism unlike metals, necking
entire sample after YS! due to alignment of crystallites. - strain in tension to eo (amorphous
105 rigid solid polystyrene)
and hold. Er (10 s) 3 (small relax) Fig. 7.28, Callister &
in MPa 10
Rethwisch 3e.
Load vertical - observe decrease in transition (Fig. 7.28 from A.V.
stress with time. 101 region Tobolsky, Properties
and Structures of
Polymers, Wiley and
tensile test 10-1 Sons, Inc., 1960.)
viscous liquid
eo 10-3 (large relax)
strain
60 100 140 180 T(°C)
Tg
s(t)
time • Representative Tg values (in C):
• Relaxation modulus: PE (low density) - 110
• Align crystalline sections by • After YS, necking PE (high density) - 90
straightening chains in the proceeds by σ(t ) PVC + 87
amorphous sections unraveling; hence,
E r (t ) = PS +100
εo PC +150
neck propagates,
See Chpt 8 unlike in metals! Selected values from Table 11.3, Callister & Rethwisch 3e.
49 50
True Stress and Strain Why use True Strain?

F •  Up to YS, there is volume change due to Poisson Effect!
Engineering stress σ = A Initial area always Relation before necking
0
F σ T = σ (1+ ε ) •  In a metal, from YS and TS, there is plastic deformation, as
True stress σt = instantaneous area dislocations move atoms by slip, but ΔV=0 (volume is constant).
Ai
εT = ln (1+ ε ) A0  0 = Ai  i
€ 
True strain εt = ln i Relative change   − 0 + 0
0 ε t = ln i  
→ ln i = ln(1+ ε )
€
Necking: 3D state of stress! 0 0
Test length Eng. Eng.
0-1-2-3 0-3
€ Eng.
0 2.00
Strain 1 2.20 0.1
2 2.42 0.1
3 2.662 0.1 0.662/2.0
Sum of incremental strain
TOTAL 0.3 0.331 does NOT equal total strain!
True 2.2 2.42 2.662 2.662 Sum of incremental strain

Strain ε t = ln 2.0 + ln 2.20 + ln 2.42 = ln 2.00 does equal total strain.
51 52
13
Hardening (true stress-strain) Using Work-Hardening
• An increase in σy due to plastic deformation. Influence of “cold working” on low-carbon steel.
σ
large hardening 2nd drawn

σ y
1 1st drawn
σ y small hardening
0 Undrawn wire
εT
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response after YS:
Processing: Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, Drawing,…
•  Each draw of the wire decreases ductility, increases YS.
•  Use drawing to strengthen and thin “aluminum” soda can.
53 54
Hardness Hardness: Measurement

• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
•  Rockwell
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression. –  No major sample damage
--better wear properties. –  Each scale runs to 130 (useful in range 20-100).
–  Minor load 10 kg
–  Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
•  A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
•  HB = Brinell Hardness
–  TS (psia) = 500 x HB
–  TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Adapted from Fig. 7.18.
55 56
14
Hardness: Measurement Account for Variability in Material Properties
•  Elastic modulus is material property
•  Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
•  Statistics
n
Σ xn
–  Mean x=
n
1
n 
2 2
–  Standard Deviation s =
(
 Σ xi − x ) 

 n −1 
 
where n is the number of data points
57 58
Design Safety Factors Summary

• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N (often given as S) • Stress and strain: These are size-independent
σy Often N is between 1.2 and 4 measures of load and displacement, respectively.
σ working = • Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
N
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
• Ex: Calculate diameter, d, to ensure that no yielding occurs large elastic modulus (E or G).
in the 1045 carbon steel rod. Use safety factor of 5. • Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
σy
σ working = uniaxial stress reaches sy.
N • Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
220,000N volume of material.
  5 • Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
π  d2 / 4 
 
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
59 60
15

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Chapter 7: Mechanical Properties Chapter 7: Mechanical Properties

Why mechanical properties? ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• Elastic behavior: When loads are small.

Common States of Stress Common States of Stress

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

Plastic Deformation of Metals Strain Testing

δ elastic + plastic δ plastic

Elastic Deformation Mechanical Properties

Adapted from Fig. 7.7,

Neither Glass or Alumina experience plastic deformation before fracture!

Comparison of Elastic Moduli Polymers: Tangent and Secant Modulus

• Secant Modulus is effective modulus at 2% strain.

Silicon (single xtal) 120-190 (depends on crystallographic direction) initial E

Limits of the Poisson Ratio Poisson Ratio: materials specific

Hence, ΔV = (L ΔA+A ΔL) = 0. So, ΔA / A = −ΔL /L Silica Glass: 0.20

1 Elastomer: Hard Rubber (Ebonite) 0.39 (Natural) 0.49

εx= Δd/d = –(2.5x10–3 mm)/(10 mm) = –2.5x10–4

Axial Stress: σz = Eεz = (97x103 MPa)(7.35x10–4) = 71.3 MPa.

Useful Linear Elastic Relationships Complex States of Stress in 3D

Yield Stress, σY Yield Points and σYS

(Ultimate) Tensile Strength, σTS Metals: Tensile Strength, vTS

Temperature matters (see Failure) Ductility (%EL and %RA)

Adapted from Fig. 7.13,

E ngineering small toughness (ceramics)

Engineering tensile strain, ε If linear elastic

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Elastic Strain Recovery Ceramics Mechanical Properties

due to too few slip systems

• Determine elastic modulus according to: Rectangular cross-section

Stress-Strain in Polymers Influence of T and Strain Rate on Thermoplastics

– for most metals, deformation strains < 10%.

True Stress and Strain Why use True Strain?

True 2.2 2.42 2.662 2.662 Sum of incremental strain

large hardening 2nd drawn

Hardness Hardness: Measurement

Adapted from Fig. 7.18.

Design Safety Factors Summary

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•  Secant Modulus is effective modulus at 2% strain.