Material Properties

Potential and Force

Force = DV/Dr
Testing Materials
 (a) Schematic F
illustration of how a A0

150 ●tensile Chapter load7 / Mechanical Properties

produces an elongation
and positiveFlinear IGURE 7.1 F
(a)strain.
Schematic F

Stress
Dashed of
illustration lines
how a l l0 l0
A0
l
represent the shapeload
tensile
produces an elongation
before and deformation;
positive linear
solid lines, after strain.
deformation. Dashed (blines
) l l0 l0 l
Schematic represent the shape
illustration
of how abefore deformation;
compressive A0
solid lines, after F

150
150 ●
●
Chapter
Chapter77 // Mechanical Properties
Mechanical Properties
Engineering Stress
load produces
tion and aSchematic
of howstrain.
contrac- (b)
deformation.
negativeillustration
linear
(c)
a compressive A0
F
(a ) ( b)
F T
load produces
Schematic contrac- F
tion and a negative linear
FFIGURE representation of (c) (a ) ( b)
IGURE 7.1 7.1 FF strain. T
!
shear strain !, where Schematic
(a()a)Schematic
Schematic F F ! tan #. of
representation
" A0
T
illustration
illustration ofhow
of how aa Ashear
0
A0
strain !, where
!
(d ) Schematic represen-
tensile
tensileloadload tation of
! " tan #.
torsional
A0
T
produces an elongation
produces an elongation (d ) Schematic represen-
deformationtation (i.e.,ofangle
torsional
F
andandpositive
positivelinearlinear of twistdeformation
$) produced (i.e., by
angle F
strain.
strain. of twist $torque
an applied ) produced T. by
Dashedlines lines an applied torque T. F
Dashed ll l 0l l0 l l l F
representthe theshape
shape 0 0
represent θ
θ
beforedeformation;
before deformation;
solidlines,
solid lines,after
after
deformation. (b)
deformation. (b) F
Schematic illustration F
Schematic illustration (c) (d )
of how a compressive A0
(c) (d )
of how
load a compressive
produces contrac-
A0 F
F F
load
tionproduces
and a negativecontrac-
linear F
tion and a negative linear (a ) ( b)
strain. (c) (a ) ( b) stress ! is defined by the relationship
strain.
Schematic
Schematic
representation
(c)
of
T
T Shear
stress ! is defined by the relationshipF
representation
shear strain !, where
shear strain !!,"where tan #.
Tension
of
A0
T
!
!
Stress ! "
!"
F
A0
(7.1)

in which F is the instantaneous load applied perpendicular

A0 to the specimen cross
(d ) Schematic !" represen-
tation ofrepresen-
(d ) Schematic Positive Stress
tan #.
torsional
A0
Tsection, in units of newtons (N) or pounds force (lbf ), and A0 is the original cross-
sectional area before any load is applied (m2 or in.2). The units of engineering
in which F is the instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the sp
deformation
tation of (i.e., angle
torsional F
of twist $) produced by section, in units of newtons (N) or pounds force (lbf ), and A0 is the o
deformation
an applied
of twist
(i.e., angle
$) produced torqueby T. Compression
F
F FIGURE 7.2
sectional
A
area before
Reduced section
2 "
1
Rotational
any load is applied (m2 or in.2). The units o
an applied torque T. F
standard tensile 4

Negative Stress Stress

θ
specimen with circular 3"
0.5 0 5" Diameter Diameter
θ cross section. 4

FIGURE 7.2 A Reduced

2" section
3"
Gauge length
1" Radius
standard tensile 24 8

F
 !"
A0

in which F is the instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the spec

Typical Sample
section, in units of newtons (N) or pounds force (lbf ), and A0 is the ori
sectional area before any load is applied (m2 or in.2). The units of e

A Reduced section
1"
ile 2 4
ar 3"
0.5 0 5" Diameter Diameter
on. 4

2"
3"
Gauge length 8
Radius
 Strain
The measurement
Elastic Modulus
 Hooke’s Law
FIGURE 7.5 S
elastic deform
Unload
𝛔 is stress
𝜺 is strain

Stress
Slope = modulus
E is the Young’s Modulus of elasticity

Load
0
0
Strain

7.6); hence, it is not possible to deter

above. For this nonlinear behavior, ei
used. Tangent modulus is taken as th
Table 7.1 Room-Temperature Elastic and Shear Moduli, and
Poisson’s Ratio for Various Materials
Modulus of
Elasticity Shear Modulus Poisson’s
Material GPa 10 psi
6
GPa 10 6 psi Ratio
Metal Alloys
Tungsten 407 59 160 23.2 0.28
Steel 207 30 83 12.0 0.30
Nickel 207 30 76 11.0 0.31
Titanium 107 15.5 45 6.5 0.34
Copper 110 16 46 6.7 0.34
Brass 97 14 37 5.4 0.34
Aluminum 69 10 25 3.6 0.33
Magnesium 45 6.5 17 2.5 0.35
Ceramic Materials
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3 )
Silicon carbide (SiC)
393
345
57
50
—
—
—
—
0.22
0.17
Differences between
Silicon nitride (Si3N4 ) 304 44 — — 0.30
Spinel (MgAl2O4 )
Magnesium oxide (MgO)
260
225
38
33
—
—
—
—
—
0.18
the Young’s Modulus of
Zirconia a
Mullite (3Al2O3-2SiO2 )
205
145
30
21
—
—
—
—
0.31
0.24
different materials
Glass–ceramic (Pyroceram) 120 17 — — 0.25
Fused silica (SiO2 )
Soda–lime glass
73
69
11
10
—
—
—
—
0.17
0.23
are direct results of the
Phenol-formaldehyde
Polymersb
2.76–4.83 0.40–0.70 — — —
type of bonding
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 2.41–4.14 0.35–0.60 — — 0.38
Polyester (PET) 2.76–4.14 0.40–0.60 — — —
Polystyrene (PS) 2.28–3.28 0.33–0.48 — — 0.33
Polymethyl methacrylate 2.24–3.24 0.33–0.47 — — —
(PMMA)
Polycarbonate (PC) 2.38 0.35 — — 0.36
Nylon 6,6 1.58–3.80 0.23–0.55 — — 0.39
Polypropylene (PP) 1.14–1.55 0.17–0.23 — — —
Polyethylene—high density 1.08 0.16 — — —
(HDPE)
Polytetrafluoroethylene 0.40–0.55 0.058–0.080 — — 0.46
(PTFE)
Polyethylene—low density 0.17–0.28 0.025–0.041 — — —
(LDPE)
a
 150Revisiting
● Chapter 7 / Mechanical Properties

Torsional and Shear

FIGURE 7.1 F
(a) Schematic F
illustration of how a A0
tensile load
produces an elongation
and positive linear
strain.
Dashed lines l l0 l0 l

𝜏 is the shear stress

represent the shape
before deformation;
solid lines, after
deformation. (b)
G is the shear modulus
Schematic illustration
of how a compressive A0

ɣ is tan(θ)
F
load produces contrac- F
tion and a negative linear
(a ) ( b)
strain. (c) T
Schematic
representation of !
shear strain !, where
! " tan #. A0
T
(d ) Schematic represen-
tation of torsional
deformation (i.e., angle F
of twist $) produced by
an applied torque T. F
θ

F
(c) (d )

stress ! is defined by the relationship

F
!" (7.1)
A0
 Example
A piece of copper originally 305 mm long is pulled in tension with
a stress of 276 MPa. If the deformation is entirely elastic, what will
be the resultant elongation?

SOLUTION l0
Since the deformation is elastic, strain is dependent on stress according to Equation.

!
Furthermore, the elongation l is related to the original length l0 through

!
!
!
Combining these two expressions.
 Poisson’s ratio
Chapter 7 / Mechanical Properties

&z FIGURE 7.9 Axial (z) elongation

'lz (positive strain) and lateral (x and y)
2 contractions (negative strains) in
l0x
'lx
response to an imposed tensile stress.
2
Solid lines represent dimensions after
stress application; dashed lines, before.

l0z

&z
y
!z 'l /2
= z
2 l0z

!x 'l /2
$ = x
2 l0x x

there will be constrictions in the lateral (x and y) directions perpendicular to the

 S OLUTION

Example This deformation situation is represented in t

A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical brass

rod that has a diameter of 10 mm. Determine the magnitude of the load
required to produce a 2.5 x 10-3 mm change in diameter if the d0
deformation is entirely elastic. The Poisson’s ratio for brass is 0.34.
di

z
Solution
When the force F is applied, the specimen will elongate in the z
direction and at the same time experience a reduction in diameter, Δd,
of 2.5 x 10-3 mm in the x direction. For the strain in the x direction, li l0 x
#l li " l 0
$z = =
l0 l0

d " d0
$ x = #d = i
d0 d0

Which is negative, since the diameter is reduced.

It next becomes necessary to calculate the strain in the z direction using
F

When the force F is applied, the specimen wi

at the same time experience a reduction in di
We can calculate the applied stress using
the x direction. For the strain in the x directi
# d "2.5 ! 10"3 mm
$x % %
d0 10 mm
Finally
which is negative, since the diameter is reduc
It next becomes necessary to calculate th
Equation 7.8. The value for Poisson’s ratio for