Chapter 1 Chemistry: The Study of Change

Energy is a by-product of many chemical processes

The estimated reserves of these fuels will last us another 50–100 years, at the present rate of
consumption

Solar energy promises to be a viable source of energy for the future. Every year Earth’s surface receives
about 10 times as much energy from sunlight as is contained in all of the known reserves of coal, oil,
natural gas, and uranium combined

One is the conversion of sunlight directly to electricity using devices called photovoltaic cells.

The other is to use sunlight to obtain hydrogen from water. The hydrogen can then be fed into a fuel
cell to generate electricity.

By 2050, however, it has been predicted that solar energy will supply over 50 percent of our power
needs.

Nuclear fusion, the process that occurs in the sun and other stars, generates huge amounts of energy
without producing much dangerous radioactive waste

A major disadvantage of burning fossil fuels is that they give off carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse
gas (that is, it promotes the heating of Earth’s a tmosphere)

Consequently, about 20 percent of electrical energy is lost in the form of heat between the power
station and our homes

Superconductors are materials that have no electrical resistance and can therefore conduct electricity
with no energy loss.

hypothesis, a tentative explanation for a set of observations

law is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relationship between phenomena that is always
the same under the same conditions.

theory is a unifying principle that explains a body of facts and/or those laws that are based on them.

Chemistry in action : Primordial Helium and the Big Bang Theory

Russian-American physicist George Gamow hypothesized that our universe burst into being billions of
years ago in a gigantic explosion, or Big Bang.

Georges Lemaître - Belgian cosmologist, Catholic priest, and father of the Big Bang theory.

First, measurements showed that the universe is expanding; that is, galaxies are all moving away from
one another at high speeds.
astronomers have deduced that the universe was born about 13 billion years ago.

second observation that supports Gamow’s hypothesis is the detection of cosmic background radiation.

Over billions of years, the searingly hot universe has cooled down to a mere 3 K (or 2270°C)! At this
temperature, most energy is in the microwave region.

the third piece of evidence supporting Gamow’s hypothesis is the discovery of primordial helium

Scientists believe that helium and hydrogen (the lightest elements) were the fi rst elements formed in
the early stages of cosmic evolution.

(The heavier elements, like carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, are thought to have originated later via
nuclear reactions involving hydrogen and helium in the center of stars.)

quasar (a strong source of light and radio signals that is thought to be an exploding galaxy at the edge of
the universe)

Substances and Mixtures

substance is a form of matter that has a defi nite (constant) composition and distinct properties.

mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their distinct
identities

element is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means

Au from aurum (gold), Fe from ferrum (iron), and Na from natrium (sodium)

physical property can be measured and observed without changing the composition or identity of a
substance.

chemical property must carry out a chemical change

The measured value of an extensive property depends on how much matter is being considered

The measured value of an intensive property does not depend on how much matter is being
considered

Chemistry in action : The importance of Units

In December 1998, NASA launched the 125-million dollar Mars Climate Orbiter, intended as the red
planet’s fi rst weather satellite.

After a 416-million mi journey, the spacecraft was supposed to go into Mars’ orbit on September 23,
1999. Instead, it entered Mars’ atmosphere about 100 km (62 mi) lower than planned and was
destroyed by heat. (due to the failure to convert English measurement units into metric units in the
navigation software.)
Chapter 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Democritus expressed the belief that all matter consists of very small, indivisible particles, which he
named atomos (meaning uncuttable or indivisible).

John Dalton, formulated a precise defi nition of the indivisible building blocks of matter that we call
atoms.

Dalton’s atomic theory:

1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms

2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and chemical properties. The
atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.

3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound, the ratio of the
numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present is either an integer or a simple fraction.

4 . A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does
not result in their creation or destruction.

Joseph Proust, a French chemist. Proust’s law of defi nite proportions states that different samples of
the same compound always contain its constituent elements in the same proportion by mass.

Dalton’s third hypothesis supports another important law, the law of multiple proportions . According
to the law, if two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element
that combine with a fi xed mass of the other element are in ratios of small whole numbers

Dalton’s fourth hypothesis is another way of stating the law of conservation of mass, ‡ which is that
matter can be neither created nor destroyed. (Antoine Laurent Lavoisier)

When the two metal plates are connected to a high-voltage source, the negatively charged plate, called
the cathode, emits an invisible ray

The cathode ray is drawn to the positively charged plate, called the anode

J. J. Thomson, † used a cathode ray tube. determine the ratio of electric charge to the mass of an
individual electron. The number he came up with was 21.76 3 108 C/g,

R. A. Millikan ‡ succeeded in measuring the charge of the electron with great precision.

Wilhelm Röntgen noticed that cathode rays caused glass and metals to emit very unusual rays. (xrays)

Antoine Becquerel, † a professor of physics in Paris, began to study the fl uorescent properties of
substances

†Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852–1908). French physicist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in
1903 for discovering radioactivity in uranium.
Marie Curie, ‡ suggested the name radioactivity to describe this spontaneous emission of particles
and/or radiation. Since then, any element that spontaneously emits radiation is said to be radioactive.

Three types of rays are produced by the decay, or breakdown, of radioactive substances such as
uranium. Two of the three are defl ected by oppositely charged metal plates (F igure 2.6) . Alpha ( a )
rays consist of positively charged particles, called alpha particles, and therefore are defl ected by the
positively charged plate. Beta ( b ) rays, or b particles, are electrons and are defl ected by the
negatively charged plate. The third type of radioactive radiation consists of high-energy rays called
gamma ( g ) rays . Like X rays, g rays have no charge and are not affected by an external fi eld

Thomson proposed that an atom could be thought of as a uniform, positive sphere of matter in which
electrons are embedded like raisins in a cake ( Figure 2.7 ). This so-called “plum-pudding” model was the
accepted theory for a number of years.

According to Rutherford, most of the atom must be empty space. Rutherford proposed, are all
concentrated in the nucleus, which is a dense central core within the atom.

Chadwick named neutrons, because they proved to be electrically neutral particles having a mass
slightly greater than that of protons.

Most elements have two or more isotopes, atoms that have the same atomic number but different
mass numbers.

The deuterium isotope contains one proton and one neutron, and tritium has one proton and two
neutrons.

periodic table, a chart in which elements having similar chemical and physical properties are grouped
together.

horizontal rows called periods and in vertical columns known as groups or families, according to
similarities in their chemical properties.

Chemistry in action: Distribution of Elements on Earth and in Living systems

Earth’s crust extends from the surface to a depth of about 40 km (about 25 mi

Surrounding the core is a layer called the mantle, which consists of hot fl uid containing iron, carbon,
silicon, and sulfur.

the 83 elements that are found in nature, 12 make up 99.7 percent of Earth’s crust by mass.

They are, in decreasing order of natural abundance, oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe),
calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), potassium (K), titanium (Ti), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P),
and manganese (Mn).
The accompanying table lists the essential elements in the human body. Of special interest are the trace
elements, such as iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), iodine (I), and cobalt (Co), which together make up
about 0.1 percent of the body’s mass.

An allotrope is one of two or more distinct forms of an element. Two allotropic forms of the element
carbon—diamond and graphite

Chapter 3: Mass Relationship in Chemical Reactions

One atomic mass unit is defi ned as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12
atom

the half-life of carbon 14 is 5,730 years.

Carbon-12 is the carbon isotope that has six protons and six neutrons. Setting the atomic mass of c
arbon-12 at 12 amu provides the standard for measuring the atomic mass of the other elements.

Helium (He) is a valuable gas used in industry, low-temperature research, deep-sea diving tanks, and
balloons.

Zinc (Zn) is a silvery metal that is used in making brass (with copper) and in plating iron to prevent
corrosion

Sulfur (S) is a nonmetallic element that is present in coal. When coal is burned, sulfur is converted to
sulfur dioxide and eventually to sulfuric acid that gives rise to the acid rain phenomenon

Methane (CH 4 ) is the principal component of natural gas

urea [(NH 2 ) 2 CO], which is used as a fertilizer, in animal feed, and in the manufacture of polymers

mass spectrometer, a gaseous sample is bombarded by a stream of high-energy electrons

The fi rst mass spectrometer, developed in the 1920s by the English physicist F. W. Aston

Phosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4 ) is a colorless, syrupy liquid used in detergents, fertilizers, toothpastes, and in
carbonated beverages for a “tangy” fl avor

Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) cures scurvy.

Chalcopyrite (CuFeS 2 ) is a principal mineral of copper

When aluminum metal is exposed to air, a protective layer of aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3 ) forms on its
surface. This layer prevents further reaction between aluminum and oxygen, and it is the reason that
aluminum beverage cans do not corrode. [In the case of iron, the rust, or iron(III) oxide, that forms is too
porous to protect the iron metal underneath, so rusting continues.]

All alkali metals react with water to produce hydrogen gas and the corresponding alkali metal hydroxide.
Titanium is a strong, lightweight, corrosion-resistant metal that is used in rockets, aircraft, jet engines,
and bicycle frames. It is prepared by the reaction of titanium(IV) chloride with molten magnesium
between 9508C and 11508C:

Chemistry in action

In addition to carbon dioxide and water, plants need at least six elements for satisfactory growth. They
are N, P, K, Ca, S, and Mg

nitrogen fertilizers contain nitrate (NO2 3) salts, ammonium (NH 1 4) salts, and other compounds.

Chapter 4: Reactions in Aqueous Solution

Black smokers form when superheated water, rich in minerals, fl ows out onto the ocean fl oor through
the lava on an ocean volcano. The hydrogen sulfi de present converts the metals to insoluble metal sulfi
des. The models show hydrogen sulfi de, metals ions, and a metal sulfide

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The solute is the substance
present in a smaller amount, and the solvent is the substance present in a larger amount. A solution
may be gaseous (such as air), solid (such as an alloy), or liquid (seawater, for example). In this section we
will discuss only aqueous solutions, in which the solute initially is a liquid or a solid and the solvent is
water.

An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in water, results in a solution that can conduct
electricity. A nonelectrolyte does not conduct electricity when dissolved in water .

hydration, the process in which an ion is surrounded by water molecules arranged in a specifi c manner

Hydration helps to stabilize ions in solution and prevents cations from combining with anions.

all the dissolved HCl molecules separate into hydrated H 1 and Cl 2 ions. Thus, when we write HCl( aq ),
it is understood that it is a solution of only H 1( aq) and Cl 2( aq ) ions and that there are no hydrated
HCl molecules present.

On the other hand, certain acids, such as acetic acid (CH 3 COOH), which gives vinegar its tart fl avor, do
not ionize completely and are weak electrolytes.

ionization to describe the separation of acids and bases into ions.

metathesis reaction (also called a double-displacement reaction), a reaction that involves the exchange
of parts between the two compounds.

solubility of the solute, which is defi ned as the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given
quantity of solvent at a specifi c temperature.

spectator ions, or ions that are not involved in the overall reaction. Because spectator ions appear on
both sides of an equation
Chemistry in Action

An undesirable precipitation reaction

Limestone (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaCO3 ? MgCO3), which are widespread on Earth’s surface, often
enter the water supply.

, calcium carbonate is insoluble in water. However, in the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide (from
the atmosphere), calcium carbonate is converted to soluble calcium bicarbonate [Ca(HCO3)2]

Water containing Ca21 and/or Mg21 ions is called hard water, and water that is mostly free of these
ions is called soft water.

When water containing Ca21 and HCO3 2 ions is heated or boiled, the solution reaction is reversed to
produce the CaCO3 precipitate

A thick layer of scale reduces heat transfer and d ecreases the effi ciency and durability of boilers, pipes,
and appliances. In household hot-water pipes it can restrict or totally

An Undesirable Precipitation Reaction

block the fl ow of water. A simple method used by plumbers to remove scale d eposits is to introduce a
small amount of hydrochloric acid,

Acids and bases are as familiar as aspirin and milk of magnesia although many people do not know their
chemical names—acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) and magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia

Brønsted acid is a proton donor

Brønsted base is a proton acceptor.

†Svante August Arrhenius (1859–1927). Swedish chemist. Arrhenius made important contributions in
the study of chemical kinetics and electrolyte solutions. He also speculated that life had come to Earth
from other planets, a theory now known as panspermia. Arrhenius was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1903

‡Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted (1879–1947). Danish chemist. In addition to his theory of acids and bases,
Brønsted worked on thermodynamics and the separation of mercury isotopes. In some texts, Brønsted
acids and bases are called Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases. Thomas Martin Lowry (1874–1936). English
chemist. Brønsted and Lowry developed essentially the same acid-base theory independently in 1923.

oxidation reaction refers to the half-reaction that involves loss of electrons.

reduction reaction is a half-reaction that involves gain of electrons

oxidation number, also called oxidation state, signifies the number of charges the atom would have in
a molecule (or an ionic compound) if electrons were transferred completely

Metallic elements have only positive oxidation numbers, whereas nonmetallic elements may have either
positive or negative oxidation numbers.

The highest oxidation number an element in Groups 1A–7A can have is its group number. For example,
the halogens are in Group 7A, so their highest possible oxidation number is 17

The transition metals (Groups 1B, 3B–8B) usually have several possible oxidation numbers

combination reaction is a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single product

combustion reaction is a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen, usually with the release of
heat and light to produce a fl ame.

displacement reaction, an ion (or atom) in a compound is replaced by an ion (or atom) of another
element

Hydrogen Displacement. All alkali metals and some alkaline earth metals (Ca, Sr, and Ba), which are the
most reactive of the metallic elements, will displace hydrogen from cold water

Metal Displacement. A metal in a compound can be displaced by another metal in the elemental state.

An easy way to predict whether a metal or hydrogen displacement reaction will actually occur is to refer
to an activity series (sometimes called the electrochemical series

3. Halogen Displacement. A nother activity series summarizes the halogens’ behavior in halogen
displacement reactions

disproportionation reaction, an element in one oxidation state is simultaneously oxidized and reduced

Chemistry in action: Breathalyzer

Every year in the United States about 25,000 people are killed and 500,000 more are injured as a result
of drunk driving.

The chemical basis of this device is a redox reaction. A sample of the driver’s breath is drawn into the
breathalyzer, where it is treated with an acidic solution of potassium dichromate
potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP), for which the molecular formula is KHC 8 H 4 O 4 (molar mass 5
204.2 g). KHP is a white, soluble solid that is commercially available in highly pure form.

equivalence point, that is, the point at which the acid has completely reacted with or been neutralized
by the base. The equivalence point is usually signaled by a sharp change in the color of an indicator in
the acid solution

Chemistry in Action: Metal From Sea

Magnesium is a valuable, lightweight metal used as a structural material as well as in alloys, in batteries,
and in chemical synthesis.

it is cheaper to “mine” the metal from seawater. Magnesium forms the second most abundant cation in
the sea (after sodium);

there are about 1.3 g of magnesium in a kilogram of seawater.

The process for obtaining magnesium from seawater employs all three types of reactions discussed in
this chapter: precipitation, acid-base, and redox reactions.