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PSYCHOLOGY

Part 1

INTRODUCTION
Psychology Defined

• Psychology is defined as the scientific


study of the behaviour of living organisms,
with special attention to human
behaviour.
Schools of Thought
1. Psychoanalytic
• Sigmund Freud

• Existence of unconscious mental processes


which influenced an individual’s behaviour in
various indirect ways.

• Key words: unconscious, sex, aggression,


childhood experiences, dreams
Schools of Thought
2. Behaviourism
• John B. Watson.

• Stimulus – Response approach

• Key words: conditioning, learning


Schools of Thought
3. Cognitive
• Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, and Herbert
Simon

• Focused on thought and mental processes,


analyzing how people acquire, store and
process information.

• Key words: attention, knowledge,


information
Schools of Thought
4. Humanistic
• Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

• Emphasis on the unique qualities of humans,


especially their freedom of choice and
decision making, as well as their potential for
personal growth.

• Key words: freedom, self-actualization,


phenomenology
Schools of Thought
5. Biological
• James Olds and Roger Sperry

• Human and animal behaviour can be


explained in terms of bodily structure and
biochemical processes.

• Key words: neuroscience, brain structures


Part 2

BIOPSYCHOLOGY
1. Higher mental processes such as
thinking, learning and decision
making are functions of the:

a. cerebellum c. cerebrum

b. thalamus d. medulla
2. A person with difficulty enunciating
words correctly and speak in a slow,
labored way most likely have damage in:

a. Wernicke’s area
b. Broca’s area
c. primary motor area
d. prefrontal cortex
3. Which regions of the brain lead to
undereating and overeating, respectively?

a. lateral hypothalamus and ventromedial hypothalamus


b. ventromedial hypothalamus and lateral hypothalamus
c. ventromedial hypothalamus only
d. lateral hypothalamus
Part 3

SENSATION AND
PERCEPTION
Sensation
• Results when any of the sense organs are
stimulated. For a sensation to occur, there
must be receptors, which are specialized
sensitive cells that respond to stimulus.
Sensory System
SIGHT SMELL TASTE TOUCH HEARING

Light Chemical Chemical Pressure, Touch, Sound


STIMULUS
Temperature
Cones, Olfactory Taste buds Mechano- Organ of
Rods receptor Receptors, Corti
RECEPTOR
thermo-
receptors
Optic Trigeminal Glosso- Spinal nerves Auditory,
pharyngeal, Vestibular
NERVE
Facial,
Vagus
RELAY Thalamus Olfactory bulb Thalamus Thalamus Thalamus
CENTER
Visual Olfactory Gustatory Somatosensory Primary
PERCEPTION Cortex Cortex Cortex Cortex Auditory
Cortex
Vision
• Cones operate at high intensities, lead to
sensations of color, and are found only in
the center (or fovea) of the retina.

• Rods operate at low intensities, lead to


colorless sensations, and predominate in
the periphery of the retina.
Perception
It is the process of recognizing and
interpreting sensory stimuli.

The study of perception deals with two


major functions of the perceptual system:
LOCALIZATION, or determining where
objects are, and RECOGNITION,
determining what objects are.
Extrasensory Perception
ESP is a response to external stimuli without
any known sensory contact.

• Telepathy: Thought transference from one


person to another without the mediation of
any known channel of sensory
communication.

• Psychokinesis: Mental influence over


physical events without the intervention of
any known physical force.
Extrasensory Perception
• Clairvoyance: Perception of objects or
events that do not provide a stimulus to
the known senses. The ability to perceive
objects or events.

• Precognition: is the ability to foretell


future events. Perception of a future event
that could not be anticipated through any
known inferential.
Part 4

CONSCIOUSNESS
Consciousness
• Consciousness is the state or quality of
awareness, or, of being aware of an
external object or something within
oneself.
• It has been defined as: sentience,
awareness, the ability to experience or to
feel, wakefulness, and the executive
control system of the mind.
Altered State Of
Consciousness

• Examples are dreams and sleep,


meditation, hypnosis and the use of drugs.
Sleep
There are four stages of NREM sleep + REM

• NREM sleep is characterized by an idle brain in a


very relaxed body.
• REM sleep is characterized by a brain that
appears to be wide awake in a virtually paralyzed
body.

Sleepers awakened during REM sleep almost always


report having a dream, but when awakened during
NREM sleep they will report having a dream only
about 25% of the time.
Dream
Are remembered images and fantasies are
temporarily confused with external reality.

• Everybody dreams
• Sometimes, people do know when they are
dreaming (lucid).
• People can control the content of their
dreams.
• Dream content, as explained by Freud, are a
disguised attempt at wish fulfillment.
Meditation
• Refers to a family of mental exercises in
which a conscious attempt is made to focus
attention in a non-analytical way.

• Dynamic consciousness means an ability


on of the person to be in the appropriate state
of attention for the task in hand. In particular
a static state of right-brain awareness
combined with a predominantly Alpha
(relaxed) meditative detachment.
Hypnosis
• Hypnosis is a systematic procedure that
typically produces a heightened state of
suggestibility. It may lead to passive
relaxation, narrowed attention and
enhanced fantasy.

• Some people are more readily hypnotized


than others, although most people show
some susceptibility.
Psychoactive Drugs
Drug dependence is characterized by
tolerance, withdrawal and compulsive use.

• Stimulants
• Depressants
• Hallucinogens
Attention
• Selective attention is the process by
which we select some stimuli for further
processing while ignoring others. Selective
looking and selective listening (e.g.
cocktail party phenomenon) both
exist.
7. Aladdin, upon getting hold of the magic
lamp, asked the genie to give him the power
of precognition, meaning:

a. the ability to read what another person is thinking


b. to move things in space without physical intervention
c. to perceive future events
d. to perceive objects that do not provide stimulus to the
known senses
8. Which statement best differentiates NREM from REM
sleep?

a. NREM sleep is characterized by a brain that appears


wide awake in a virtually paralyzed body, while REM sleep
is characterized by an idle brain.
b. Sleepers wakened during REM sleep almost always
report having a dream as compared to NREM sleep where
they report dreams only 25% of the time.
c. Dreams in NREM are visually vivid and have emotional
features while dreams in REM are more like normal
thinking.
d. none of the above
Part 5

LEARNING
Learning
 Learning the process of acquiring
new & lasting information or
behaviors.

 We learn by association.
Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov discovered that a neutral
stimulus, when paired with a natural reflex-
producing stimulus, will begin to produce a
learned response, even when it is presented
by itself.

• Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that


produces no conditioned response prior to
learning.
Pavlov’s Experiment
Operant Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning: A form of learning in


which the probability of a behavioral response is
changed by its consequence, that is, by the stimuli
that follows the response.
Operant Conditioning

• Behavioral responses are strengthened


when followed by a reinforcer:

• …and diminished when followed by a


punisher
Operant Chamber: a chamber with a bar or a key that an animal can
manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforce while an attached device
records the animal’s rate of bar-pressing or key turning.
Reinforcement
• A reinforcer is a condition in which the
presentation or removal of a stimulus, that occurs
after a response (behavior), strengthens that
response or makes it more likely to happen again
in the future.

• Positive Reinforcement: A stimulus presented


after a response that increases the probability of
that response happening again.
Reinforcement
• Negative Reinforcement: The removal of an
unpleasant or averse stimulus that increases the
probability of that response happening again.
– Ex: Taking Advil to get rid of a headache.
– Ex: Putting on a seatbelt to make the annoying seatbelt buzzer stop.

• REMEMBER: When we are talking about


reinforcers or punishers, the word “positive”
means add or apply; “negative” is used to mean
subtract or remove.
Punishment
• A punishment is an averse/disliked stimulus
which occurs after a behavior, and decreases the
probability it will occur again.

• Positive Punishment: An undesirable event


that follows a behavior: like getting detention
after cheating on a test.
Punishment
• Negative Punishment: When a desirable
event ends or when an item is taken away
after a behavior.
– Example: getting your cell phone taken away after
failing multiple classes on your progress report.
Schedules of Intermittent Reinforcement

• Interval schedule: rewards subjects after a


certain time interval.

• Ratio schedule: rewards subjects after a certain


number of responses.

– There are 4 types of intermittent reinforcement:


• Fixed Interval Schedule (FI)
• Variable Interval Schedule (VI)
• Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR)
• Variable Ratio Schedule (VR)
Interval Schedules
• Fixed Interval Schedule (FI):
– A schedule that a rewards a learner only for the
first correct response after some defined period
of time.

Ex. Salary, wage


Interval Schedules
• Variable Interval Schedule (VI):
A reinforcement system that rewards a
correct response after an unpredictable
amount of time.

Ex. Feeding the fish


Ratio Schedules
• Fixed Ratio Schedule (FR):
A reinforcement schedule that rewards a
response only after a defined number of
correct answers.

Ex: Reward cards


Ratio Schedules
• Variable Ratio Schedule (VR):
A reinforcement schedule that rewards an
unpredictable number of correct responses.

Ex: Buying lottery scratch-off tickets


Observational Learning
• You can think of observational learning as an
extension of operant conditioning, in which we
observe someone else getting rewarded but act as
though we had also received the reward.

• Observational learning: Learning in which new


responses are acquired after other’s behavior and the
consequences of their behavior are observed.
9. In classical conditioning experiments, a
tone, after being repeatedly paired with food
- a conditioned stimulus – makes the dog
salivate. This illustrates:

a. Second-order conditioning
b. Generalization
c. Discrimination
d. Sensitization
10. A pigeon is given a food pellet after
every 10 bar presses in a Skinner’s box.
What type of reinforcement is
employed?

a. fixed ratio c. variable ratio

b. fixed interval d. variable interval


11. In operant conditioning, the
reward

a. follows the behavior


b. comes before the behavior
c. occurs at the same time as the behavior
d. elicits the behavior
12. A child is spanked to stop him
from teasing a younger sibling. This
is an example of:

a. aversive conditioning
b. negative conditioning
c. escape
d. avoidance
Part 6

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Principles of Growth and
Development

Heredity x Environment x Time =


Developmental Level

• Maturation: follows an orderly sequence.


New structures and functions always
appear in a definite order, so that each
new development sets the stage for the
next.
Stages Of Development
• Motor Development: motor refers to
movement, such as walking, swimming,
grasping, etc. Motor skills appear in a
definite order but at different rates.
– Prehension: refers to grasping objects. Its
simplest form is palmar grasping. By using the
thumb in opposition to the index finger, a
finer grasp is developed, as when picking up a
piece of paper.
• Language Development: infant begin
life with no other language than their cries
and grunts. As their language mechanism
matures, they make more and more
sounds and begin to comprehend the
meaning of words they hear.
Cognitive Development
• Jean Piaget

• Adaptation involves the child's changing


to meet situational demands.

– Assimilation is the application of previous


concepts to new concepts.

– Accommodation is the altering of previous


concepts in the face of new information.
Cognitive Development (Piaget)
Moral Development (Kohlberg)
Psychosexual Development (Freud)
4. Thunder causes lightning and bad
thoughts because of an accident is
characteristic of the:

a. preoperational stage
b. concrete operational stage
c. formal operational stage
d. sensorimotor stage
5. Which of the following is true of the
concrete operational stage of cognitive
development by Piaget?

a. thinking is egocentric
b. becomes concerned with the hypothetical,
the future and ideological problems
c. classifies objects according to several
features
d. conservation of number not yet achieved
6. Maturation refers to:

a. orderly changes in behavior that are


caused by experience
b. disrupted prenatal development that
results in permanent defects
c. natural physical growth processes that are
relatively independent of events
d. the acquisition of adult behavior through
social contact
Part 7

MEMORY
Memory
Stages:
1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
Memory Techniques
• Although we cannot increase the capacity
of STM, we can use recording schemes to
enlarge the size of the chunk and thereby
increase the memory span.
• LTM for facts can be improved at the
encoding and retrieval stages. One way to
improve encoding and retrieval is to use
imagery, which is the basic principle
underlying mnemonic system.
Mnemonic
Forgetting
Ceasing or failing to remember or being unable
to recall past responses or memory.

Explanations of Forgetting:
1. Passive decay through disuse
2. Systematic distortions of the memory
trace
3. Interference effects
4. Motivated forgetting
13. While reading “Harry Potter and the
Sorcerer’s Stone” in class, your teacher
called on you. Although obviously
present, you do not remember anything
that was said. This is known as the:

a. Cocktail party phenomenon


b. late selection phenomenon
c. selective looking phenomenon
d. classroom-inattention phenomenon
14. True of rods and cones except:

a. cones: sensation of color


b. rods: predominate in the periphery of
the retina
c. more rods connected to ganglion cells
d. visual acuity is greatest when based
on rods
15. Ways to improve memory
include:

a. chunking c. elaboration

b. imagery d. all of the above


16. After a car accident, Dylan McKay
experienced amnesia. Which would he
most likely still remember?

a. how to drive a car


b. his girlfriend’s number
c. his birthday last year
d. he will not remember anything at all
17. Which is true about language?

a. Like other innate behaviors, some language is


learned only during a critical period.
b. Children learn language at least partly by testing
hypotheses.
c. Infants come into the world preprogrammed to
learn phonemes, but they need several years to
learn the rules for combining them.
d. All of the statements are true.
18. Films or motion pictures are simply a
rapid series of still images flashed in rapid
succession inducing apparent movement.
This utilizes the phenomenon known as:

a. apparent motion c. stroboscopic motion

b. real motion d. induced motion


19. True of pitch:

a. most striking quality of sound


b. increases with the amplitude of the
sound wave
c. place theories account for low
frequencies
d. temporal theories account for high
frequencies
20. When a door swings toward us, its retinal
image goes through a series of changes yet
we perceive a door to still be rectangular.
This is due to:

a. stroboscopic motion
b. figure-ground constancy
c. pattern recognition
d. shape constancy
21. Figure is to ground as:

a. thunder is to lightning
b. water is to ice
c. light is to dark
d. cloud is to sky
Part 8

MOTIVES AND EMOTION


Motives
• Motivational states direct and activate
behaviour. They arise from two sources:
internal drive factors and external
incentive.

• Many types of natural rewards may


activate the mesolimbic dopamine
system.
Classification of Motives
• Physiologic: hunger, thirst, temperature,
pain avoidance

• Social or psychological: achievement,


altruism, affiliation and social approval

• Neither strictly biological nor social:


sex drive
Hunger
• Two regions of the brain are critical to
hunger: the lateral hypothalamus and
the ventromedial hypothalamus.
• Destruction of the lateral hypothalamus
leads to under eating
• Destruction of the ventromedial
hypothalamus leads to overeating.
Emotions
• Comes from the Latin word “emovere”
meaning “to move out”.

• It conveys the idea of an outward


expression of something inside, which is
one aspect of emotion.
Physiological Changes
• Galvanic Skin Response
• Blood Pressure and Volume
• Heart Rate
• Respiration
• Pupillary Response
• Salivary Secretion
• Pilomotor Response
• Gastrointestinal Motility
• Muscle Tension and Tremor
• Blood composition
Theories of Emotion
Universal Emotions
22. True of motivation:

a. Motivation typically directs behavior


towards a particular incentive that produces
pleasure.
b. We are motivated to alleviate an
unpleasant state.
c. Incentive motivation is characterized by
affect.
d. All of the above statements are true.
23. Dawson frequently volunteers in
activities of socio-civic organizations in
their community. What social motive is
at play here?

a. achievement c. social approval

b. affiliation d. altruism
24. Which of the statements below illustrate the
relationship between arousal and performance?

a. Low levels of emotional arousal lead to poor


performance.
b. Moderate levels of emotional arousal do not
affect performance.
c. High levels of emotional arousal enhance
performance.
d. There is no relationship between levels of
arousal and performance.
25. Which of the following is not true regarding the
functions of attitudes?

a. Attitudes that we hold for practical reasons


serve and instrumental function
b. Those that help us make sense of the world
serve a knowledge function.
c. Those that express our values or reflect our self-
concepts serve an ego-defensive function.
d. Those that help us feel that we are part of a
social community serve a social adjustment
function
26. Stimulus leads to physiological arousal
and overt behavior specific to the emotion
which in turn leads to the subjective
experience of emotion. This is an expression
of the:

a. James-Lange theory
b. Schracter-Singer theory
c. appraisal theory
d. facial feedback hypothesis
27. A lawyer is defending a minor charged with assault.
How would he explain his client’s aggressive behavior
using the psychoanalytic theory?

a. His client had an aversive experience promoting


emotional arousal which led to the aggressive behavior.
b. His client saw a man being rewarded for expressing
aggression, thus he did the same thing.
c. His client’s frustration induced his aggressive drive
motivation the aggressive behavior.
d. All of the foregoing statements can be used to explain
his client’s behavior.
Part 9

PERSONALITY THEORIES
Personality
• Refers to the distinctive and characteristic
patterns of thought, emotion, and
behaviour that define an individual’s
personal style of interacting with the
physical and social environments.
Psychoanalytic Theory
• Sigmund Freud

• He argued that personality is formed


through conflicts among three
fundamental structures of the human
mind: the id, ego, and superego.
Provinces of The Mind
Provinces of the Mind
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Denial
• Blocking out a fact mentally because it is
too painful too accept
Displacement
• Taking out one’s feelings or frustrations
on someone or something other than that
created those feelings
Projection
• The misattribution of one’s undesired
thoughts, onto a person who does not have
those thoughts
Rationalization
• Justifying one’s act by providing a ‘good”
reason for doing it.
Reaction formation
• Converting of irrational thoughts into their
positive opposites
Regression
• A reversion to an earlier stage of
development in the face of unwanted fears
or thoughts.
Repression
• Burying a bad thought or fear in one’s
mind that can be brought out in symboloic
form
Sublimation
• Redirecting unacceptable drives into
acceptable channels
Carl Roger’s Theory of Personality
28. Which of the following is true describing Jung’s
theory of personality?

a. The most powerful and influential system of the


psyche, and in pathological cases overshadows the
ego is the personal unconscious.
b. An archetype is a universal thought from that
contains large element of emotion.
c. The person lives by aims as well as by causes.
d. His view of psychodynamics is based upon two
fundamental principles, equivalence and entropy.
29. True of phenomenological approach to
the study of personality:

a. The concept of “self” forms the cornerstone of


Roger’s theory.
b. focused on the individual’s objective and
subjective experiences
c. Personal construct theory takes a behavioral
perspective in the individual’s phenomenology.
d. All of the above.
30. Refers to the distinctive and
characteristic patterns of thought,
emotion and behavior that define an
individual’s own style of interacting with
the physical and social environment.

a. attitude c. schema
b. coping mechanism d. personality
31. An anxious person who seeks to
return to the womb is fixated in
which stage?

a. oral c. phallic

b. anal d. genital
32. Saying “I’m sad you’re well”
instead of “I’m glad you’re well” is an
example of:

a. Freudian slip
b. Stupidity
c. shadow error
d. cognitive misappraisal
33. Leonardo da Vinci’s interest in
painting Madonna was an expression of
a longing for intimacy with his mother
from whom he had been separated at a
tender age, this illustrates:

a. externalization
b. Sublimation
c. reaction formation
d. anticipation
34. When you are hungry, you
conjure mental images of food. This
wish-fulfilling process is a function of
your…

a. id c. superego

b. ego d. libido
35. Albert Einstein, Martin Luther King, Jr.
and Eleanor Roosevelt satisfy Maslow’s
criteria for self-actualizers. This means that
they:

a. are purposely unconventional


b. are incapable of appreciating complex
experiences only
c. care very cautious in thought and behavior
d. have a good sense of humor
36. An individual’s personality evokes
distinctive responses from others. This
dynamic process of personality-environment
interaction is referred to as:

a. reactive interaction
b. evocative interaction
c. proactive interaction
d. none of the above
Part 10

MENTAL DISORDERS
37. Richard Gere in the film “Mr.
Jones” has bipolar disorder. This
means that he has altering states of:
a. mania and anxiety
b. anxiety and depression
c. mania and depression
d. none of the above
38. Schizophrenia is:
a. the same as multiple personality
disorder
b. characterized by enlarged and
more active prefrontal cortex and
smaller ventricles
c. due to difficult environment alone
d. characterized by lack of insight
39. True of systematic desensitization:

a. can be viewed as deconditioning or


counterconditioning processes
b. not very effective in the treatment of
phobias and fears
c. principle of treatment is to substitute a
response that is incompatible with anxiety
d. none of the above
40. True of coping:

a. Defense mechanisms always indicate personality


maladjustment.
b. Rationalization, repression and
intellectualization are conscious processes.
c. Saying “I decided it wasn’t worth it” is a
cognitive strategy of dealing with negative
emotion.
d. Higher levels of depression are seen during and
after stressful situations in people who tend to use
problem-focused coping.
41. Personality disorders:

a. are transient patterns of maladaptive


behavior
b. constitute immature and inappropriate
ways of coping with stress
c. often upsets the afflicted person that
motivates him to change his behavior
d. causes the person to lose contact with
reality
42. After his separation from his girlfriend,
Freddie Prinze Jr. in the movie: Down to You:
become severely depressed. Thus, his
parents proposed electroconvulsive therapy
(ECT) or electroshock therapy. What is the
most troublesome effect of ECT?

a. memory loss c. severe pain


b. discomfort d. brain damage
43. A 13-year old boy was brought by his
mother to you for diagnosis. He is unable to
conform to social norms. Sometimes, he is
normal and even charming but more often he
lies and manipulates people. He has a history
of running away from home, theft and
substance abuse. What personality disorder
does he most probably have?

a. borderline c. histrionic
b. schizotypal d. antisocial
44. Jim, a lawyer, is often teased by his
friends for his type A personality. This means
that Jim:

a. is fond of scheduling more and more


activities in less and less time
b. loves to relax and do nothing
c. is at less risk for heart attack
d. believes that others can do thing as well as
he does
Part 11

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
45. Arousal strengthens dominant
responses. This is referred to as social
facilitation. What accounts for this
arousal?

a. evaluation apprehension
b. driven by distraction
c. mere presence of others
d. all of the above
46. Beer advertisements that associate
beautiful women, strength and intelligence
with their products make use of:

a. peripheral route of persuasion


b. central route of persuasion
c. both central and peripheral route of
persuasion
d. neither central and peripheral route of
persuasion
47. The uninhabited, aggressive behavior
sometimes shown by mobs and crowds may be the
result of a state of deindividuation. Which of the
following is not true regarding the consequences of
deindividuation?

a. weakened restraints against impulsive behavior


b. decreased sensitivity to immediate cues and
current emotional state
c. reduced concern with evaluation by others
d. none of the above
48. Which of the following is a symptom
of groupthink?

a. awareness of vulnerability
b. collective unconscious
c. non-censorship
d. presence of mindguards
49. Experiments show that these
techniques increase helping
behavior:

a. foot-in-the-door technique
b. door-in-the-face technique
c. low-ball technique
d. all of the above
50. In difficult times, when budgets are
slashed and taxes are high, homeless women
with small children are often target of
hostility because they are perceived as
responsible for their situation and as a drain
on scarce social resources. This is known as:
a. scapegoating
b. realistic group conflict
c. ethnocentrism
d. discrimination

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