ELECTRONICS FOR

DUMMIES CHEAT SHEET

From Electronics For Dummies, 3rd Edition
By Cathleen Shamieh
Electronics is more than just schematics and circuits. By using
various components, such as resistors and capacitors,
electronics allows you to bend electric current to your will to
create an infinite variety of gizmos and gadgets. In exploring
electronics, use this handy reference for working with Ohm’s,
Joule’s, and Kirchhoff’s Laws; making important calculations;
determining the values of resistors and capacitors according
to the codes that appear on their casings; and using a 555
timer and other integrated circuits (ICs).
IMPORTANT FORMULAS IN ELECTRONICS

With just a handful of basic mathematical formulas, you can

get pretty far in analyzing the goings-on in electronic circuits
and in choosing values for electronic components in circuits
you design.

OHM’S LAW AND JOULE’S LAW

Ohm’s Law and Joule’s Law are commonly used in
calculations dealing with electronic circuits. These laws are
straightforward, but when you’re trying to solve for one
variable or another, it is easy to get them confused. The
following table presents some common calculations using
Ohm’s Law and Joule’s Law. In these calculations:
V = voltage (in volts)

I = current (in amps)

R = resistance (in ohms)

P = power (in watts)

Unknown Value Formula

Voltage V=IxR

Current I = V/R

Resistance R = V/I

Power P = V x I or P = V2/R or P = I2R

EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE AND

CAPACITANCE FORMULAS
Electronic circuits may contain resistors or capacitors in
series, parallel, or a combination. You can determine the
equivalent value of resistance or capacitance using the
following formulas:

Resistors in series:

Resistors in parallel:

or
Capacitors in series:

or

Capacitors in parallel:

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

LAWS
Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws are commonly used to analyze what’s
going on in a closed loop circuit. Based on the principle of
conservation of energy, Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states
that, at any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of
currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents
flowing out of that node, and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
states that the sum of all voltage drops around a circuit loop
equals zero.

For the circuit shown, Kirchhoff’s Laws tells you the following:

KCL: I = I1 + I2

KVL: Vbattery – VR – VLED = 0, or Vbattery = VR + VLED

CALCULATING THE RC TIME CONSTANT
In a resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit, it takes a certain amount of
time for the capacitor to charge up to the supply voltage, and
then, once fully charged, to discharge down to 0 volts.

Circuit designers use RC networks to produce simple timers

and oscillators because the charge time is predictable and
depends on the values of the resistor and the capacitor. If you
multiply R (in ohms) by C (in farads), you get what is known as
the RC time constant of your RC circuit, symbolized by T:

A capacitor charges and discharges almost completely after

five times its RC time constant, or 5RC. After the equivalent of
one time constant has passed, a discharged capacitor will
charge to roughly two-thirds its capacity, and a charged
capacitor will discharge nearly two-thirds of the way.
ELECTRONICS: READING RESISTOR AND
CAPACITOR CODES
Electronics can sometimes be difficult to decipher. By
decoding the colorful stripes sported by many resistors and
the alphanumeric markings that appear on certain types of
capacitors, you can determine the nominal value and
tolerance of the specific component.

RESISTOR COLOR CODES

Many resistor casings contain color bands that represent the
nominal resistance value and tolerance of the resistor. You
translate the color and position of each band into digits,
multipliers, and percentages.

The table that follows outlines the meaning of the resistor

color bands.

Color 1st Digit 2nd Digit Multiplier Tolerance

Black 0 0 x1 ±20%

Brown 1 1 x10 ±1%

Red 2 2 x100 ±2%

Orange 3 3 x1,000 ±3%

Yellow 4 4 x10,000 ±4%

Green 5 5 x100,000 n/a

Blue 6 6 x1,000,000 n/a

Violet 7 7 x10,000,000 n/a

Gray 8 8 x100,000,000 n/a

White 9 9 n/a n/a

Gold n/a n/a x0.1 ±5%

Silver n/a n/a x0.01 ±10%

CAPACITOR VALUE REFERENCE

In electronic circuits, the value of a capacitor can be
determined by a two- or three-digit code that appears on its
casing. The following table outlines values for some common
capacitors.

Marking Value

nn (a number from 01 to 99) or nn0 nn picofarads (pF)

101 100 pF

102 0.001 µF

103 0.01 µF

104 0.1 µF

221 220 pF
222 0.0022 µF

223 0.022 µF

224 0.22 µF

331 330 pF

332 0.0033 µF

333 0.033 µF

334 0.33 µF

471 470 pF

472 0.0047 µF

473 0.047 µF

474 0.47 µF

CAPACITOR TOLERANCE CODES

In electronic circuits, the tolerance of capacitors can be
determined by a code that appears on the casing. The code is
a letter that often follows a three-digit number, for instance,
the Z in 130Z. The following table outlines common tolerance
values for capacitors. Note that the letters B, C, and D
represent tolerances in absolute capacitance values, rather
than percentages. These three letters are used on only very
small (pF range) capacitors.
Code Tolerance

B ± 0.1 pF

C ± 0.25 pF

D ± 0.5 pF

F ± 1%

G ± 2%

J ± 5%

K ± 10%

M ± 20%

Z +80%, –20%

ELECTRONICS: INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC)

PINOUTS

The pins on an IC chip provide connections to the tiny

integrated circuits inside of your electronics. To determine
which pin is which, you look down on the top of the IC for
the clocking mark, which is usually a small notch in the
packaging but might instead be a little dimple or a white or
colored stripe. By convention, the pins on an IC are numbered
counterclockwise, starting with the upper-left pin closest to the
clocking mark. So, for example, with the clocking notch
orienting the chip at the 12 o’clock position, the pins of a 14-
pin IC are numbered 1 through 7 down the left side and 8
through 14 up the right side.

ELECTRONICS: 555 TIMER AS AN ASTABLE

MULTIVIBRATOR

The 555 can behave as

an astable multivibrator, or oscillator. By connecting
components to the chip in your electronics, you can configure
the 555 to produce a continuous series of voltage pulses that
automatically alternate between low (0 volts) and high (the
positive supply voltage, VCC).

You can calculate the low and high timing intervals using the
formulas that follow:
ELECTRONICS FOR KIDS
FOR DUMMIES CHEAT
SHEET
From Electronics For Kids For Dummies
Sharpen your circuit-building skills by finding out how to read
the colorful stripes on resistors and how to make your own
jumper wires. Then take a look at how batteries work so you’re
sure to get the most out of these common energy sources.
HOW TO READ RESISTOR VALUES

If you think those colorful bands on your resistors are there

just for show, think again! Those bands tell you the value of
the resistor. Before you can decode the resistor value, you
need to know a little more about resistors.

There are two main types of resistors:

 Standard resistors have four color bands. Three of the

bands tell you the nominal value, which means the value
the resistor was designed to have. The fourth band tells
you the tolerance of the resistor, which indicates how far
off the nominal value the actual resistance could be.
(The manufacturing process isn’t perfect, so most
resistors are a little off.)

For instance, you may buy what you think is a 100

Omega resistor, but the actual resistance most likely isn’t
exactly 100 Omega. It may be 97 or 104 Omega, or
 some other value close to 100 Omega. For most circuits,
“close” is good enough.
 Precision resistors, which have more precise values than
standard resistors, have five color bands. Four of the
bands tell you the nominal value. The fifth band tells you
the tolerance.

You can count on the actual resistance of a precision

resistor being really close to its nominal value. So, if you
buy a 100 Omega precision resistor, chances are its
actual value is within 1 or 2 of 100 Omega.
The following figure shows a diagram of the color code of a
standard (four-band) resistor. You use this color code to figure
out the nominal value and tolerance of a standard resistor.

DECODING THE NOMINAL VALUE OF A

RESISTOR
 Here’s how you use the color code to figure out the nominal
value of the resistor (refer to the figure):
1. Decide which band is the first band.
Compare the ends of the resistor. Usually, the colored band at
one end is closer to that end than is the colored band at the
other end. If that is the case, the band that is closest to one
end of the resistor is the first band.
If you can’t determine which is the first band, look at the two
outer bands. If one of the outer bands is silver or gold, that
band is probably the last band, so the first band is at the other
end.
2. Look up the color of the first band in the column labeled “1st
digit” and find the number associated with that color.
This number is the first digit of the resistance. In the resistor
shown in the preceding figure, the first band is yellow, so the
first digit is 4.
3. Look up the color of the second band in the column labeled
“2nd digit” and find the number associated with that color.
This number is the second digit of the resistance. In the
resistor shown in the preceding figure, the second band is
violet, so the second digit is 7.
4. Look up the color of the third band in the column labeled “X”
and find the number associated with that color.
This number is the multiplier. In the resistor shown in the
preceding figure, the third band is brown, so the multiplier is
101 (which is 10).
5. Put the first two digits side-by-side to form a two-digit number.
For the resistor shown in the preceding figure, the first two
digits are 4 and 7, so the two-digit number is 47.
6. Multiply the two-digit number by the multiplier.
This gives you the nominal value of the resistor in ohms. In the
resistor shown in the preceding figure, the two-digit number is
47 and the multiplier is 10, so the nominal value is
An easy way to multiply a whole number by a power of
10 (that is, 100, 101, 102, 103, and so on) is to just append
(meaning tack on to the end) the whole number with zeros,
and use the exponent (which is the small, raised number next
to the 10) to tell you how many zeros to append. Here are two
examples:

 22 x 103. The exponent is 3, so you stick 3 zeros to the

right of 22, and you get 22,000. (The multiplier in this
case is 103, which is 1,000.)
 56 x 100. The exponent is 0, so you stick 0 zeros to the
right of 56, and you get 37. (The multiplier in this case is
100, which is 1, because any number raised to the 0th
power equals 1.)
If you have a precision (five-band) resistor (which you’re
unlikely to use for projects in Electronics For Kids For
Dummies), the third band gives you the third digit of the
resistance and the fourth band gives you the multiplier.

READING A RESISTOR’S TOLERANCE

To figure out how far off from the nominal value the actual
resistance could be, you look at the fourth band on a standard
resistor (or the fifth band on a precision resistor). Refer to the
preceding figure for the color code for the tolerance of a
resistor.
Say that the fourth band of the 470 Omega resistor you have
chosen for a particular project is gold. The color, gold, in the
column labeled “tolerance” in the figure represents a tolerance
of 5 percent. Because 5 percent of 470 is 23.5, the actual
resistance could be as much as 23.5 Omega higher or
lower than 470 Omega. So the actual value of the resistance
could be any value from 446.5 to 493.5 Ω.

Most standard resistors have tolerances of 5%, 10%, or 20%,

and most precision resistors have tolerances of 1% or 2%. For
the majority of circuits — and in all the projects in Electronics
For Kids For Dummies — it’s okay to use a standard resistor.
For certain circuits, it’s important to use a precision resistor
with a lower tolerance.

The following figure shows you two more examples of

resistors and their values.

You can measure the actual value of a specific resistor using

a device called a multimeter. For example, when you use a
multimeter to measure a 470 Omega resistor with a 5 percent
tolerance, you might found that the actual value is 481
Omega.
HOW TO MAKE JUMPER WIRES

A jumper wire is a short insulated wire with bare (stripped of

insulation) ends. You use jumper wires, such as the one
shown in the following figure, to connect two points in a
breadboard circuit. Even if you have a set of precut jumper
wires, chances are you’ll need to make a jumper wire of a
specific length for a circuit or two.

Making a jumper wire isn’t that hard, as long as you have the
right wire, tools, and a little patience.

You start with a reel (or long piece) of insulated wire that is
thick enough — but not too thick — to fit into the contact holes
of your breadboard. The gauge (pronounced “gage”) of a wire
is a measure of its diameter. Look for 20- or 22-gauge wire. In
North America, the gauge is often labeled AWG (for American
wire gauge).

You also need a wire cutter and a wire stripper, or one tool
that does both jobs, as well as needle-nose pliers. You’ll find it
much easier to make jumper wires if your wire stripper has a
gauge-selection dial or several cutting notches labeled for
various gauges. Gauged devices allow you to strip insulation
 without worrying about cutting the wire underneath the
insulation.

If you use a generic wire stripper, you have to be very careful

not to nick(accidentally cut into) the wire when you’re stripping
off the insulation. Nicks weaken the wire, and a weak wire can
get stuck inside a breadboard hole and ruin your whole day.

To make your own jumper wire, follow these steps:

1. Cut the wire to the length you need, using a wire-cutting tool.
If you need, say, a 1-inch jumper wire, cut a length of wire that
is at least 1-3/4 inches long, so you leave room to strip some
insulation off each end. It’s better to cut a longer length of wire
and trim it down if you need to than to cut a shorter length of
wire and find that it’s too short for your circuit.

2. Strip off about 1/4- to 1/3-inch of insulation from each end.

If you use a gauged wire stripper, follow these steps:
1. Dial the gauge to 20 or 22 (depending on what gauge your
wire is) or locate the notch that is labeled 20 or 22.
2. With the jaws of the wire stripper open, place the wire in the
appropriate notch of the wire stripper, so that roughly ¼- to
1/3-inch of the wire extends past the wire stripper.
3. Firmly grip the wire stripper — as if you’re trying to cut through
the wire — while twisting and pulling the wire through the
stripping tool. The insulation should come off but the wire
should remain intact.

If you use a generic wire stripper, follow these steps:

4. Place the end of the wire into the cutting blades of the wire
stripper, so that roughly 1/4- to 1/3-inch of the wire extends
past the wire stripper.
5. Grip the wire stripper just enough to begin cutting through the
insulation. (If you grip it too tightly, you will nick or cut through
the wire. If you don’t grip it tightly enough, you won’t cut
through the insulation at all.)
6. Release your grip on the wire stripper, rotate the wire a
quarter turn, and then grip the wire stripper again with just
enough pressure to begin cutting through the insulation.
7. Rotate and repeat steps b and c two or three more times, until
you have nicked the insulation all the way around the wire.
8. Grip the wire stripper — but not too tightly — around the
nicked insulation while pulling on the other end of the wire to
force the insulation off.

3. Bend the exposed ends of wire at a right (90-degree) angle.

Use your needle-nose pliers to do this.

With a little practice, you’ll become an expert in making jumper

wires!
HOW BATTERIES WORK

Have you ever mixed vinegar with baking soda to create a

volcano for a science fair project? The bubbling that you see
is the result of a chemical reaction. This reaction is very
similar to how batteries work. The reaction, however, occurs
inside a battery, hidden from view by the battery case. This
reaction is what creates the electrical energy that the battery
supplies to circuits.

A typical battery, such as a AA or C battery has a case or

container. Molded to the inside of the case is a cathode mix,
which is ground manganese dioxide and conductors carrying a
naturally-occurring electrical charge. A separator comes next.
This paper keeps the cathode from coming into contact with
the anode, which carries the negative charge. The anode and
the electrolyte (potassium hydroxide) are inside each battery.
A pin, typically made of brass, forms the negative current
collector and is in the center of the battery case.
Each battery has a cell that contains three components: two
electrodes and an electrolyte between them. The electrolyte is
a potassium hydroxide solution in water. The electrolyte is the
medium for the movement of ions within the cell and carries
the iconic current inside the battery.

The positive and negative terminals of a battery are connected

to two different types of metal plates, known
as electrodes, which are immersed in chemicals inside the
battery. The chemicals react with the metals, causing excess
electrons to build up on the negative electrode (the metal plate
connected to the negative battery terminal) and producing a
shortage of electrons on the positive electrode (the metal plate
connected to the positive battery terminal).

Flashlight or smaller batteries, usually labeled A, AA, C, or D

have the terminals built into the ends of the batteries. That’s
why the battery compartment of your flashlight has a + and a –
sign, making it easier for you to install your batteries the
correct direction. Larger batteries, like those in a car, have
terminals that extend out from the battery. (They generally
look like large screw tops.)

The difference in the number of electrons between the positive

and negative terminals creates the force known
as voltage. This force wants to even out the teams, so to
speak, by pushing the excess electrons from the negative
electrode to the positive electrode. But the chemicals inside
the battery act like a roadblock and prevent the electrons from
traveling between the electrodes. If there’s an alternate path
that allows the electrons to travel freely from the negative
electrode to the positive electrode, the force (voltage) will
succeed in pushing the electrons along that path.

When you connect a battery to a circuit, you provide that

alternate path for the electrons to follow. So the excess
electrons flow out of the battery via the negative terminal,
through the circuit, and back into the battery via the positive
terminal. That flow of electrons is the electric current that
delivers energy to your circuit.

When the electrodes are connected via a circuit, for example,

the terminals inside a flashlight or those in your vehicle, the
chemicals in the electrolyte start reacting.

As electrons flow through a circuit, the chemicals inside the

battery continue to react with the metals, excess electrons
keep building up on the negative electrode, and electrons
keep flowing to try to even things up — as long as there’s a
complete path for the current. If you keep the battery
connected in a circuit for a long time, eventually all the
chemicals inside the battery are used up and the battery dies
(it no longer supplies electrical energy).

The electrolyte oxides the anode’s powered zinc. The

cathode’s manganese dioxide/carbon mix reacts with the
oxidized zinc to produce electricity. Interaction between the
zinc and the electrolyte produces gradually slow the cell’s
action and lowers its voltage.

The collector is a brass pin in the middle of the cell that

conducts electricity to the outside circuit.

Note that the two electrodes in every battery are made from
two different materials, both of which must be electrical
conductors. One of the materials gives electrons and the other
receives them, which makes the current flow.