An Innovative Cost-Effective Smart Meter with
embedded Non Intrusive Load Monitoring
Matteo Nardello, Maurizio Rossi and Davide Brunelli
Department of Industrial Engineering, DII, University of Trento, Italy.
{name.surname}@unitn.it
Abstract—Most of the time, domestic energy usage is invisible
to the users. Households have only a vague idea about the
amount of energy they are using for different purposes during the
day, and the electric bill is usually the only monthly/bimonthly
feedback. Making the energy consumption promptly visible can
make the difference and foster a really efficient usage of the
energy in a city. The emerging smart metering infrastructure
has the potential to address some of these goals, by providing
both households and electric utilities useful information about
energy consumption, with a detailed breakdown to single ap-
pliance contribution. This paper presents a novel ultra-low-cost
smart metering system capable of providing domestic AC load
identification, by implementing both basic/typical smart meter
measurement and a simple yet effective load disaggregation
algorithm, which can detect and monitor domestic loads starting
from a single point of measurement.
Index Terms—Smart Meter, NILM, Real-Time, Load Monitor-
ing, Low-Cost
I. I NTRODUCTION
Domestic energy consumption accounts for approximately
20% of worldwide energy consumption (International Energy
Agency, 2014), thus it is essential to optimize the efficiency in
houses by eliminating wasted energy and by promoting actions
that can match people consumption with the availability or
forecasting [1] of renewable energy.
Along with the simple feedback provided by the power
meters on the market (i.e. instant power consumption), mostly
used for billing purposes, additional information can be ex-
tracted by new generation smart meters. Such information
do not focus on metrological accuracy already featured by
common devices, because more oriented to detect the type of
load and behaviour of the household. In particular efficient
algorithms for Non-Intrusive Load Monitoring can now be
executed directly on the meters, opening to innovative ideas
and services for energy saving and for providing feedback to
user about how energy is consumed and how can be reduced.
This is the idea behind Demand Response (DR), that offers
the opportunity to intentionally shift loads either in response to
price changes or as exchange for rewards. Through the load
shifting, DR initiatives offer the possibility to optimize the
transmission and distribution network, i.e. increase the load
on a voluntary basis when the power supply is more available,
for example, due to renewables; or to reduce the load when
power supply is particularly tight, without significant impact
on the daily life of consumers.
Privacy concerns may rise from this type of analysis,
directly related to utility companies being able to understand
what appliances are used by customers. Commercial solutions
that have balanced privacy and benefits for both costs and
978-1-5386-1953-7/17/$31.00
c 2017 IEEE
energy efficiency already exists. Among others, one example is
Opower [2], that provides users how much power and natural
gas they are consuming for heating and cooling, and gives
them tips to shape energy to their lifestyles by analyzing
utility energy data, customers’ income levels and the weather.
Moreover, by implementing an algorithm that can be executed
directly on the smart meter, the end user can decide to retain
the information locally or to share with the utility company
for actively participating to DR and other initiatives.
Previous works such as [3] noticed that often households
have no information about which appliance needs to be turned
off to meet a DR request. This can be achieved by some
high cost home monitoring system (i.e. monitoring the single
appliance), but it represents a barrier for the majority of
home owners due the low scalability and integrability with
the existing infrastructure.
Another research [4] suggests that the type of feedback
provided to household about electricity consumption has a
great influence on the amount of electricity saved. Ehrhardt-
Martinez et al., have shown how we can achieve the maximum
reduction in energy consumption by providing household
with real-time information about electricity consumption of
a specific appliance as engaging people to become part of the
energy solution. In fact, such an appliance-specific feedback
allows the inhabitants to identify loads that require lots of
electricity and motivates them to replace with more efficient
ones, or to adapt their consumption behaviour accordingly.
By developing a power meter that integrates specific intelli-
gent and machine-learning engines on board, we can achieve
different goals, that otherwise would be pretty hard. On the
user side, households can improve their power consumption
by adapting their habits based on the suggestions provided
by the smart meter. Moreover, by knowing what appliance is
running, they can also answer to DR requests from the utility
company. On the other side, utility companies, starting from
the information provided by the power meters, can build up
different levels of service; for instance they can, 1) verify if an
household that accepts DR requests actually do turn off some
selected appliances to meet the request, 2) implement Demand
Side Management (DSM) to encourage consumers to use less
energy during peak hours or to move the time of energy usage
to off-peak hours by means of financial incentives or Time-of-
Use pricing, and, finally, 3) implement different strategies for
load forecasting to better adapt the production and distribution
of energy.
Another interesting aspect of moving the load identification
algorithm directly inside a smart meter, is the fact that running
high complexity algorithm in a cloud environment for a whole
town might become not feasible. As example an average town
like Milan, with over 300.000 families [5], running one NILM
instance for each family inside a server facility would require
a huge amount of resources. Contrarily, by developing and
running simpler algorithms inside a power meter, we can
fully exploit the meter resources, making the whole metering
infrastructure more efficient and also more robust to system
failures (i.e., if the server facility encounters a shortage, the
metering infrastructure of a whole town would be taken down).
Network connectivity has also to be considered while devel-
oping a distributed infrastructure. If we consider that sending
data to a cloud service cannot be always feasible, due to costs
or the availability of a network connection, like in the event
that we have to use 3G services for communicating with the
cloud, running an algorithm that can work within HAN (Home
Area Network) might be a good starting point for providing
load detection.
The contribution of this paper is to present the design of a
Home Intelligence device that enables customers to monitor
and control their home energy consumption using a Non-
Intrusive Load Monitoring system and extrapolating trends
from customer data used to make energy saving recommenda-
tions for the customer. Such a device would play a significant
role for utilities in the current competitive market since it
would:
• Enhance customer retention, improving churn rates and
reducing Cost-to-Acquire the device;
• Gain first-hand knowledge of customer behavior, enabling
utilities to promote virtuous behavioral pricing (or selec-
tive pricing);
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. In Sec-
tion II, load monitoring and detection background is presented.
Section III discusses hardware implementation of the proposed
solution. Firmware implementation is presented in Section IV.
Here both the data acquisition and data analysis are discussed,
while the discussion of the proposed solution can be found in
Section V. Performance results are presented in Section VI.
Finally, Section VII concludes this work with final remarks
and considerations.
II. R ELATED W ORK
On-line power meters are gaining an increasing interest on
the market because of the low-cost and small size. They are
frequently proposed in the research community [6], [7], [8],
nevertheless, most of them satisfy the normal requirements of
measuring the power consumption and billing the amount of
energy consumed. No additional intelligent processing on the
raw data is performed to foster the creation of new services.
First attempt to distinguish appliances based on the changes
in their steady-state real and reactive power consumption was
made by [9]. Recently the approach to Load Monitoring has
changed. Kolter et al. [10], for example, developed an Additive
Factorial HMM while in [11] a Deep Neural Network is
applied to energy disaggregation.
Although all these works exhibit a very good accuracy
in monitoring different types of appliances, they would not
be able to run on-line and to provide real-time results if
executed on low-cost embedded solutions because of the high
computational cost.
Recently, the technological progress of embedded solutions
along with a cost reduction, have stimulated the interest in
developing simpler load disaggregation techniques, able to
operate on the same smart meter used for data acquisition,
in real-time. The first attempt to develop an embedded system
suitable for real-time embedded-NILM we are aware of, is
the work presented by Shenvar el al. [12]. They prototyped
a NILM engine on a x86 Geode CPU running at 300 MHz;
however they did not provide adequate discussion about the
acquisition and DAQ part, nor a detailed test of accuracy
analysis. By comparison, the system described in this paper
can achieve similar results with lower cost and less intrusive
measurements. In [13] and [14], embedded systems based
on low-cost microcontrollers are used in conjunction with
a Finite State Machine for detecting loads. In these cases,
the methods show really promising results, but [13] lacks
of network connectivity for sending the results of the load
monitoring engine to the end user.
Another approach is presented by Biansoongnern [15], that
has implemented an Artificial Neural Network running on
an embedded platform, in conjunction with a power meter
interfaced with a RS485 connection. Results are then posted
to ThingSpeak platform. However, the embedded system was
not discussed and, comparing to our solution, their prototype
was divided in two parts: the power meter and the embedded
computer running the load detection engine.
III. H ARDWARE I MPLEMENTATION
The sensing device developed is based on a CC3200
System-on-Chip (SoC) from Texas Instruments. Driven by the
idea to develop a solution that could be feasible for NILM
in residential sector, the choice was an easy to install, ultra-
low-cost Wi-Fi enabled device, capable to acquire current
readings with a sample rate equal to 10 kHz and to provide
the calculation of the RMS every 0.5 s. The sequence of RMS
values is used by the NILM engine that adds information about
appliance detection and sends a comprehensive report to a
cloud service. Figure 1 shows the prototype of the developed
smart meter.
Fig. 1. Prototype of the developed smart meter
A. Acquisition Front End
To acquire the aggregated current consumption, we chose to
use non-invasive current sensors (also called split-coil Current
Transformer, CT). CTs are cheap and effective sensors for
measuring aggregated current consumption since they can be
clipped onto either the hot or neutral wire, without any contact
to the underneath conductor.
Before connecting the CT sensor to the meter, the output
signal from the CT sensors needs to be conditioned so to meet
the input requirements [16] of the CC3200 ADC that requires
a positive voltage with a maximum below 1.4 V. The signal
is first converted through an I-V filter and then biased to fit
the conversion range of the 12-bit ADC. The schematic of the
ADC input is depicted in Figure 2. We used a 57P Vitec split-
core current sensor [17] with 1:3000 ratio, and with a proper
burden resistor we can monitor loads up to 5kW without ADC
saturation with a sensitivity below 3W/bit; that makes the
smart meter suitable for the residential sector.
Fig. 2. Conditioning circuit for current acquisition
The smart meter provides three measuring channels, making
possible to monitor multi-phase systems or houses where the
main power is split in multiple lines.
B. Control Unit
The System-On-Chip (SoC) used is a CC3200 [18] MCU
from Texas Instruments, developed for the Internet of Things
(IoT). The SimpleLink CC3200 device is a Single-Chip Wire-
less MCU that integrates a high-performance ARM Cortex-
M4 core running at 80 MHz, an ARM Cortex-M0 Network
Processor Subsystem implementing the Wi-Fi stack, four-
channel 12-bit ADC and a wide variety of peripherals. The M4
core is supported by 256 kB of RAM and by 4 MB external
serial flash connected through a dedicated SPI interface. The
network subsystem includes 802.11 b/g/n radio, baseband and
MAC, and supports Station, Access Point, and Wi-Fi Direct
modes. This makes possible to firstly start the smart meter
in Access Point mode for the initial configuration, and once
configured to switch to Station mode for connecting to the
Home Area Network (HAN) Wi-Fi. The NILM algorithm
implemented in the firmware of the smart meter has been
designed to have a small memory footprint, but still high
accuracy when measuring.
IV. F IRMWARE I MPLEMENTATION
The firmware running on the smart meter can be divided in
multiple stages. We have a preliminary phase, called Initial-
ization used by the meter to look for a configuration file saved
in the local flash memory. If the file is not present (i.e. first
time initialization) the node operates in Access Point mode,
providing a web page that the user can fill with the local HAN
Wi-Fi credentials and with MQTT broker details that will be
later used for streaming all the results after the disaggregation
process and the energy consumption. Once configured and
connected to the local Wi-Fi network, the internal RTC clock
is updated from a NTP server.
In the second phase, the meter samples the AC signals
and calculates the RMS values that are saved into circular
buffers. Two buffers with a different length are used. One
for event detection and another for event disaggregation. The
node repeats the analysis of the buffers every new value, with
the goal to identify which appliances are currently ON and
what has been switched ON or OFF in the home. For the
identification, the node uses the Appliance Database saved in
the flash memory. This database is previously created during
the supervised learning phase and uploaded together with the
firmware inside the memory.
Last phase is called Data Posting. Here the node sends both
the acquired aggregated current consumption and the infor-
mation about appliances’ operating state. System architecture
is presented in Figure 3. Please note that, in this figure, the
preliminary initialization phase has been omitted.
A. Data Acquisition
In this phase, the meter samples the AC signal coming from
the CT sensors at a rate of 10 kHz. We chose to sample 5
periods of the AC signal, thus 200 samples per period for a
total of 1000 samples for each cycle. The meter calculates the
RMS values for the circular buffer at a rate of 2Hz. Work-flow
of the acquiring phase is presented in Figure 4. For the sake
of completeness, the ADC inside the CC3200 MCU reaches
Nyquist rate around 31 kHz, hence by modifying the firmware
there is enough computing capability to increase the sampling
rate and to include features for higher order harmonic analysis.
B. Supervised learning
Before the algorithm is able to recognize different appli-
ances from the aggregate consumption, a preliminary learning
phase is necessary. During this phase, a database of known
appliances is created, and later used by the identification
algorithm. Two different strategies can be followed, that are
mainly based on the type of interaction and on the way to
engage the user. First method exploits MQTT connectivity for
sending data regarding an unknown appliance detected by the
smart meter. This data is then processed for features extraction
and inserted in the appliance database. Once completed, the
only effort required by the user, is to insert a label that
describes the detected appliance. The other method requires
more user interaction. In fact, the customer can manually
trigger the so called ”recording mode” for adding a new
appliance power trace. Once the data is acquired by the smart
meter, features extraction algorithm is executed, and the new
appliance added in the database.
Features extraction algorithm is not computational intensive,
and can run both directly inside the smart meter, or in a cloud
environment. In this way, we can better adapt to different
working scenarios.
C. Data Processing
Data processing uses the combination of two different
methods. The first one uses the circular buffer with a depth of
40 RMS samples. In this phase, the load identification engine
looks for changes in the consumption trace, and labels them
as events. The second method uses at least 1000 samples of
the circular buffer before an event is confirmed. In fact, it
calculates a Power Spectral Density estimation that needs a
large set of data to detect some periodic components typical
of some electric appliances. The number of samples to be
considered by the load identification engine is therefore a
trade-off between time delay and accuracy in the identification
and has been tuned by experimental tests.

Fig. 3. Smart metering architecture
1) Event Detection: Starting from the consumption curve
coming from the CT sensors, event detection algorithm tries
to recognize when a transition from OFF state to ON state,
and vice versa, occurs. This analysis is implemented by means
of a sliding window that moves forward, checking sample by
sample, looking for a change in the power consumption. In first
place, the algorithm calculates the average before (AV GB )
and after (AV GA ) the sample we are analyzing, by means of
a Simple Moving Average (SMA). The windows size, used
for both averages, is adapted dynamically during run time, to
better fit different appliances and to ensure to check one state
change per time. (i.e. if the algorithm detects that we have
two events, inside the same window, window size is reduced
and only one event considered). Both averages are then used
for obviating false events associated to noises or spikes in the
aggregate curve. If the absolute difference between these two
values (AV GB and AV GA ) is lower than a threshold (20 VA,
experimentally defined), we consider the detected event as
noise. Finally, a check is made to address the inaccuracy of
the measuring device, and to neglect small power consumption
changes, more prone to false detections.
2) Event Disaggregation: Once we detect an event, the
algorithm tries to associate this event to an appliance state
change. This process is based on patter recognition techniques
and encompass the extraction of some features, that char-
acterize the various appliances, from the aggregated current
consumption. These features are then matched with those
already available in the appliance database, built during the
previous learning phase, and the appliance that exhibits the
highest similarity is chosen as the one that has changed
his working state. Features for load characterization will be
presented in Section V-A.
D. Data Posting
As the goal of load detection analysis is to provide use-
ful feedback to both household and utility company about
the energy consumption and what appliances are currently
switched ON, the smart meter is configured to post periodical
messages about the current state of appliances (i.e. which are
currently ON) and about the electricity consumption level.
This is implemented using MQTT protocol. The smart meter
creates, every 60 seconds, a MQTT message with a time
Fig. 4. Acquisition Workflow
stamp, as epoch time, the last RMS current samples for each
line under measurement, and the report about appliances state
change.
V. D ISCUSSION
Working with embedded solutions always poses some lim-
itations and challenges due to both space restriction and low
processing power. To this end, the NILM script, originally
developed with MATLAB, has been optimized and ported in a
C version for the SoC of the meter. The set of used features has
been reduced to meet the memory constraints of the embedded
system. Another important aspect to be evaluated during the
development of an embedded solution is the final cost, that
must be kept low to be attractive in consumer market, together
with the effort needed to integrate it inside an already existing
infrastructure, that must not represent a barrier for the end
user.
A. Memory requirement and used features
During run time, only 150 kB of RAM are available to
the user, as part of the RAM is reserved for the underlying
operating system. The main challenge was to fully exploit
the serial flash, and dynamically load data only when needed.
The node is also configured to connect to the Wi-Fi network
only when it needs to stream the acquired data to decrease
the RAM impact of the network subroutine. The firmware
running inside the smart meter can be divided into two separate
parts; 1) Data acquisition and 2) Data analysis. 16 kB is the
memory requirement for the data acquisition part, that includes
the buffers needed for ADC sampling and RMS calculation,
and the circular buffers used for storing the RMS samples
necessary for the load identification engine. (48 kB if we want
to monitor three lines).
Regarding the NILM algorithm, we ported our initial MAT-
LAB script in C with changes to the code necessary for
operating on the embedded platform. Firstly, we reduced the
number of features used to identify an appliance; then we have
encompassed the optimization of the moving average function,
used also for calculating rise and settling time of an event,
and also the implementation of the Power Spectral Density
function for extracting potential cyclical behaviour from the
aggregated current consumption.
After a deep evaluation, we kept only 9 main features from
the original MATLAB algorithm:
 • Transient state consumption [VA], average consump- TABLE I
tion in transient state of an appliance when it switches L OAD IDENTIFICATION PERFORMANCE
ON.
True False False False
• Steady state consumption [VA], average consumption Appliance
Detected Detected positive Negative
in steady state of an appliance.
• Peak consumption value [VA], the maximum consump- Coffee
97.71% 1.17% 2.34% 3.51%
tion value of an appliance. Machine
• Minimum consumption value [VA], the minimum con- Electric
100% 0% 8.33% 8.33%
sumption value of an appliance. Heater
• Settling time [Samples], expressed as number of sam-
Fridge 92.73% 0.71% 23.75% 4.04%
ples, the time required to reach and stay within a range
Hair
of about 5% of the average power in steady state. 83.33% 26.67% 26.67% 0%
Dryer
• Rise time [Samples], expressed as number of samples,
the time required to rise from 10% to 90% of its steady Microwave 79.27% 0% 3.08% 1.54%
state value. Washing
100% 8.33% 0% 75.00%
• Periodicity [Samples], if an appliance exhibits a cyclical Machine
behaviour, like, for example, the spinning motor inside a Total 92.17% 6.15% 10.69% 15.40%
washing machine, this feature states the frequency of the
cycle.
• Minimum ON time [Samples], the minimum number of already available in the consumer market, we can notice
samples that an appliance stays in ON state. that Neurio Home Energy Monitor [21], Smappee Energy
• Maximum ON time [Samples], the maximum number Monitor [22] and Open Energy Monitor [23] offer NILM
of samples that an appliance stays in ON state. services. However, our meter achieves the same functionality
The database of features for the whole set of appliances, of these 3 commercial solutions at a lower cost, and moreover
that in our case consists of 6 loads, once loaded from the the NILM engine is embedded directly on the meter without
serial flash, accounts for less than 256 Bytes. With these the need of cloud computing resources for each user.
improvements, about 150 kB of free RAM and more than
3MB in serial flash are available on the meter for running the VI. R ESULTS
features extraction algorithm followed by the load identifica- We evaluated the load identification performance by in-
tion (NILM). stalling the smart meter inside real houses. The smart meter
The development of the proposed smart meter was driven was connected on the main electrical panel of each residential
by the idea to provide a cost-effective solution that could unit, monitoring the global current consumption. For reference,
be attractive in the consumer marker, that could also be the houses used as testbed belong to the university campus
easy to install and maintain. The result is a 35x90 mm and each unit is used by five students. During this period, we
footprint device, that integrates the MCU, 3 ADC input, Wi-Fi have recorded, among others, events associated to 6 different
capabilities and also the power supply. The final cost is below appliances; Coffee Machine, Electric Heater, Fridge, Hair
50 e including the three CT sensors and offers a competitive Dryer, Microwave Oven and Washing Machine. Table I shows
trade-off between innovative metering service such as NILM, testing results using the proposed smart meter.
and the cost. Detect ratio expresses the number of times the algorithm
Comparing our solution with other solutions is still difficult. has correctly detected an appliance. This ratio is calculated
As far the authors are aware, the number of works in state by comparing the number of real appliances state changes,
of the art where a similar solution is discussed is still low. manually extracted from the aggregated consumption, and the
Most of the time, research works lack a proper cost study number of appliances state changes provided by the load iden-
or focus on different aspects. If we compare the final cost tification algorithm. False detection ratio expresses the number
of our solution with the first study about the development of times the algorithm has associated a known appliance (i.e.
of an embedded platform for load disaggregation [12] there that is in our database) to a wrong one. False Positive and
is at least one order of magnitude improvement, mostly due False Negative express, respectively, the number of times the
to technological progress. Our solution is also smaller and algorithm has detected that an appliance has switched ON after
easier to run, making it more suitable for the installation by the right moment and the number of times that the algorithm
an end user. A fairer comparison can be made with the work has detected that an appliance has switched OFF before the
presented in [19]. Makonin et al. discuss the development right moment.
of an open source power meter architecture based on an As can be noted from Table I, the average correct detection
Arduino due platform. It can be argued that our solution ration is over 90%, which is in line with more complex and
and [19] have the same target cost, but we also integrate off-line load identification algorithms. However performance
Wi-Fi connectivity and the power supply. Another interesting in detecting when the Washing Machine switches OFF needs
comparison can be made with the prototype proposed by Adabi to be improved. Future work will also encompass the analysis
et al. [20]. Here a solution comparable to the one proposed of those appliances characterized by a continuous variation in
in this paper is presented, but the lack of information about the power drawn.
hardware implementation makes a comparison in terms of cost Figure 5 shows an example of the type of graph that can
very difficult. Of course, if we look into commercial products be acquired and processed, with the information provided by
 Fig. 5. Appliance recognized by real-time load monitoring algorithm
the load monitoring algorithm running inside the smart meter.
In the figure, a portion of aggregated power trace is presented
along with the detected events and associated appliances state
change.
VII. C ONCLUSION
Residential load monitoring and load identification are
particularly important tasks for power DSM and user energy
efficiency management. In this paper, we have presented the
development of a complete and cost effective metering system
capable of detecting and classifying the power consumption of
a set of residential appliances. We have presented the main
parts of developed smart meter, with a focus on the data
acquisition part, that provides RMS values at 2 Hz. Using
this low-cost hardware platform, we have implemented a load
disaggregation algorithm, that executes real-time using only
RMS current samples. From the experimental results it was
demonstrated that good accuracy in detecting individual loads
running inside a household is now possible without complex
off-line systems nor cloud support.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank the financial support
for this work provided by the IEEE Smart Cities initiative.
Moreover, the research activity has been supported by a grant
from Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Trento e Rovereto
(CARITRO).
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