ReactivepowerComp usingSTATCOM

REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION USING
STATCOM
By
1. Muhammad Shuaib Panhwer (Group Leader) 10EL68
2. Bilawal Rattar (Assistant Group Leader) 10EL59
3. Zeeshan Anjum Memon 10EL10
4. Sarfaraz Khatti 10EL32
5. Ahmed Maki Utero 10EL51
6. Yasir Memon 10EL16
Supervised by
Prof. Dr. Mukhtiar Ahmed Mahar
& Co-supervised by
Engr. Ms Mokhi Maan
Department of Electrical Engineering

Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

Degree of Bachelor of Electrical Engineering
January2014
In the Name of
Allah
The Beneficent, The Merciful.
Certificate
This is to certify that the work presented in this thesis on REACTIVE POWER
COMPENSATION USING STATCOM is completed by the following students of
department of electrical engineering under the supervision of Dr.Mukhtiar Ahmed Mahar
and in co-supervision of Engr. Ms Mokhi Maan
Name of Students Roll Numbers
1. Muhammad Shuaib Panhwer (Group Leader) 10EL68

2. Bilawal Rattar (Assistant Group Leader) 10EL59
3. Zeeshan Anjum Memon 10EL10
4. Sarfaraz Khatti 10EL32
5. Ahmed Maki Utero 10EL51
6. Yasir Memon 10EL16
Signature of Thesis Supervisor Signature of Thesis Co-supervisor
Signature of External Examiner/ Signature of Chairman

Examination Committee Department of Electrical Engineering
Date: ________________
iii
Dedication
This Humble effort is
Dedicated to Our
BELOVED PARENTS
&
Dr. Narain G. Hingorani

who pioneered the concepts of
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) and Custom Power
iv
Acknowledgements
First of all we would like to thank Almighty Allah, the most gracious and the most merciful.
It was His grace and blessings that we managed to work on this thesis and completed it.
We would like to thank Prof. Dr.Mukhtiar Ahmed Mahar, Department of Electrical

Engineering, our Project Supervisor, for his guidance, support, motivation and
encouragement throughout the period this work was carried out. His readiness for
consultation at all times, his educative comments, his concern and assistance have been
invaluable. We are also very thankful to our co-supervisor, Engr. Ms Mokhi Maan, assistant
professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, for providing valuable suggestions,
guidance and his knowledge during the writing of this thesis.
We are also grateful to Dr. Abdul Sattar Larik, Professor and Head, Department of
Electrical Engineering, for providing the necessary facilities in the department.
In the end, we would like to offer our sincere thanks to our family members and well-wishers
whose prayers and moral support played a significant role in motivating us to work sincerely
on the thesis.
v
Abstract
The increased electric power consumption causes transmission lines to be driven close to or
even beyond their transfer capacities resulting in overloaded lines and congestions. FACTS
devices provide an opportunity to resolve congestions by controlling active and reactive
power flows as well as voltages. FACTS devices can be connected to a transmission line in
various ways, such as in series, shunt, or a combination of series and shunt. Shunt FACTS
devices are used for controlling transmission voltages, power flow, reducing reactive losses,
and damping of power system oscillations for high power transfer levels. The SVC and
STATCOM are two important shunt FACTS devices.
In this thesis STATCOM is used for reactive power compensation on electric transmission
line. A static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) is a regulating device used on
alternating current electricity transmission networks. It is based on a power electronics
voltage-source converter and can act as either a source or sink of reactive AC power to an
electricity network. Usually a STATCOM is installed to support electricity networks that
have a poor power factor and often poor voltage regulation. The major attributes of
STATCOM are quick response time, less space requirement, optimum voltage platform,
higher operational flexibility and excellent dynamic characteristics under various operating
conditions.
This thesis explains conventional way of compensation and compensation using STATCOM.
Operating principle, circuit configuration, switching technologies and implementation of
STATCOM at various places are defined in thesis. The MATLAB simulation results show
the relative performance of STATCOM.
vi
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. v
Abstract .................................................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... xi
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... xiv
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................. xv
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.1 Introduction to thesis title................................................................................................. 2
1.2 History .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Scope of thesis .................................................................................................................. 5
1.4 Outline of thesis ............................................................................................................... 6
2. Preliminary theory of Reactive power compensation....................................................... 8
2.1 Transmission lines ............................................................................................................ 8
2.1.1 Purpose of Transmission ........................................................................................... 9
2.1.2 Choice of voltage ..................................................................................................... 10
2.1.3 Choice of Conductors Size ...................................................................................... 11
2.1.4 Loadability Characteristics ...................................................................................... 11
2.1.5 Effect of using bundled conductors ......................................................................... 12
2.2 Factors that effects the performance of transmission system......................................... 12
2.3 Blackout and its impacts ................................................................................................ 16
2.4 Reactive power and voltage control ............................................................................... 18
2.5 Production and Absorption of Reactive Power .............................................................. 20
2.5.1 Synchronous Generators .......................................................................................... 20
2.5.2 Transmission line .................................................................................................... 21

vii
2.5.3 Transformers ............................................................................................................ 21
2.5.4 Loads ....................................................................................................................... 21
2.6 Reactive Power Compensation....................................................................................... 22
2.6.1 Need of Reactive Power Compensation .................................................................. 22
2.6.2 Compensator requirements ...................................................................................... 23
2.7 Compensation Techniques ............................................................................................. 23
2.7.1 Shunt compensation ............................................................................................... 23
2.7.2 Series Compensation ............................................................................................... 25
2.8 Method of Voltage Control ............................................................................................ 26
2.8.1 Shunt Reactors ......................................................................................................... 27
2.8.2 Shunt capacitors ....................................................................................................... 27
2.8.3 Series Capacitors ..................................................................................................... 29
2.8.4 Synchronous Compensators .................................................................................... 30
2.8.5 Regulating Transformer ........................................................................................... 30
2.9 Reactive Power Limitations ........................................................................................... 33
3. Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) .............................................................. 37
3.1 Introduction to FACTS .................................................................................................. 37
3.1.1 Basic definitions ...................................................................................................... 38
3.1.2 Objectives of FACTS .............................................................................................. 38
3.1.3 Benefits and cost ...................................................................................................... 39
3.1.4 Generation of reactive power compensation [15].................................................... 41
3.1.5 Classification of FACTS devices ............................................................................ 42
3.1.6 FACTS Application ................................................................................................. 45
3.2 Introduction to static synchronous compensators (STATCOM).................................... 50
3.2.1 Definition ................................................................................................................. 51
3.2.2 Basic Circuit Configuration of STATCOM ............................................................ 51
viii
3.2.3 The major attributes of STATCOM ........................................................................ 52
3.2.4 STATCOM voltage sources .................................................................................... 53
3.2.5 Power industries ...................................................................................................... 58
3.3 Working principle of STATCOM .................................................................................. 58
3.4 STATCOM characteristics ............................................................................................. 62
3.4.1 STATCOM operating characteristics ...................................................................... 62
3.4.2 Transient response ................................................................................................... 63
3.4.3 Harmonics ................................................................................................................ 65
3.4.4 Source voltage ripple ............................................................................................... 65
3.5 Snubber circuit ............................................................................................................... 66
3.6 STATCOM control ........................................................................................................ 67
3.7 Solid-state switching devices ......................................................................................... 71
3.8 STATCOM topologies and configurations .................................................................... 71
3.8.1 Pulse width modulation (PWM) convertor.............................................................. 72
3.8.2 Multi-pulse convertor .............................................................................................. 75
3.8.3 Multi-level convertor ............................................................................................... 76
3.9 Optimal Location of STATCOM ................................................................................... 79
3.10 STATCOM losses ........................................................................................................ 79
3.11 Capability of STATCOM to exchange real power....................................................... 81
3.12 Physical size and installation ....................................................................................... 82
3.13 STATCOM applications .............................................................................................. 83
3.13.1 Transmission applications ..................................................................................... 83
3.13.2 Other Applications of STATCOM ........................................................................ 88
4. Simulation results and discussion ..................................................................................... 91
4.1 Circuit Description ......................................................................................................... 91
4.2 STATCOM Components................................................................................................ 92
ix
4.2.1 48-Pulse three-Level Inverter .................................................................................. 92
4.2.2 STATCOM Control System .................................................................................... 93
4.3 Steady-State and Dynamic Performance of the STATCOM ......................................... 95
4.3.1 System voltage equals to reference voltage ............................................................. 96
4.3.2 System voltage less than the reference voltage ....................................................... 97
4.3.3 System voltage greater than the reference voltage .................................................. 99
5. Conclusions and recommendations ................................................................................ 102
5.1 Conclusion.................................................................................................................... 102
5.2 Future recommendations .............................................................................................. 103
References ............................................................................................................................. 104
Appendix ............................................................................................................................... 106
x
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: 500 kV power system Network of WAPDA ........................................................... 9

Figure 2.2: Trends in transmission voltages in 60 years .......................................................... 11
Figure 2.3: single Phase symmetrical bundle conductor circuit .............................................. 12
Figure 2.4: Power System without compensation.................................................................... 24
Figure 2.5: Power System with shunt compensation ............................................................... 25
Figure 2.6: Power System with series compensation............................................................... 26
Figure 2.7: EHV line connected to a weak system .................................................................. 27
Figure 2. 8: Voltage Phasor Diagram for a feeder circuit of lagging power factor: (a) and (c)
without and (d) with shunt capacitor ....................................................................................... 28
Figure 2.9: Voltage Phasor Diagram for a feeder circuit of lagging power factor: (a) and (c)
without and (d) with series capacitor ....................................................................................... 29
Figure 2.10: Adjustable Synchronous Condenser .................................................................... 30
Figure 2.11: Off-load tap changer ............................................................................................ 31
Figure 2.12: On-load tap changer ............................................................................................ 32
Figure 2.13: Boosters or Regulating Transformer ................................................................... 33
Figure 3.1: Overview of conventional and FACTS devices .................................................... 42

Figure 3.2: Classification of FACTS devices .......................................................................... 43
Figure 3.3 Use of Power Electronics in High-Voltage Systems - “Ranking” of the Controllers
.................................................................................................................................................. 45
Figure 3.4: HVDC and FACTS worldwide by Siemens .......................................................... 49
Figure 3.5: Connection of STATCOM with AC bus ............................................................... 52
Figure 3.6: Current sourced convertor CSC ............................................................................ 53
Figure 3.7: power doubling converter arrangement ................................................................. 54
Figure 3.8: Capacitors in a STATCOM (photo courtesy of ABB) .......................................... 55
Figure 3.9: (a) voltage source converter (b) current source converter ..................................... 56
Figure 3.10: STATCOM substation and close-up of the converter valves (photo courtesy of
ABB) ........................................................................................................................................ 57
Figure 3.11: Synchronous condensor ....................................................................................... 58
Figure 3.12: A synchronous condenser .................................................................................... 59
Figure 3.13: A single phase STATCOM ................................................................................. 60
xi
Figure 3.14: The waveform of VPN .......................................................................................... 61
Figure 3.15: Reactive power compensation SC & controlled voltage source switching
convertor .................................................................................................................................. 62
Figure 3.16: Control characteristics of a STATCOM.............................................................. 63
Figure 3.17: Response of a STATCOM to a system voltage changes ..................................... 64
Figure 3.18: Response of a STATCOM to a depression system voltage ................................ 64
Figure 3.19: Converter output voltage and current waveforms and dc capacitor current and
voltage during var generation and absorption .......................................................................... 66
Figure 3.20: Typical snubber circuit arrangement for GTO in a STATCOM ......................... 67
Figure 3.21: 48-pulse STATCOM diagram ............................................................................. 68
Figure 3.22: Control diagram ................................................................................................... 69
Figure 3.23: STATCOM 48-pulse voltage and compensating current .................................... 70
Figure 3.24: VSC using IGBT-based PWM inverters ............................................................. 72
Figure 3.25: Single converter valve unit in a STATCOM ....................................................... 74
Figure 3.26: Two level six pulses VSC Bridge and its AC (Phase & Line) voltage output
wave form in square wave mode ............................................................................................. 75
Figure 3.27: Magnetics of 48-pulse, two-level ± 80 MVA STATCOM and its output AC
waveform ................................................................................................................................. 76
Figure 3.28: Single Phase of a three-level and four levels NPC converter.............................. 77
Figure 3.29: A view on technology by Siemens: STATCOM ................................................. 78
Figure 3.30: Typical loss curve for a STATCOM ................................................................... 80
Figure 3.31: Typical loss curves for STATCOM applications ................................................ 80
Figure 3.32: Footprints of SVC and STATCOM..................................................................... 82
Figure 3.33: ±80 Mvar in Japan ............................................................................................... 84
Figure 3.34: The ±100 MVAr STATCOM at Sullivan Substation .......................................... 85
Figure 3.35: +225/-52 Mvar SVC including ±75 Mvar STATCOM in England .................... 86
Figure 3.36: STATCOM substation in East Claydon, United Kingdom ................................. 87
Figure 3.37: Various applications of STATCOM.................................................................... 89
Figure 4.1: Detailed model of STATCOM .............................................................................. 91

Figure 4.2: Voltage Source Converter ..................................................................................... 92
Figure 4.3: STATCOM Controller .......................................................................................... 94
Figure 4.4: Waveforms Illustrating STATCOM Response to System Voltage ....................... 95
xii
Figure 4.5: STATCOM Current is zero, System voltage and STATCOM voltage are in Phase
.................................................................................................................................................. 96
Figure 4.6: System voltage less than the reference voltage. .................................................... 97
Figure 4.7: STATCOM Current leading the System voltage and system voltage and
STATCOM voltages are in Phase ............................................................................................ 97
Figure 4.8: STATCOM produces reactive power .................................................................... 98
Figure 4.9: System voltage greater than reference voltage ...................................................... 99
Figure 4.10: STATCOM Current lagging the System voltage and System voltage and
STATCOM voltages are in Phase .......................................................................................... 100
Figure 4.11: STATCOM absorbing reactive power .............................................................. 100
xiii
List of Tables
Table 1.1: Partial list of utility scale of STATCOM .................................................................. 4
Table 3.1: Comparison of Basic Types of Compensators........................................................ 39

Table 3.2: Cost comparison of different FACTS controllers ................................................... 41
Table 4.1: Transmission line parameters ................................................................................. 92
xiv
List of Abbreviations
AC Alternating current
BFO Bacterial Foraging Optimization
CSC Current Source Convertor
DC Direct Current
D-STATCOM Distribution Static Synchronous Compensator
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
FACTS Flexible AC Transmission System
GTO Gate Turn Off
HVDC High Voltage Direct Current
IEEE Institute Of Electrical And Electronics Engineers
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
IGCT Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor
IPFC Interline Power Flow Controller
ISO Independent System Operator
LMP Locational Marginal Price
MCT MOS Controlled Thyristor
NEC National Electric Code
NLTC No-Load Tap Changer
NTDC National Transmission And Dispatch Center
PI Proportional Integral
PLL Phase Locked Loop
PSO Particle Swarm Optimization
PSS Power System Stabilizer
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
RTDS Real Time Digital Simulator
xv
SC Synchronous Condenser
SMES Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
SSR Sub Synchronous Resonance
SSSC Static Synchronous Series Compensator
STATCOM Static Synchronous Compensator
STATCON Static Synchronous Condenser
SVC Static VAR Compensator
TCPAR Thyristor Controlled Phase Angle Regulator
TCPS Thyristor Controlled Phase Controlled Transformer
TCSC Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
UPFC Unified Power Flow Controller
VAR Volt Ampere Reactive
VSC Voltage Source Convertor
WAPDA Water And Power Development Authority
xvi
Chapter # 01
Introduction
1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction to thesis title
Voltage control and reactive-power management are two aspects of a single

activity that both supports reliability and facilitates commercial transactions
across transmission networks. On an alternating-current (AC) power system,
voltage is controlled by managing production and absorption of reactive power.
Reactive power compensation is done for;
 Better efficiency of power generation, transmission and distribution

 Improvement in voltage profile
 Improves system power factor
 Reduction of KVA demand
 Higher load capability
 Reduction in system losses
 Increases system capacity and saves cost on new installations
The Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is a shunt connected

reactive compensation equipment which is capable of generating and/or
absorbing reactive power whose output can be varied so as to maintain control
of specific parameters of the electric power system. The STATCOM provides
operating characteristics similar to a rotating synchronous compensator without
the mechanical inertia, due to the STATCOM employ solid state power
switching devices it provides rapid controllability of the three phase voltages,
both in magnitude and phase angle. STATCOM provide voltage support to
buses by modulating bus voltages during dynamic disturbances in order to
provide better transient characteristics, improve the transient stability margins
and to damp out the system oscillations due to these disturbances.
The principle of STATCOM operation is as follows. The VSC generates a

controllable AC voltage source behind the leakage reactance. This voltage is
compared with the AC bus voltage system; when the AC bus voltage magnitude
is above that of the VSC voltage magnitude, the AC system sees the STATCOM
Reactive power compensation using STATCOM 2

as an inductance connected to its terminals. Otherwise, if the VSC voltage
magnitude is above that of the AC bus voltage magnitude, the AC system sees
the STATCOM as a capacitance connected to its terminals. If the voltage
magnitudes are equal, the reactive power exchange is zero. If the STATCOM
has a DC source or energy storage device on its DC side, it can supply real
power to the power system. This can be achieved adjusting the phase angle of
the STATCOM terminals and the phase angle of the AC power system. When
the phase angle of the AC power system leads the VSI phase angle, the
STATCOM absorbs real power from the AC system; if the phase angle of the
AC power system lags the VSC phase angle, the STATCOM supplies real
power to AC system.
STATCOM could have many topologies, but in most practical applications it

employs the DC to AC converter, which can also be called a Voltage Source
convertor (VSC) in 3-phase configuration as the primary block. The basic theory
of VSC is to produce a set of controllable 3-phase output voltages/ currents at
the fundamental frequency of the AC bus voltage from a DC input voltage
source such as a charged capacitor or a DC energy supply device. By varying
the magnitude and phase angle of the output voltage and current, the system can
exchange active/reactive power between the DC and AC buses, and regulate the
AC bus voltage
1.2 History
The history of FACTS controllers can be traced back to 1970s when Hingorani
presented the idea of power electronic applications in power system
compensation. From then on, various researches were conducted on the
application of high power semiconductors in transmission systems. In 1988,
Hingorani defined the FACTS concept and described the wide prospects of the
applications. Nowadays, FACTS technology has shown strong potential. Many
examples of FACTS devices and controllers are in operation.
The STATCOM was originally called as advanced SVC and then labelled as
STATCON (static condenser) and now days commonly known as static

synchronous compensator (STATCOM).
In advanced static VAR compensator, a voltage source convertor (VSC) is used

instead of the controllable reactors and switched capacitors. Although VSCs
require self-commutated power semiconductor devices such as GTO, IGBT,
IGCT, MCT, etc. (with higher costs and losses) unlike in the case of variable
impedance type SVC which use thyristor devices.
Since 1980 when the first STATCOM (rated at 20 Mvar) using force-
commutated thyristor inverters was put into operation in Japan, many examples
have been installed and the ratings have been increased considerably. In 1991,
KEPCO and Mitsubish Motors installed a ±80MVar STATCOM at Inuyama
Switching Station. In 1996, TVA, EPRI and Westinghouse installed a
±100MVar STATCOM at Sullivan 500 kV Substation. In 2001, EPRI and
Siemens developed a ±200MVar STATCOM at Marcy 345kV substation. It is
expected that more STATCOMs will be installed due to the advances in
technology and commercial success.
S.N Year Country Capacity Voltage Purpose Place

Installed MVAR Level
(KV)
1 1991 Japan ±80 154 Power System and voltage Inumaya substation
MVA Stabilization
2 1992 Japan 50 500 Reactive Shin Shinano
MVA compensation Substation
Nagona
3 1995 USA ±100 161 To regulate bus Sullivan
MVA voltage substation in
TVA power
system
4 2001 UK 0 to 400 Dynamic reactive East Claydon
+225 compensation 400 kV
Substation
5 2001 USA -41 to 115 Dynamic reactive VELCO Essex
+133 compensation during substation
critical contingencies
6 2003 USA ±100 138 Dynamic var control SDG&E Talega
during peak load substation
conditions
Table 1.1: Partial list of utility scale of STATCOM

1.3 Scope of thesis
Reactive power is a subject of great concern for the operation of alternating

current (AC) power systems. It has always been a challenge to obtain the
balance between a minimum amount of reactive power flow (to maximize
capacity for active power flow) and a sufficient amount of reactive power flow
to maintain a proper system voltage profile. Although it does not do any useful
work but its compensation is necessary for many reasons viz;
 Reactive power (VARS) is required to maintain the voltage to deliver

active power (watts) through transmission lines and to maintain a System
Healthy.
 It is uneconomical to increase voltage level and it may be more
profitable to give consideration to line compensation by means of
capacitors or other compensation devices to increase the economic limit
of power transmission.
 The quality of the electrical energy supply can be evaluated basing on a
number of parameters. However, the most important will be always the
presence of electrical energy and the number and duration of interrupts.
A long term, wide-spread interrupt a blackout leads usually to
catastrophic losses. It is difficult to imagine that in all the country there
is no electrical supply. One of the reasons leading to a blackout is
reactive power that went out of the control.
 Energy supplier charge a customer for reactive power which force the
industry plants and individual customers to minimize energy
consumption, including reactive power.
Hence the reactive power must be controlled and maintained at required level by
compensating devices. Due to draw backs in conventional compensation devices
STATCOM, the 3rd generation flexible AC transmission system device, that
nowadays getting most of attention for reactive power compensation because;
 STATCOM has faster response

 It requires less space as bulky passive components (such as reactors) are

eliminated
 It can be interfaced with real power sources such as battery, fuel cell or
SMES
 A STATCOM has superior performance during low voltage condition as
the reactive current can be maintained constant.
 It is even possible to increase the reactive current in a STATCOM under
transient conditions if the devices are rated for the transient overload.
 It does not contribute to short circuit current.
 It has a symmetric lead-lag capability.
 It has no moving parts and hence the maintenance is easier.
 It has no problems of loss of synchronism under a major disturbance.
1.4 Outline of thesis
First chapter gives introduction about thesis title, history, scope of thesis and
also the outline of thesis.
In second chapter preliminary theory about transmission line and reactive

power, and conventional methods of reactive power and voltage control is
discussed.
Chapter three gives the idea of flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) and
describes in detail about static synchronous compensator (STATCOM).
In fourth chapter MATLAB software is used to get result after simulation of 48-
pulse GTO-based STATCOM.
In last conclusions and future recommendations are given.

Chapter # 02
Preliminary theory of Reactive power
2. Preliminary theory of Reactive power compensation
2.1 Transmission lines
Electric power is produced at generating station and transmitted to a consumer

through a complex network of individual components, including transmission
lines, transformers and switching devices.
It is common practice to classify the transmission network into following

subsystems:
 Transmission system
 Sub transmission system
 Distribution system
The transmission interconnects all major generating stations and main load
centers in the system. It forms the backbone of the integrated power system and
operates at the highest voltage levels (typically, 500kV and 220kV). The
generator voltages are usually line the range of 11kV to 15kV. These are steeped
up to the transmission voltage level, and power is transmitted to transmission
substations where the voltages are steeped to the sub transmission level
(typically 66kV to 132kV). The generation and transmission subsystems are
often referred to as the bulk power system.
The sub transmission system transmits power in smaller quantities from the
transmission substation to the distribution substations. Large industrial
consumers are commonly supplied directly from the sub transmission system.
The distribution represents the final stage in the transfer of power to the
individual consumers. The primary distribution voltage is typically between
11kV and 33kV. Small industrial customers are supplied by primary feeders at
this voltage level. The secondary distribution feeders supply residential and
commercial customers at 230/440V.
The overall system thus consists of multiple generating sources and several
layers of transmission networks. This provides a high degree of structural

redundancy that enables the system to withstand unusual contingencies without
services disruption to the consumers.[1]
Figure 2.1: 500 kV power system Network of WAPDA
2.1.1 Purpose of Transmission
Transmission lines are essential for three purposes.

 To transmit power from a mater-power site to a market.
These may be very long and justified because of the subsidy aspect
connected with the project.
 For bulk supply of power to load centers from outlying steam stations.
These are likely to be relatively short.
 For interconnection purposes, that is, for transfer of energy from one
system to another in case of emergency or in response to diversity in

system peaks.
Frequent attempts have been made to set up definitions of ‘Transmission lines,”

“distribution circuits” and “substations.” None has proved entirely satisfactory
or universally applicable, but for the purposes of accounting the Federal Power
Commission and various state commissions have set up definitions that in
essence read:
“A transmission system includes all land, conversion structures and equipment

at a primary source of supply lines, switching and conversion stations between a
generating or receiving point and the entrance to a distribution center or
wholesale point, all lines and equipment whose primary purpose is to augment,
integrate or tie together sources of power supply”.[3]
2.1.2 Choice of voltage
The cost of transformers, switches, and circuit breakers increases rapidly with
increasing voltage in the upper ranges of transmission voltages. In any
investigation involving voltages above 230kV, therefore, the unit cost of power
transmitted is subject to the law of diminishing returns. Furthermore, the
increase of the reactance of the terminal transformers also tends to counteract
the gain obtained in the transmission line from the higher voltage. There is,
therefore, some value of voltage in the range being investigated beyond which,
under existing circumstances, it is uneconomical to go and it may be more
profitable to give consideration to line compensation by means of capacitors to
increase the economic limit of power transmission than increase the voltage
much above present practice.

Figure 2.2: Trends in transmission voltages in 60 years
2.1.3 Choice of Conductors Size
The preliminary choice of the conductor size can also be limited to two or three,
although the method of selecting will differ with the length of transmission and
the choice of voltage. In the lower voltages up to, say, 30 kV, for a given
percentage energy loss in transmission, the cross section and consequently the
weight of the conductors required to transmit a given block of power varies
inversely as the square of the voltage. Thus, if the voltage is doubled, the weight
of the conductors will be reduced to one-fourth with approximately a
corresponding reduction in their cost. This saving in conducting material for a
given energy loss in transmission becomes less as the higher voltages are
reached, becoming increasingly less as voltages go higher. [3]
2.1.4 Loadability Characteristics
This concept was first introduced by H.P. St. Clair in 1953.The concept of “line
Loadability” is useful in developing a fuller understanding of power transfer
capability as influenced by voltage level and line length. Line Loadability is
defined as the degree of line loading (expressed in percent of SIL) permissible
given the thermal, voltage drop, and stability limits.

The limits to the line loading are governed by the following considerations:
 Thermal limits for the lines up to 80kms

 Voltage drop limits for lines between 80kms and 320kms long
 Stability limits for lines longer than 320kms
2.1.5 Effect of using bundled conductors
At voltages above 230 kV (extra high voltage) and with circuits with only one
conductor per phase, the corona effect becomes more excessive. Associated with
this phenomenon is a power loss as well as interference with communication
links. Corona is the direct result of high-voltage gradient at the conductor
surface. The gradient can be reduced considerably by using more than one
conductor per phase. The conductors are in close proximity compared with the
spacing between phases. A line such as this is called a bundle-conductor line.
The bundle consists of two or more conductors (sub conductors) arranged on the
perimeter of a circle called the bundle circle. Another important advantage of
bundling is the attendant reduction in line reactances, both series and shunt. The
analysis of bundle-conductor lines is a specific case of the general multi-
conductor configuration problem. [2]
Figure 2.3: single Phase symmetrical bundle conductor circuit
2.2 Factors that effects the performance of transmission system
Along with the economic development and the social improvement, the electric
utilities must run more rapidly to meet the heavily increasing demands of
electric power. However, in the procedure of expanding and interconnecting of
the power System, accordingly various problems arise:

 On account of the irregular distribution of the energy sources, and the
vast amount of transfer electric power over long distance between the
generation center and the load center, huge power losses in the lines
occur.
 In the interconnected power system, the power flow from the generator
to the consumers is dependent on the location of the generation node, of
the consumer nodes and on the transmission paths available, i.e. on the
power system topology and the electrical characteristics of the lines
involved, the result is transmission bottlenecks and unwanted parallel
path or loop flows.
 To meet the load and electric market demands, new lines should be
added to the system, but because of a variety of environmental land use
and regulatory pressures, the growth of electric power transmission lines
in many parts of the world is restricted.
 In the large-scale power system, the stability becomes more critical,

several large-area power failures due to damaging of the power system
stability resulted in enormous economic losses in the world.
On these backgrounds, there is an urgent demand to realize the rational transfer

power allocation, to reduce the power losses and generation costs, and to
improve the stability and the reliability of the power system greatly. The factors
that limit the transmission system to do so are as listed below:
a. System stability
b. Loop Flow
c. Voltage limits
d. Thermal limits of line
e. High short circuit limits
f. Franettie Effect

a. System Stability:
“Power system stability denotes the ability of an electric power system, for a
given initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium after
being subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded
so that system integrity is preserved.”
Types of Power System Stability Controls and Possibilities for Advanced

Control
Stability controls are of many types including
 Generator excitation controls
 Prime mover controls including fast valving
 Generator tripping
 Fast fault clearing
 High-speed reclosing and single-pole switching
 Dynamic braking
 Load tripping and modulation
 Reactive power compensation switching or modulation (series and
shunt) Current injection by voltage source inverter devices (STATCOM,
UPFC, SMES, battery storage)
 Fast phase angle control
 HVDC link supplementary controls
 Adjustable speed (doubly fed) synchronous machines
 Controlled separation and under frequency load shedding
b. Loop Flow:
“The tendency of electricity to flow along the path of least resistance, which
may not necessarily be the same as that intended in the contract between the two
transmitting entities.”
Loop flow can also be defined as;

“The movement of electric power from generator to load by dividing along
multiple parallel paths; it especially refers to power flow along an unintended
path that loops away from the most direct geographic path or contract path.”
c. Voltage Limits:
In every power transmission system the power flow is always accompanied by

voltage drops, these voltage drops are limited between 3%-6% of the standard
voltage. In Pakistan according to National Transmission and Dispatch Company
(NTDC), WAPDA the voltage at the end of transmission line must not be
greater than 5% of sending end voltage. According to Wiring codes or
regulations set an upper limit to the allowable voltage drop in a branch circuit.
In the United States, the 2005 National Electrical Code (NEC) recommends no
more than a 5% voltage drop at the outlet. The Canadian electrical code requires
no more than 5% drop between service entrance and point of use. UK
regulations limit voltage drop to 4% of supply voltage.
d. Thermal Limits:
Thermal limit is due to the heat generated when current flows in the conductor.
Heat generated by the line losses (I2R) causes a temperature rise. Since line
temperature of overhead lines must be kept within a safe limit to prevent
excessive line sag between transmission towers and to prevent irreversible
stretching, the ground clearance must be maintained in the case of overhead
transmission lines. This imposes condition on the maximum safe current in a
line. Several factors other than the current flowing in conductor are responsible
for increase in temperature such as design conditions (conductor size and
geometry, spacing between towers, etc.) and operating conditions (ambient
temperature, wind velocity, etc.). Cables are even more prone to thermal limit
because of limited possibilities for heat transfer. However, there is no problem
of sag in cables. But if the cable gets too hot, the insulation will begin to
deteriorate and may fail in future. [5]

e. High Short Circuit Limits:
A high short circuit limit of transmission system defines that how much value of
short current can system withstands. As we know if the system is larger than
during any short circuit fault, short circuit current will be greater; so in order to
limit this current we have to install such protection scheme to handle this large
current. Doing this will protect our system from some serious damages.
f. Ferranti Effect:
The Ferranti Effect is a rise in voltage occurring at the receiving end of a long
transmission line, relative to the voltage at the sending end, which occurs when
the line is charged but there is a very light load or the load is disconnected. This
effect is due to the voltage drop across the line inductance (due to charging
current) being in phase with the sending end voltages. Therefore both
capacitance and inductance are responsible for producing this phenomenon. The
Ferranti Effect will be more pronounced the longer the line and the higher the
voltage applied. The relative voltage rise is proportional to the square of the line
length. This unwanted voltage raise may lead to insulations breakdowns and
other power system and utility damages.
2.3 Blackout and its impacts
The quality of the electrical energy supply can be evaluated basing on a number
of parameters. However, the most important will be always the presence of
electrical energy and the number and duration of interrupts. If there is no voltage
in the socket nobody will care about harmonics, sags or surges. A long term,
wide-spread interrupt – a blackout leads usually to catastrophic losses. It is
difficult to imagine that in all the country there is no electrical supply. In reality
such things have already happened a number of times. One of the reasons
leading to a blackout is reactive power that went out of the control. When
consumption of electrical energy is high, the demand on inductive reactive
power increases usually at the same proportion. In this moment, the transmission
lines (that are well loaded) introduce an extra inductive reactive power. The
local sources of capacitive reactive power become insufficient. It is necessary to

deliver more of the reactive power from generators in power plants. It might
happen that they are already fully loaded and the reactive power will have to be
delivered from more distant places or from abroad. Transmission of reactive
power will load more the lines, which in turn will introduce more reactive
power. The voltage on customer side will decrease further. Local control of
voltage by means of autotransformers will lead to increase of current (to get the
same power) and this in turn will increase voltage drops in lines. In one moment
this process can go like avalanche reducing voltage to zero. In mean time most
of the generators in power plants will switch off due to unacceptably low
voltage what of course will deteriorate the situation.
In continental Europe most of the power plant is based on heat and steam
turbines. If a generation unit in such power plant is stopped and cool down it
requires time and electrical energy to start operation again. If the other power
plants are also off -the blackout is permanent. Insufficient reactive power
leading to voltage collapse has been a causal factor in major blackouts in the
worldwide. Voltage collapse occurred in United States in the blackout of July 2,
1996, and August10, 1996 on the West Coast While August 14, 2003, blackout
in the United States and Canada was not due to a voltage collapse as that term
has traditionally used by power system engineers, the task force final report said
that” Insufficient reactive power was an issue in the blackout” and the report
also “overestimation of dynamics reactive output of system generation ” as
common factor among major outages in the United States.
Demand for reactive power was unusually high because of a large volume of
long-distance transmissions streaming through Ohio to areas, including Canada,
than needed to import power to meet local demand. But the supply of reactive
power was low because some plants were out of service and, possibly, because
other plants were not producing enough of it” [5].

2.4 Reactive power and voltage control
Voltage control and reactive-power management are two aspects of a single

activity that both supports reliability and facilitates commercial transactions
across transmission networks. On an alternating-current (AC) power system,
voltage is controlled by managing production and absorption of reactive power.
Reactive Power is helpful to maintain a System Healthy. We always in practice

to reduce reactive power to improve system efficiency .This are acceptable at
some level, if system is purely resistively or capacitance it make cause some
problem in Electrical system. AC systems supply or consume two kind of
power: real power and reactive power.
While active power is the energy supplied to run a motor, heat a home, or
illuminate an electric light bulb, reactive power provides the important function
of regulating voltage. If voltage on the system is not high enough, active power
cannot be supplied. Reactive power is used to provide the voltage levels
necessary for active power to do useful work. Reactive power is essential to
move active power through the transmission and distribution system to the
customer [5].
For efficient and reliable operation of power systems, the control of voltage and
reactive power should satisfy the following objectives:
 Voltages at the terminals of all equipment in the system are within

acceptable limits. Both utility equipment and customer equipment are
designed to operate at a certain voltage rating. Prolonged operation of
the equipment at voltages outside the allowable range should adversely
affect their performance and possibly cause them damage.
 System stability is enhanced to maximize utilization of the transmission
system. Voltage and reactive power control have a significant impact on
system stability.
 The reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce RI2 and XI2

practical minimum. This ensures that the transmission system operates
efficiently, i.e., mainly for active power transfer.
The problem of maintaining voltages within the required limits is complicated

by the fact that the power system supplies power to a vast number of loads and
is fed from many generating units. As loads vary, the reactive power
requirements of the transmission system vary. Since reactive power cannot be
transmitted over long distances, voltage control has to be effected by using
special devices dispersed throughout the system. This is in contrast to the
control of frequency which depends upon the overall system active power
balance. The proper selection and coordination of equipment for controlling
reactive power and voltages are among the major challenges of power system
engineering.
Voltage control is complicated by two additional factors. First, the transmission

system itself is a nonlinear consumer of reactive power, depending on system
loading. At very light loading the system generates reactive power that must be
absorbed, while at heavy loading the system consumes a large amount of
reactive power that must be replaced. The system’s reactive-power requirements
also depend on the generation and transmission configuration.
Consequently, system reactive requirements vary in time as load levels and load
and generation patterns change. The bulk-power system is composed of many
pieces of equipment, any one of which can fail at any time. Therefore, the
system is designed to withstand the loss of any single piece of equipment and to
continue operating without impacting any customers. That is, the system is
designed to withstand a single contingency. Taken together, these two factors
result in a dynamic reactive-power requirement. The loss of a generator or a
major transmission line can have the compounding effect of reducing the
reactive supply and, at the same time, reconfiguring flows such that the system
is consuming additional reactive power.
At least a portion of the reactive supply must be capable of responding quickly

to changing reactive-power demands and to maintain acceptable voltages
throughout the system. Thus just as an electrical system requires real-power

reserves to respond to contingencies, so too it must maintain reactive-power
reserves.
Loads can also be both real and reactive. The reactive portion of the load could
be served from the transmission system. Reactive loads incur more voltage drop
and reactive losses in the transmission system than do similar-size (MVA) real
loads.
Vertically integrated utilities often include charges for provision of reactive

power to loads in their rates. With restructuring, the trend is to restrict loads to
operation at near zero reactive power demand (a 1.0 power factor). The system
operator proposal limits loads to power factors between 0.97 lagging (absorbing
reactive power) and 0.99 leading. This would help to maintain reliability of the
system and avoid the problems of market power in which a company could use
its transmission lines to limit competition for generation and increase its prices.
2.5 Production and Absorption of Reactive Power
The study of generation and absorption of reactive power in the power system is
essential since the reactive power is very precious in keeping the voltage of the
power system stable. Whereas frequency is the indicator of active power
balance, voltage is the sole indicator of reactive power balance.
The components responsible for the generation and absorption of reactive power
in the power system are:
• Synchronous Generator
• Transmission Line
• Transformers
• Loads
2.5.1 Synchronous Generators
Synchronous generators can generate or absorb reactive power depending on the

excitation. When overexcited they supply reactive power, and when under
excited they absorb reactive power. The capability continuously supply are
absorb reactive power is, however, limited by field current, armature current,
and end-region heating limits synchronous generators are normally equipped

with automatic voltage regulators which continually adjust excitation so as to
control the armature voltage.
2.5.2 Transmission line
Transmission line is divided into two parts: Overhead and Underground lines.
Overhead lines, depending on load current, either absorb or supply reactive

power. At loads below the natural (surge impedance) load, the lines produce
reactive power; at loads above the natural load the lines absorb reactive power.
Underground cables, owing to their high capacitance, have high natural loads.
They are always loaded below their natural loads, and hence generate reactive
power under all operating conditions.
2.5.3 Transformers
Transformers always absorb reactive power regardless of their loading; at no

load, the shunt magnetizing reactance affects predominate; and at full load, the
series leakage inductance effects predominate.
2.5.4 Loads
Loads normally absorb reactive power. A typical load bus supplied by power
system is composed of large number of devices. The composition changes
depending on the day, season and weather conditions. The composed
characteristics are normally such that a load bus absorbs reactive power. Both
active power and reactive power of the composite loads vary as a function of
voltage magnitude. Loads at low-lagging power factors cause excessive voltage
drops in the transmission network and are uneconomical to supply. Industrial
consumers are normally charged for reactive power as well as active power; this
gives them an incentive to improve the load power factor y using shunt
capacitors.
Compensating devices are usually added to supply or absorb reactive power and
thereby control the reactive power balance in a desired manner. In what follows,
we will discuss the characteristics of these devices and the principles of

application.
2.6 Reactive Power Compensation
VAR compensation is defined as the management of reactive power to improve

the performance of ac power systems. The concept of VAR compensation
embraces a wide and diverse field of both system and customer problems,
especially related with power quality issues, since most of power quality
problems can be attenuated or solved with an adequate control of reactive power
[4].
2.6.1 Need of Reactive Power Compensation
The need for adjustable reactive power compensation can be divided into three
basic classes:
i) The need to maintain the stability of synchronous machines. We shall

see that voltage control by reactive power compensation can have a
positive stabilizing influence on the system during disturbances cause the
rotor angles of synchronous machines to change rapidly. Both the
transient stability and the dynamic stability of a system can enhance. It is
even possible with controlled compensators to drive voltages
deliberately out of their normal steady-state bounds for several seconds
following a fault or other major disturbance to enhance the stabilizing
influence still further
ii) The need to control voltage within acceptable bounds about the desired
steady-state value to provide quality service to consumer loads.
Following certain abrupt changes in the load, or in the network
configuration as a result of switching actions, it may be necessary to
make a voltage correction in as short a time as a few cycles of the power
frequency. For other voltage disturbances, a correction within a few
seconds will suffice. Uncorrected voltage deviations, even if temporary,
may lead to an outage or damage to utility or consumer-owned
equipment. Even small variations, particularly those that cause flicker,
are often objectionable.

iii) The need to regulate voltage profiles in the network to prevent
unnecessary flows of reactive power on transmission lines. To this end,
reactive power compensation can be used to maintain transmission losses
to a practical minimum. While the reactive compensation must be
adjusted or changed periodically to maintain minimum losses, the
adjustments can be made quite infrequently with several minutes to
effect the desired change.
2.6.2 Compensator requirements
The functional requirement of reactive shunt compensators used for increased

power transmission, improved voltage and transient stability and power
oscillation damping can be summarized as follows:
The compensator must stay in synchronous operation with the AC system at the
compensated bus under all operating conditions including major disturbances.
Should the bus voltage be lost temporarily due to nearby faults, the compensator
must be able to recapture synchronism immediately at fault clearing.
The compensator must be able to regulate the bus voltage for voltage support
and improved transient stability, or control it for power oscillation damping and
transient stability enhancement, on a priority basis as system conditions may
require.
For a transmission line connecting two systems, the best location for VAR
compensation is in middle, whereas for a radial feed to a load the best location is
at the load end. [6]
2.7 Compensation Techniques
The principles of both shunt and series reactive power compensation techniques
are described below:
2.7.1 Shunt compensation
Shunt compensation, especially shunt reactive compensation has been widely

used in transmission system to regulate the voltage magnitude, improve the

voltage quality, and enhance the system stability. Shunt-connected reactors are
used to reduce the line over-voltages by consuming the reactive power, while
shunt-connected capacitors are used to maintain the voltage levels by
compensating the reactive power to transmission line. [8]
The Figure 2.4 comprises of a source V1, a power line and an inductive load.
The figures show the system without any type of compensation. The phasor
diagram of these is also shown above. The active current Ip is in phase with
the load voltage V2.
Figure 2.4: Power System without compensation
Here, the load is inductive and hence it requires reactive power for its proper
operation and this has to be supplied by the source, thus increasing the current
from the generator and through the power lines. Instead of the lines carrying
this, if the reactive power can be supplied near the load, the line current can be
minimized, reducing the power losses and improving the voltage regulation
at the load terminals.
This can be done in three ways:
i) A voltage source.
ii) A current source.
iii) A capacitor.

Figure 2.5: Power System with shunt compensation
As shown in Figure 2.5, a current source device is used to compensate Iq, which
is the reactive component of the load current. In turn the voltage regulation of
the system is improved and the reactive current component from the source is
reduced or almost eliminated. This is in case of lagging compensation. For
leading compensation, we require an inductor.
Therefore we can see that, a current source or a voltage source can be used for
both leading and lagging shunt compensation, the main advantages being
the reactive power generated is independent of the voltage at the point of
connection.
2.7.2 Series Compensation
Series compensation aims to directly control the overall series line impedance of
the transmission line. The AC power transmission is primarily limited by the
series reactive impedance of the transmission line. A series-connected can add a
voltage in opposition to the transmission line voltage drop, therefore reducing
the series line impedance. [12]
Series compensation can be implemented like shunt compensation, i.e. with a

current or a voltage source as shown in Figure 2.6. We can see the results which
are obtained by series compensation through a voltage source and it is adjusted
to have unity power factor at V2. However series compensation techniques are
different from shunt compensation techniques, as capacitors are used mostly for
series compensation techniques. In this case, the voltage Vcomp has been added

between the line and the load to change the angle V2’. Now, this is the voltage
at the load side. With proper adjustment of the magnitude of Vcomp, unity
power factor can be reached at V2.
Figure 2.6: Power System with series compensation
2.8 Method of Voltage Control
The control of voltage levels is accomplished by controlling the production,

absorption, and flow of reactive power at all levels in the system. The generating
units provide the basic means of voltage control; the automatic voltage
regulators control field excitation to maintain a scheduled voltage level at the
terminals of the generators. Additional means are usually required to control
voltage throughout the system. The devices used for this purpose may be
classified as follows:
i) sources or sinks of reactive power, such as shunt capacitor, shunt reactor,

synchronous condensers and static VAR compensators(SVCs)
ii) Line reactance compensators, such as series capacitors
iii) Regulating transformers, such as tap changing transformers and boosters
Shunt capacitors and reactors, and series capacitors provide passive

compensation. They are either permanently connected to the transmission and
distribution system, or switched. They contribute to voltage control by
modifying the network characteristics.

Synchronous condensers and SVCs provide active compensation; the reactive
power absorbed/supplied by them is automatically adjusted so as to maintain
voltage of the buses to which they are connected together with the generating
units, they establish voltages at specific points in the system. Voltage at other
location in the system are determined by active and reactive power flows
through various circuit elements, including the passive compensating devices.
The following is the description of the basic characteristics and forms of

application of devices commonly used voltage and reactive power control.
2.8.1 Shunt Reactors
Shunt reactors are used to compensate for the effect of line capacitance,
particularly to limit voltage rise on open circuit or light loads. They are usually
required for EHV overhead lines longer than 200km. A shorter overhead line
may also require shunt reactors if the line is supplied from a weak system (low
short-circuit capacity) as shown in Figure 2.7 when the far end of line is opened,
the capacitive line-charging current flows through the large source inductive
reactance (Xs) will cause a rise in voltage Es at the sending end of the line[1].
Figure 2.7: EHV line connected to a weak system
2.8.2 Shunt capacitors
Shunt capacitors supply reactive power and boost local voltages are used
thought the system and are applied in a wide range of sizes. Shunt capacitors

i.e. capacitors connected in parallel with lines, are extensively used in
distribution systems. Shunt capacitors supply the type of reactive power or
current to counteract the out of phase component of current required by an
individual load. In a sense, shunt capacitors modify the characteristic of an
inductive load by drawing a leading current which counteracts some or the
entire lagging component of inductive load current at the point of
installation. Therefore a shunt capacitors has the same effect as the as an
overexcited synchronous condenser generator or motor [11].
As shown in Figure 2.8 by the application of shunt capacitor to a feeder,

the magnitude of the source current can be reduced, the power factor can be
improved, and consequently the voltage drop between the sending end and
the load is reduced.
However, shunt capacitors do not affect current or power factor beyond their
point of application. Figure 2.8 a and c shows the single line diagram of
the line and its voltage phasor diagram before the addition of the shunt
capacitors and Figure 2.8 b and d show then after addition.
Figure 2. 8: Voltage Phasor Diagram for a feeder circuit of lagging power factor:
(a) and (c) without and (d) with shunt capacitor

2.8.3 Series Capacitors
Series capacitors are connected in series with the line

conductors to compensate for the inductive reactance of the line. Series
capacitors i.e. capacitors connected in series with line have been used to a
very limited extent on distribution circuits due to being a more specialized
type of apparatus with a limited range of application. Also because of the
special problem associated with each application, there is requirement of
large amount of complex engineering investigation, therefore in general, and
utilities are reluctant to install series capacitors, especially of small sizes.
As shown in Figure 2.9 a series capacitor compensates for individual
reactance. In other words a series capacitor is a negative (capacitive) reactance
in series with the circuit positive (inductive) reactance with the effect of
compensating for part or all of it. Therefore, the primary effect of the
series capacitors is to minimize, or even suppress, the voltage drop caused
by the inductive reactance in the circuit [11].
Figure 2.9: Voltage Phasor Diagram for a feeder circuit of lagging power factor:
(a) and (c) without and (d) with series capacitor

2.8.4 Synchronous Compensators
Synchronous compensator (or synchronous condenser) shown if Figure 2.10 is

a synchronous machine running without a prime mover or a mechanical load.
By controlling the field excitation, it can be made to either generate or absorb
reactive power. With a voltage regulator, it can automatically adjust the
reactive power output to maintain constant terminal voltage. It draws a small
amount of active power from the power system to supply losses.
Figure 2.10: Adjustable Synchronous Condenser

2.8.5 Regulating Transformer
The following are the methods of voltage control in a transmission system:

1) By transformer tap changing
2) Booster (or regulating) transformer
1) Tap Changing Transformer
Transformer tap changing is the basic and easiest way of voltage control
of transmission, sub-transmission and distribution system. The transformer
does not generate any reactive power (rather it consumes) and only transfers
the reactive power from one side to another side by changing the in-phase
component of the system voltage. In this method, a number of tapings are
provided on the secondary of the transformer. The voltage drop in the line is
supplied by changing the secondary e.m.f. of the transformer through the
adjustment of its number of turns.

There are two types of tap changing: off load and on load tap changing which
are described below:
 No-Load Tap Changer (NLTC)
Figure 2. 1 1 shows the arrangement where a number of tapings have been

provided on the secondary. As the position of the tap is varied, the effective
number of secondary turns is varied and hence the output voltage of the
secondary can be changed. Thus referring to Figure 2.11 when the
movable arm makes contact with stud 1, the secondary voltage is
minimum and when with stud 5, it is maximum. During the period of light
load, the voltage across the primary is not much below the alternator voltage
and the movable arm is placed on stud 1.When the load increases, the
voltage across the primary drops, but the secondary voltage can be kept at
the previous value by placing the movable arm on to a higher stud.
Whenever a tapping is to be changed in this type of transformer, the load is
kept off and hence the name off load tap-changing transformer.
The principal disadvantage of the circuit arrangement is that it cannot be used

for tap changing on load. Suppose for a moment that tapping is changed
from position 1 to position 2 when the transformer is supplying load. If
contact with stud 1 is broken before contact with stud 2 is made, there is break
in the circuit and arcing results.
Figure 2.11: Off-load tap changer

 On Load tap Changing Transformer
In supply system, tap-changing has normally to be performed on load so that

there is no interruption to supply. Figure 2.12 shows diagrammatically one
type of on-load tap- changing transformer. The secondary consists of two
equal parallel windings which have similar tapings 1a to 5a and 1b to
5b. In the normal working conditions, switches a, b and tapings with the
same number remain closed and each secondary winding carries one-half of
the total current. Referring to Figure 2.12 the secondary voltage will be
maximum when switches a, b and 5a, 5b are closed. However, the secondary
voltage will be minimum when switches a, b and 1a, 1b are closed.
Suppose that the transformer is working with tapping position at 4a, 4b

and it is desired to alter its position to 5a, 5b. For this purpose, one of the
switches a and b, say a, is opened. This takes the secondary winding controlled
by switch an out of the circuit. Now, the secondary winding controlled by
switch b carries the total current which is twice its rated capacity. Then the
tapping on the changed to 5a and switch a is closed. In this way, tapping
position is changed without interrupting the supply. This method has the
following disadvantages.
• During switching, the impedance of transformer is increased and
there will be a voltage surge.
• There are twice as many tapings as the voltage steps.
Figure 2.12: On-load tap changer

2) Booster
A single-phase booster consists of two parts; an exciting transformer connected

across the supply along with a series transformer with the supply as shown in
Figure 2.13. The output voltage of the series transformer can be added to the
input voltage in phase or in reverse phase by changing the position of a
switch. The output voltage of the regulating transformer can be varied by
changing the taps of the exciting transformer. These transformers are often
used when it is inconvenient to have tapings in the main transformers. A
booster transformer is costlier not versatile in use (though it can be used in
some distribution feeders).
Figure 2.13: Boosters or Regulating Transformer
2.9 Reactive Power Limitations
Reactive power does not travel very far. Usually necessary to produce it close to
the location where it is needed. A supplier/source close to the location of the
need is in a much better position to provide reactive power versus one that is
located far from the location of the need. Reactive power supplies are closely
tied to the ability to deliver real or active power.

Though reactive power is needed to run many electrical devices, it can cause
harmful effects on your appliances and other motorized loads, as well as your
electrical infrastructure. Since the current flowing through your electrical system
is higher than that necessary to do the required work, excess power dissipates in
the form of heat as the reactive current flows through resistive components like
wires, switches and transformers. Keep in mind that whenever energy is
expended, you pay. It makes no difference whether the energy is expended in
the form of heat or useful work.
We can determine how much reactive power your electrical devices use by
measuring their power factor, the ratio between real power and true power. A
power factor of 1 (i.e. 100%) ideally means that all electrical power is applied
towards real work. Homes typically have overall power factors in the range of
70% to 85%, depending upon which appliances may be running. Newer homes
with the latest in energy efficient appliances can have an overall power factor in
the nineties.
The typical residential power meter only reads real power, i.e. what you would
have with a power factor of 100%. While most electric companies do not charge
residences directly for reactive power, it’s a common misconception to say that
reactive power correction has no economic benefit. To begin with, electric
companies correct for power factor around industrial complexes, or they will
request the offending customer to do so at his expense, or they will charge more
for reactive power. Clearly electric companies benefit from power factor
correction, since transmission lines carrying the additional (reactive) current too
heavily industrialized areas costs them money. Many people overlook the
benefits that power factor correction can offer the typical home in comparison to
the savings and other benefits that businesses with large inductive loads can
expect.
Most importantly, you pay for reactive power in the form of energy losses
created by the reactive current flowing in your home. These losses are in the
form of heat and cannot be returned to the grid. Hence you pay. The fewer
kilowatts expended in the home, whether from heat dissipation or not, the lower

the electric bill. Since power factor correction reduces the energy losses, you
save.
As stated earlier, electric companies correct for power factor around industrial
complexes, or they will request the offending customer to do so, or they will
charge for reactive power. They’re not worried about residential service because
the impact on their distribution grid is not as severe as in heavily industrialized
areas. However, it is true that power factor correction assists the electric
company by reducing demand for electricity, thereby allowing them to satisfy
service needs elsewhere. But who cares? Power factor correction lowers your
electric bill by reducing the number of kilowatts expended, and without it your
electric bill will be higher, guaranteed.
We’ve encountered this with other electric companies and have been successful
in getting each of them to issue a retraction. Electric companies do vary greatly
and many show no interest in deviating from their standard marketing strategy
by acknowledging proven energy saving products. Keep in mind that promoting
real energy savings to all their customers would devastate their bottom line.
Power factor correction will not raise your electric bill or do harm to your
electrical devices. The technology has been successfully applied throughout
industry for years. When sized properly, power factor correction will enhance
the electrical efficiency and longevity of inductive loads. Power factor
correction can have adverse side effects (e.g. harmonics) on sensitive
industrialized equipment if not handled by knowledgeable, experienced
professionals. Power factor correction on residential dwellings is limited to the
capacity of the electrical panel (200 amp max) and does not over compensate
household inductive loads. By increasing the efficiency of electrical systems,
energy demand and its environmental impact is lessened profound effects of
Reactive Power in Various elements of Power System [5]

Chapter # 03
Static synchronous compensator
(STATCOM)
3. Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)
3.1 Introduction to FACTS
The AC transmission system has various limits classified as static limits and
dynamic limits. These inherent power system limits restrict the power
transaction, which lead to the underutilization of the existing transmission
resources. Traditionally, fixed or mechanically switched shunt and series
capacitors, reactors and synchronous generators were being used to solve much
of the problem. However, there are restrictions as to the use of these
conventional devices. Desired performance was not being able to achieve
effectively. Wear and tear in the mechanical components and slow response
were the heart of the problems. There was greater need for the alternative
technology made of solid state devices with fast response characteristics. The
need was further fuelled by worldwide restructuring of electric utilities,
increasing environmental and efficiency regulations and difficulty in getting
permit and right of way for the construction of overhead transmission lines.
This, together with the invention of Thyristor switch (semiconductor device),
opened the door for the development of power electronics devices known as
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) controllers. The path from
historical Thyristor based FACTS controllers to modern state-of-the-art voltage
source converters based FACTS controllers, was made possible due to rapid
advances in high power semiconductors devices. FACTS controllers have been
in use in utilities around the world since 1970s, when the first utility
demonstration of first family of FACTS named as Static VAR Compensator
(SVC) was accomplished. Since then the large effort was put in research and
development of FACTS controllers.
FACTS technology provides the opportunity to [13]
 Increase loading capacity of transmission lines.

 Prevent blackouts.
 Improve generation productivity.
 Reduce circulating reactive power.

 Improves system stability limit.
 Reduce voltage flicker.
 Reduce system damping and oscillations.
 Control power flow so that it flows through the designated routes.
3.1.1 Basic definitions
Flexibility of electric power transmission:
“The ability to accommodate changes in the electric transmission system or

operating conditions while maintaining sufficient steady state and transient
margin”.
Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS):
“Alternating current transmission system incorporating power electronics based

and other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power
transfer capability”.
FACTS controller:
“A power electronic based system and other static equipment that provide
control of one or more AC transmission system parameters”. [14]
3.1.2 Objectives of FACTS
The concept of FACTS was established in order to solve the problem which was
emerging in power systems in the late 1980s as there are restrictions on the
construction of transmission line and to promote power growth of import and
export.
The main objectives behind FACTS based controllers are;
 Power transfer capability of transmission systems is to be increased

 The power flow is to be kept at the designated route
The first objective indicates the power flow in a given transmission line can be
increased up to its thermal limits.
The second objective indicates that the flow of power in the line can be

restricted to select proper transmission corridors by controlling current in the
line.
If these two objectives are fulfilled there will be significant increase in the
utilization of new and existing transmission lines. It will promote the
deregulation of power system and there will be minimum requirement for new
transmission lines. In order to implement these objectives, high power
compensators and controllers are required. [7]
Table 3.1: Comparison of Basic Types of Compensators
3.1.3 Benefits and cost
Primarily, the FACTS controllers provide voltage support at critical buses in the
system (with shunt connected controllers) and regulate power flow in critical
lines (with series connected controllers). Both voltage and power flow are

controlled by the combined series and shunt controller (UPFC). The power
electronic control is quite fast and this enables regulation both under steady state
and dynamic conditions (when the system is subjected to disturbances). The
benefits due to FACTS controllers are listed below.
 They contribute to optimal system operation by reducing power losses

and improving voltage profile.
 The power flow in critical lines can be enhanced as the operating
margins can be reduced due to fast controllability. In general, the power
carrying capacity of lines can be increased to values up to the thermal
limits (imposed by current carrying capacity of the conductors).
 The transient stability limit is increased thereby improving dynamic
security of the system and reducing the incidence of blackouts caused by
cascading outages.
 The steady state or small signal stability region can be increased by
providing auxiliary stabilizing controllers to damp low frequency
oscillations.
 FACTS controllers such as TCSC can counter the problem of sub
synchronous resonance (SSR) experienced with fixed series capacitors
connected in lines evacuating power from thermal power stations (with
turbo generators).
 The problem of voltage fluctuations and in particular, dynamic over
voltages can be overcome by FACTS controllers.
The capital investment and the operating costs (essentially the cost of power
losses and maintenance) are offset against the benefits provided by the FACTS
controllers and the `payback period' is generally used as an index in the
planning. The major issues in the deployment of FACTS controllers are (a) the
location (b) ratings (continuous and short term) and (c) control strategies
required for the optimal utilization. Here, both steady-state and dynamic
operating conditions have to be considered. Several systems studies involving
power flow, stability, short circuit analysis are required to prepare the
specifications. The design and testing of the control and protection equipment is
based on Real Time Digital Simulator (RTDS) or physical simulators. It is to be

noted that a series connected FACTS controller (such as TCSC) can control
power flow not only in the line in which it is connected, but also in the parallel
paths (depending on the control strategies). [8]
FACTS CONTROLLERS COST (US $)
Shunt capacitor 8/KVAR
Series capacitor 20/KVAR
SVC 40/KVAR Controlled portions
TCSC 40/KVAR Controlled portions
STATCOM 50/KVAR
UPFC series portions 50/KVAR through power
UPFC shunt portions 50/KVAR controlled
Table 3.2: Cost comparison of different FACTS controllers
3.1.4 Generation of reactive power compensation [15]

1. First Generation; Mechanically switched devices are:
 Fixed shunt reactor (FR)
 Fixed shunt capacitor (FC)
 Mechanical switched shunt reactor (MSR)
 Mechanical switched shunt capacitor (MSC)
2. Second Generation; Thyristor-based devices are:

 Thyristor controlled Reactor (TCR)
 Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC)
 Static VAR compensator (SVC)
 Thyristor switched series compensator (Capacitor or reactors)
(TSSC/TSSR)
 Thyristor controlled series compensator capacitors or reactors
(TCSC/TCSR).
 Thyristor controlled braking resistors (TCBR)
 Thyristor controlled phase shifting transformers (TCPST)

 Line commutated converter compensator (LCC)
3. Third Generation; Converter-based devices:

 Static synchronous compensator (SATCOM)
 Static Synchronous Series compensator (SSSC)
 Unified power flow controller (UPFC)
 Interline power flow controller (IPFC)
 Self-commutated compensator (SCC)
Figure 3.1: Overview of conventional and FACTS devices
3.1.5 Classification of FACTS devices
The classification of the FACTS Controllers done on the bases of their types of
arrangement in the Power syst

Figure 3.2: Classification of FACTS devices
1. Series FACTS controllers:
These FACTS controller could be variable impedance such as capacitor, reactor

or a power electronics based variable source which in principle injects a voltage
in series with the line as illustrated in fig. As long as the voltage is in phase
quadrature with the line current, the series controller only supplies or consumes
variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship will involve handling of
real power as well.
Applications:
The main application of series compensators are
i) Reduction of voltage fluctuations within defined limits during changing

power transmissions
ii) Improvement of oscillation damping of the system
iii) Limitations of short circuit currents in networks or substations
2. Shunt FACTS controllers:
These FACTS controller could be variable impedance such as capacitor, reactor

or a power electronics based variable source which is shunt connected to the line
in order to inject variable current , as shown in figure. As long as the injected
current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the shunt controller only

supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship will
involve handling of real power as well.
Applications:
The primary function of shunt connected compensator is to provide reactive

power compensation. The main application of these type of controllers in
transmission, distribution and networks are
i) Reduction in unwanted reactive power flows and reduction in losses

ii) Compensation of consumers and power quality improvement in those
applications where huge demand fluctuations occur such as industrial
machines, metal melting plants, railway or underground train system
iii) Improvement of transient stability
3. Combine series-series FACTS controllers:
These controllers are the combination of separate series FACTS controllers,

which are controlled in a coordinated manner in a multi-line transmission
system, as illustrated in figure. This configuration provides independent series
reactive power compensation for each line but also transfers real power among
the lines via power link. The presence of power link between series controllers
names this configuration as “Unified Series-Series controller”
4. Combined series –shunt FACTS controllers:
These controllers are the combination of separate shunt and series FACTS
controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner or a unified power
flow controller, with series and shunt elements. When shunt and series FACTS
controllers are unified there can be real power exchange between series and
shunt controllers via power link.

Figure 3.3 Use of Power Electronics in High-Voltage Systems - “Ranking” of the
Controllers
3.1.6 FACTS Application
FACTS controllers can be used for various applications to enhance power

system performance. Once of the greatest advantages of using FACTS
controllers is that it can be used in all the three states of power system, namely
Steady state, Transient and Post transient steady state. However, the
conventional devices find little application during system transient or
contingency condition.
a. steady state application:
Various steady state applications of FACTS controllers includes voltage control

(low and high), increase of thermal loading, post-contingency voltage control,
loop flows control, reduction in short circuit level and power flow control. SVC
and STATCOM can be used for voltage control while TCSC is more suitable for

loop flow control and for power flow control.
i) Congestion management
Congestion management id a serious concern for independent system
operator (ISO) in present deregulated electricity markets as it can
arbitrarily increase the prices and hinder the free electricity trade.
FACTS devices like TCSC, TCPAR (Thyristor controlled Phase Angle
Regulator) and UPFC can help to reduce congestion smooth locational
marginal price (LMP) and to increase the social welfare by redirecting
power from congested interface to underutilize line.
ii) ATC improvement

In many deregulated market, the power transaction between buyer and
seller is allowed based on calculation of ATC. Low ATC signifies that
the network is unable to accommodate further transaction and hence
does not promote free competition. FACTS controllers like TCSC,
TCPAR and UPFC can help to improve ATC by allowing more power
transactions.
iii) Reactive power and voltage control

The use of shut FACTS controllers like SVC and STATCOM for
reactive power and voltage control is well known.
iv) Loading margin improvement

Several blackouts in many part of the world occur mainly due to voltage
collapse at the maximum load ability point. Series and shut
compensations are generally used to increase the maximum transfer
capabilities of power networks. The recent advancement in FACTS
controllers have allowed them to be used more efficiently for increasing
the loading margin in the system.
v) Power flow balancing and control

FACTS controllers especially TCSC, SSSC and UPFC, enable the load
flow on parallel circuits and different voltage levels to be optimized and
controlled with a minimum of power wheeling , the best possible
utilization of the lines , and a minimizing of overall system losses at the
same time.
b. Dynamic applications
Dynamic Application of FACTS controllers include transient stability
improvement, oscillation damping (dynamic stability) and voltage
stability enhancement. One of the most important capabilities expected
of FACTS applications is to be able to reduce the impact of the primary
disturbance.
i) Transient stability enhancement

Transient instability is caused by large disturbances such as tripping of a
major transmission line or a greater and problem can be seen from the
first swing of the angle. FACS devices can resolve the problem by
providing fast and rapid response during the first swing to control
voltage and power flow in the system.
ii) Oscillation damping

Electromechanical oscillations have been observed in many power
systems worldwide and may lead to partial power interruption if not
controlled. Initially, power system stabilizer (PSS) is used for oscillation
damping in power system. Now this function can be more effectively
handled by proper placement and setting of SVC, STATCOM and
TCSC.
iii) Dynamic voltage control

Shunt FACTS controllers like SVC and STATCOM as well as UPFC
can be utilized for dynamic control of voltage during system contingency

and save the system from collapse and black out.
iv) SSR elimination

Sub synchronous resonance (SSR) is a phenomenon which can be
associated with series compensation under certain adverse conditions.
TCSC have dynamic characteristics that differ drastically at frequencies
outside the operating frequency range and hence is used in Stode,
Sweden for the elimination of SSR in the power system.
v) Power system interconnection

Interconnection of power system is becoming increasingly widespread as
part of power exchange between countries as well as regions within
countries in many parts of the world .There are numerous examples of
interconnection of remotely separated region within one country. In case
of long distance AC transmission , as in interconnected power systems
care has to be taken for safeguarding of synchronism as well as stable
system voltages, particularly in conjunction with system fault .With
series compensation, bulk AC power transmission over distances of
more than 1,000 km are a reality today. With the advent of TCSC,
further potential as well as flexibility is added to AC power transmission.
[16]

Figure 3.4: HVDC and FACTS worldwide by Siemens

3.2 Introduction to static synchronous compensators
(STATCOM)
Over the last couple of decades, researchers and engineers have made path-
breaking research on FACTS devices and by virtue of which, many STATCOM
controllers based on self-commutated solid state voltage source converter (VSC)
have been developed and commercially put in operation to control system
dynamics under stressed conditions. STATCOM is qualitatively superior then
line commutating static VAR compensator (SVC) and so this controller has
given many names as Static compensator advanced static VAR compensator,
advanced static VAR generator or static VAR generator, static condenser,
synchronous solid state VAR compensator, VSC-based SVC or self-commutated
SVC or static synchronous compensator, static condenser (STATCON).
With the advent of voltage-source converter (VSC) technology built upon self-
commutating controllable solid state switches has ushered a new family of
FACTS controllers such as static synchronous compensators (STATCOM) and
unified power flow controller (UPFC) have been developed. The self-
commutating VSC, called as DC-to-AC converter, is the backbone of these
controllers being employed to regulate reactive current by generation and
absorption of controllable reactive power with various solid-state switching
techniques. [17]
The Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) is a shunt connected

reactive compensation equipment which is capable of generating and/or
absorbing reactive power whose output can be varied so as to maintain control
of specific parameters of the electric power system. The STATCOM provides
operating characteristics similar to a rotating synchronous compensator without
the mechanical inertia, due to the STATCOM employ solid state power
switching devices it provides rapid controllability of the three phase voltages,
both in magnitude and phase angle. STATCOM provide voltage support to
buses by modulating bus voltages during dynamic disturbances in order to
provide better transient characteristics, improve the transient stability margins
and to damp out the system oscillations due to these disturbances.

3.2.1 Definition
STATCOM is defined by IEEE as “a self-commutated switching power

converter supplied from an appropriate electric energy source and operated to
produce a set of adjustable multiphase voltage, which may be coupled to an AC
power system for the purpose of exchanging independently controllable real and
reactive power.”
When two AC sources of same frequency are connected through a series

inductance, active power flows from leading source to lagging source and
reactive power flows from higher voltage magnitude AC source to lower voltage
magnitude AC source. Active power flow is determined by the phase angle
difference between the sources and the reactive power flow is determined by the
voltage magnitude difference between the sources. Hence, STATCOM can
control reactive power flow by changing the fundamental component of the
converter voltage with respect to the AC bus bar voltage both phase wise and
magnitude wise.
3.2.2 Basic Circuit Configuration of STATCOM
The STATCOM has been defined as per CIGRE/IEEE with following three
operating structural components.
First component is Static: based on solid state switching devices with no

rotating components;
second component is Synchronous: analogous to an ideal synchronous machine
with 3 sinusoidal phase voltages at fundamental frequency;
third component is Compensator: provided with reactive compensation [15]
The typical connection of STATCOM to AC bus is shown in Figure 3.5. That

consists of the coupling transformer, input filter, Voltage Source Converter and
a controller.

Figure 3.5: Connection of STATCOM with AC bus
The STATCOM is a static compensator is composed of inverters with a

capacitor in its dc side, coupling transformers, and a control system. The
inverters are, in conventional STATCOMs, switched with a single pulse per
period and the transformers are connected in order to provide harmonic
minimization. The equipment action is made through the continuous and quick
control of capacitive or inductive reactive power. Its output voltage is a
waveform composed of pulses that approaches a sinusoidal wave. To obtain
voltage harmonic content, that clearly agrees with strict standards, without the
necessity of filters, it is necessary at least a set of eight inverters and
transformers to produce a 48-pulse voltage waveform. Figure 3.21 shows one
example of such a STATCOM and Figure 3.23 shows its voltage.
3.2.3 The major attributes of STATCOM
The major attributes of STATCOM over SVC are;
 Faster response
 Requires less space as bulky passive components (such as reactors) are
eliminated
 Inherently modular and relocatable
 It can be interfaced with real power sources such as battery, fuel cell or
SMES (superconducting magnetic energy storage)
 A STATCOM has superior performance during low voltage condition as
the reactive current can be maintained constant (In a SVC, the capacitive
reactive current drops linearly with the voltage at the limit (of capacitive
susceptance). It is even possible to increase the reactive current in a
STATCOM under transient conditions if the devices are rated for the

transient overload. In a SVC, the maximum reactive current is
determined by the rating of the passive components reactors and
capacitors. [13]
3.2.4 STATCOM voltage sources
In addition to voltage source using batteries and capacitors, STATCOMs can be

operated with an inductor, which provides a source of direct current rather than
voltage, Figure 3.6. A three-phase, current-source converter then generates a set
of three-phase output currents which, by appropriate switching action, lag or
lead the system voltages. The basic output current is a square or block wave and
harmonic reduction requires PWM, or multi-level or multi-phase techniques,
and/or harmonic filters. The energy in the current source can be sustained by
drawing energy from the supply system or by using an external energy source.
However the losses of a current-sourced converter tend to be higher than those
of voltage-sourced converter.
Figure 3.6: Current sourced convertor CSC
A further interesting concept is to design the converter as an AC to AC

frequency charge. The “source “can be a three-phase high frequency generator, a
resonant circuit (a parallel capacitor and inductor in each phase), or even a
transformer which itself connected to the supply system Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: power doubling converter arrangement
In this power-doubling arrangement, there are no energy storage components as

such; the output connection to the output transformer can be considered to
behave as a current source for the converter. However, the input terminals then
need to behave as a voltage source and therefore an input filter needs to be
connected to the input terminals of the converter. This type of converter requires
special device which have both bi-directional current carrying and forward and
reverse voltage blocking capabilities. Suitable devices to implement the power-
doubling arrangement are not yet commercially available, so this scheme is only
of theoretical interest at present. [9]

Figure 3.8: Capacitors in a STATCOM (photo courtesy of ABB)

Difference between CSC and VSC
 CSC is the lowest cost convertor.

 CSC does not have high short circuit current as does VSC.
 For CSC the rate of rise of fault current during external or internal faults
is limited by the reactor. Whereas in the VSC the capacitor discharges
current would rise very rapidly and can damage the valves.
 In CSC the valves are not subjected to high dv/dt due to the presence of
the AC capacitors.
 Interface of CSC with AC system is more complex.
 Continuous losses in DC reactor of a CSC are much higher than the
losses in the DC capacitor in VSC.
 With the presence of capacitors in VSC, which are subjected to
commutation charging and discharging, this convertor will produce
harmonic voltages at a frequency of resonance between the capacitor and
AC system inductances. These harmonics as well as DC reactor can
result in over voltages on the valves and transformers.
 Wide spread adoption of asymmetrical devices, IGBTs and GTOs, has
made VSC a favorable choice. [6]
Figure 3.9: (a) voltage source converter (b) current source converter

Figure 3.10: STATCOM substation and close-up of the converter valves (photo
courtesy of ABB)

3.2.5 Power industries
Manufacturer of different FACTS devices such as GE, Siemens, ABB, Alsthom,
Mitsubishi, Toshiba and so on, with their in-house R&D facilities have given
birth to many versatile STATCOM projects presently in operation in high-
voltage transmission system to control system dynamics under stressed
conditions. [17]
3.3 Working principle of STATCOM
A STATCOM is comparable to a Synchronous Condenser (or Compensator)

which can supply variable reactive power and regulate the voltage of the bus
where it is connected. (Synchronous condenser is a salient pole synchronous
generator without prime mover).
Figure 3.11: Synchronous condensor
The equivalent circuit of a Synchronous Condenser (SC) is shown in Figure

3.12, which shows a variable AC voltage source (E) whose magnitude is
controlled by adjusting the field current. Neglecting losses, the phase angle ( )
difference between the generated voltage (E) and the bus voltage (V) can be
assumed to be zero. By varying the magnitude of E, the reactive current supplied
by SC can be varied. When E = V, the reactive current output is zero. When E >
V, the SC acts as a capacitor whereas when E < V, the SC acts as an inductor.

When = 0, the reactive current drawn (Ir) is given by
Figure 3.12: A synchronous condenser
A STATCOM (previously called as static condenser (STATCON)) has a similar

equivalent circuit as that of a SC. The AC voltage is directly proportional to the
DC voltage (Vdc) across the capacitor (see Figure 3.13 which shows the circuit
for a single phase STATCOM).
If an energy source (a battery or a rectifier) is present on the DC side, the

voltage Vdc can be held constant. The self-commutated switches T1 and T2
(based on say GTOs) are switched on and off once in a cycle. The conduction
period of each switch is 1800 and care has to be taken to see that T1 is off when
T2 is on and vice versa. The diodes D1 and D2 enable the conduction of the
current in the reverse direction. The charge on the capacitors ensures that the
diodes are reverse biased. The voltage waveform across PN is shown in Figure
4.14. The voltage = when T1 is conducting (T2 is off) and =−
when T2 is conducting (and T1 is off).
The switches are synchronized with the supply voltage (V) which is assumed to
be sinusoidal of frequency . The fundamental component, rms value (E1) is
obtained as
√2 √2
= sin =
2

When E1 > V, the STATCOM draws a capacitive reactive current, whereas it is
inductive if E1 < V. Note that, to be compatible with the convention used for
SVC, the inductive current drawn is assumed to be positive.
At the instant when T1 is switched on and Ir is inductive, the current (Ir) flowing
through the circuit is negative (as it is a lagging current) and flows through T1
(as iT1 is negative of Ir). After 900, the current through T1 becomes zero and as Ir
rises above zero and becomes positive, the diode D1 takes over conduction.
Similar events occur when T2 turns on and off. Thus, both T1 and T2 cease
conduction before they are turned off. On the other hand, when Ir is capacitive,
the current Ir is positive at the instant of turning on T1 and flows through the
diode D1. After 900, the current reverses its sign and flows through T1. At the
time of switching off T1, the current through it is at its peak value. Thus, we
need self-commutated devices such as GTOs when the STATCOM draws
capacitive reactive current. In contrast, T1 and T2 carry peak current at turn on
when Ir is inductive.
Note that diode D1 or D2 turns off automatically when the parallel device (T1 or
T2) turns off. Also, the capacitors can be charged from the source through the
diodes.
Figure 3.13: A single phase STATCOM

Figure 3.14: The waveform of VPN
In comparing SC and STATCOM, we note that while rotation of the DC field

winding on the rotor results in the generation of AC voltages in the stator
windings through magnetic induction, the synchronous operation of the switches
in a STATCOM results in the AC voltage at the output.
Unlike in a SC, this output voltage also contains many harmonics and some
solution has to be found to eliminate them.
Unlike in the case of a SC, the capacitors can be charged from the AC side and
there is no need of an energy source on the DC side if only reactive current is to
be provided in steady state. The losses in the STATCOM can be met from the
AC source.
The advantages of a STATCOM over a SC are:
 The response is much faster to changing system conditions.

 It does not contribute to short circuit current.
 It has a symmetric lead-lag capability.
 It has no moving parts and hence the maintenance is easier.
 It has no problems of loss of synchronism under a major disturbance.
[13]

Figure 3.15: Reactive power compensation SC & controlled voltage source
switching convertor
3.4 STATCOM characteristics
3.4.1 STATCOM operating characteristics
The steady state control characteristics of a STATCOM are shown in Figure

3.16. The losses in the STATCOM are neglected and ISTATCOM is assumed to be
purely reactive. As in the case of a SVC, the negative current indicates
capacitive operation while positive current indicates inductive operation. The
limits on the capacitive and inductive currents are symmetric (±Imax).
The positive slope BC is provided for the V-I characteristic to
 prevent the STATCOM hitting the limits often and

 to allow parallel operation of two or more units.
The reference voltage (Vref ) corresponds to zero current output and generally,
the STATCOM is operated close to zero output during normal operating
conditions, such that full dynamic range is available during contingencies. This
is arranged by controlling the mechanically switched capacitors/reactors
connected in parallel with a STATCOM. [13]

Figure 3.16: Control characteristics of a STATCOM
3.4.2 Transient response
Because the operation of a STATCOM is based on the generation of the

sinusoidal voltage, its response to transient disturbances inherently good and
extremely rapid. The steady state operating condition of a STATCOM is
dependent on the system voltage (and impedance) and the STATCOM source
voltage and its coupling impedance. Thus in Figure 3.17, with an open circuit
system voltage slightly larger than the target voltage of STATCOM steady
state characteristics, the STATCOM draws a small capacitive current . In order
to generate this current the STATCOM source voltage must be slightly
higher than the target voltage.
If now the system voltage is depressed, due to a fault, to a value , the point of
intersection of the system characteristics and the STATCOM controlled
characteristic demands a current . Initially, before there has been any change of
STATCOM source voltage, the STATCOM current increases substantially from
to (given by the intersection of the system characteristics and the natural
STATCOM characteristics; this is increased by the control action to the required
value by an increase of source voltage to , normally within one half cycle.

Figure 3.17: Response of a STATCOM to a system voltage changes
Figure 3.18 illustrates how a STATCOM responds to voltage disturbances. Prior

to the voltage dip, the STATCOM is operating at about its rated lagging current.
A dip of system voltage suddenly occurs, to about 50% of its steady state value.
This STATCOM inherently responds to this disturbance by generating a
capacitive current to support the system voltage but, even on the natural
characteristics, there would be a capacitive overload current. To prevent this, the
STATCOM control system defects the sudden change and reduce the target
voltage to limit the STATCOM current to its rated capacitive value.
Figure 3.18: Response of a STATCOM to a depression system voltage
When the fault is cleared and the system voltage is recovers to its pre-fault
value, this will trend to cause an inductive overload current in the STATCOM.
Again the STATCOM control system is able to detect change and adjust the

target voltage appropriately to reach rated lagging current. Although there is an
unavoidable transient distortion of the STATCOM current at each step change,
it can be seen from Figure 3.18 that the changes from inductive to capacitive and
capacitive to inductive current to take place within a half cycles. [9]
3.4.3 Harmonics
Both SVCs and STATCOMs generate harmonics. The TCR of an SVC is a

harmonic current source. Network harmonic voltages distortion occurs as a
result of the currents entering the power system. The STATCOM is a harmonic
voltage source. Network voltage harmonic distortion occurs as a result of
voltage division between the STATCOM phase impedance and the network
impedance.
The major harmonic generation in SVCs is at low frequencies; above the 15th
harmonic the contribution is normally small. At lower frequencies the
generation is large and filters are needed. SVCs normally have at least 5th and
7th harmonic filters. The filter rating is in the range of 25–50% of the TCR size.
STATCOMs with PWM operation have their major harmonic generation at

higher frequencies. The major contributions are at odd multiples of the PWM
switch frequency; at even multiples the levels are lower. The harmonic
generation decays with increasing frequency. STATCOMs might also generate
harmonics in the same spectra as the conventional SVCs. The magnitudes
depend on converter topology and the modulation and switching frequency used.
In most cases STATCOMs as well as SVCs require harmonic filters. [19]
3.4.4 Source voltage ripple
Ideally, the dc source should be so strong that its voltage remains effectively
constant at the chosen level, under steady state conditions. In practice, especially
for capacitor voltage sources, this would require extremely large, bulky and
expensive dc capacitors. A compromise is necessary to allow the capacitor to
charge and discharge to some extent between each switching operation, i.e. a
constant average voltage can be maintained but with a super-imposed ripple

voltage of a few percent as in Figure 3.19. This ripple must be taken into
account in selecting switching instants and in evaluating the overall harmonic
behavior of the convertor system.
Figure 3.19: Converter output voltage and current waveforms and dc capacitor
current and voltage during var generation and absorption
3.5 Snubber circuit
GTO devices are available in a wide range of voltage and current ratings
including, in particular, the current turn off capability. A widely used GTO has a
peak voltage rating of 4.5kV and a peak turn-off current of 4kA. As with
conventional thyristor, it is important to protect individual GTO devices against
both forward and reverse overvoltage and against excessive rates of change of
inrush current and of voltage at turn-off. Figure 3.20 illustrate a typical snubber
circuit arrangement.
In order for the GTO to turn off safely at 4kA, the snubber capacitor, CS must
have a high value, about 6mF. The energy stored in this capacitor must be
dissipated after every switching. If a smaller capacitor is used, say 3mF, the
switching losses are substantially reduced but the safe turn-off current is reduced

to about 3kA.
Energy stored in the di/dt limiting inductor of snubber circuit at turn-off is

dissipated via the discharge resistor and diode. Some of the dv/dt and di/dt
circuit energy can be recovered by additional circuits. The added complexity
and cost of these energy recovery techniques must be weighed against the
saving in losses and thepossibility that they might enable simple PWM
techniques to be applied to the GTO converters. [9]
Figure 3.20: Typical snubber circuit arrangement for GTO in a STATCOM
3.6 STATCOM control
Following are the STATCOM control strategies
 VSC using GTO-based square-wave inverters and special

interconnection transformers.
Typically four three-level inverters are used to build a 48-step voltage

waveform. Special interconnection transformers are used to neutralize
harmonics contained in the square waves generated by individual
inverters. In this type of VSC, the fundamental component of voltage is
proportional to the voltage V . Therefore V has to be varied for
dc dc
controlling the reactive power.

 VSC using IGBT-based PWM inverters.
This type of inverter uses Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) technique to

synthesize a sinusoidal waveform from a DC voltage source with a
typical chopping frequency of a few kilohertz. Harmonic voltages are
cancelled by connecting filters at the AC side of the VSC. This type of
VSC uses a fixed DC voltage Vdc. The fundamental component of
voltage is varied by changing the modulation index of the PWM
modulator.
The controller of a STATCOM is used to operate the inverter in such a way that
the phase angle between the inverter voltage and the line voltage is dynamically
adjusted so that the STATCOM generates or absorbs desired VAR at the point
of connection. [20]
Figure 3.21: 48-pulse STATCOM diagram

The control used for the model of STATCOM shown in Figure 3.21 is a very
simple one. It uses measurements of voltages and currents at the point where the
STATCOM is connected to the AC system bus. These measured signals are
worked in two ways as shown in Figure 3.22.
In one way, the voltages are fed to the PLL (phase locked loop) block in order to
detect the frequency and phase angle and to generate the synchronizing signal to
the switching logic.
In the second way of the control, the voltage is fed together with the measured
currents to the “Instantaneous Power Theory” block, in order to calculate the
instantaneous imaginary power q. This imaginary power q is compared with a
reference q* and the error observed is fed to proportional integral controller
block. The proportional-integral controller outputs a signal that gives the leading
or lagging phase angle necessary to adjust the voltage on the dc side capacitor,
thus controlling the energy flow in or out of it.
The leading or lagging signal is added to the PLL synchronism signal output and
delivered to the switch logic control block. [21]
Figure 3.22: Control diagram

The interaction between the AC system voltage and the inverter-composed
voltage provides the control of the STATCOM VAR output. When these two
voltages are synchronized and have the same amplitude, the active and reactive
power output is zero. Figure 3.23 (a) shows this situation. However, if the
amplitude of the STATCOM voltage is smaller than that of the system voltage,
it produces a current lagging the voltage by 90o (see Figure 3.23 (b)), and the
compensator behaves as an inductive load, which reactive value depends on the
voltage amplitude. Making the STATCOM voltage higher than the AC system
voltage the current will lead the voltage by 90o, (see Figure 3.23(c)), and the
compensator behaves as a variable capacitive load. As in the previous case, the
reactive power depends on the voltage amplitude. This amplitude control is done
through the control of the voltage on the dc capacitor. This voltage is related to
the energy stored at the dc capacitor. By lagging or leading the STATCOM
voltage, it is possible to charge or discharge the dc capacitor, as a consequence,
change the value of the dc voltage and the STATCOM’s operational
characteristics.
Figure 3.23: STATCOM 48-pulse voltage and compensating current

3.7 Solid-state switching devices
The conventional thyristor, a line commutating switching device available

commercially at very high power ratings, is a mature technology and forms
basic switching element for SVC, a second generation FACTS controller being
used as a dynamic reactive power compensator. This power semiconductor
device has no turn-off capability and relatively high response time. The
emerging technology is solid-state controllable turn-off switches. These
switches viz. GTO, IGBT, IGCT are being used extensively in converter circuits
for state-of-the-art FACTS controllers. These turn-off devices have different
operating characteristics in respect to switching frequency/speed, device ratings,
turn-off and turn-on timings, forward and reverse breakdown voltage, on-state
voltage drop, switching losses and so on. Drive circuit requirements, switching
frequency/speed switching losses and cost of each device are the trade-off to use
these devices effectively.
Among the turn-off power switches, GTO thyristor is a mature technology and
commercially available at high power ratings. Its extensive applications in high
power rating converter-cum-compensator circuits have ushered in a new era of
FACTS controllers, for example, STATCOM, UPFC, convertible static
compensator (CSC), static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) and so on.
Solid-state IGBT switching device is a relatively new technology in power
electronics is employed in medium-to-high power ratings PWM-based FACTS
controllers due to its high switching frequency and speed. Among the turn-off
switches, IGCT is the most promising and emerging solid-state technology and
has the merits of low switching loss, higher switching frequency/speed, no
snubber circuit requirements. [17]
3.8 STATCOM topologies and configurations
Switching topologies such as PWM or power frequency switching depend upon

the type of solid-state devices used in STATCOM. Primarily, fundamental
frequency method of switching (pulsed one per line frequency cycle) and PWM
techniques (pulsed multi times per half cycle) are widely accepted methods. In
multi-pulse and multi-level converters, there is only one turn-on, turn-off per

device per cycle. But in pulse width modulation multiple pulses per half-cycle is
achieved and also the width of the pulses can also be varied to change the
amplitude of the AC voltage.
3.8.1 Pulse width modulation (PWM) convertor
In PWM control, solid-state switches are operated many times at frequent

intervals within the same cycle of output voltage, and an improved quality of
output AC voltage waveforms (in terms of low amplitude of low-order
harmonics/low total harmonic distortion (THD)) can be obtained. Based on the
frequency and amplitude of triangular shape carrier signal and modulating
control signal, PWM converters are designed, in general, to eliminate triplen and
other low order harmonics (5th/7th), and by means of suitable filter design,
predominantly higher-order harmonics are reduced in the AC voltage output.
Figure 3.24: VSC using IGBT-based PWM inverters
As the converter conduction and switching losses are a function of switching

frequency, the PWM technique is not generally adopted in high rating
STATCOMs on account of high switching losses, whereas low-to medium
rating STATCOMs used in power distribution system are built upon PWM

control and such STATCOMs are generally termed D-STATCOM. Switching
frequency of solid-state devices is one of the key factors in designing PWM-
VSC and it can be typically 3 kHz for IGBT and 500 Hz for IGCT or GCT.
The PWM technique in such converter circuit has been found to be unpopular
due to its higher gating energy requirements and switching losses. As GTO is
well-proven solid-state device and commercially available with power-handling
levels as that of the conventional thyristor, GTO-VSC is the backbone of the
high power rating STATCOMs that are used extensively in high-voltage
transmission system. STATCOMs built upon GTO-VSCs are designed primarily
to operate it in a square-wave mode of operation. [17]

Figure 3.25: Single converter valve unit in a STATCOM

3.8.2 Multi-pulse convertor
In a multi-pulse converter configuration, the displacement angle between two

consecutive six-pulse converter is 2π/(6N) and three-phase voltage contains odd
harmonics component of the order of (6Nk+1), where k = 1, 2, 3, . . . . With the
increase in pulse number, lower-order harmonics are neutralized and a very
close to sinusoidal AC output voltage waveform can be realized. Basic six pulse
convertor is shown in Figure 3.26.
Figure 3.26: Two level six pulses VSC Bridge and its AC (Phase & Line) voltage
output wave form in square wave mode
Compared with basic six-pulse converter, the multi-pulse configuration of

STATCOM increases the achievable VAR rating, improves the harmonic
performance, decreases the DC side current harmonics and reduces significantly
the overall filter requirements. The increase in pulse order increases the number
of electronics devices, magnetics and associated components and thus added to
the cost. However, the high pulse-order STATCOM enables to improve
harmonics and operational performances.
To reduce total harmonic distortion (THD), multi-pulse converter topology

derived from the combination of multiple number (N-numbers) of elementary
six-pulse converter units to be triggered at specific displacement angle(s), is

widely adopted, and output AC voltage waveforms from each unit is electro-
magnetically added with an appropriate phase shift by inter-phase transformer(s)
to produce a multi-pulse (6xN pulses) waveform close to sinusoidal wave.
Figure 3.27: Magnetics of 48-pulse, two-level ± 80 MVA STATCOM and its

output AC waveform
3.8.3 Multi-level convertor
Another variant of topology is a multi-level VSC structure to generate multi-

stepped voltage waveform close to sinusoidal nature. In multi-level topology, a
synthesized staircase voltage waveform is derived from several levels of DC
voltage sources obtained normally by using capacitor voltage sources.
Owing to the complex series-parallel connection of transformers

windings/circuits in multi-pulse converters, multi-level configurations have been

receiving increasing attention for high voltage and high power rating
applications. In multi-level structures, three-level converter topologies with
square-wave mode of operation are most common. An N-level topology is
achieved by splitting of DC capacitors into (N-1) sections produce N-level
output phase voltage and a (2N-1) level output line voltage waveform. When
number of levels is high enough, harmonic content in AC output voltage is
reduced to low enough to avoid the need of filters.
The main features of multi-level converter are the low harmonic content of the
output voltage compared with a square-wave pulse converter, decreased device
voltage stress (a fraction of the total DC bus voltage) and potentially higher
converter voltage and thus power rating.
Three basic types of multi-level VSCs are;
i) Multi-point clamped converter

ii) Chain converters based on standard H-bridge arrangements
iii) Nested-cell converter or flying capacitor multi-level converter.
Figure 3.28: Single Phase of a three-level and four levels NPC converter

Figure 3.29: A view on technology by Siemens: STATCOM

3.9 Optimal Location of STATCOM
Transmission lines are often driven close to or even beyond their thermal limits
in order to satisfy the increased electric power consumption and trades due to
increase of the unplanned power exchanges. Due to this the bus voltage of load
buses falls. This also leads to an increase in Transmission losses of the system.
Thus to improve the overall voltage profile we require shunt FACTS.
STATCOM is one of the better shunt FACTS available.
PSO, BFO and Plant Growth Optimization etc. are techniques for finding the
optimal STATCOM location with objective function as transmission losses.
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is an evolutionary computation technique

developed by Eberheart & Kennedy in 1995 and is based on bird flocking and
fish schooling. Its simplicity and faster convergence make it an attractive
algorithm to employ.
The bacterial foraging optimization (BFO) algorithm is inspired from bio-

mimicry of the e-coli bacteria and is a robust algorithm for non-gradient
optimization solution, proposed in 2002 by Kevin M Passino. It consists of four
steps: chemotaxis, swarming, reproduction & elimination-dispersal
PLANT GROWTH ALGORITHM is a Bionic random algorithm. According to

the plant growth characteristics, an artificial plant growth model is built
including leaf growth, branching, phototropism and spatial occupancy. [22]
3.10 STATCOM losses
The forward voltage drop of GTO thyristors is greater than that of conventional
thyristors because of more complex system of semi conducting-junction and the
energy requires for the turn-off duty. Figure 4.30 shows the approximate
variation of STATCOM losses (% of rated current) through the operating range
from rated leading to rated lagging current.

Figure 3.30: Typical loss curve for a STATCOM
Figure 3.31: Typical loss curves for STATCOM applications
In many cases, the STATCOM output will need to be biased, generally towards
the capacitive side for SVC application. Figure 4.31 shows the loss patterns for
the same output range (+1.0 to -0.5pu current). If the STATCOM is rated for an
output of ±1.0pu current, for this range, the upper half of the inductive range is
not used. The losses in the float condition (0 Mvar) and within the lagging range

are quit low, but become high in the upper part of the capacitive range. These
capacitive losses can be reduced by halving the rating of the STATCOM and
combining it with a TSC of about 0.6pu to reduce the losses (and probably the
overall costs).
An intermediate option is also illustrate with a STATCOM of ±0.75 rating, to

cover the total dynamic range, biased by a fixed capacitor (or filter bank) of
0.25pu output. This may give an overall optimization of cost and losses
especially if the predominant range of operation of compensator is from about
0.1 to 0.6pu capacitive current. [9]
3.11 Capability of STATCOM to exchange real power
For applications requiring active (real) power compensation it is clear that the
STATCOM in contrast to SVC can interface suitable energy storage with the
AC system for real power exchange. That is, the STATCOM is capable of
drawing controlled real power from an energy source (large capacitor, battery,
fuel, super conducting magnetic storage, etc.) at its DC terminal and deliver it as
AC power to the system. It can also control energy absorption from the AC
system to keep the storage device charged. This potential capability provides a
new tool for enhancing dynamic compensation, improving power system
efficiency and, potentially, preventing power outages.
The reactive and real power exchange between STATCOM and the AC system
can be controlled independently of each other and any combination of real
power generation and absorption is achievable. Thus, by equipping the
STATCOM with an energy storage device of suitable capacity, extremely
effective control strategies for the modulation of reactive and real output power
can be executed for the improvement of transient stability and damping of
power oscillation. It should be noted that for short term dynamic disturbances an
energy consuming device (e.g. a switched resistor) may be effectively used in
place of the more expensive energy storage to absorb power from the AC system
via STATCOM. With this simple scheme, the STATCOM would transfer
energy from the AC system to the DC terminal where it would be dissipated by

the energy consuming device that would be switched on whenever surplus
energy at those terminals is detected ( by e.g., the increase of DC voltage). [6]
3.12 Physical size and installation
From the stand point of physical installation, because the STATCOM not only
controls but also internally generates the reactive output power (both capacitive
and inductive) , the large capacitor and reactor banks with their associated
switchgear and protection, used in conventional thyristor controlled SVCs, are
not needed. This results in a significant reduction in overall size (about 30 to
40%), as well as in installation, labor and cost. The small physical size of the
STATCOM makes it eminently suitable for installations in areas where land cost
is at a premium and for applications where anticipated system changes may
require the relocation of the installation. [6]
Figure 3.32: Footprints of SVC and STATCOM

3.13 STATCOM applications
3.13.1 Transmission applications
1. STATCOM installation of ±80 Mvar in Japan in 1991
One prototype STATCOM installation of ±80 Mvar was installed for service in
Japan in 1991. The main converter circuit configuration is given in Figure
4.33.This STATCOM uses eight voltage-sourced converters, each of 10 MVA
ratting, connected to a main STATCOM transformer via eighty converter
transformer producing 7.5o phase angle displacement from each other, resulting
in 48-pulse operation.
The control system incorporates power system voltage control, power oscillation
damping and constant reactive power output control. The control system varies
the width of the rectangular output voltage of each converter to achieve voltage
magnitude control and to ensure low losses.
A gapped-core design is used for the eight phase-displacement transformer to

reduce the effects of dc magnetization, decrease magnetic impedance, and
improve the uniformity of voltage sharing between windings. This is especially
important when the STATCOM is energized from the power system during
startup sequences or following system faults. Initially the converter start-up
system used a relatively large, separate, “start-up converter” to supply dc
voltage to the STATCOM main converter. This method was found to be slow
and a new system now allows the STATCOM converter to start immediately
after the energisation of the STATCOM transformer and the eight converter
transformers from the power system. [9]

Figure 3.33: ±80 Mvar in Japan
2. STATCOM installation of ±100 Mvar in USA
The Sullivan substation is supplied by a 500 kV bulk power network and by four
161 kV lines that are interconnected through a 1200 MVA transformer bank.
Seven distributors and one large industrial customer are served from this
substation. The STATCOM, shown in Figure 4.34 is implemented with a 48
pulse, two-level voltage source inverter that combines eight, six pulse three-
phase inverter bridges, each with a nominal rating of 12.5 MVA. The system
also comprises a single step-down transformer having a wye and delta secondary
to couple the inverter to the 161 kV transmission line, and a central control
system with operator interface. The STATCOM system is housed in one
building that is a standard commercial design with metal walls and roof and
measured 27.4 x 15.2m.
The STATCOM regulates the 161 kV bus voltage during daily load increases to
minimize the activation of the tap changing mechanism on the transformer bank,
which interconnects the two power systems. The use of this VAR compensator
to regulate the bus voltage has resulted in the reduction of the use tap changer
from about 250 times per month to 2 to 5 times per month. Tap changing

mechanisms are prone to failure, and the estimated cost of each failure is about $
1 million. Without the STATCOM, the transmission company would be
compelled either to install a second transformer bank or to construct a fifth 161
kV line into the area; both are costly alternatives. [23]
Figure 3.34: The ±100 MVAr STATCOM at Sullivan Substation
3. +225/-52 Mvar SVC including ±75 Mvar STATCOM in England in 1996
In 1996, the National Grid Company plc of England and Wales sought
relocatable dynamic reactive compensation equipment for its 400 kV
transmission network, capable of generating 0 to 225 Mvar at 0.95p.u. system
voltage, with a particular reference to the inclusion of a STATCOM of 150
Mvar range. The design adopted includes a ±75 Mvar STATCOM in
conjunction with a 127 Mvar TSC and 23 Mvar harmonic filter to provide a full
controlled range of output +225 to -52 Mvar, Figure 4.35.
This STATCOM design is required to meet stringent emission levels and

immunity to existing and future prospective harmonic levels. It uses multi-level
converters in a chain circuit configuration. The control system incorporates
voltage control, reactive set point regulation, and a coordinating control for the
STATCOM and the associated TSC. Provision is also made to include power

oscillation damping control in the future.
All the controls and power electronic equipment are housed in weatherproof,
transportable GRP (glass reinforced plastic) cabins and the outdoor components
are grouped together on frameworks to satisfy the requirement for easy
relocation to another substation when this is required. [9]
Figure 3.35: +225/-52 Mvar SVC including ±75 Mvar STATCOM in England

Figure 3.36: STATCOM substation in East Claydon, United Kingdom

3.13.2 Other Applications of STATCOM
STATCOM technology has multi-dimensional applications to control power

system parameters in steady state and dynamic system conditions.
STATCOM is used for power quality improvements, reactive power control,

voltage regulation, power swings or oscillations damping, damping torsional
oscillations or SSR damping, transmission line capacity enhancement, dynamic
stability improvement including steady state, transient and voltage stability, and
for application under power system faults.
Energy storage applications; some manufacturing processes require absolute

continuity of supply to maintain product quality and/or safety, for example, float
glass, paper, semi-conductor devices, and some chemical and nuclear processes.
The cost of disruption may be so great that auxiliary or emergency power
sources are economically justified
In distribution system, this controller is named as D-STATCOM being widely

used for power quality improvement, custom power, voltage regulation,
compensation and balancing of nonlinear loads and/or unbalanced loads, load
power factor improvement, harmonic elimination and so on.
Other applications of smaller STATCOMs, in service or under consideration,

are for the reduction of lamp flicker due to arc furnaces, for voltage control for
wind farms and for balancing of single-phase traction loads. These smaller units
generally use PWM to obtain a satisfactory harmonic performance.
STATCOM back-to-back inter-tie is a relatively new area of application to

exchange power between two inter-ties and to improve voltage stability. It is
analogous to HVDC back-to-back system named as HVDC light with inherent
MVAR supporting feature.

Figure 3.37: Various applications of STATCOM

Chapter # 04
Simulation results and Discussion
4. Simulation results and discussion
4.1 Circuit Description
Figure 4.1: Detailed model of STATCOM
The STATCOM regulates voltage by generating or absorbing reactive power.

The STATCOM model described here is a detailed model with full
representation of power electronics. It uses a square-wave, 48-pulse VSC and
interconnection transformers for harmonic neutralization. This type of model
requires discrete simulation at fixed type steps (25 µs in this case) and it is used
typically for studying the STATCOM performance on a much smaller time
range (a few seconds. This model of the 100 Mvar STATCOM on a 500 kV
Power System represents a three-bus 500 kV system with a 100 Mvar
STATCOM regulating voltage at bus B1.The internal voltage of the equivalent
system connected at bus B1 can be varied by means of a Three-Phase

Programmable Voltage Source.
S. No. Parameters of Transmission Line Value of Parameters

1 Positive sequence Inductance 0.9337e-3 H/Km
2 Zero Sequence Inductance 4.1264e-3 H/Km
3 Positive sequence Resistance 0.02546 Ω/Km
4 Zero Sequence Resistance 0.3864 Ω/Km
5 Positive sequence Capacitance 12.74e-9F/Km
6 Zero Sequence Capacitance 7.751e-9 F/Km
7 Transmission line length L1 200 Km
Table 4. 1: Transmission line parameters
4.2 STATCOM Components
The STATCOM consists of a three-level 48-pulse inverter and two series-

connected 3000 µF capacitors which act as a variable DC voltage source. The
variable amplitude 60 Hz voltage produced by the inverter is synthesized from
the variable DC voltage which varies around 19.3 kV.
4.2.1 48-Pulse three-Level Inverter
Figure 4.2: Voltage Source Converter

The STATCOM uses this circuit to generate the inverter voltage V2. It consists
of four 3-phase 3-level inverters coupled with four phase shifting transformers
introducing phase shift of +/-7.5 degrees. Except for the 23rd and 25th
harmonics, this transformer arrangement neutralizes all odd harmonics up to the
45th harmonic. Y and D transformer secondaries cancel harmonics 5+12n (5,
17, 29, 41,...) and 7+12n (7, 19, 31, 43,...). In addition, the 15° phase shift
between the two groups of transformers (Tr1Y and Tr1D leading by 7.5°, Tr2Y
and Tr2D lagging by 7.5°) allows cancellation of harmonics 11+24n (11, 35,...)
and 13+24n (13, 37,...). Considering that all 3n harmonics are not transmitted by
the transformers (delta and ungrounded Y), the first harmonics that are not
canceled by the transformers are therefore the 23rd, 25th , 47th and 49th
harmonics. By choosing the appropriate conduction angle for the three-level
inverter (θ = 172.5°), the 23rd and 25th harmonics can be minimized. The first
significant harmonics generated by the inverter will then be 47th and 49th.
Using a bipolar DC voltage, the STATCOM thus generates a 48-step voltage
approximating a sine wave. The following figure reproduces the primary voltage
generated by the STATCOM 48-pulse inverter as well as its harmonics contents.
4.2.2 STATCOM Control System
The control system task is to increase or decrease the capacitor DC voltage, so

that the generated AC voltage has the correct amplitude for the required reactive
power. The control system must also keep the AC generated voltage in phase
with the system voltage at the STATCOM connection bus to generate or absorb
reactive power only (except for small active power required by transformer and
inverter losses).A voltage droop is incorporated in the voltage regulation to
obtain a V-I characteristics with a slope (0.03 pu/100 MVA in this case).
Therefore, when the STATCOM operating point changes from fully capacitive
(+100 Mvar) to fully inductive (-100 Mvar) the SVC voltage varies between 1-
0.03=0.97 pu and 1+0.03=1.03 pu.
To explain the regulation principle, let us suppose that the system voltage Vmean
becomes lower than the reference voltage Vref. The voltage regulator will then
ask for a higher reactive current output (positive Iq= capacitive current). To

generate more capacitive reactive power, the current regulator will then increase
phase lag of inverter voltage with respect to system voltage, so that an active
power will temporarily flow from AC system to capacitors, thus increasing DC
voltage and consequently generating a higher AC voltage.
Figure 4.3: STATCOM Controller

As explained in the preceding section, the conduction angle θ of the 3-level
inverters has been fixed to 172.5°. This conduction angle minimizes 23rd and
25th harmonics of voltage generated by the square-wave inverters. Also, to
reduce non characteristic harmonics, the positive and negative voltages of the
DC bus are forced to stay equal by the DC Balance Regulator module. This is
performed by applying a slight offset on the conduction angles θ for the positive
and negative half-cycles.

4.3 Steady-State and Dynamic Performance of the STATCOM
We will now observe steady-state waveforms and the STATCOM dynamic

response when the system voltage is varied.
Following are the different cases of system voltage w.r.t. reference set voltage.
i) System voltage equals to reference voltage

ii) System voltage less than the reference voltage
iii) System voltage greater than the reference voltage
Figure 4.4: Waveforms Illustrating STATCOM Response to System Voltage

4.3.1 System voltage equals to reference voltage
Initially the programmable voltage source is set at 1.0491 pu, resulting in a 1.0
pu voltage at bus B1 when the STATCOM is out of service. As the reference
voltage Vref is set to 1.0 pu, the STATCOM is initially floating (zero current).
The DC voltage is 19.3 kV. As shown in Figure 4.5 that STATCOM current
(Iaprim) is zero and system voltage and STATCOM voltage are in Phase.
Figure 4.5: STATCOM Current is zero, System voltage and STATCOM voltage
are in Phase

4.3.2 System voltage less than the reference voltage
At t=0.1s, voltage is suddenly decreased by 4.5% (0.955 pu of nominal voltage).

The STATCOM reacts by generating reactive power (Q=+70 Mvar) to keep
voltage at 0.979 pu. The 95% settling time is approximately 47 ms. At this point
the DC voltage has increased to 20.4 kV. Figure 4.6 shows that system voltage
is less than the reference voltage. Figure 4.7 show that the STATCOM current is
leading the voltage, establishing the capacitive mode, and so generating the
reactive power as shown in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.6: System voltage less than the reference voltage.
Figure 4.7: STATCOM Current leading the System voltage and system
voltage and STATCOM voltages are in Phase

Figure 4.8: STATCOM produces reactive power
Notice that when the STATCOM is operating in capacitive mode (Q=+70

Mvar), the 48-pulse secondary voltage (in pu) generated by inverters is higher
than the primary voltage (in pu) and in phase with primary voltage. Current is
leading voltage by 90°; the STATCOM is therefore generating reactive power.

4.3.3 System voltage greater than the reference voltage
Then, at t=0.2 sec. the source voltage is increased to1.045 pu of its nominal
value. The STATCOM reacts by changing its operating point from capacitive to
inductive to keep voltage at 1.021 pu. At this point the STATCOM absorbs 72
Mvar and the DC voltage has been lowered to 18.2 kV. Observe in Figure 4.10
the first trace showing the STATCOM primary voltage and current that the
current is changing from capacitive to inductive in approximately one cycle.
Figure 4.11 show that the STATCOM is now absorbing reactive power.
Figure 4.9: System voltage greater than reference voltage

Figure 4.10: STATCOM Current lagging the System voltage and System voltage
and STATCOM voltages are in Phase
Figure 4.11: STATCOM absorbing reactive power

Chapter # 05
Conclusions and recommendations
5. Conclusions and recommendations
5.1 Conclusion
In this thesis comprehensive study of reactive power compensation has been

done by using shunt connected FACTS device i.e. STATCOM. We had studied
the need of reactive power and its compensation by STATCOM. The overall
conclusions are:
 Reactive power compensation is been used nowadays to increase the

transmittable power in AC power systems. Fixed or mechanically
switched capacitors and reactors are being employed to increase the
steady state power transmission by controlling the voltage along the
lines. However these devices do not provide high speed control.
Furthermore, control cannot be initiated frequently because mechanical
devices wear out quickly compared to static devices.
 STATCOM is a controlled reactive-power source. It provides the desired

reactive-power generation and absorption entirely by means of electronic
processing of the voltage and current waveforms in a voltage-source
converter (VSC).
 STATCOM has number of advantages over conventional methods of

compensation viz; quick response time, less space requirement, optimum
voltage platform, higher operational flexibility and excellent dynamic
characteristics under various operating conditions.
 STATCOM is better device then SVC. For country like Pakistan having
large interconnected system the SVC is better option from economic
point of view but due to other aspects like stability margin, voltage
improvement and power system performance, STATCOM is preferred.
102
Reactive power compensation using STATCOM
5.2 Future recommendations
 STATCOM should be implemented in Industrial plants, using arc

furnaces that operate with large random peaks of reactive power demand
and causing undesirable effects in the plant itself and in the ac power
network.
 The supplier of electric power charges the consumer also for reactive
power demand so STATCOMs should be implemented in distribution
system applications to reduce the reactive power demand.
 The future work should include introduction of the development of
transient and steady state models to improve the, transient stability
margin and steady state power transfer capacity respectively.
 Current source convertor based STATCOM be further studied for
improvement in the performance of STATCOM for various applications.
 Work on HVDC implementing the STATCOM should be carried out.
103
References
[1] P. Kundur: ‘Power system stability and control’
[2] Mohamed E. El-Hawary: ‘Introduction to Electrical Power Systems’
[3] Book by Central Station Engineers of the Westinghouse Electric Corporation

EAST PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA: ‘Electrical Transmission and
Distribution Reference’
[4] T. J. Miller: ‘Reactive power Control in Electric Systems’ John Willey &
Sons, 1982.
[5] Jignesh.Parmar: ‘Importance of Reactive Power for System’
[6] Narain G. Hingorani & Laszlo Gyugyi: ‘Understanding FACTS: Concept

and technology of flexible AC transmission systems’
[7] U.A Bakshi & MV Bakshi: ‘Transmission and distribution’ fourth revised
edition
[8] K. R. Padiyar: ‘FACTS Controllers in Power Transmission and Distribution’
[9] Yong-Hua Song and Allan Johns: ‘Flexible AC transmission systems

(FACTS)’
[10] Courseware Sample 86371-F0 LabVolt: ‘Static Synchronous Compensator

(STATCOM)’.
[11] Juan Dixon , Luis Morán, José Rodríguez , Ricardo Domke: ‘Reactive
Power Compensation Technologies, State- of-the-Art Review’
[12] Yongan Deng, MASc student at Concordia University: ‘Reactive Power

Compensation of Transmission Lines’
[13] Dr. S. Titus, B.J.Vinothbabu and I. Maria Anton Nishanth: ‘Power System
Stability Enhancement Under Three Phase Fault with FACTS Devices TCSC,
STATCOM and UPFC’
104
[14] ‘Proposed terms and definitions for Flexible AC transmission system
(FACTS)’
Paper prepared by the FACTS terms & definitions task force of the FACTS
working group of the DC and FACTS subcommittee
[15] Tariq Masood, R.K. Aggarwal, S.A. Qureshi, R.A.J Khan: ‘STATCOM
Model against SVC Control Model Performance Analyses Technique’
[16] Naresh Acharya, Arthit Sode-Yome and Nadarajah Mithulananthan:

‘Facts about Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) controller: Practical
installation and benefits’
[17] B. Singh, R. Saha, A. Chandra & K. Al-Haddad: ‘Static synchronous

compensators (STATCOM)’: a review
[18] Molinas, M. Jon Are Suul Undeland, T, Dept. of Electrical. Power Eng.
Norwegian Univ. of Sci. & Technol., Trondheim, Power Electronics, IEEE
Transactions.
[19] M. Noroozian, SM IEEE and C.W. Taylor, Fellow IEEE: ‘Benefits of SVC
and STATCOM for Electric Utility Application’
[20] Kalyan K Sen, Member, IEEE: ‘STATCOM - STATic synchronous

compensator: Theory, Modeling, and Applications’
[21]Carlos A.C. Cavaliere , Edson H. Watanabe and Maurício Aredes:

‘Analysis and Operation of STATCOM in Unbalanced Systems’
[22] Vikram Singh Chauhan, Jitendra Meel and T Jayabarathi: ‘Optimal

Location of STATCOM on Transmission Network using Evolutionary
Algorithms’
[23] Juan Dixon (SM), Luis Morán (F), José Rodríguez (SM) and Ricardo
Domke: ‘Reactive Power Compensation Technologies, State of-the-Art Review’
(Invited Paper)
105
Appendix
Battery energy storage system (BESS)

A chemical based energy storage system using shunt-connected switching converters
to supply or absorb energy to or from an ac system which can be adjusted rapidly.
Current source
In current source the current flowing through it can not undergo a discontinuity due to
the external circuit variation. The most representative example is the inductance since
an instantaneous change in current would correspond to an instantaneous change in its
flux which would require an infinite voltage.
Flexibility of electric power transmission

The ability to accommodate changes in the electric transmission system or operating
conditions while maintaining sufficient steady-state and transient margins.
Flexible ac transmission system (FACTS)

Alternating-current transmission systems incorporating power electronic–based and
other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power transfer
capability.
FACTS controller
A power electronic–based system and other static equipment that provide control of
one or more ac transmission system parameters.
Inter-phase power controller (IPC)

A series-connected controller of active and reactive power consisting, in each phase,
of inductive and capacitive branches subjected to separately phase-shifted voltages.
The active and reactive power can be set independently by adjusting the phase shifts
and/ or the branch impedances using mechanical or electronic switches. In the
particular case where the inductive and capacitive impedances form a conjugate pair,
each terminal of the IPC is a passive current source dependent on the voltage at the
other terminal.
106
Power system stability
Power system stability denotes the ability of an electric power system, for a given
initial operating condition, to regain a state of operating equilibrium after being
subjected to a physical disturbance, with most system variables bounded so that
system integrity is preserved.
PWM convertor
In PWM control, solid-state switches are operated many times at frequent intervals
within the same cycle of output voltage, and an improved quality of output AC
voltage waveforms can be obtained.
Phase-shifting transformer
A phase shifting transformer is a special type of system intertie transformers which
control the power flow through specific lines in a complex power transmission
network by providing the possibility to insert a voltage with an arbitrary phase angle
in the power system.
Reactive power
Reactive power is power that flows back and forth between the inductive windings of
the generator and the inductive windings of motors, transformers, etc., which are part
of the electrical load. Reactive power (VARS) is required to maintain the voltage to
deliver active power (watts) through transmission lines and to maintain a system
healthy.
Static condenser (STATCON)

Synchronous condenser is a salient pole synchronous generator without prime mover
which can supply variable reactive power and regulate the voltage of the bus where it
is connected. This term is deprecated in favor of the static synchronous compensator
(SSC or STATCOM).
107
Self-commutating converters
Two types of self-commutating converters;
The current sourced converters in which direct current has one polarity, and the power
reversal takes place through reversal of dc voltage polarity.
The voltage sourced converters in which the dc voltage always has one polarity, and
the power reversal takes place through reversal of dc current polarity.
Static synchronous compensator (SSC or STATCOM)

A self-commutated switching power converter supplied from an appropriate electric
energy source and operated to produce a set of adjustable multiphase voltage, which
may be coupled to an AC power system for the purpose of exchanging independently
controllable real and reactive power.
Static synchronous generator (SSG)

A static, self-commutated switching power converter supplied from an appropriate
electric energy source and operated to produce a set of adjustable multiphase output
voltages, which may be coupled to an ac power system for the purpose of exchanging
independently controllable real and reactive power.
Static synchronous series compensator (SSSC or S3C)

A static synchronous generator operated without an external electric energy source as
a series compensator whose output voltage is in quadrature with, and controllable
independently of, the line current for the purpose of increasing or decreasing the
overall reactive voltage drop across the line and thereby controlling the transmitted
electric power. The S3C may include transiently rated energy-storage or energy
absorbing devices to enhance the dynamic behavior of the power system by additional
temporary real power compensation, to increase or decrease momentarily, the overall
real (resistive) voltage drop across the line.
Static var compensator (SVC)

A shunt-connected static var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to
exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control specific
parameters of the electrical power system (typically bus voltage).
108
Static var generator or absorber (SVG)
A static electrical device, equipment, or system that is capable of drawing controlled
capacitive and/ or inductive current from an electrical power system and thereby
generating or absorbing reactive power. Generally considered to consist of shunt-
connected, thyristor-controlled reactor(s) and/ or thyristor-switched capacitors.
Static var system (SVS)

A combination of different static and mechanically switched var compensators whose
outputs are coordinated.
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)

A superconducting electromagnetic-based energy-storage system using shunt-
connected switching converters to rapidly exchange energy with an ac system.
Thyristor-controlled braking resistor (TCBR)

A shunt-connected, thyristor switched resistor, which is controlled to aid stabilization
of a power system or to minimize power acceleration of a generating unit during a
disturbance.
Transmission system
A transmission system includes all land, conversion structures and equipment at a
primary source of supply lines, switching and conversion stations between a
generating or receiving point and the entrance to a distribution center or wholesale
point, all lines and equipment whose primary purpose is to augment, integrate or tie
together sources of power supply.
Turn-off devices
The devices having the capability of both turn on and turn off (e.g. GTO, IGBT, etc.)
are called turn off devices.
109
Unified power-flow controller (UPFC)
A combination of a static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) and a static
synchronous series compensator (S3C) which is coupled via a common dc link, to
allow bidirectional flow of real power between the series output terminals of the S3C
and the shunt output terminals of the STATCOM, and are controlled to provide
concurrent real and reactive series line compensation without an external electric
energy source. The UPFC, by means of angularly unconstrained series voltage
injection, is able to control, concurrently or selectively, the transmission line voltage,
impedance, and angle or, alternatively, the real and reactive power flow in the line.
The UPFC may also provide independently controllable shunt-reactive compensation.
Voltage source
In voltage source, the voltage across its terminals can not undergo a discontinuity due
to the external circuit variation. The most representative example is the capacitor
since an instantaneous change of voltage across its terminals would mean an
instantaneous change of its charge which would require an infinite current.
Voltage Source Converter (VSC)

It has the capability to transfer power in either direction. With a voltage source
converter, the magnitude, the phase angle and the frequency of the output voltage can
be controlled. In these converters the dc side voltage always has one polarity, and the
power reversal takes place through reversal of dc current polarity .On dc side the
voltage is supported by a capacitor. This capacitor is large enough to at least handle a
sustained charge/discharge current that accompanies the switching sequence of the
converter valves and shifts in phase angle of the switching valves without significant
change in the dc voltage.
110

ReactivepowerComp usingSTATCOM

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

ReactivepowerComp usingSTATCOM

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION USING

1. Muhammad Shuaib Panhwer (Group Leader) 10EL68

2. Bilawal Rattar (Assistant Group Leader) 10EL59

3. Zeeshan Anjum Memon 10EL10

4. Sarfaraz Khatti 10EL32

5. Ahmed Maki Utero 10EL51

6. Yasir Memon 10EL16

Department of Electrical Engineering

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

Name of Students Roll Numbers

1. Muhammad Shuaib Panhwer (Group Leader) 10EL68

Signature of Thesis Supervisor Signature of Thesis Co-supervisor

Signature of External Examiner/ Signature of Chairman

This Humble effort is

Dr. Narain G. Hingorani

We would like to thank Prof. Dr.Mukhtiar Ahmed Mahar, Department of Electrical

List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... xi

List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... xiv

List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................. xv

1.1 Introduction to thesis title................................................................................................. 2

1.2 History .............................................................................................................................. 3

1.3 Scope of thesis .................................................................................................................. 5

1.4 Outline of thesis ............................................................................................................... 6

2. Preliminary theory of Reactive power compensation....................................................... 8

2.1 Transmission lines ............................................................................................................ 8

2.1.1 Purpose of Transmission ........................................................................................... 9

2.1.2 Choice of voltage ..................................................................................................... 10

2.1.3 Choice of Conductors Size ...................................................................................... 11

2.1.4 Loadability Characteristics ...................................................................................... 11

2.1.5 Effect of using bundled conductors ......................................................................... 12

2.2 Factors that effects the performance of transmission system......................................... 12

2.3 Blackout and its impacts ................................................................................................ 16

2.4 Reactive power and voltage control ............................................................................... 18

2.5 Production and Absorption of Reactive Power .............................................................. 20

2.5.1 Synchronous Generators .......................................................................................... 20

2.5.2 Transmission line .................................................................................................... 21

2.5.4 Loads ....................................................................................................................... 21

2.6 Reactive Power Compensation....................................................................................... 22

2.6.1 Need of Reactive Power Compensation .................................................................. 22

2.6.2 Compensator requirements ...................................................................................... 23

2.7 Compensation Techniques ............................................................................................. 23

2.7.1 Shunt compensation ............................................................................................... 23

2.7.2 Series Compensation ............................................................................................... 25

2.8 Method of Voltage Control ............................................................................................ 26

2.8.1 Shunt Reactors ......................................................................................................... 27

2.8.2 Shunt capacitors ....................................................................................................... 27

2.8.3 Series Capacitors ..................................................................................................... 29

2.8.4 Synchronous Compensators .................................................................................... 30

2.8.5 Regulating Transformer ........................................................................................... 30

2.9 Reactive Power Limitations ........................................................................................... 33

3. Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) .............................................................. 37

3.1 Introduction to FACTS .................................................................................................. 37

3.1.1 Basic definitions ...................................................................................................... 38

3.1.2 Objectives of FACTS .............................................................................................. 38

3.1.3 Benefits and cost ...................................................................................................... 39

3.1.4 Generation of reactive power compensation [15].................................................... 41

3.1.5 Classification of FACTS devices ............................................................................ 42

3.1.6 FACTS Application ................................................................................................. 45

3.2 Introduction to static synchronous compensators (STATCOM).................................... 50

3.2.1 Definition ................................................................................................................. 51

3.2.2 Basic Circuit Configuration of STATCOM ............................................................ 51

3.2.4 STATCOM voltage sources .................................................................................... 53

3.2.5 Power industries ...................................................................................................... 58