Micromechanics of Active

Composites With S i A Fibers

D. C. Lagoudas
J. G. Boyd
Z. Bo
Center for Mechanics of Composites,
Aerospace Engineering Department,
Texas A&M University System,
College Station, TX 77843-3141
The study of the effective thermomechanical response of active fibrous composites
with shape memory alloy (SMA) fibers is the subject of this work. A 3-D constitutive
response for the SMA fibers is formulated first. To model thermomechanical loading
path dependence, an incremental approach is used assuming that within each stress
and temperature increment the volume fraction of the martensitic phase remains
constant in the SMA fibers. The Mori-Tanaka averaging scheme is then used to give
an estimate of the instantaneous effective thermomechanical properties in terms of
the thermomechanical properties of the two phases and martensitic volume fraction.
A unit cell model for a periodic active composite with cubic and hexagonal ar-
rangement of fibers is also developed to study the effective properties using finite
element analysis. It is found that since the fibers and not the matrix undergo the
martensitic phase transformation that induces eigenstrains, the Mori-Tanaka av-
eraging scheme accurately models the thermomechanical response of the composite,
relative to the finite element analysis, for different loading paths. Specific results
are reported for the composite pseudoelastic and shape memory effect for an elas-
tomeric matrix continuous SMA fiber composite.

1 Introduction
It has been several years now since a new area in engineering
science, labeled "active materials and smart structures" has
emerged (Jaeger and Rogers, 1988). These new research ac-
tivities reflect the need for a new generation of engineering
products and systems with better precision, efficiency, and
reliability. Advances in materials research and mechanics and
control of complex structural systems have made possible such
an undertaking. The expectations are also high: one envisions
an active phase to be embedded in a structural element trans-
forming it into a sensory and/or adaptive structure. When
there is also an embedded (integrated) feedback control, the
structure is characterized as "smart." Provisions for adjust-
ment of the control strategy based on changing environment
or material characteristics will eventually result in an "intel-
ligent" structure (Takagi, 1990; Wada et al., 1990).
The key to success of such an endeavor is powerful com-
puters and control algorithms as well as materials that meet
the design constraints of complex integrated engineering sys-
tems. The materials aspect involves both novel active materials
development issues and design and fabrication issues of the
integrated structure. Shedding some light on the link between
materials behavior and structural response is the subject of the
present work. Since active materials are usually embedded into
or attached onto structural elements (Lagoudas and
Tadjbakhsh, 1992), we will concentrate here in the modeling
of the behavior of composite structures with active material
phases. Two key developments over the last forty years are of
Contributed by the Materials Division for publication in the JOURNAL OF
ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received by the Mate-
rials Division August 20, 1993; revised manuscript received February 3, 1994.
Associate Technical Editor: J. W. Ju.
great help in our attempt to understand the behavior of such
composites: 1) the advancement of coupled field theories in
the fifties and sixties (Truesdell and Toupin, 1960); 2) extensive
micromechanics modeling of heterogeneous media over the
past two decades (Christensen, 1979; Nemat-Nasser and Hori,
1993).
The definition of an active material phase is schematically
given in Fig. 1. An active material is a continuum phase whose
mechanical constitutive response is coupled with a nonme:
chanical effect. Thermoelasticity, piezoelectricity, magneto-
striction, and hygroelasticity are a few examples. The solution
of coupled field problems in structural applications requires
sophisticated numerical schemes to handle additional unknown
dependent variables and boundary and initial conditions. Since
many of the available finite element or boundary element tech-
niques, as well as analytical techniques, have been developed
for mechanical problems, it is often convenient to decouple
field problems by treating the influence of non-mechanical
interactions as a known distribution of applied body forces
that result from known eigenstrains (Mura, 1987). A successful
application of this concept is the thermal eigenstrain, which
is added to the elastic strain to produce the total compatible
ei'genstrain. The thermal eigenstrain is introduced as a function
of temperature that is assumed to be known, either experi-
mentally measured or evaluated from the uncoupled heat con-
duction equation. Phase transformation strains have also been
treated in a similar way. This approximate way of modeling
active materials is of course valid in the case of weak inter-
actions.
An active phase is therefore characterized by an eigenstrain
which is assumed to be either directly controllable or indirectly
controllable through coupling. An active composite is a het-

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Microstructural
Coupled Phenomena Changes
J V
" u
Coupled Field Equations Evolution Equations
ACTIVE MATERIALS
Fig. 1 Definition of an active material
erogeneous medium composed of a number of distinct material
phases, mechanically brought together, at least one of which
is an active phase. An active composite will exhibit an effective
mechanical response influenced by the eigenstrains of the active
phase(s). In the case of known eigenstrains, averaging tech-
niques can be applied to estimate effective properties (Chris-
tensen, 1979; Dvorak, 1990; Nemat-Nasser and Hori, 1993).
In the case of the coupled field problem, simultaneous aver-
aging pertinent to all interaction effects is necessary (Dunn
and Taya, 1993).
If one of the active phases is a Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)
(Buehler and Wiley, 1965), its mechanical response is influ-
enced by a martensitic phase transformation, which can be
activated by applied stresses and it occurs within a small tem-
perature range (Wayman, 1983). The thermomechanical cou-
pling mainly occurs through the induced martensitic phase
transformation. In terms of the constitutive behavior of SMA
upon mechanical loading, it is similar to inelastic materials
that undergo changes of their microstructure due to dislocation
motion, grain boundary slip, void formation, etc. What makes
SMA unique, however, is that the changes in the microstructure
can always be reversed (albeit with some hysteresis) by appli-
cation of the appropriate temperature field and quite often by
the application of an appropriate stress field. The strong cou-
pling between thermal and mechanical effects associated with
reversible microstructural changes creates the unique charac-
teristics of SMA, i.e., the shape memory effect (SME) and
pseudoelasticity.
Extensive experimentation on SMA (Jackson et al., 1972;
Perkins, 1975) has shown that the two important factors in-
fluencing the martensitic transformation and shape memory
effect are indeed applied stress and temperature. The marten-
sitic fraction versus temperature diagram for constant stress
shows a significant hysterisis effect with the two ranges of
temperature, As-Af, and Ms-Mf usually disjoint. The first
range ^ - ,4/ indicates the start and end of the austenitic phase
during heating, while the range Ms-Mf indicates the initiation
and completion of the martensitic transformation during cool-
ing. As the applied stress varies, the hysterisis loop deforms
and for the one-dimensional case there are empirical relation-
ships that correlate the points As, Af, Ms, Mj- with the applied
stress (Liang and Rogers, 1990). An attempt to explicitly model
the effect of stress and temperature on the martensitic fraction
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has been undertaken by Tanaka, (1986) and Sato and Tanaka
(1988), who proposed an exponential decay of the martensitic
fraction with temperature and stress. The same model has been
used by Liang and Rogers but with a cosine dependence of the
martensitic fraction on temperature and stress. Recently Liang
and Rogers (1991) extended their one-dimensional model to 3-
D by replacing the uniaxial stress with the Mises effective stress.
We note in passing that the work of Tanaka is based on the
formulation of continuum thermodynamics with internal vari-
ables by Edelen (1974). Related work on thermodynamics of
phase transformations in shape memory alloys has been done
by Cory and McNichols (1985), Muller and Wilmanski (1980),
and Ortin and Planes (1989), while the martensitic phase trans-
formation for monocrystals has been studied by Ball and James
(1987), Barsch and KrumhansI (1992), Ericksen (1987), and
for polycrystals by Bhattacharya and Kohn (1993).
To model the path dependence, an incremental approach
will be used in this work, assuming that within each stress and
temperature increment the volume fraction of the martensitic
phase remains constant. The Mori-Tanaka averaging scheme
will then give an estimate of the instantaneous effective ther-
momechanical properties in terms of the thermomechanical
properties of the two phases and the martensitic volume frac-
tion in the SMA fibers.
Averaging thermomechanical methods based on Eshelby's
solution of the ellipsoidal inhomogeneity (Eshelby, 1957) have
been used extensively for the evaluation of the effective elastic
properties of fibrous or particulate composites. The most
prominent ones are the self-consistent method (Budiansky,
1965; Hill, 1965; Kroner, 1958) and recently the Mori-Tanaka
method (Mori and Tanaka, 1973; Weng, 1984). According to
the self-consistent method, the interactions among inhomo-
geneities for finite volume concentrations are approximately
taken into account by embedding the inhomogeneity in a me-
dium with the effective thermomechanical properties. The
above methodology was initially developed to model the av-
erage constitutive behavior of polycrystals and was later ap-
plied to composites.
The basic difference between composites and polycrystals is
the existence of a distinct matrix phase in composites which
supports the various dispersions. This realization established
a new procedure for evaluating thermomechanical effective
properties of composites, according to which the ellipsoidal
inhomogeneity, representing the dispersed phase, is embedded
into the matrix material instead of an effective medium. The
idea of modifying the matrix fields was originally proposed
by Mori and Tanaka (1973) for the transformation problem
and subsequently modified for the inhomogeneity problem by
Taya and Mura (1981), Weng (1984) and recently reconsidered
by Benveniste (1987). Following the basic Mori-Tanaka prin-
ciple, equivalent stress and strain concentration factors have
been derived by Weng (1984), Benveniste (1987) and by La-
goudas et al. (1991).
The application of the Mori-Tanaka method for the eval-
uation of effective elastic properties of composites has been
successful because it is a direct method explicitly deriving the
effective properties in terms of phase volume factions and
phase elastic properties, in contrast with the self-consistent
method which gives implicit algebraic relations. In terms of
realistic predictions, the Mori-Tanaka method stands on a
sound theoretical basis as was recently pointed out by Weng
(1990). According to his findings the Mori-Tanaka method lies
within or coincides with one of Hashin-Shtrikman (1963)
bounds for binary composites and for multiphase composites
with identically shaped inhomogeneities.
The study of the effective thermomechanical response of
active fibrous composites with SMA fibers and an elastic matrix
will be studied in the sequel using the Mori-Tanaka averaging
scheme. An outline of averaging micromechanics schemes will
be given in Section 2. In Section 3, the 3-D constitutive response
Transactions of the ASME
 of the SMA fibers will be formulated. Section 4 will describe by- = (Iff*/ - BtfW)(MBfflfl - Mfklm, )->(mL- <»), " = m,f,
the development of the unit cell for periodic fibrous composites (11)
with tetragonal and hexagonal periodic arrangements. Finally,
and
Section 5 will present the results for both the Mori-Tanaka
averaging scheme and the unit cell model for an elastomeric »5-= »{/*/-A J w )(L2} m „-L<, f f l ( I )-'(/L-C), v = m,f. (12)
matrix composite with SMA fibers.
The effective composite thermal properties are given by
2 Averaging Schemes 'u = hj + c \Ljjki — Ljjki)Akinm(L,mn0p — L,mn0p) (lop"'op)i (13)
The effective properties of a heterogeneous material will be and
evaluated in this section. A micromechanics scheme (the Mori- + cf(M{ikl~M'(lkd
mcj=m'(;
Tanaka method) will be used to obtain the thermomechanical
stress and strain concentration tensors using an approximate x BJk„,m(ML,op - M;"„ OP ) _ ' (nfop - m"0'p), (14)
solution to the particle interaction problem. where I,yW is the fourth order identity tensor. Note that Eqs.
2.1 General Expressions for the Incremental Effective (11) through (14) are general relationships that are independent
Composite Properties. Equations (1) through (10), Hill's of the micromechanics method used to obtain the mechanical
(1965) "direct approach" to effective composite properties, concentration tensors. This decomposition method requires
are general relationships that are independent of the micro- that the effects of thermal and mechanical loads can be ob-
mechanics method used to obtain the concentration tensors. tained separately. In the incremental formulation presented in
It is assumed that the temperature is uniform throughout the Section 3.2 for SMA, it is assumed that the SMA equations
composite. The incremental thermomechanical constitutive re- are piece-wise linear, that is, linear within each increment. The
lations of the phases v = m (matrix) and v = / (fiber) are given accumulated error will be small if small increments are used.
by
2.2 The Mori-Tanaka Micromechanics Method. From
a?; = Uklhh + lijf, v = m,f (1) inspection of Eqs. (11) through (14), it is apparent that the
effective composite thermomechanical constitutive equations
and
are obtained from the evaluation of the mechanical stress and
e& = M&«ffJ,+ /n&7', v = m,f (2) strain concentration tensors. Eshelby's method (Eshelby, 1957),
where h"yk/ and M# w are the tangent stiffness and compliance sometimes called the "equivalent inclusion method," is a means
tensors, respectively, and " " denotes the time derivative. of predicting the effective properties of dilutely reinforced
The thermal strain tensor m)j and the thermal stress tensor % composite materials. The term "dilute" means that the rein-
are related by forcement phase is of a sufficiently small volume fraction that
the units of reinforcement, such as particles, whiskers or fibers,
ru=-Uuk,m"kh v = m,f (3) do not interact. The Mori-Tanaka (1973) method is an ap-
Similarly, the composite response is given by the effective proximate extension of Eshelby's method to the case of non-
constitutive equations dilute volume fractions. Among the numerous references on
c c the Mori-Tanaka method, we mention Weng (1984), Mura
b u = Vuuk% + I ut (4) (1987), Benveniste (1987), and Lagoudas et al. (1991).
and To briefly describe the Mori-Tanaka method, let a composite
ecij = W,jklbckl+m'ijf (5) consist of two elastic phases and be loaded by a macroscopically
uniform stress or strain. The uniform applied fields are as-
with sumed to extend over a representative volume. The repre-
lfj= -Vijkiml,. (6) sentative volume forms a characteristic sample of the
The volume averaged stress and strain fields within each phase microstructure and consists of a sufficiently large number of
are given in terms of the overall average fields in a represent- inclusions of each phase, yet its size is small compared to the
ative volume element by macroscopic length scale (Hill, 1963). To explicitly evaluate
the phase average stress and strain concentration factors, the
a'0 = Blkla% + blf, v = m,f (7) stress and strain fields in the dispersed phase are represented
and by a single inhomogeneity embedded in an infinite matrix ma-
terial. The far field applied to the inhomogeneity is different
e^A^aeh + alf, v = m,f (8) from the overall applied field by an amount consistent with
where B"yW, A/,*/, fy, and «/,- are the stress, strain, thermal the overall equilibrium of the composite system. The magni-
stress and thermal strain concentration tensors, respectively. tude of the modification indicates the extent of the interactions
The effective composite tangent stiffness and compliance ten- among inhomogeneities and it vanishes as the volume fraction
sors, respectively, are of inhomogeneities approaches zero.
c The key steps in deriving concentration tensors by the Mori-
^•ijkl — i-'ijkl + ( '-•ijmn ~ ^ijmnl^mnkl \")
Tanaka method is the application of Eshelby's equivalent in-
and clusion method and the consistency condition (the average
M&w = M ^ ; + cf{ Mfijmn - M£U)B{„„W, (10) stress or strain in the phases is required to be equal to the
overall applied stress or strain). Weng (1984) applied the con-
where cf denotes the fiber volume fraction (c'" + cf= 1). Note sistency condition first and then the Eshelby principle, while
that in general the effective stiffness and compliance tensors Benveniste (1987) applied the Eshelby principle first and the
are not the volume average of the constituent stiffness and consistency condition in a second step. They both derive equiv-
compliance tensors. alent concentration tensors. A simple equivalent form of the
The thermal stress and strain concentration tensors can be stress and strain concentration tensors has been provided by
determined using the decomposition scheme of Benveniste and Lagoudas et al. (1991):
Dvorak (1990). The decomposition allows for the determi-
nation of the thermal concentration tensors as a function of B//M = Wijkl + c'"Lij„m(Imn0p - Smnop)(Mopkl ~ Mop*-/)] (15)
the mechanical concentration tensors and the constituent ther-
momechanical properties. The thermal stress and strain con- and
centration tensors are given by Ay*/ = [I//*/ + c"'SijmnM™„,op(Lopki — L0/)W)] (16)

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 To derive the above concentration tensors, an approach similar stiffness tensor will then be derived. The 1-D model of Tanaka
to Weng's has been used, but, in a slight deviation from Weng's is based on the nucleation kinetic equation developed by Magee
formulation, the unknown strains were expressed in terms of (1970):
the fiber strain instead of the overall strain. The simplicity
dAGA
gained by this approach becomes important when the Mori- dk=-V(\-k)Q dT, (20)
Tanaka method is used in an incremental formulation, where dT
the concentration tensors have to be re-evaluated in every load where £ is the volume fraction of martensite, Kis the average
increment. The expressions given above have the least number volume of the newly formed martensite plates, Q is a constant,
of matrix inversions, compared with Weng's and Benveniste's. and AGA~M is the free energy driving force. Although Eq. (20)
The solution of the mechanical problem requires the eval- was originally developed to model the nucleation of ferrous
uation of the Eshelby tensor, Syki, which is a function of the martensite, a non-SMA material, it has been used to describe
reinforcement shape and the matrix stiffness. Because the ma- the thermoelastic martensite growth typical of SMA materials.
trix stiffness is herein assumed to be constant, the Eshelby The current value of £ can be obtained by integrating (20) from
tensor must be calculated only once, even though the SMA Ms to T assuming that V, Q and dAGA~~M/dT are constant:
fiber stiffness varies. If the matrix stiffness varies, as it does
during plastic deformation of metal matrix composites, then £=l-exp|yM(Ms-T)], M'rsTssM* (21)
it is necessary to calculate the Eshelby tensor in each load step. where a =M
-VQ(dAGA~M/dT.
For the case of an ellipsoidal reinforcement in a generally It has been experimentally observed, and theoretically pre-
anisotropic matrix, the Eshelby tensor must be evaluated nu- dicted by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, that the tensile
merically (Gavazzi and Lagoudas, 1990). stress dependence of the transformation temperatures follows
the linear relationship
1 , 1
3 SMA Constitutive Equations MS = M ° S + - M/=M°
Most of the analytical and experimental constitutive studies
of SMA materials have been limited to the case of one di- AS = A " + - Ay = A -/ + (22)
mensional (1-D) stress and strain. When embedded in a matrix &°>
material, however, the SMA fiber will in general be subjected where C and C are the martensitic and austenitic stress
to three dimensional (3-D) loading, even if the composite is influence coefficients. The modified transformation temper-
loaded uniaxially. It is therefore necessary to extend the 1-D atures of Eq. (22) can be used in the integration of (20) to
SMA elastic and inelastic (transformation) equations to 3-D.
obtain
The 3-D elastic properties will be discussed in Section 3.1. The
3-D transformation response will be presented in Section 3.2. £ = l-exp[ffM(M"-T)+6M(j], M^TssM*
The tangent stiffness tensor, which is needed in the micro- during the martensitic transformation and
mechanical analysis of the SMA fiber composite, is also derived
in Section 3.2. £ = exp[aA(A°s-T)+bAa], A'<T<A7
during the reverse transformation.
3.1 The Effective SMA Fiber Thermoelastic Proper- Assuming that the transformation is complete when £ = 0.99,
ties. The effective SMA elastic stiffness tensor is given by an the constants aM, bM, a4, and bA are given by
equation analogous to (9):
M ln(O.Ol) M
J4
--ijkl: = Cy<W+£(C(/ •ijimil^mnkh (17) 7 h
O -=—
- C M >
(jvr-M )'
where A „ , H is the elastic form of the strain concentration
tensor, £ is the volume fraction of martensite, and CAki and ln(0.01)_
(23)
Cffri are the isotropic elastic stiffness tensors corresponding to ( A s - Ai/V
0 Cf
polycrystalline austenitic and martensitic phases, respectively. Note that the exponential dependence of the martensitic vol-
The Mori-Tanaka averaging method has been used to esti- ume fraction on stress and temperature requires an accurate
mate the effective elastic stiffness tensor for different shapes measurement of the end points of the transformation, i.e., the
of the two phases, from needle-like to plate-like shapes of the martensitic and austenitic start and finish temperatures, in
martensitic phase in the forward transformation and likewise order to evaluate the constants in (23). Small experimental
for the austenitic phase in the reverse transformation (Boyd errors, therefore, may introduce large variations in the estimate
and Lagoudas, 1994). A random distribution of the dispersed of these constants.
phase was assumed by Boyd and Lagoudas (1994), and as a The 3-D forms of the transformation temperatures and the
result there was no substantial difference found in the estimate volume fraction of martensite are obtained from the 1-D equa-
of the effective SMA stiffness for different shapes. In addition, tions by assuming that the transformation is independent of
the deviation from the Voigt (1889) bound, which corresponds hydrostatic stress:
to Ajjki = Ijjkh was found to be small. The SMA elastic stiffness
and thermoelastic expansion tensors are therefore assumed to
Ms = M°s + ~d, Mf=M°f+~
be given in this work by
Cijkl = Qjkl + £ (Cijkl ~ CijM), (18)
(24)
and
A . w M A\
(19) l-exp[aM(M"-T)+feMa], M/<T<M" (25)
during the martensitic transformation and
3.2 The SMA Fiber Transformation Equations. In ad-
dition to the 3-D SMA elastic response discussed above, the £ = e x p [ t f 4 ( A " - T ) + Z/15], AJ<T:
(26)
3-D SMA inelastic (transformation) response and the SMA during the reverse transformation.
tangent stiffness tensor are needed to predict the effective By assuming that the stress-induced shape memory effect is
properties of the SMA fiber composite. Accordingly, the 1-D governed by a von-Mises (isotropic) type of response, these
model for SMA materials proposed by Tanaka (1986) and Sato three-dimensional equations for £ were obtained from the one-
and Tanaka (1988) will be extended to 3-D, and the tangent dimensional equations by replacing the one-dimensional stress

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 Table 1 SMA fiber and elastomer matrix properties Temperature = 35°C
Temperature = 51°C
NiTi material properties
/ y = 30.0xl0 3 MPa
£ ^ = 1 3 . Ox 103MPa
y = 0.33
aM/, = 11.0xlO~6 6/°C
a = 6.6xlO- /°C
MfS = 2TC
MS=5°C
A f = 29°C
A =5l°C
C M4 =11.3 MPa/°C
C = 4.5 MPa/°C
Q= -0.91 xlO3 MPa
Polymer material properties
£> = 2.0xl0 3 MPa
v = 0.45
a = 15xlO~6/°C
2.00 4.00 6.00 a.00
STRAIN ( p e r c e n t )
by the effective stress, a, where 5 = (3/2 alp-j)1'2, and the de- Fig. 2 The monolithic SMA constitutive response under a quasistatic
viatoric stressff,yis given by <7,y=<j,y- 1/3 okkdjj. uniaxial loading path.
The three-dimensional transformation strain rate can be ob-
tained as follows:
£(( = ¥ (27) tt ZO
* a * la, ^ - 133

where the transformation tensor is given by §5 m

3 Q __! - 122 i a 134 125 12G

__«__ \
-^-_ B3

(28) ^ 5 B
lUI nz i U u. ^
-^5S

^ "4 £<0 ~^~t^jF~~ is !U0 H i 112 m m

M A
In the above equation D = l/2(B +D ) is the average elastic JMJ/^O^ 10 1 101 JSS Jflfi 107 AOB

•pi inn ,„,

modulus in uniaxial extension. When the average elastic mod- nn Qa
ir—-V « / X ? 2 / \
ulus is used, the transformation constant, Q, can be obtained %\« \ sa \
v - \ -
from the maximum isothermal transformation strain (which / —/ / ^* / \— yjL.
corresponds to £ = 1) using e -fi/D. \ ez \ BB \ si \ se

A logical choice for A,y can be made by considering the aLJ / / \ m//\ i 3r"V\\ \ \ \
symmetry changes that occur during phase transformation and \so\m. \ I2 \ SI 81

reorientation. During the forward transformation the material i \ \ \

'\J<JsXJ ^'\3-\~~\\
wx^\~~Si~ T " 1 - ~ rn11i
is changing from a higher symmetry to a lower symmetry and r m
& Zl

there are many possible variants that can be formed, biased

by the stress state, consistent with the definition on the trans-
formation tensor for the forward transformation in (28). Dur-
ing the reverse transformation, however, all of the variants 3-D UNIT CELL RNHLYSIS OF H SMR COMPOSITE LRMINHTE
must return to the same parent symmetry and this is why the RSFtOUS VERSION 4-9-1 DflTEB 10-RUG-aa TIMEB 23*32842

transformation tensor in (28) has a different form governed Fig. 3 The composite unit cell and finite element mesh
by geometric considerations, i.e., is proportional to the trans-
formation strain.
where
The tangent mechanical and thermal stiffnesses L,yw and /,y
are defined by Q<y = (Qjki ~ Cjjki)eeki ~ CiJki(aki - aw)AT - C,ywAw (33)
ff,y = L, yw e w + /,yT. (29)
Equation (32) can be further simplified by collecting the terms
In order to derive these tangent stiffness tensors, the stress- containing 6>,:
strain equation of state
°ij + Gijmnbmn — Cjjki ekt+ R,yT, (34)
"U = QjkiCki = Cijki (iki ~ e'ki - ak,A T) (30)where
is written in rate form as
3 ff m
a = r - _n ^ "
ij Cijkl ekl + Cyk/Ckl
OCT Z (T
= C///w(«*/-«*/- ««T - a WAT) + C,ywe|, (31)
(35)
where efy, e,y,e'ij, and AT are the elastic strain, the total infin- Ry = Qy "^j; - CyiciUicl
itesimal strain, the transformation strain, and AT = T - T ° ,
where T° is the stress-free reference temperature. The deviatoric stress rate in (34) is eliminated by using
The elastic stiffness Cijkl tensor and the thermoelastic ex- ' mn u mn 1/3 aDDb„
pansion vector ak, are given by (18) and (19), respectively. The The tangent stiffness tensors can eventually be identified as
rates CiJki and ak/ may be obtained from (18) and (19) using
the chain rule for the time derivative £. Equations (18), (19), (J-ijmn + Gijmn) Cijkl (36)
and (28) can be substituted into (31) to yield and
ffy = Cijki £ * r C,ywawT + £ Q,y (32) 'mn \*ijmn ' ^ijmn) **//> (37)

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 During transformation-free thermomechanical loading, the TEMPERATURE 51°C
tangent response is given by ' Longitudinal Response by FEM
Longitudinal Response by M-T
1
ffy = Qy/W6/W~Q/«a/«T, (38) Transverse Response by FEM
Transverse Response by M-T
so that \jjjkl = Cijki and /<,- = - C,ywaw. The present derivation of
the tangent thermomechanical stiffness tensors differs from
that of Liang and Rogers (1991) in two significant ways: (1)
the present derivation accounts for variable elastic and ther-
moelastic expansion moduli, whereas the work of Liang and
Rogers does not; and (2) the present derivation includes the
effects of hydrostatic elastic strains and stresses, whereas the co 150 -°
co
elastic free energy of Liang'and Rogers includes only the de- w
«
viatoric components. H 100.0
CO
The thermomechanical behavior of a NiTi SMA fiber is
presented in Fig. 2. The NiTi material properties are given in
Table 1. The initial state is 100 percent austenite (£ = 0). Figure
2 indicates that for temperatures greater than As the shape
memory effect is replaced by partial pseudoelasticity due to
reverse transformation.
Fig. 4(a) The composite response, i.e., overall normal strains in the
4 Periodic Active Composites longitudinal and transverse directions, due to longitudinal tension quas-
istatic loading at r=51°C
In engineering applications one expects to have a certain
periodic pattern of SMA fiber placement depending on the
manufacturing process. To describe a composite with a peri-
TEMPERATURE 51°C
odic array of fibers, a unit cell and two vectors of periodicity
need to be given. In the case of orthonormal vectors of pe- Q-Q^O-O Longitudinal Response by FEM
Longitudinal Response by M-T
riodicity a tetragonal fiber arrangement is formed, with the 400.0 n *~—*-• Transverse Response by FEM
Transverse Response by M-T
unit cell being a single fiber with the surrounding matrix.
Additional symmetry requirements in the geometry and loading ; i)
/
further reduce the unit cell to the configuration shown in Fig. 300.0 :
//
3. To model the infinitely long fibers, generalized plane strain \
conditions have been assumed in the axial direction. Eight-
node linear brick elements have been used and the finite element
discretization is shown in Fig. 3. EOO.O :

A similar procedure can be followed for the case of a hex-

agonal arrangement of fibers. In this case the two vectors of ;
periodicity form a 60 deg angle and the unit cell will be different \ \ '/ /
:
100.0
from the one shown in Fig. 3 (Teply and Dvorak, 1988; Ach-
enbach and Zhu, 1990). It can be shown, however, that the
same unit cell used for the tetragonal periodic arrangement
may be used for the hexagonal unit cell, provided that the 0.0 :

boundary conditions are modified to incorporate the center of 0.0 4.0

symmetry required by hexagonal periodicity. STRAIN percent
The finite element implementation has been carried out using Fig. 4(b) The composite response, i.e., overall normal strains in the
the commercial code ABAQUS'. The thermomechanical con- transverse and longitudinal directions, due to transverse tension quas-
istatic loading at r=51°C
stitutive model for the SMA fibers described in Section 3 has
been imported to ABAQUS as a user supplied material sub-
routine (UMAT).
TEMPERATURE 51°C

5 Results and Discussion

The Mori-Tanaka method and the unit cell finite element
analysis have been used to predict the thermomechanical re-
sponse of a fibrous composite with NiTi SMA fibers and elas-
tomeric matrix (Table 1 gives the material constants for both
materials.) Overall longitudinal, transverse tension, and trans-
verse shear loadings have been applied for two different tem-
peratures. In all cases, the SMA fiber volume fraction was CO
CO
assumed to be 30 percent. w
K 200.00
The results shown in Fig. 4 correspond to temperature 51 °C, H
CO
which is the austenite finish temperature for the SMA fibers.
In Fig. 4(a) a longitudinal loading path is applied (along the '«
fiber direction) and both the longitudinal composite response <
as well as the transverse to the fibers response is given in Fig. a loo.oo
CO
4(a). In Fig. 4(b) the applied loading path is in the transverse
direction and again both the transverse and longitudinal com-
posite responses are shown. The composite response to an 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
overall applied shear stress is shown in Fig. 4(c). In all three SHEAR STRAIN ( p e r c e n t )
cases of loading, the composite response is pseudoelastic, the Fig. 4(c) The composite response, i.e., overall transverse shear strain
same as the fiber response for that temperature (Fig. 2), and due to transverse shear quasistatic loading at r=51°C

342 / V o l . 116, JULY 1994 Transactions of the ASME

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 VflLUE
+ 1. 0 0 E + 0 2
+ 1. 6 0 E + 0 2
i-2. 20E->-02
•t-2. 6 0 E + 0 2
+ 3. 4 0 E + 0 2
-v4. Q Q E + 0 2
+ 4. 6 0 E + 0 2
- 5 . 20E*-02
-5. BOE+02
+ 6. 40Ei-02
+ 7. 0 0 E + 0 2

3-D UNIT CELL RNRLYSIS OF R SMR COMPOSITE LRMINRTE

TIME C O M P L E T E D I N T H I S S T E P +9. O O O E ^ O l TOTAL flCCUMULRTED TIME ->-9. lOOE+Ol STEP 2 INCREMENT 90

PBRQUS V E R S I O N 4-9-1 OATEH 1Q-RUG-93 TIMES 2383IBIB

Fig. 5(a) The effective stress fieid as predicted by the finite element
analysis at the end of loading for the case shown in Fig. 4(b)

VBLUE
+5. O O E - 0 9
+ 5. O O E - 0 3
+ 1. O O E - 0 2
+ 1. S O E - 0 2
+ 2. O O E - 0 2
+ 2. 5 0 E - 0 2
+ 3. O O E - 0 2
*3. 50E-02
+4. O O E - 0 2
f4. 5 0 E - 0 2
+ 5. O O E - 0 2

3-D UNIT CELL RNRLYSIS OF R SMR COMPOSITE LRMINRTE

TIME C O M P L E T E D I N T H I S S T E P ^-9. OOOE-^01 TOTAL RCCUMULPiTEO T I M E +9. 100E*01 STEP 2 INCREMENT 90

P.SP.QUS VERSION 4-9-1 DRTEO 10-RUG-S3 TIMES 23H34H1G

Fig. 5(b) The effective transformation strain field as predicted by the

finite element analysis at the end of loading for the case shown in Fig.
Mb)

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 TEMPERATURE 5 1 ° C TEMPERATURE 35°C
Eiongi. v s - s«ff. Driven by Longitudinal Loading 1
Longitudinal Response by FEM
Eirans. vs. Se„. Driven by Transverse Loading Longitudinal Response b y M—T
Eflhear vs. Seff. Driven by Shear Loading • T r a n s v e r s e Response by FEM
t« 500.0 n T r a n s v e r s e Response by M-T
PU :
1 /
S
w 400 -° ^
:

/ II
J
y''''' -••
'"
y
C/3 ^y^ **' / .-''.-'"'
H ^****^^ I -""' *.•••'"'
PS : ^^^^^^ -'']' --'"'''
H r""~"""""""""^ /"'" I y"" /
Ui 300.0 -
W /1 / '' /•''''' •'''/' •''
'' -''
>
H : i
/

/
'

••'']
/•'''' '

''••'"'
•''"''

O 200.0 - I ' •'"'' 1 (•''''

W 1 / /'' I /'
C* I ' / 1 //
pq \ / *'•*' /-''*/'
W / '' ••'' •{'''
100.0 : J
K

W :
\ / jC^^ '
1 j^/Z^'
CQ \/>'ji'''
Pfc
0.0 - n 'V 1111111111111111111111111
4.0 6.0 6.0
1111111 i i i j i i 1 1 ' i i i i '
10.0 12.0
' • i'' M
• • ' •' 0.0 2.0 4.0

STRAIN ( p e r c e n t ) STRAIN ( p e r c e n t )
Fig. 7(a) The composite response, i.e., overall normal strains in the
Fig. 6 The effective fiber stress as predicted by the Mori-Tanaka method,
longitudinal and transverse directions, due to longitudinal tension quas-
for the three cases shown in Figs. 4(a), 4(b), and 4(c) istatic loading at r = 3 5 ° C

the agreement between the Mori-Tanaka and the finite element TEMPERATURE 35°C
analysis is very good.
' Longitudinal Response by FEM
For the case of longitudinal loading of composites with stiff Longitudinal Response by M-T
• T r a n s v e r s e Response b y FEM
fibers reinforcing a compliant matrix, simple averaging meth- T r a n s v e r s e Response b y M-T
ods are known to give accurate results because the stress state
in the fiber is approximately uniaxial (longitudinal) and spa-
tially homogeneous. However, for the case of transverse load-
ing of "conventional" inelastic composites, i.e., composites
consisting of an elastic fiber and an inelastic matrix, averaging
methods are known to be inaccurate because of the complicated
stress distribution in the matrix (Lagoudas et al., 1991). In the W 150°
present case of a SMA fiber and an elastic matrix, however,
transverse loading results in a relatively uniform distribution «
of effective stress and effective strain in the fiber, as evidenced E-i 100.0

by Fig. 5. The uniformity in the fiber effective stress (Fig. 5(a))

implies uniform transformation strains (Fig. 5(b)), therefore
justifying the incremental use of the Mori-Tanaka averaging
method to predict transformation strains.
The comparison between Mori-Tanaka and FEM shows the 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
largest deviation in the transverse shear loading case (Fig. 4(c)). STRAIN ( p e r c e n t )
Even though the hysteresis loop is similar for both predictions, Fig. 7(6) The composite response, i.e., overall normal strains in the
the stress level at which transformation starts in the fibers is transverse and longitudinal directions, due to transverse tension quas-
istatic loading at T=35°C
higher for the Mori-Tanaka method. One can explain this
discrepancy by noting that the evaluation of the average con-
centration tensor by the Mori-Tanaka method is such that the TEMPERATURE 35°C
effective stress in the fiber is underpredicted, delaying therefore
the initiation of the phase transformation in the SMA fibers.
This is compatible with the observation of Weng (1990), that »— by FEM
bY M-T
the effective response of the composite will coincide with the
lower Hashin-Shtrikman bound for stiff fibers and compliant
matrix.
Figure 6 shows the effective stress in the fiber for the three
different loading paths, as predicted by the Mori-Tanaka
method. Note that since Fig. 5(a) indicates that the fiber ef-
fective stress is almost uniform within the cross section of the
fiber, the average effective stress shown in Fig. 6 is also the
point-wise effective stress in the fiber.
The same mechanical loading paths, i.e., longitudinal ten-
sion, transverse tension and transverse shear, but at temper-
ature 35°C, which lies between the austenite start and austenite
finish temperatures, are shown in Fig. 7. The comparisons
between Mori-Tanaka method and FEM are similar with those
made for Fig. 4. 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
In Fig. 7(a), partial recovery of the effective transformation SHEAR STRAIN percent )
strain is observed upon unloading. The pure fiber response Fig. 7(c) The composite response, i.e., overall transverse shear strain
shown in Fig. 2 also indicates partial shape recovery by about due to transverse shear quasistatic loading at 7=35°C

344 / V o l . 116, JULY 1994 Transactions of the ASME

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 VfiLUE
+ 1 OOE
+ 1 40E
+ 1 eoE
+ 2 20E
+ 2 BOE
+ 3 OOE
+ 3 40E
*3 BOE
+4 20E
+ 4 60E
*5 OOE

3-D UNIT CELL HNBLYSIS OF R SMR COMPOSITE LRMINRTE

TIME COMPLETED IN THT5 STEP +1.000E+02 TOTRL RCCUMULRTED TIME + 1.010E+02 STEP 2 INCREMENT 100
HBHQUS VERSION 4-9-1 DHTEH 13-HUG-93 TIMES 01H50H44

Fig. 8(a) The effective stress field as predicted by the finite element
analysis at the end of loading for the case shown in Fig. 7(d)

VRLUE
+5.00E-09
-v5. OOE-03
tl. OOE-02
+ 1. 50E-02
+2. OQE-02
+ 2. 50E-02
+ 3. OOE-02
+3. 50E-02
+ 4. OOE-02
+ 4. 50E-02
+5. OOE-02

3-D UNIT CELL RNRLYSIS OF R SMR COMPOSITE LRMINRTE

TIME COMPLETED IN THIS STEP +1. 0OOE--O2 TOTRL RCCUMULRTED TIME +1. 010E*02 STEP 2 INCREMENT 100
RBRQUS VERSION 4-9-1 ORTEO 1 3-RUG-93 TIMES O1O50B44

Fig. 8(b) The effective transformation strain field as predicted by the

finite element analysis at the end of loading for the case shown in Fig.
7(b)

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 AT TEMPERATURE 35°C TEMPERATURE 51°
vs. S8„. Driven by Longitudinal Loading
vs. Seff. Driven by Transverse Loading CKJo-aa FEM Analysis for H e x a g o n a l A r r a n g e m e n t
vs. Seff. Driven by Shear Loading •-• *-•-• FEM Analysis for T e t r a g o n a l A r r a n g e m e n t
M o r i - T a n a k a Method

6.0 B.O
percent ) 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
STRAIN ( p e r c e n t )
Fig. 9 The effective fiber stress as predicted by the Mori-Tanaka method
for the three cases shown in Figs. 7(a), 7(d), and 7(c) Fig. 10 Comparison between the FEM results for tetragonal and hex-
agonal periodic fiber arrangements and the Mori-Tanaka method for
transverse tension quasistatic loading at 7"=51°C
the same amount upon unloading (shape memory effect). Par-
tial shape recovery is also predicted in the transverse shear
loading case, shown in Fig. 7(c). However, the transverse ten- TEMPERATURE 51°
sion case, shown in Fig. 7(b), shows no composite shape re- 3D0- o-oe-ao FEM Analysis for H e x a g o n a l A r r a n g e m e n t
covery upon unloading. The explanation for this interesting FEM Analysis for T e t r a g o n a l A r r a n g e m e n t
* - * * • * - *

composite behavior can be found in Fig. 9, where the effective 300-

Mori - T a n a k a Method
stress in the SMA fiber is plotted versus the effective strain.
As indicated in Fig. 9, monotonic unloading of the transformed
composite does not result in a monotonic unloading of effective d : 2 5 0 py '"° £r
OH yZs ' '
stress in the fiber. SS : x
This phenomenon can be understood by decomposing the ^300- /<y--
^y--~
fiber stress into two parts. The first part is a stress that is in (Z> / "y-•*?'''
equilibrium with the applied loads, whereas the second part is £i50: / s '/&''''"'

due to the eigenstresses (or residual stress) that result from the S* ''''
incompatibility of the eigenstrains. During unloading of the w
/ &y^
'/-
100^
f y
composite, the decreasing applied stress combines with the • '/-''
compressive residual stress, resulting in a fiber effective stress
"•
/£'''
&'
50-
/^*
'-%£*
that reaches a minimum before the end of unloading and sub- -
sequently increases. In the case of transverse loading in tension, - JT
the minimum of the effective fiber stress does not go below o : ffffr, mi Tm-rr r n u | | | | • | n| i i i i i j i , .iiiiuiiii
4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 16.0
the value required for the reverse transformation and as a result STRAIN ( percent )
there is no shape recovery upon unloading. Fig. 11 Comparison between the FEM results for tetragonal and hex-
As a comparison between tetragonal and hexagonal periodic agonal periodic fiber arrangements and the Mori-Tanaka method for
arrangements, the effective response of the composite under transverse shear quasistatic loading at r=51°C
overall transverse and shear loading for the two periodic ar-
rangements is shown in Figs. 10 and 11. The results from the
Mori-Tanaka averaging method are also plotted in the same of the Army Research Office, contract No. DAAL03-92-G-
figures. It can be seen that for the same volume fraction the 0123, monitored by Dr. G. L. Anderson.
Mori-Tanaka predictions lie in-between the tetragonal and hex-
agonal periodic arrangements, with the hexagonal being the
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