PRESENT PERFECT

Past events can be predicated about either in the past tense or the present perfect from two different perspectives. In
“John read the book last year”, the event of John’s reading the book in is entirety is specified/dated as occurring during last
year, which is prior and thus distinct from the moment NOW. In “John has already read the book”, we understand that
John’s reading the book in its entirety occurred at some unspecified time in the past, but the event is related and, thus,
relevant to the present moment through its result: now, John knows what the book is about.
There have been several theories that tried to capture this distinction between the past simple and the present perfect:
(a) The Indefinite Past Theory – present perfect locates events somewhere before the moment of speaking, without
identifying any particular point or interval of time. ET is indefinite and “specified” only by indefinite adverbials:
since 3 o’clock, for two hours, so far, yet, etc. in contrast, ET of past simple events is definite: at two o’clock,
yesterday, etc.
(b) The Current Relevance Theory – it is only present perfect that claims relevance at the moment NOW, a feature the
past simple lacks. Compare “You woke him up when you went to the bathroom ten minutes ago.” to “You’ve
waken him up” – the present perfect itself in the second sentence locates the effects of the event at NOW.
(c) The Extended Now Theory – speakers can psychologically ‘extend’ the present backwards by means of present
perfect in English. The present perfect serves to locate an event within a period of time that begins in the past and
extends up to the present moment (and includes it). In contrast, the past tense specifies that an event occurred at a
past time that is separated and distinct from the present.

Before embarking upon an analysis of the two tenses mentioned above, we should clarify the relationship between
the English perfect and the perfective aspect, since the English perfect is quite often related to the meaning of completion or
result. Without renouncing the idea that the perfect marks anteriority, we can maintain the connection between the perfect
and the perfective in view of the fact that what is 'summed up as a whole' (i.e. perfective) may also be anterior to a certain
moment in time. What we need to understand is that the 'result / completion' meaning is not intrinsic to the perfect; rather,
just like the other meanings of the present perfect, it stems from the interaction of the perfect form with the aspectual
meaning of the verb phrase, plus the temporal adverbials it co-occurs with.
Thus, the perfect may acquire different senses according to the type of aspectual class 'have' combines with:
1) continuative perfect
2) experiential perfect
3) resultative perfect
4) 'hot news' perfect

CONTINUATIVE PRESENT PERFECT

When the present perfect combines with state verb phrases in sentences that contain a durative adverbial (for
instance, since / for phrases), they express states extending over a period of time that lasts up to the present moment:

I have lived in Paris since 1987.

The castle has been empty for ages.
Have you known my uncle for a long time?

Generally, the adverbial of duration cannot be absent from the sentence or otherwise the construction acquires an
indefinite past reading. I have lived in Paris simply places the situation at some unspecified point in the past, without
carrying any other information.
At the same time, there are exceptions to this rule if the semantic content of the respective sentence suggests a
period leading up to the present. In I've had a good life or You've outstayed your welcome the adverbials of time are felt as
implicit ('during my life' / 'so far' or 'for too long' in the case of 'outstay').
Used with process verb phrases and a frequency or a durative adverbial, the perfect expresses a habit and thus has a
recurrent continuative reading:

Mrs. Jones has played the organ in this church for fifteen years.
I have followed her behavior every day since she got here.
When I have tried to join their club, they have constantly turned me down.
The news has been broadcast at ten o'clock for as long as I can remember.

Since a habit is described as a state consisting of repeated events, this iterative use closely resembles the
continuative use of the perfect and, in fact, we may subsume it in the previous class as a type of 'recurrent continuative'
perfect.

Continuative: also with event verbs if in the progressive:

e.g. He’s been sleeping for two hours./ It has been snowing since noon./ Ever since the house has been occupied the
poltergeist have been acting up.
Modes of occurrence: a) continuous continuative: I have been sitting in all day.
b) discontinuous continuative: He has been building the house for the last five years. (i.e. on and off)

EXPERIENTIAL PRESENT PERFECT

With process and event verbs phrases (accomplishments and achievements), the perfect may refer to some
indefinite situation in the past. By 'indefinite' we mean on the one hand, that the number of occurrences is unspecified and
on the other hand, that the time when it takes place is not mentioned. Therefore, such use is often accompanied by
adverbials of time of the type never, ever, always, before (now):

I have never seen such a majestic cathedral before.

Have you ever been to the States?
Have you visited the Dali exhibition?

The temporal location of some events may be very close to the moment NOW, in which case we refer to recent
indefinite past situations. Such examples often contain adverbs like just, already, yet or recently: Has the postman called
yet? / They have already had breakfast.
If the definite time when the experience occurred is mentioned, the speaker shifts from Present Perfect to Past
Tense:
e.g. A: Have you been to Edinburgh?
B: Yes, I have.
A: When did you go?
B: Oh, last April, that’s when I did.
A: And did you visit many places while you were there?
B: Yes, I went to Hollyrood Palace.
Modes of occurrence: a) general experiential: He has never liked heavy metal. / A: Have you ever in your life seen anyone
so entirely delightful? B: Only when I’ve looked in the mirror.
b) limited experiential: Have you had a letter to type today?/ She has already had three proposals this morning.

RESULTATIVE PRESENT PERFECT

The association of event verb phrases (accomplishments and achievements), that presuppose a climax or end point,
with the perfect generates a resultative reading - that is, it implies that a transition comes to a final state valid at the present
moment. The resultative meaning does not need the support of time adverbials:

He has delivered the parcel. / The plane has landed. / He has recovered from his illness.

'HOT NEWS' PRESENT PERFECT

The perfect is often used in newspapers and broadcasts, especially in news reports, to introduce 'the latest' events,
which afterwards are described using the past tense. The temporal location of such situations is generally mentioned in the
second sentence, but even if it is not, the simple past is still employed at this point in the discourse:

The struggling Romanian soccer club Jiul Petrosani has experienced what may be one of the more humiliating
moments in recent sports history. Last week, the club announced that it would trade midfielder Ion Radu to second-
division club Valcea for two tons of beef and pork.
(Newsweek, March 1988)
NB. There is a special use of the present perfect instead of the simple present in adverbial clauses of time referring
to the future introduced by after, when, until, once, etc. In such cases the present perfect is said to have a future value. In
most cases the alternation of present simple and present perfect bears no significance. The presence of the perfect simply
places emphasis on the order of the events: I shall leave when I finish / I have finished.
On the other hand, there are contexts in which the perfect is obligatory, namely, in those sentences that are
semantically based on the cause - effect relationship. We say You will feel better after you have taken this pill if the pill
conditions the well-being of the patient. Similarly, when the events in the main clause and the subordinate temporally
coincide, the simple present is favored; when the event in the subordinate occurs before the one in the main clause, we use
the present perfect: Come over and see us when our guests leave / have left.

PRESENT PERFECT AND SIMPLE PAST

As already stated, present perfect and simple past resemble in that both express anteriority to a given moment in
time. What differentiates them is their relation to the present. The simple past marks events assigned to a past that is
concluded and completely separate from the present. In contrast, the present perfect either involves a period of time lasting
up to the present or has results persisting at the present moment. The common factor is the inclusion of the present in its
analysis.
Bearing this in mind, let us compare the various uses of the present perfect with the simple past. Consider the
following examples of continuative, experiential and habitual perfect:

She has been poor all her life. (She is still alive.)
She was poor all her life. (She is dead.)
Hannibal brought / *has brought elephants across the Alps.
For generations, Nepal has produced the world's greatest soldiers. (Nepal still exists.)
For generations, Sparta produced Greece's greatest warriors. (Sparta no longer exists.)

The use of either the perfect or the past in the above sentences is to be interpreted pragmatically. The period
referred to is rather assumed than named, but our knowledge of the world allows us to employ the appropriate tense; thus,
we talk about Hannibal or Sparta in the past because we know they no longer exist, whereas Nepal obviously has relevance
for the present.
This last observation relates to another notion - that of Discourse Topic (defined as 'the subject matter under
discussion in a certain context'). Discourse topics condition the use of the present perfect in the sense that only those
covering a period of time that includes the moment of speaking can be expressed in sentences that employ present perfect.
Compare:

Shakespeare has written impressive dramas.

*Shakespeare has quarreled with every playwright in London.

The first sentence is appropriate if the discourse topic is 'great dramatists of the world' or 'impressive dramas in
world literature', because such a topic would have relevance for the present moment. But if the discussion (i.e. discourse
topic) is about Shakespeare as a person and his activities, neither of the two sentences is correct since Shakespeare is dead.
In conclusion, "at the pragmatic level, the present perfect is appropriate in all those uses in which the event described has
relevance for the discourse topic, a fact which can be evaluated entirely only on the basis of contextual factors" (Ioana
Stefanescu, English Morphology, vol. II, 1988).
The basic difference between present perfect and simple past stems from the contrast definite / indefinite. As
already seen in the analysis of the simple past, this tense requires the use of a definite time adverbial which locates the
respective event at a certain point in the past. If there is no time adverbial, then 'definiteness' is retrieved by assumption of a
particular time from the context or is justified by the preceding use of a past or perfect tense:

We met yesterday. (definite time adverbial)

I have already talked to him; he came to ask me for money. (the past event is introduced by the perfect)
Did you walk the dog? (said between husband and wife who refer to a particular time when the dog is usually
walked)

Contexts as that supplied by the second example also emphasize a characteristic of the present perfect; this is used
to initiate conversations, since it is only natural to start conversations indefinitely and then to carry on using definite
linguistic expressions (be they the simple past, definite articles or personal pronouns):

I have bought this bag in Cypress Street.

How much did you pay for it?
I paid 15 $.

Since it specifies a definite moment in the past, the past tense is expected in (subordinate) clauses of time
introduced by when, while, since, etc. because the time indicated by them is considered to be already given. Naturally, a
clause introduced by when will trigger the use of a past tense in the main clause as well because the subordinate functions as
a definite time adverbial:

When did you last see him?

I haven't seen him since we met at Jane's party.
I didn't recognize him / *haven't recognized him when I saw him.

The present perfect is less used in American English, especially when it appears with recent indefinite past value;
Americans tend to say Did you meet him yet?, while the British say Have you met him yet? or I did it just now vs. I've just
received word that he isn't coming.
In spite of the differences mentioned so far, there are contexts in which the two tenses are interchangeable - that is,
when they describe recent events. Their alternation depends on the speaker's viewpoint. Compare: Where did I put my
gloves? to Where have I put my gloves? In the first example, the speaker focuses on the moment when he misplaced his
gloves, perhaps trying to remember what he was doing at the time, while in the second he concentrates on the present
moment and is only interested in where they are at present.

TIME ADVERBIALS IN RELATION TO PRESENT PERFECT AND SIMPLE PAST

Time adverbials (i.e. adverbs, adverbial phrases, adverbial clauses) classify into definite (bearing the feature
[+THEN], indefinite (which are [-THEN]) and those that have both features (that is, they are [+/- THEN]). The first class
combines only with the past, the second only with the perfect and the last with both, resulting in different meanings.
The definite adverbials of time point to a specific moment in the past, having no relation to the present and hence,
they cannot occur with the present perfect (yesterday, a week / month / year ago, last night / Tuesday / week / month / year,
etc.). Apart from them, there is the class of unanchored adverbs of the type in the evening, at 5 o'clock, on Monday, then,
soon, next, after lunch, etc. which most likely occur with the simple past, although they do not make specific reference to it:

He went out ten minutes ago.

I left home at 8.00 and got here at 12.00.
I saw him on Sunday morning.

On the other hand, the following adverbials are associated only with the present perfect: since, so far, up to now,
hitherto, lately, for the present, for the time being, for now, as yet, during these five years, before now:

I haven't been able to talk to him since I last saw him at the mall.
He hasn't done much work lately.
We have been very busy so far.

It is interesting to notice that, though since - phrases cannot be used with the simple past, for - phrases occur with
both the perfect and the past, given the appropriate contexts:

They haven't spoken to each other for three weeks.

They didn't speak to each other for three weeks, but then they made up.

The third group of adverbials allows the use of both the perfect and the past, resulting in different interpretations.
Compare:

I haven't read the paper this morning. (uttered at 10.00 a.m.)

I didn't read the paper this morning. (uttered at 6.00 p.m.)

Today, tonight and all phrases with this (this afternoon / month / year / Christmas / March, etc.) behave in a similar
way. I saw her this July implies that July is over, but I've seen her this July suggests that it is still July when I utter the
sentence. The difference lies in whether the event is viewed simply as a factor of experience obtaining at the moment of
speech (with the present perfect) or within the context of the time at which it occurred (with past simple).
The difference in use between just and just now is the following: just can take either past simple or present perfect:
I have just seen your sister. / I just saw your sister. while just now is interpreted as a moment/second/minute ago and occurs
only with the past tense: I saw your sister just now.
Never, ever, always combine with both tenses, again depending on the context; when used with the past tense, the
'never' period, for instance, must be restricted to a past temporal frame as in: I never liked bananas when I was a child
where the time clause supplies the background.
Now is mainly associated with present tense: Now my ambition is/has been fulfilled. But it may also be a substitute
for then and thus occur with past tense: Now my ambition was fulfilled.
Once appears with the simple past when it means 'on a certain occasion' or 'at one time', but if it is a numerical
adverb that may contrast with twice or three times, it may be used with both tenses:

I was happy once in this house.

I've seen the movie only once.
I met him only once when I was in Spain.

Already, still, yet and before occur with the perfect if they mean 'as early / late as now' and with the past if
interpreted as 'as early / late as then':

I've already heard that piece. ('as early as now')

I was already fed up with that piece. ('as early as then')

PAST PERFECT

Past perfect may appear with both [+then] and [-then] adverbials, unlike present perfect which combines only with
[+/-then] and [-then] adverbials:

They had been there since 5. [-then]

Susan knew John had left at 5. [+then]

Moreover, past perfect may appear in narrative contexts, again unlike present perfect.
On the other hand, like present perfect, past perfect has three values: continuative, resultative and experiential:

Jim had dislocated his shoulder. (resultative)

He had been at work for more than two hours. (continuative)
I had watched United lose twice that season. (experiential)

In Indirect Speech, past perfect is the tense we obtain if in Direct Speech we have present perfect or past simple:

I have laid the table.

She said she had laid the table.
The show finished two minutes ago.
She said the show had finished two minutes before.

In conclusion, past perfect has two dimensions: (a) it parallels the semantics of present perfect; (b) it is seen as a
past tense that expresses past anteriority , in which case it is said to have a pre-preterite value. In this sense, past perfect
describes a past event that takes place before another past event or past moment:

They found out where she had buried the treasure.

By the time they went to dig it up, she had already hidden it in a new place.
By Friday they had already found a way to get rid of her.

As already exemplified in the sentences above, the past perfect occurs in both main and subordinate clauses
introduced by when, after, before, until, by the time, etc.
The past perfect can be substituted with the simple past, which acquires a past perfect meaning: When he came
back from the States, he landed a very important job. However, in some cases the substitution is semantically impossible:
When he had read the letter / *when he read the letter, he burned it.
There are three reasons for which we attribute this value to past perfect:
(a) its co-occurrence with [+then] adverbials
(b) the fact that it is the equivalent of past simple in Direct Speech. NB. In Indirect Speech, if the verb expresses
an event, past perfect is optional: Yesterday I went to the market. / She said she went/had gone to the market
the day before. If the verb expresses a state, then past perfect is obligatory: Lily was here. / She said Lily had
been there. / *She said Lily was there.
 (c) the fact that it can be used in narratives to tell ‘a story within a story’, in which case past simple sets the scene
and past perfect expresses what had happened before: That morning I was quite content. I had written the
essay the previous evening, I had finished washing the clothes and I’d gone to bed early. Now I was anxious to
go to school.
NB. Mai mult ca perfect: always past perfect
Past perfect: mai mult ca perfect, perfect compus, imperfect.

THE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE FORMS

It should be stated from the beginning that the use of the continuous aspect with the perfect forms is similar to the
interaction of this aspect with other tense forms. Again, it is a matter that depends rather on the aspectual class of the verb
phrase.
When combined with the progressive, event verb phrases (accomplishments and achievements) turn into processes
and the completion / result meaning is suspended. Compare:

I have pumped up three tires. (The job is completed)

I have been pumping up tires in the garage for the last quarter of an hour. (I haven't finished the job yet)

Although the perfect progressive never refers to a 'present result', it may imply that the effects of a certain action
are still apparent at present. The activity described by the verbal form does not necessarily carry on at present; on the
contrary, quite often it is implied that the respective activity has just stopped: You've been walking too fast. That's why
you're tired.
Process verb phrases in the present perfect have the tendency to appear in the progressive as well. When they do,
the continuous aspect simply reinforces the idea of continuity of an activity: He's been sleeping since ten o'clock. It's time
he woke up.
Non-durative process verbs phrases (i.e. the semelfactives) acquire an iterative meaning: She's been knocking at
my window for two minutes.
Finally, state verb phrases of the locative type in the progressive develop a 'temporary or limited duration' meaning:
I have been living in this castle for weeks now.