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Energy Conversion and Management 165 (2018) 35–44

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Energy Conversion and Management


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Experimental study on knock sources in spark ignition engine with exhaust T


gas recirculation

Mladen Božić, Ante Vučetić, Momir Sjerić, Darko Kozarac, Zoran Lulić
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, University of Zagreb, Croatia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The presented study aims to experimentally investigate the sources of influence of exhaust gas recirculation on
SI combustion the tendency toward knock in the spark ignition engine. The three main sources of influence of exhaust gas
EGR recirculation on the engine tendency towards knock are known. The influence on flame propagation changes the
End-gas temperature profile of combustion and therefore the end-gas pressure and temperature profile. The thermal influence changes
Knock
the thermal properties of the end-gas mixture and consequently its temperature profile, while the chemical
Experiments
influence changes the kinetic behaviour of the end-gas mixture. The study is based on the results from experi-
mental setup with spark ignition engine that uses cooled exhaust gas recirculation system and air heater installed
into the intake manifold. Experimental tests that employ a new approach were performed, where intake tem-
perature is varied by air heater when engine is operated with different levels of exhaust gas recirculation. In this
way the end-gas temperature and exhaust gas recirculation percentage were varied while the influence on flame
propagation was partially compensated by the change of spark timing. The obtained results show that there is no
clear chemical influence of the exhaust gases on the tendency towards knock as the cases with low and high
levels of exhaust gas recirculation are all mixed when the temperature of the end-gas is set to the same values.
This leads to the overall conclusion that the predominant factor in a tendency towards knock is the end-gas
temperature profile.

1. Introduction emissions (nitrogen oxides (NOX), particles) of CI present a significant


concern which triggered a number of notifications regarding restric-
The harmful impact of the motor vehicles on the environment and tions of use of certain CI engines in some city centres (e.g. Stuttgart).
the growing concern regarding the pollution of the environment re- Therefore, further reduction of fuel consumption of SI engines while
sulted with the change in development requirements of Internal simultaneously keeping the low emissions of harmful exhaust gasses
Combustion (IC) engines that are now focused on the prevention of (total hydrocarbons (THC), carbon monoxide (CO), NOX) is required.
future global pollution. Greenhouse gases are proven to be one of the For achieving higher efficiency in contemporary SI engines, several
main reasons for global warming [1]. Therefore, there is a number of technologies are usually applied: turbocharging [4], optimization of
regulations that aim to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from combustion chamber design and in-cylinder flow, variable valve timing
motor vehicles [2]. Reduction of CO2 emissions can be achieved by [5], direct injection [6], etc. Turbocharging, as one of the main tech-
using the energy sources without carbon (electrical energy generated nologies for achieving higher engine efficiency, reduces the ratio of
from renewable sources, hydrogen), by using fuels with lower carbon friction and pumping losses by the increase of engine load. At the same
ratios (e.g. methane) or by reducing fuel consumption [3]. On a large time, the increase of engine load increases the tendency of the engine to
scale the first and the second solution could be a long-term solution, knock [7]. Engine knock, which is one of the abnormal types of com-
while for the short to medium term solution the best way to reduce CO2 bustion, can cause permanent engine damage [8]. Over the years it has
is by reducing fuel consumption. Compression ignition (CI) engines been accepted that knock is a consequence of auto-ignition of the gas in
have shown significant reduction of fuel consumption over the last front of the turbulent premixed flame, called “end-gas” [9]. The end-gas
decade, while spark ignition (SI) engines still have not reached effi- is compressed not only by the piston movement but also by the ex-
ciencies and CO2 emission of CI engines. On the other hand, harmful pansion of the burned gases. Therefore many factors can increase the


Corresponding author at: Department of IC Engines and Mechanical Handling Equipment, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, University of Zagreb, Ivana
Lučića 5, 10 002 Zagreb, Croatia.
E-mail address: zoran.lulic@fsb.hr (Z. Lulić).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.03.053

Available online 21 March 2018


0196-8904/ © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
M. Božić et al. Energy Conversion and Management 165 (2018) 35–44

Nomenclature IMEP indicated mean effective pressure


IR infrared
ATDC after top dead centre IVC intake valve closure
AH air heater IVO intake valve open
CO2 carbon dioxide ICE internal combustion engine
CoVIMEP coefficient of variation of IMEP MAPO maximum amplitude of pressure oscillation
CA50 crank angle for 50% mass fraction burned NOX nitrogen oxides
CI compression ignition NO nitrogen oxide
CR compression ratio SI spark ignition
°CA degrees of Crank Angle ST spark timing
EGR exhaust gas recirculation α degrees of Crank Angle after top dead centre

probability of knock occurrence, such as increased inlet temperature limits. The further increase of the EGR above 15% resulted in an un-
and pressure as well as elevated compression ratio. Therefore, one of allowable increase of the CoVIMEP.
the main obstacles in furtherer development of the SI engines in terms In order to effectively use the EGR as a method for suppression of
of further increase of the engine load is the occurrence of knock [10]. knock, engine designers have to understand the sources of EGR influ-
For that reason a development of different knock suppression strategies ence on knock. The EGR suppresses knock by three main factors: in-
is being performed [8], e.g. retarding of the spark timing, enriching of fluence of EGR on flame speed, chemical influence on auto-ignition
the mixture, using of fuels with higher octane numbers, using of cooled tendency (ignition delay) and thermal influence on the end-gas tem-
exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), cooling of the intake air and enhancing perature [19].
the turbulence as a measure to increase the speed of normal combus- The influence on the flame speed is shown as a decrease of flame
tion. speed with the increase of the EGR amount. Decrease of flame speed
Literature review shows that exhaust gas recirculation, which was results with the decrease of mass burning rate and therefore pressure
first implemented for reduction of NOX emissions, might be a useful and temperature profiles of the end-gas change. On the one hand,
method for suppression of knock [11]. In [12] with the increase of EGR slower combustion results in lower in-cylinder pressures and tempera-
ratio to 20%, the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), emission of tures, therefore, reducing the tendency towards knock, while on the
NOX and of particle number were reduced by 7%, 87% and 36%, re- other hand the available time for auto-ignition increases.
spectively. One of the recently developed engines described in [13] Chemical influence on auto-ignition is defined as the influence of
achieved an increase of efficiency with respect to its previous version by species that come from the EGR on the chemical kinetic behaviour of
employing cooled EGR. Furthermore, [14] showed that the pumping the mixture and therefore on the tendency towards auto-ignition. On
loss gradually decreases with the increase of exhaust gas recirculation one hand, it was shown that the CO2 and water vapour (H2O) that come
rate, while at the same time the efficiency of the high-pressure cycle from the EGR could reduce chemical ignition delay for the same pres-
increases due to the decrease of the heat transfer and exhaust gas en- sure, temperature and excess air ratio conditions [20]. It was also
ergy loss. In [15] simple knock model coupled with a comprehensive shown that the NOX (formed during combustion), which is recirculated
cycle simulation of the engine showed that in addition to the suppres- back into the engine cylinder, could increase engine tendency to knock
sion of knock, the use of EGR resulted with a slight increase of the brake [21]. In [22] it was shown that the influence of NOX is different for
thermal efficiency. The thermodynamic reasons for the above men- different in-cylinder pressure vs end-gas temperature (p-Tend-gas) history
tioned increase included slightly lower heat transfer and increase of the due to the nitrogen oxide (NO) reactivity (oxidation) at different tem-
ratio of specific heat. In [16] it was shown that by using the EGR the peratures. Reactivity of NOX depends on whether the p-Tend-gas history
abnormal combustion (knock) can be effectively suppressed and that is in high, in NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) or in low-tem-
the engine performance in terms of engine efficiency can be improved. perature regime. If p-Tend-gas history is in low or NTC temperature re-
It was also shown that spark timing and intake pressure need to be gime, the addition of NOX causes knock suppression, while if it is in the
optimized to achieve higher efficiency when diluting intake mixture high-temperature regime the NOX can promote knock.
with EGR. In that optimization, generally, the intake pressure has to be Finally, thermal influence is defined as the influence of the EGR on
increased and spark timing advanced. It was also shown that the in- the end-gas temperature level. The influence of EGR is two-folded. First,
crease of the amount of EGR enables advanced spark timings, i.e. ad- the EGR has different temperature compared to the fresh intake air,
vanced combustion phasing (with the same knock limit), through lower therefore the mixture of the EGR and intake air has a different tem-
end-gas temperature. The advanced combustion phasing with the in- perature than fresh intake air, while the size of this difference depends
creased levels of EGR resulted with increased IMEP for the same input on whether the EGR was cooled or uncooled. The second influence is
of fuel energy [16]. through the thermal properties of the EGR mixture, where EGR has
The levels of EGR in SI engines are limited since it was shown that higher specific heat, and therefore the increase of the temperature of
the increase of EGR influences combustion stability presented by the the end-gas caused by the compression is lower. In both thermal cases,
coefficient of variation of IMEP (CoVIMEP). In [17] it was shown that the increase of the end-gas temperature will result in more pronounced
CoVIMEP increases with higher EGR ratio and decreases with higher tendency towards knock and vice versa. As it can be noticed, the use of
compression ratio and higher intake air pressure. On the other hand, in EGR introduces various effects that are in some cases similar and in
[13] it was shown that retarding of the spark timing results in an in- other cases are opposite.
crease of CoVIMEP, while [12] showed that EGR enables advanced spark Even though the use of EGR in SI engines has been researched over
timing, so the effect of increased CoVIMEP with the increase of EGR is the years [23] and there are publications regarding its use, literature
partially compensated by the advanced spark timings. However, there is review showed that there is no in-depth experimental analysis of the
a limit on the level of EGR. In [18] with 10% of the EGR and advanced sources of EGR influence on SI combustion with the emphasis on end-
spark timing the low level of CoVIMEP was obtained, but further increase gas temperature. This study aims to bridge that gap by evaluation of the
of the EGR resulted in an unallowable increase of CoVIMEP. In [16] this influence of the end-gas temperature, which changes with the addition
limit was slightly higher. Although, at 15% EGR level the CoVIMEP was of EGR, on the tendency of the engine towards knock.
slightly increased (CoVIMEP = 2.5%) it was still far below the usual The study is performed by experimental tests that employ a new

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M. Božić et al. Energy Conversion and Management 165 (2018) 35–44

approach, where intake temperature is varied by the EGR and the in- Table 1
take air heater (AH) to achieve pre-set end-gas temperatures. The Characteristics of experimental engine.
methodology is based on the experimental setup with the SI engine that
Manufacturer Hatz, 1D81Z
uses cooled EGR system and air heater placed in the intake which can
compensate the temperature change obtained by the application of the Engine type 1 cylinder, 4 S
cooled EGR. By heating of the intake air the thermal influence of the Bore, mm 100
Stroke, mm 85
EGR on the end-gas temperature is annulled in some cases, and in other
Combustion chamber Toroidal
cases, the temperature is further increased to completely show the in- Displacement, ccm 667.59
fluence of temperature on the occurrence of knock. Since the increase of Compression ratio 12
the EGR unavoidably results in the change of flame speed, in order to Intake valve timing Open @ 340°, Close @ 590°
compensate for that change spark sweeps are performed, which results Exhaust valve timing Open @ 154°, Close @ 380°

with a number of different combustion phasings. By comparing the


cases with similar combustion phasings the flame speed effect is mini-
position two hall sensors, one on the crankshaft and one on camshaft
mized.
were implemented. Based on the piston position that was measured, the
engine controls regarding fuel injection and ignition timing was oper-
2. Experimental setup ated. For the purpose of control, the signals of fuel injection and igni-
tion were monitored by the engine indicating equipment. The operation
The experimental work is performed on the experimental setup at of the injection and ignition system was enabled by the in-house solu-
Laboratory for IC Engines and Motor Vehicles of the Faculty of tion prepared in LabVIEW software package. BOSCH ZS-K-1X1PME ig-
Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture in Zagreb. The scheme nition coil with spark plug NGK IRIDIUM CR7EIX was placed centrally
of the setup is shown in Fig. 1. on top of the cylinder where diesel injector was removed. Gasoline port
The experimental setup consists of alternating current (AC) fuel injector (BOSCH EV-6-E) was placed on custom made intake
Dynamometer, SI engine upgraded with EGR, intake air heater, in- manifold with a constant fuel pressure of 3 bar and with fuel mass
dicating equipment, emission sampling, air flow and fuel flow mea- consumption measured by OHAUS Explorer mass scale. Additionally,
surement. Additionally, temperature and pressure of the intake, ex- intake manifold contains ports for temperature and CO2 emission
haust, engine head and oil are measured. sample measurement.
Acquisition of data from SI engine in various operating conditions Besides the equipment for upgrading the engine, additional testbed
was performed by the use of in-house built acquisition system which is equipment was used on experimental setup to set up and measure
prepared so that it stores the data of the boundary conditions (pressure, boundary conditions. The intake air mass flow was measured by the TSI
temperature, throttle position, etc.) and emissions. 2017L laminar mass flow meter. In order to be able to control the intake
The IC engine used in this experimental setup is heavily modified and in-cylinder temperature after the measurement of air flow, the in-
HATZ 1D81Z, originally a single cylinder diesel engine. It has two take line was heated by 18 kW OSRAM SYLVANIA SureHeat Air Heater.
valves per cylinder and combustion chamber of a toroidal type. In order Further on, for the exhaust gas emissions, two different analyses
to run as SI engine, the modifications were made to the piston, ignition were used. Acquisition of the emission of CO and CO2 is done by Bosch
and fuel injection systems. Also, for the purposes of engine control, the ETT 8.55 EU gas analyser, while Total Hydrocarbons (THC) are mea-
measurement of the crank angle position was added. Main character- sured by Environnement GRAPHITE 52 M heated FID analyzer.
istics of the modified experimental engine are listed in Table 1. EGR flow was controlled by the EGR valve (Valeo 170A9) with a
Modification of the piston included machining of the piston top that water-cooled heat exchanger. The amount of EGR is controlled by the
resulted in lower engine compression ratio (CR) required for the engine opening of the electric valve allowing exhaust gas to recirculate from
to operate with gasoline in SI combustion mode. CR was lowered from exhaust to the intake manifold. The amount of recirculated EGR is taken
originally 20.5 to 12. Further on, for the measurement of piston as the same proportion as the ratio of the measured CO2 at the intake in

Fig. 1. Experimental SI Engine testbed scheme.

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M. Božić et al. Energy Conversion and Management 165 (2018) 35–44

relation to the measured CO2 in the exhaust. This is done by using two system boundary (SB1). An example of intake pressure profile measured
CO2 analysers. The first one is already mentioned Bosch analyser, for one operating point is plotted in Fig. 3, and it was imposed by means
placed on the exhaust manifold and second, for the measurement of the of engine interface (EI1) connected to intake system boundary. The
intake CO2 Environnement MIR 2 M infrared (IR) analyser was used. The constant values of pressure and temperature were defined from the
amount of the recirculated exhaust gas is calculated by the following measurement at the exhaust system boundary (SB2). The constant
Eq. (1): temperatures at intake system boundary were manually calibrated so
that the simulated intake air mass flow is close to the experimental
[CO2]Intake gas −[CO2]Ambient
EGR (%) = data. The calibration of intake temperature value affects the air delivery
[CO2]Exhaust gas −[CO2]Ambient (1) ratio resulting with the good agreement of in-cylinder pressure during
the intake and compression. For the modelling of the combustion pro-
where [CO2]Ambient is the concentration of CO2 in ambient air,
cess, the rate of heat release (ROHR) recalculated from the measured
[CO2]Intake gas is the measured concentration of CO2 in the intake
pressure profile is imposed in the cylinder element as an input table. To
manifold and [CO2]Exhaust gas is the CO2 concentration measured in the
calculate the end-gas temperature, it was necessary to apply two zone
exhaust gases [23].
modelling approach which means that cylinder mixture is divided into
Fast crank-angle based signals typical for combustion engines are
the burned and unburned zone. Since the heat losses also affect the
acquired and processed by engine indicating equipment. It consists out
cylinder pressure and temperature, the heat transfer was modelled
of the hardware AVL IndiSmart 612 [24] and software package Indicom
where the heat transfer coefficient was calculated using the well-known
[25]. Main data that were acquired with this equipment were com-
Woschni correlations [26] for gas exchange and high-pressure cycle.
bustion data from the engine, e.g. in-cylinder pressure, intake pressure
The comparisons of in-cylinder pressure profiles during the com-
and crank position. Further on software calculated and enabled real-
bustion process for several selected operating points of the experi-
time monitoring of the indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP), the
mental SI engine are shown in Fig. 3. In the upper diagram, the pressure
coefficient of variation of IMEP (CoVIMEP) and crank angle for 50%
profiles for two operating points that have very similar peak end-gas
mass fraction burned (CA50). Also during measurements monitoring of
temperature, but different combustion phasing are compared, while in
the knock occurrence expressed via in-cylinder pressure oscillations,
the lower diagram the pressure profiles for two operating points that
spark timing (ST), dwell time, injection timing, fuel spray amount and
have very similar combustion phasing, but different peak values of end-
intake pressure at the intake valve closure (IVC) were possible.
gas are shown. It can be seen that simulation results (solid red lines)
For measurement of the intake pressure, the low-pressure AVL
shown in Fig. 3 are in a very good agreement with the measured
LP11DA sensor was used, while for the high in-cylinder pressure AVL
pressure profiles. In addition to the validation of in-cylinder pressure,
GH14DK sensor was used. For the measurement of the high-pressure
the exhaust temperature from experiment and simulation was com-
part of the engine, cycle data was stored with the resolution of 0.1 °CA,
pared. The maximum difference in exhaust temperature between
while the remaining part of the engine cycle was recorded with the
measurement and simulation is 3.4% while the average difference of all
resolution of 0.5 °CA, all for 300 consecutive cycles per operating point.
operating points was 1.7%. The correct prediction of in-cylinder pres-
sure and of the exhaust temperature is the main precondition for the
3. Evaluation of measurement results

Since the end-gas temperature, which will be presented in the re-


sults section, cannot be directly measured from the experimental pro-
cedure, the numerical simulation was employed to evaluate the tem-
perature profiles of the end-gas for all considered operating points of SI
engine. The numerical simulations were performed using AVL BOOST™
reduced cycle-simulation model of the experimental engine shown in
Fig. 2. The cycle-simulations are usually called 1D/0D simulations be-
cause the flow across the intake and exhaust pipes are calculated using
finite volume method with pipe discretization in the longitudinal di-
rection, while the cylinder domain is treated as one control volume
without any spatial discretization.
The reduced cycle-simulation model means that the short intake
(pipe 1) and exhaust pipe (pipe 2) are connected to the cylinder (C1)
with imposed system boundary conditions. The measured pressure
profiles at the intake port are imposed in the simulation model at intake

Fig. 2. Reduced cycle-simulation model of the experimental engine made in AVL Fig. 3. Comparisons of measured (cycle-averaged over 300 cycles) and simulated in-cy-
BOOST™. linder pressure profiles for the selected operating points.

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M. Božić et al. Energy Conversion and Management 165 (2018) 35–44

Fig. 4. End-gas peak temperature versus combustion phasing for all measured operating Fig. 5. End-gas peak temperature versus combustion phasing for three selected cases and
points. two case sets.

appropriate evaluation of the end-gas temperature presented and ana- Fig. 6, while intake temperatures used in each case are shown in Fig. 7.
lysed in the next section. The presented cases are labelled with two numbers. The first
number represents EGR dilution applied, while the second number re-
presents the operating point number within that EGR series. The first
4. Measurement procedure
EGR series is a series of operating points without the application of EGR
and with intake temperature of 22 °C. The combustion phasing (CA50)
Experimental work is performed at 1600 rpm with and without EGR
for the operating points of the first EGR series (0% EGR_1 and 0%
dilution, and in order to have comparable results, some adjustments
EGR_2) was around 16 and 21 °CA ATDC (degrees of Crank Angle, After
regarding boundary conditions were made. First, the spark sweeps from
Top Dead Center) caused by spark advance of 14 °CA BTDC and 10 °CA
no knock to high knock conditions without EGR were performed. The
BTDC (degrees of Crank Angle, Before Top Dead Center), respectively.
intake pressure was slightly throttled so that there is certain reserve for
Intake pressure was kept constant at 0.75 bar (Fig. 6). The second EGR
an increase of intake pressure for compensation of total fuel energy
series is a series of operating points with 7.5% EGR dilution (7.5%
when EGR is introduced. The air to fuel mixture was set to stoichio-
EGR_1, 7.5% EGR_2 and 7.5% EGR_3) that were measured with intake
metric which resulted in the fuel flow that on average gave the energy
of the fuel of 1432 J/cycle. The next test introduced different levels of
EGR (7.5% and 15%) without using air heater. In order to compensate
the fact that EGR replaced part of the fresh intake air to fuel mixture,
the intake pressure was slightly increased. In these conditions, the spark
sweeps were performed again. To compensate for the lower end-gas
temperature next tests employed air heater at different intake tem-
peratures. The additional increase of the intake pressure was made in
order to compensate the loss of intake charge as a consequence of the
reduction in density for the cases with the increased intake tempera-
ture. Again spark sweeps were performed. All this resulted in a number
of operating points with different levels of EGR, different end-gas
temperature profiles and knock intensities. Fig. 4 shows the peak end-
gas temperatures in dependence of combustion phasing expressed as
crank angle when 50% of the in-cylinder mass is burned (CA50) for all
measured operating points.
Since there is a large number of obtained operating points, a de-
Fig. 6. Intake pressure for the selected operating points.
tailed analysis of the results by looking at the pressure profiles and at
intake charge mixture compositions were performed only on selected
operating points. The selection of operating points was performed with
two criteria. First set of operating points had different amounts of EGR,
different spark timings and combustion phasing (CA50) positions but
had similar peak end-gas temperatures. This set of operating points is
marked as Case set A. This set of data aims to look whether there is an
influence of combustion phasing if the peak end-gas temperature is the
same. The second set, marked as Case set B, contains data with different
levels of EGR, different spark timings and intake temperatures, but have
similar CA50 positions. In this case, the influence of end-gas tempera-
ture will be assessed and the influence of combustion phasing, if there is
any, is reduced to the minimum level. The selected operating points in
both sets of operating points are shown in Fig. 5.
Since these operating points are obtained with different EGR values
and different intake temperatures, the intake pressures of each case are
slightly different so that the overall mass of air to fuel mixture is kept
Fig. 7. Intake mixture temperature for the selected operating points.
constant. Intake pressure for selected operating points is shown in

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M. Božić et al. Energy Conversion and Management 165 (2018) 35–44

temperatures of 31.4, 71.2 and 50.7 °C and with spark advance at 25, used. First one is the average Maximum Amplitude Pressure Oscillation
15 and 20.5 °CA BTDC, respectively. The third EGR series included di- (avg. MAPO) value defined according to the procedure described in
lution of intake charge with 15% of cooled EGR. The EGR was cooled by [27]. MAPO value of each cycle can be considered as the amplitude of
integrated EGR water cooler to 18 °C and resulted in colder intake high-frequency pressure oscillations caused by knock. MAPO value is
charge than in the first EGR series (15% EGR_3). Further on 15% of EGR obtained for each cycle (300 cycles) and then averaged for each oper-
dilution was implemented with the additional intake air heating which ating point. Besides avg. MAPO value the number of cycles exceeding
resulted in increased temperature that compensated the effect of the the MAPO value of 1 bar (hereinafter referred as NoKnCyc_1) and of
cold EGR and resulted with intake temperature of 22 °C (15% EGR_1 1.5 bar (hereinafter referred as NoKnCyc_15) are taken as additional
and 15% EGR_4), which is the exact value of the 0% EGR series. The measures of knock. Fig. 8 presents the correlation between the avg.
combustion phasing for that operating points were 12.5 °CA ATDC and MAPO and the NoKnCyc_1 or NoKnCyc_15 values. It can be seen that
20.7 °CA ATDC caused by spark advance of 44 °CA BTDC and 31 °CA there is an almost linear correlation between these three values.
BTDC, respectively. Finally, for the operating points, 15% EGR_2 and Therefore any of these values can be used for the quantification of
15% EGR_5 intake temperature was heated to higher temperatures knock occurrence. In the following discussion the NoKnCyc_1 value will
(Fig. 7) in order to investigate the higher EGR temperature influence. be used for definition between no knock and knock behaviour, while
Combustion phasing was then 20.5 °CA ATDC and 20.9 °CA ATDC with NoKnCyc_15 will be used to define knock at severe knock conditions.
same spark advance of 20 °CA BTDC. Fig. 9 shows the results of the peak end-gas temperatures with re-
spect to experimental knock indicators (NoKnCyc_1, NoKnCyc_15) for
knocking conditions. The operating points without knock and points
5. Results and discussion
with less than 5 knocking cycles were not shown. These points have a
wide end-gas temperature spread, and all have almost zero knocking
Results are shown and discussed in two separate parts. The first part
cycles and would mask the point that the figure wants to show. It can be
shows all the results with emphasis on peak end-gas temperature and
observed that once in the knocking region there is a slight general trend
knock indicators, and in the second part selected operating points are
of increase of knock intensity with the increase of end-gas temperature,
discussed in details.
but also that the spread of temperatures for similar knock intensity is
significant. This spread is probably caused by some other influences,
5.1. Peak end-gas temperature vs knock indicators e.g. end-gas pressure and temperature profiles, measurement un-
certainty, etc. However, it can be observed there is no clear chemical
The first analysis will show all the measured data and will try to influence of EGR, which would be noticed if the cases with different
give the information whether there is a clearly defined chemical or EGR levels would be at different heights in the chart. One can see that
thermal influence of EGR on knock occurrence. For that purpose, the all cases (0% EGR, 7.5% EGR and 15% EGR) are mixed.
results of peak end – gas temperature with respect to knock indicators Fig. 10 shows the same results as Fig. 9 but for the points in the
are observed. For the measure of knock, three different indicators were

Fig. 9. Peak end-gas temperature in dependence of a number of cycles with MAPO > 1
Fig. 8. Correlation between avg. MAPO and number of cycles exceeding the MAPO value (NoKnCyc_1) and of a number of cycles with MAPO > 1.5 bar (NoKnCyc_15) for
of 1 bar (NoKnCyc_1) and 1.5 bar (NoKnCyc_15). knocking operating points.

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M. Božić et al. Energy Conversion and Management 165 (2018) 35–44

Fig. 11. A number of cycles with MAPO > 1 bar (NoKnCyc_1) for the selected operating
points.

Fig. 10. Peak end-gas temperature in dependence of a number of cycles with MAPO > 1
(NoKnCyc_1) and a number of cycles with MAPO > 1.5 bar (NoKnCyc_15), for no knock
or borderline knock operating points.

Fig. 12. A number of cycles with MAPO > 1.5 bar (NoKnCyc_15) for the selected op-
boundary knock or no knock operation. The operating points with an erating points.
end-gas temperature lower than 850 K were not shown as they all had
zero knocking cycles by any measure. Fig. 10 clearly shows the strong In order to further strengthen that conclusion the detailed analysis
influence of end-gas temperature on transfer from no knock to knock. It of pressure and temperature profiles is made.
also shows that the operating points with different levels of EGR are all Table 2 shows the results of the operating points in Case set A (si-
mixed together and that no clear chemical influence can be observed. milar end-gas temperature and different CA50), while Figs. 14 and 15
However, the spread of temperatures for similar knock intensity is again show Tend-gas, ROHR and p-Tend-gas profiles of the same operating points.
significant. Therefore from this data, the selected points will be taken in The profiles of end-gas temperatures shown in Fig. 14 were calculated
the further in-depth analysis. by the application of cycle-simulation model previously described.
One can observe that EGR significantly influences ROHR profile,
5.2. Analysis of selected operating points which is caused by the influence of EGR on the flame speed. The in-
crease of EGR results in slower combustion (comparison of operating
As mentioned before from the group of results presented in Figs. 4, points 0% EGR_1, 7.5% EGR_1 and 15% EGR_1). Because of the slower
8, 9 and 10 several operating points were selected based on their peak
end-gas temperature and combustion phasing. In order to enable ana-
lysis of the results, the operating points were classified into 3 main
groups where third (severe) group was additionally divided into 3
subgroups in accordance with their knock intensity. Results presented
in Figs. 11 and 12 are used for defining the knock intensity. Fig. 11
showed the NoKnCyc_1 for all selected operating points and based on
these values the operating points are grouped in points without knock,
and points with mild and sever knock. Fig. 12 shows the NoKnCyc_15
for all points with a severe knock and defines the ones with a slightly
lower knock (S−), middle knock (S) and slightly higher knock (S+).
If the results are grouped based on knock and plotted in dependence
of peak end-gas temperature (Fig. 13) one can observe that in general
the increase of peak end-gas temperature increases as the conditions
move from no knock to severe knock conditions. Since the results are
again mixed with respect to EGR values, one can conclude that the main
factor that influences the occurrence of knock is the end-gas tempera-
Fig. 13. Knock classification in none, mild and severe groups.
ture and not the level of EGR.

41
M. Božić et al. Energy Conversion and Management 165 (2018) 35–44

Table 2
Measured data of the operating points of Case set A.

A End-gas peak temp. Knock Spark advance CA50 CoVIMEP IVC NOX
K – °CA BTDC °CA ATDC % ppm

0% EGR_1 869.9 −Severe 14 15.9 1.16 203


7.5% EGR_1 885.9 Severe 25 15.6 1.67 189
7.5% EGR_2 889.5 +Severe 15 20.7 2.41 207
15% EGR_1 875.0 −Severe 44 12.5 2.44 156
15% EGR_2 885.4 Severe 20 20.5 3.41 164

combustion and of the thermal influence of EGR, the spark timing had
to be retarded to obtain similar peak end-gas temperatures. This re-
sulted in different values of CA50. By heating of the intake charge
(7.5% EGR_2 and 15% EGR_2), the in-cylinder temperatures before
combustion increased which enabled faster combustion, and required
delayed spark timing to obtain similar peak end-gas temperatures. One
can notice that heated EGR cases had equal or even faster combustion
observed by ROHR profile. By looking at the p-Tend-gas profiles (Fig. 15)
one can notice three similar profiles, 0% EGR_1, 7.5% EGR_1 and 15%
EGR_2, where the latter two are almost identical and have different
levels of EGR (7.5% and 15%). They also have identical knock beha-
viour. The case with 0% EGR has a slightly lower temperature during
the last phase of compression and also has slightly lower knock in-
tensity. The case 7.5% EGR_2 has slightly higher temperature and lower
pressure and results in slightly higher knock, while the case 15% EGR_1
show slightly lower temperature profile but with significantly higher
pressure which results in slightly lower knock. All this leads to a con-
clusion that cases with significantly different temperature profiles,
pressure histories and different EGR values, but with similar peak end-
gas temperatures and p-Tend-gas profiles have similar knock intensities.
One has to note (Table 2) that all cases have quite similar IVC NOX level
since the case without EGR still had some residual gas. Although the
amount of combustion products differ significantly, compared to cases
with EGR, the concentration of NOX in the combustion products is in
cases without EGR much higher, and therefore the levels at IVC are
similar. Therefore, the possible chemical influence of NOX could not be
observed in this case.
Table 3 shows the results of the operating points in Case set B
(different end-gas temperature and similar CA50), while Figs. 16 and 17
show Tend-gas, ROHR and p-Tend-gas profiles of the same operating points.
These results again show that EGR significantly influences flame
propagation, i.e. the increase of EGR lowers the burning rate. By in-
creasing the mixture temperature in the cases with EGR the increase of
flame propagation is obtained and similar or even faster burning rates
Fig. 14. Profiles of end-gas temperature (top) and normalised rate of heat release compared to the cooler case without EGR can be observed.
(bottom) for operating points of Case set A. The cases 0% EGR_2 and 15%_EGR_3 have low p-Tend-gas profiles
that result in no knock operation. Two cases with a mild knock (bor-
derline knock) are 7.5% EGR_3 and 15%_EGR_5. Their p-Tend-gas profiles
are similar with 7.5% EGR_3 having slightly higher temperature and
lower pressure. If they would have the same knock intensity then the
higher temperature of 7.5% EGR_3 is compensated by the lower pres-
sure and/or by the chemical influence of the lower EGR level. However,
if the results on Fig. 11 are observed, then one can notice a slightly
higher knock intensity of 7.5% EGR_3 which could explain the slightly
higher temperature of the end-gas. A similar observation can be ob-
tained by comparing the results 7.5% EGR_2 and 15% EGR_2. The two
cases have similar temperature profiles with the slightly higher pressure
of 15% EGR_2. The knock intensity fully correlates to temperature
profiles, which then gives much more confidence to the fact that the
pressure difference has a much smaller impact on knock occurrence. By
comparing results of the 15% EGR_2 with the 7.5% EGR_3 and of the
7.5% EGR_2 with the 15%_EGR_5 one can notice that in first compar-
ison case with higher temperature and higher EGR level had a stronger
Fig. 15. p-Tend-gas history of the operating points of the Case set A.
knock and in second comparison the case with higher temperature and

42
M. Božić et al. Energy Conversion and Management 165 (2018) 35–44

Table 3
Measured data of the operating points of Case set B.

B End-gas peak temp. Knock Spark advance CA50 CoVIMEP IVC NOX
K – °CA BTDC °CA ATDC % ppm

0% EGR_2 839.5 None 10 20.6 1.81 158


7.5% EGR_2 889.5 +Severe 15 20.7 2.41 207
7.5% EGR_3 859.5 Mild 18 20.5 2.52 143
15% EGR_2 885.4 Severe 20 20.5 3.41 164
15% EGR_3 818.2 None 32 21.1 4.32 59
15% EGR_4 828.8 None 31 20.7 4.24 59
15% EGR_5 847.0 Mild 20 20.9 2.90 143

lower EGR level again had a stronger knock. This again leads to the
conclusion that the predominant factor in a tendency towards knock,
under the observed conditions (engine speed of 1600 rpm and peak
pressures around 35 bar) is end-gas temperature profile, i.e. peak end-
gas temperature. Similar discussion and conclusion regarding the in-
fluence of intake NOX on a knock that was shown for Case set A applies
here also, slight differences in IVC NOX concentrations did not clearly
show significant influence.

6. Conclusions

The presented study aimed to experimentally investigate and eval-


uate the significance of the three main sources of influence of EGR on
the knock tendency in SI operation: the influence on flame propagation,
the thermal influence and the chemical influence. The study is per-
formed experimentally by running the SI engine fuelled by stoichio-
metric gasoline/air mixtures at 1600 rpm of engine speed and with
different EGR levels, intake air temperatures and spark timings. The
general conclusion from the coarse analysis of all the obtained results is
that there is no clear chemical influence of the exhaust gases on the
tendency towards knock. Since in most of the cases the NOX con-
centrations at IVC were quite similar the possible chemical influence of
intake NOX could not be determined. On the other hand there is an
observed trend of influence of the end-gas temperature on the knock
intensity, but there is also a significant spread of end-gas temperatures
for similar knock intensities.
Detailed analysis of the selected operating points revealed the fol-
lowing:

• The increase of EGR leads to the slower flame propagation at the


similar intake charge temperatures and therefore to lower end-gas
temperature. This effect can be compensated by the advance of
spark timing or by the increase of intake charge temperature. A
Fig. 16. Profiles of end-gas temperature (top) and normalised rate of heat release possible consequence of the second compensation is that although
(bottom) for operating points of Case set B.
previously it was observed that fractions of cooled EGR > 15%
were not possible because of the low flame speed and increased
CoVIMEP, the larger fractions of EGR might be possible if the EGR is
not cooled.
• The results with similar peak end-gas temperature and different
CA50 revealed that even though the p-α profiles, Tend-gas-α profiles
and EGR levels were significantly different, the intensity of knock
was very similar and behaved according to the p-Tend-gas histories,
with predominant influence of the peak end-gas temperature.
• The results with similar CA50s and with different peak end-gas
temperature showed that case with higher peak end-gas temperature
have a stronger knock and vice versa, regardless of the small
changes in peak pressures or EGR values.

This all leads to the overall conclusion that the predominant factor
in a tendency towards knock, under the used conditions, is the end-gas
temperature profile, i.e. peak end-gas temperature.
Fig. 17. p-Tend-gas history of the operating points of the Case set B.

43
M. Božić et al. Energy Conversion and Management 165 (2018) 35–44

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