IT 203

PRELIMS
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CHAPTER 1 – ROUTING CONCEPTS
CHARACTERISTICS OF A NETWORK
❖ Topology
❖ Speed
❖ Cost
❖ Security
❖ Availability
❖ Scalability
❖ Reliability
ROUTER
➢ It connects one network to another
network.
➢ It is responsible for the delivery of
packets across different networks
and the routing of traffic between
networks.
➢ It uses its routing table to
determine the best path to use to
forward a packet.
➢ It forwards packets from the
original source to the final
destination.
➢ It uses static routes and dynamic
routing protocols to learn about
remote networks and build their
routing tables.
➢ It is considered a Layer 3 device
because its primary forwarding
decision is based on the
information in the Layer 3 IP
packet, specifically the
destination IP address, known as
routing.
➢ It also participates in Layer 1 and
Layer 2 processes.
➢ It operates at Layers 1, 2, and 3
as it encapsulates the Layer 3 IP
packet into the data portion of a
Layer 2 data-link frame, then the
frame will be encoded into the
Layer 1 physical signals.
ROUTING TABLE
➢ It is a map used to determine the
best path.
FUNCTIONS OF A ROUTER
❖ ROUTERS ARE COMPUTERS
➢ A router is essentially a
specialized computer.
➢ Routers have specialized
ports and network interface
cards to interconnect
devices to other networks.
❖ ROUTERS INTERCONNECT
NETWORKS
➢ A router connects multiple
networks, which means that
it has multiple interfaces
that each belong to a
different IP network.
➢ When a router receives an
IP packet on one interface,
it determines which
interface to use to forward
the packet to the
destination.
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BASIC TASK PROCESS STORAGE

❖ ROUTERS CHOOSE BEST PATHS Performing
➢ The primary functions of the POST
POST ROM
a router are to: (Power On
▪ Determine the best path Self Test)
to send packets Loading the
BOOTSTRAP Bootstrap ROM
▪ Forward packets toward
Program
their destination
Locating FLASH
CISCO IOS
Cisco IOS TFTP SERVER
MAIN INTERNAL COMPONENTS Load Cisco
❖ CPU IOS
➢ It executes Cisco IOS Locating the NVRAM
CONFIGURATI
operating instructions. Configuratio TFTP SERVER
ON
n File CONSOLE
Loading the
❖ RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY Startup
➢ It stores routing tables. Configuratio
➢ It holds ARP cache and fast- n or Entering
switching cache. Setup Mode
➢ It provides temporary ➢ It holds the IOS image.
memory for the running ➢ It allows software to be
configuration file of a router updated without removing
while the router is and replacing chips on the
➢ powered on. processor.
➢ It loses content when a ➢ It retains content when a
router is powered down or router is powered down or
restarted. restarted.
➢ It can store multiple versions
❖ NVRAM of IOS software.
➢ It provides storage for the ➢ It consists of SIMM or
startup configuration file. PCMCIA cards.
➢ It retains content when a
router is powered down or ❖ ROM
restarted. ➢ It maintains instructions for
power-on self-test (POST)
❖ FLASH MEMORY diagnostics.
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➢ It stores the bootstrap
program and the basic OS
software.
➢ It requires replacing
pluggable chips on the
motherboard for software
upgrades.
❖ INTERFACES
INTERNETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM
➢ It is responsible for
managing the
hardware and software
resources of the router.
IOS IMAGE
➢ It is a file residing on flash that
contains the entire IOS for that
router.
THE ROUTER BOOTUP PROCESS
ROUTER INTERFACES
❖ PORT
➢ It normally means one of
the management ports used
for administrative access.
❖ INTERFACES
It normally refers to
interfaces that are capable
of sending and receiving
user traffic.
❖ CONSOLE PORT
➢ It is used to connect a
terminal or a PC running
terminal emulator software.
➢ It must be used during initial
configuration of the router.
❖ AUXILIARY PORT
➢ It is not present in all
routers.
➢ It can be usd to attach a
modem.
INTERFACE ON A ROUTER
➢ It refers to a physical connector on
the router whose main purpose is
to receive and forward packets.
➢ It belongs to a different network.
➢ It is a host on a different network.
➢ It has an IP address on a
➢ different network.
LAN INTERFACE
➢ It is used to connect the router to
the LAN.
➢ It is similar to the connection to a
PC’s Ethernet NIC.
➢ It is typically an RJ-45 jack (UTP).
➢ Fast Ethernet and Ethernet
CABLES
STRAIGHT-
Router-Switch
THROUGH
Router-Router
CROSS-OVER
PC-Router
WAN INTERFACE
➢ It is used to connect routers to
external networks, usually over a
larger geographical distance.
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➢ It is similar to a LAN interface where not on the same local network

each WAN interface has its own IP
address and subnet mask, making it
a member of a specific network.
➢ Serial, ISDN, and Frame Relay
➢ Mac addresses are not used on
WAN interfaces.
PACKET FORWARDING METHODS
❖ PROCESS SWITCHING
➢ It is an older packet
forwarding mechanism still
available for Cisco routers.
❖ FAST SWITCHING
➢ It is a common packet
forwarding mechanism
which uses a fast-switching
cache to store next hop
information.
❖ CISCO EXPRESS FORWARDING
(CEF)
➢ It is the most recent, fastest,
and preferred Cisco IOS
packet-forwarding
mechanism.
➢ Table entries are not
packet-triggered, but
change-triggered.
IP ADDRESS
➢ It identifies a unique host on a local
network.
subnet.
NETWORK DOCUMENTATION
➢ This should include atleast device
names, interfaces, IP addresses and
subnet mask, and default gateways
in a topology diagram and
addressing table.
STATISTICALLY ASSIGNED IP ADDRESS
➢ The host is manually assigned the
IP address, subnet mask and
default gateway. DNS server IP
address can also be assigned.
➢ It is used to identify specific
network resources such as network
servers and printers
➢ It can be used in very small
networks with few hosts.
DYNAMICALLY ASSIGNED IP ADDRESS
➢ IP Address information is
dynamically assigned by a server
using Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP)
DEVICE LEDs

SUBNET MASK
➢ It identifies the host’s network
subnet.

DEFAULT GATEWAY
➢ It identifies the router a packet is
sent to to when the destination is
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CONSOLE ACCESS
➢ This requires a console cable (e.g.
RJ-45-to-DB-9 console cable) and a
terminal emulation software (e.g.
TeraTerm, PuTTY, and
HyperTerminal).
BASIC ROUTER CONFIGURATION
LOOPBACK INTERFACE
➢ It is a logical interface internal to
the router.
➢ It is considered a software interface
that is automatically in an UP state.
➢ It is useful for testing and important
in the OSPF routing process.
ROUTING TABLE
➢ It is a data file in RAM that is used
to store route information about
directly connected networks and
remote networks.
LINK LOCAL INTERFACE
➢ It is added to the routing table
when an interface is configured.
DIRECTLY CONNECTED INTERFACE
➢ It is added to the routing table
when an interface is configured and
active.
STATIC ROUTE
➢ It added when a route is manually
configured and the exit interface is
active.
DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOL
➢ It is added when EIGRP or OSPF are
implemented and networks are
identified.
ROUTING TABLE SOURCES
CODES
➢ It indicates how the route was
learned.
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REMOTE NETWORK ROUTING ENTRIES
DIRECTLY CONNECTED NETWORK
➢ It is a network that is directly
attached to one of the router
interfaces.
➢ It is added to the routing table
when activated.
REMOTE NETWORK
➢ It is a network that is not directly
connected to a router.
➢ It is added to the routing table
using two methods: Dynamic
Routing Protocols and Static
Routes.
❖ DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOLS
➢ Routes to remote networks
that were learned
automatically by the routes.
❖ STATIC ROUTES
➢ Routes manually configured.
BEFORE ANY STATIC OR DYNAMIC
ROUTING IS CONFIGURED
❖ The router only knows about its
own directly connected networks.
❖ Static and dynamic routes cannot
exist in the routing table without
first configuring a router’s own
directly connected networks.
❖ The router cannot send packets out
an interface unless that interface is
enabled with an IP address and
subnet mask.
STATIC ROUTE
➢ It is defined using the network
address and subnet mask of the
remote network and the IP address
of the next-hop router.
DYNAMIC ROUTING
➢ It is used by routers to share
information about the reachability
and status of remote networks.
➢ It performs network discovery and
maintaining routing tables.
IPv4 ROUTING PROTOCOLS
❖ EIGRP – Enhanced Interior Gateway
Routing Protocol
❖ OSPF – Open Shortest Path First
❖ IS-IS – Intermediate System-to-
Intermediate System
❖ RIP – Routing Information Protocol
IPv6 ROUTING PROTOCOLS
❖ RIPng (RIP next generation)
❖ OSPF v3
❖ EIGRP for IPv6
❖ MP-BGP4 (Multicast Protocol-
Border Gateway Protocol)
ROUTING TABLE PRINCIPLES
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❖ Every router makes its decision
alone, based on the information it
has in its own routing table.
❖ The fact that one router has certain
information in its routing table does
not mean that other routers have
the same information.
❖ Routing information about a path
from one network to another does
not provide routing information
about the reverse, or return, path.
ASYMMETRIC ROUTING
➢ It is more common in the Internet,
which uses the BGP routing
protocol, than it is in most internal
networks.
BEST PATH DETERMINATION
➢ It involves evaluating multiple paths
to the same destination and
choosing the optimum route.
➢ The best path is the metric that has
the lowest value
METRIC (VALUE)
➢ It is the protocol uses to determine
the distance to the destination
network
HOP COUNT
➢ It is the number of routers that a
packet must traverse between the
source and destination networks.
➢ The fewer number of hops (lowest
metric), the better the route.
➢ Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
BANDWIDTH
➢ It is the carrying capacity (speed) of
the link.
➢ The metric is a calculated value that
represents the fastest route to the
destination based on the speed of
the links between the source and
destination.
➢ Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
ADMINISTRATIVE DISTANCE
➢ It is the “trustworthiness” of the
route.
➢ It is included in the path installed in
the routing table if multiple paths
are configured on a router.
➢ The lower AD, the more trustworthy
the route.
FUNCTIONS OF PACKET FORWARDING
❖ Path Determination
❖ Switching
PATH DETERMINATION
➢ It is the process of how the router
determines which path to use when
forwarding a packet.
➢ The router searches its routing
table for a network address that
matches the packet’s destination
network
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SOME PATH DETERMINATIONS RESULT
❖ DIRECTLY CONNECTED NETWORK
- The packet is forwarded directly
to the device with the packet’s
destination IP address.
❖ REMOTE NETWORK - The packet is
forwarded to another router.
Remote networks can only be
reached by forwarding packets to
another router.
❖ NO ROUTE DETERMINED - If the
router does not have a default
route, the packet is discarded. The
router sends an Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP)
Unreachable message to the source
IP address of the packet.
CHAPTER 2– STATIC ROUTING
SERIAL CONNECTORS
DTE CABLE
➢ It is connected to the serial
interface on the router to a
CSU/DSU device (DCE).
CSU/DSU
➢ It controls the line and controls the
clock rate for the bandwidth set by
the service provider.
DCE CABLE
➢ It is connected to the router
wherein it provides the clock rate.
ETHERNET CONNECTORS
➢ Standard RJ45 UTP cables.
CONSOLE CONNECTION
➢ PC COM1 port using HyperTerminal
COMMANDS
show ip route:
➢ This displays the routing table.
show interfaces:
➢ This shows the status and gives a
detailed description of all interfaces
on the router.
show interfaces [interface]:
➢ This shows the status and gives a
detailed description for a specific
interface on the router.
show ip interface brief:
➢ This shows the status of all
interfaces in a condensed format.
logging synchronous
➢ the messages no longer interfere
with command entry.
show controllers
➢ It is useful in determining the
DTE/DCE status of a serial link
without having to physically check
the cables
ROUTING TABLE
➢ It consists of a list of known
network addresses
CISCO DISCOVERY PROTOCOL (CDP)
➢ It is a powerful network-monitoring
and troubleshooting tool.
➢ It enables you to access
a summary of protocol
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and address
information.
➢ It can be a security risk.
CDP ADVERTISEMENTS
➢ These are periodic messages that
are sent by each Cisco device to
directly connected Cisco devices.
CDP NEIGHBOURS
➢ These are Cisco devices that share
the same physical data connection.
CDP OPERATION
❖ DEVICE ID
➢ It is the configured host
name of the device.
❖ PORT IDENTIFIERS
➢ It is the name of the local
and remote ports that share
the physical connection.
❖ CAPABILITY
➢ It is the type of device.
❖ PLATFORM
➢ It is the hardware platform
of the device.
TWO WAYS ON HOW A ROUTER LEARNS
ABOUT REMOTE NETWORKS
❖ MANUALLY - Remote networks are
manually entered into the route
table using static routes.
❖ DYNAMICALLY - Remote routes
are automatically learned using a
dynamic routing protocol.
ADVANTAGES OF STATIC ROUTING
❖ Not advertised over the network
❖ Better security.
❖ Uses less bandwidth
❖ Knows the path it uses to send data
❖ Easy to implement in a small
network
❖ Route to destination is always the
same
❖ Requires no routing algorithm or
update mechanism
DISADVANTAGES OF STATIC ROUTING
❖ Time consuming
❖ Error-prone configuration
❖ Requires administrator intervention
❖ Does not scale well with growing
networks
❖ Requires complete knowledge of
the whole network
USES OF STATIC ROUTING
❖ Provides ease of routing table
maintenance in smaller networks
❖ Routing to and stub networks
❖ Uses a single default route to
represent a path to any network
that does not have a more specific
match with another route in the
routing table
STUB NETWORK
➢ It is a network accessed by a single
route, and the router has no other
neighbors.
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DEFAULT STATIC ROUTE
➢ It is a route that matches all
packets.
➢ It identifies the gateway IP address
to which the router sends all IP
packets that it does not have a
learned or static route.
➢ It is simply a static route with
0.0.0.0/0 as the destination IPv4
address.
➢ It is a static route that is used when
there are no routes that have a
specific match to the destination
network.
➢ It used when a router has only one
other router to which it is
connected
FLOATING STATIC ROUTE
➢ It is used to provide a backup path
to a primary static or dynamic
route, in the event of a link failure.
➢ It is only used when the primary
route is not available.
➢ It is configured with
a higher administrative
distance than the primary
route.
➢ It takes over when the preferred
route is lost, and traffic can be sent
through this alternate route.
NEXT HOP
➢ It can be identified by an IP
address, exit interface, or both.
➢ How the destination is specified
creates one of the three
following route types:
❖ NEXT-HOP ROUTE - Only
the next-hop IP address is
specified.
❖ DIRECTLY CONNECTED
STATIC ROUTE - Only the
router exit interface is
specified.
❖ FULLY SPECIFIED STATIC
ROUTE - The next-hop IP
address and exit interface
are specified.
- is used when the
output interface is a multi-
access interface and it is
necessary to explicitly
identify the next hop.
ALEX ZININ’S ROUTING TABLE
PRINCIPLES
❖ Every router makes its decision alone,
based on the information it has in its
own routing table.
❖ The fact that one router has certain
information in its routing table does
not mean that other routers have the
same information.
❖ Routing information about a path
from one network to another does
not provide routing information
about the reverse, or return, path.
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RECURSIVE ROUTE LOOKUP
➢ It is when the router performs
multiple lookups in the routing
table before forwarding a packet.
IPV6 STATIC ROUTES
❖ Standard IPv6 static route
❖ Default IPv6 static route
❖ Summary IPv6 static route
❖ Floating IPv6 static route
ETHERNET EXIT INTERFACES
➢ Uses both the exit interface and
next-hop address.
CHARACTERIZATION OF ROUTING
PROTOCOLS
❖ Classful
❖ Classless
USING CLASSFUL IP ADDRESS
➢ Subnet mask of a network address
could be determined by the value
of the first octet.
RIPv1
➢ Only needed to propagate the
network address of known routes
and did not need to include the
subnet mask in the routing update.
CLASSLESS INTER-DOMAIN ROUTING
(CIDR)
➢ It was introduced in 1993 by the
IETF where there is more efficient
use of IPv4 address space.
➢ It is a form of route summarization IT203
and is synonymous with the term
supernetting.
➢ It ignores the limitation of classful
boundaries, and allows
summarization with masks that are
smaller than that of the default
classful mask.
PREFIX AGGREGATION
➢ This reduced the size of routing
tables.
NETWORK SUBNET MASK
➢ It is also known as the network
prefix.
➢ It determines the network portion
of the address.
SUPERNET
➢ It summarizes multiple network
addresses with a mask that is less
than (or a summary of) the classful
mask.
SUMMARY ROUTE
➢ It is a single route that can be used
to represent multiple routes.
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➢ It is comprised of the least number ➢ These are tables or databases

of bits that are common to all for their operations, kept in
subnets. RAM.

VLSM ❖ ALGORITHM
➢ It allows the use of different masks ➢ It is a finite list of steps used in
for each subnet.
accomplishing a task.
➢ It is simply subnetting a subnet.
➢ It is used for processing routing
➢ It can be thought of as sub-
information and for best-path
subnetting
determination.

ROUTE SUMMARIZATION
❖ ROUTING PROTOCOL MESSAGES
➢ It is also known as route
➢ It is for discovering neighboring
aggregation.
routers.
➢ It is the process of advertising a
➢ It exchanges, learns, and
contiguous set of addresses as a
maintains accurate network
single address with a less-specific,
routing information.
shorter subnet mask.
➢ It helps reduce the number of
PURPOSE OF DYNAMIC ROUTING
entries in routing updates and
PROTOCOLS
lowers the number of entries in
local routing tables.
IT203❖ Discovery of remote networks
❖ Maintaining up-to-date routing
information IT203
CHAPTER 3 – DYNAMIC ROUTING ❖ Choosing the best path to
destination networks
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
❖ Ability to find a new best path if the
➢ It is used to facilitate the exchange
current path is no longer available
of routing information between
routers. ADVANTAGES OF DYNAMIC ROUTING
❖ Less administrative overhead.
❖ Scales better.
COMPONENTS OF DYNAMIC ROUTING ❖ Less prone to configuration errors.
PROTOCOLS ❖ Suitable in all topologies where
❖ DATA STRUCTURES multiple routes are required
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❖ Generally independent of the
network size
❖ Automatically adapts topology to
reroute traffic if possible
❖ Automatically shares information
about remote networks
❖ Determines the best path to each
network and adds this information
to their routing tables
❖ Helps the network administrator
manage the time-consuming
process of configuring and
maintaining static routes
DISADVANTAGES OF DYNAMIC ROUTING
❖ Dedicates part of a routers
resources for protocol operation,
including CPU time and network
link bandwidth
❖ Can be more complex to
implement
❖ Less secure
❖ Route depends on the current
topology
❖ Requires additional CPU, RAM, and
link bandwidth
AUTONOMOUS SYSTEMS (AS)
➢ It is a network or group of networks
identified and administered as a
single entity.
INTERIOR GATEWAY PROTOCOL (IGP)
➢ It allows routers within an AS to
exchange information.
EXTERIOR GATEWAY PROTOCOL (EGP)
➢ It allows one AS to exchange
routing information with another
AS.
DISTANCE VECTOR
➢ It does not know the entire
topology of a network.
➢ It only knows the routing
information received from its
neighbors.
➢ It does not have the knowledge of
the entire path to a destination
network.
PERIODIC UPDATES
➢ This happens when routing
protocols periodically broadcast the
entire routing table to each of its
neighbors. (e.g. RIP – every 30
seconds)
➢ These are sent even there have
been no changes for weeks or
months.
➢ This is inefficient because its
updates consume bandwidth and
router CPU resources.
ROUTING PROTOCOL ALGORITHM
➢ It is responsible for building and
maintaining the router’s routing
table.
ROUTING PROTOCOL CHARACTERISTICS
❖ TIME TO CONVERGENCE
➢ Faster the better
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IT203
❖ SCALABILITY
➢ How large a network the
routing protocol can handle.
❖ CLASSLESS OR CLASSFUL
➢ Support VLSM and CIDR
❖ RESOURCE USAGE
➢ Routing protocol usage of
RAM, CPU utilization, and
link bandwidth utilization
❖ IMPLEMENTATION AND
MAINTENANCE
➢ Level of knowledge of a
network administrator
ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL
(RIP)
➢ Metric: Hop count
➢ Its hop count should not be greater
than 15, or else it is unreachable.
➢ Broadcasts every 30 seconds
ENHANCED INTERIOR GATEWAY
ROUTING PROTOCOL (EIGRP)
➢ Cisco proprietary
➢ Metric: bandwidth, delay, reliability,
and load
➢ It used Diffusing Update Algorithm
(DUAL) to calculate the shortest
path.
➢ No periodic updates
NETWORK DISCOVERY
➢ It is part of the process of the
routing protocol algorithm that
enables routers to learn about
remote networks for the first time.
WHEN A ROUTER POWERS UP
❖ Knows nothing about the network
topology.
❖ Knows only the information saved
in NVRAM.
❖ Sends updates about its known
networks out all ports.
CONVERGENCE
➢ The amount of time it
takes for a network to
converge is directly
proportional to the
size of that network.
SPEED TO CONVERGENCE
➢ This is the basis of the comparison
of routing protocols on how fast
they can propagate information.
DISTANCE VECTOR UPDATES
❖ Periodic
❖ Bounded
❖ Triggered
RIP TIMERS
❖ INVALID TIMER
➢ If an update has not
been received in
180 seconds
(the default), the route is
marked as invalid by setting
the metric to 16.
❖ FLUSH TIMER

➢ 240 seconds
❖ HOLD-DOWN TIMER
➢ It helps stabilize routing
information and helps prevent
routing loops.
BOUNDED UPDATES
➢ These are about a route when a
path changes or the metric for that
route changes that are sent by
EIGRP.
❖ NONPERIODIC - Because
they are not sent out on a
regular basis.
❖ PARTIAL - Because they are
sent only when there is a
change in topology.
❖ BOUNDED - Because they
are sent to only those
routers that need the
information
TRIGGERED UPDATES
➢ It is a routing table update that is
sent immediately in response to a
routing change.
➢ It speeds up convergence.
ROUTING LOOP
➢ It is a condition in which a packet is
continuously transmitted within a
series of routers without ever
reaching its intended destination
network.
➢ It can have a
devastating effect on a network,
IT203
resulting in degraded network
performance or even network
downtime.
LINK BANDWIDTH
➢ It will be used
for traffic looping back and
forth between the routers.
COUNT-TO-INFINITY
It is a condition that exists when
IT203 ➢ inaccurate routing updates increase
the metric value to infinity for a
network that is no longer
reachable.
➢ RIP defines infinity as 16 hops.
HOLD-DOWN TIMERS
➢ These are used to prevent regular
update messages from
inappropriately reinstating a route
that may have gone bad.
➢ They instruct routers to hold any
changes that might affect routes for
a specified period.
SPLIT HORIZON
➢ It is another method used to
prevent routing loops
SPLIT HORIZON RULE
➢ It says that a router should not
advertise a network through the
interface from which the update
came.
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TIME TO LIVE (TTL)
➢ It is an 8-bit field in the IP header
that limits the number of hops a
packet can traverse through the
network before it is discarded.
➢ Its purpose is to avoid a situation in
which an undeliverable packet
keeps circulating on the network
endlessly.
➢ It is decreased by 1 by every router
on the route to its destination.
INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE
PROTOCOL (ICMP)
➢ It an error message sent by a router
to the source of the IP packet if the
TTL field reaches 0 before the
packet arrives at its destination.
DISTANCE VECTOR
➢ These are routing protocols that
are like road signs.
➢ Routers must make preferred path
decisions based on a distance or
metric to a network.
IT203 ❖ Each
LINK-STATE
➢ These are routing protocols that
are like road maps.
➢ They create a topological map of
the network and each router uses
this map to determine the shortest
path to each network
➢ It calculates the SPF algorithm after
the flooding is complete..
➢ It reaches convergence much faster
than distance vector routing
protocols.
DJIKSTRA’S ALGORITHM
➢ It is commonly referred to as the
Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm.
➢ It accumulates costs along each
path, fom source to destination.
LINK-STATE ROUTING PROCESS
❖ Each router learns about its own
directly connected networks.
❖ Each router is responsible for
contacting its neighbors on directly
connected networks.
❖ Each router builds a link-state packet
(LSP) containing the state of each
directly connected link.
❖ Each router floods the LSP to all
neighbors, who then store all LSPs
received in a database.
router uses the LSPs to
construct a database that is a
complete map of the topology and
computes the best path to each
destination network.
NEIGHBOR
➢ It is any other router that is
enabled with the same link-state
routing protocol.
 IT203

➢ The flooding
HELLO PACKETS of link-state
➢ These continue to be exchanged packets can
between two adjacent neighbors. adversely
➢ These serve as a keepalive function affect the
to monitor the state of the available
neighbor. bandwidth on
a network.
LINK-STATE PACKET (LSP) IS-IS
➢ It contains the link-state ➢ It was designed by International
information about the sending Organization for Standardization
(ISO).
router’s link.
➢ It is sent only during initial startup
CLASSFUL PROTOCOL
of the router or routing protocol or ➢ This does not send subnet mask
when there is a change in the information in routing updates and
topology (link going down or it must be the same throughout the
coming up) or a neighbor entire topology.
adjacency being established or ➢ This does not support
discontiguous networks.
broken.

CLASSLESS PROTOCOL
LINK STATE REQUIREMENTS ➢ This includes subnet mask
❖ MEMORY REQUIREMENTS information in routing updates and
➢ Link-state protocols require it does not have to be the same
more throughout the enitre topology.
memory, more
CONVERGENCE
CPU processing
➢ The network has converged when
and, at times, all routers have complete and
more bandwidth accurate information about the
❖ PROCESSING REQUIREMENTS network.
➢ Link-state ➢ Slower convergence: RIP; Faster
protocols can also convergence: EIGRP and OSPF
require more CPU
processing.
❖ BANDWIDTH REQUIREMENTS
 IT203

METRICS ROUTING TABLE

➢ It a way to measure and/or
compare routes to determine which
route is the best path
LOAD BALANCING
➢ This is what the router does among
all-equal cost paths when two or
more routes to the same
destination have identical metric
values.
➢ It is a hierarchical structure that is
used to speed up the lookup
process when locating routes and
forwarding packets.
LEVEL 1 ROUTE
➢ It is a route with a subnet mask
equal to or less than the classful
mask of the network address.

ADMINISTRATIVE DISTANCE (AD) ULTIMATE ROUTE

➢ It is used to
determine which route is to be
installed in the routing table.
➢ The term trustworthy is
commonly used when defining
administrative distance.
Route Source AD
Direct Connect 0 the classful mask.
➢ It includes a next-hop IP address or IT203
an exit interface.
FUNCTIONS OF LEVEL 1 ROUTE
❖ DEFAULT ROUTE - A static route
with the address 0.0.0.0/0.
❖ SUPERNET ROUTE - Mask less than
the classful mask
❖ NETWORK ROUTE - A route that
has a subnet mask equal to that of

Static 1
LEVEL 1 PARENT ROUTE
EIGRP Summary 5
➢ It is created whenever a route with
External BGP 20 a mask greater than the classful
mask is entered into the routing
Internal EIGRP 90 table.

OSPF 110 LEVEL 2 ROUTE

➢ It is a route that is a subnet of a
IS-IS 115
classful network address.
RIP 120 ➢ The source of a level 2 route can be
a directly connected network, a
External EIGRP 170 static route, or a dynamic routing
protocol.
Internal BGP 200
BEST MATCH/LONGEST MATCH
 IT203

➢ It is the route in the routing table

that has the greatest number of
leftmost matching bits with the
destination IP address of the
packet.

PREFERRED ROUTE
➢ It is the route with the greatest
number of equivalent leftmost bits,
or the longest match.

CLASSFUL AND CLASSLESS ROUTING

PROTOCOLS
➢ These affect how the routing table
is populated.

CLASSFUL AND CLASSLESS ROUTING

BEHAVIOURS
➢ These determine how the routing
table is searched.