Paula M. Hancock-Transformations

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O rd e r N u m b er 8816943
Transformations in the iconography of the mirror in medieval

art
Hancock, Pauola M., Ph.D.

Emory University, 1988
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TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE ICONOGRAPHY
OF THE MIRROR
IN MEDIE V A L ART
By
Paula M. Hancock
B.A., Georgia State University, 1965
M.A., Emory University, 1972
Adviser: John Howett
A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School

of Emory University in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the d e gree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Graduate Institute of Liberal Arts
1988
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited w ith o u t perm ission.
T R A N S F O R M A T I O N S IN T H E I C O N O G R A P H Y
OF T H E M I R R O R
IN M E D I E V A L A RT
By
P a u l a M. Hancock
Approved for the D e p a r t m e n t :
Adviser
H I* \4 4
Date
Accepted:
ean of the G r a d u a t e S ch o ol
N O T I C E TO B O R R O W E R S
U n p u b l i s h e d t h e s e s d e p o s i t e d in the E m o r y U n i v e r s i t y
L i b r a r y m u st be used only in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the
s t i p u l a t i o n s p r e s c r i b e d by the a u t h o r in the p r e c e d i n g
statement.
The a u t h o r of this d i s s e r t a t i o n is:
P a u l a M. H a n c o c k
T h e H i g h M u s e u m of Art
1280 P e a c h t r e e S tr ee t , N. E.
A t l a n ta , G e o r g i a 30309
The d i r e c t o r of this dissertation is:
John Howett
D e p a r t m e n t of Art H i s t o r y
Emory University
A t l an t a, G e o r g i a 30322
U se r s of t hi s d i s s e r t a t i o n not r e g u l a r l y e n r o l l e d as
s t u d e n t s at E m o r y U n i v e r s i t y a re r e q u i r e d to a t t e s t
a c c e p t a n c e of the p r e c e d i n g s t i u p l a t i o n s by s i g n i n g below.
L i b r a r i e s b o r r o w i n g this d i s s e r t a t i o n for the use of t he i r
p a t r o n s are r e q u i r e d to see t ha t e a c h u s e r r e c o r d s h er e
the i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u e st e d.
N a m e of u s e r Address Date T y p e of use

(Examination
only or c o p y i n g )
R eproduced w ith perm ission o f the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited w ith o u t perm ission.
In p r es en Ling this d i s s e r t a t i o n as a p a r ti al f u l f i l l m e n t
of the r e q u i r e m e n t s for an a d v a n ce d d eg r e e from E mory
Un iv er s i t y , I a gr ee that the L i b r a r y of the U n i v e r s i t y
s ha l l m ak e it a v a i l a b l e for i n s p e c t i o n and c i r c u l a t i o n in
a c c o r d a n c e wi t h its r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g m a t e r i a l s of
this type. I a g r e e that p e r m i s s i o n to copy from, or to
publish, this d i s s e r t a t i o n may be g r an te d by the p r o fe s s o r
un der w h o s e d i r e c t i o n it w a s writ te n, or, in his absen ce ,
by the D ea n of the G r a d u a t e S ch oo l w he n such c o p y i n g or
p u b l i c a t i o n is s o l e l y for s c ho l a r l y p ur p o s e s and do es not
i n vo lv e p o te n ti a l f i n a n c i a l gain. It is u n d e r s t o o d that
any c o p y i n g from, or p u b l i c a t i o n of, this d i s s e r t a t i o n
w h i c h i n v o l v es p o t e n t i a l f i n a n c i a l gain will not be
a l l o w e d w i t h o u t w r i t t e n p er m i ss io n.
n/t J2
rr a j u * i c a
TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE ICONOGRAPHY
OF THE M I RROR
IN M E D I E V A L ART
By
Paula M. Hancock
B.A., Georgia State University, 1965
I M.A., Emorv University, 1972
I
Adviser: John Howett
I A n Abstract of
[ A D i s sertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School
: of Emory University in partial fulfillment
i of the requirements for the degree of
J Doctor of Philosophy
i
| Graduate Institute of Liberal Arts
|
! 1988
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ith o u t perm ission.
This dissertation examines the iconography of the j
m ir r o r in the art of the M i d d l e Ages. An o b j e c t of !

|
multivalent and o f te n c o n t r a d i c t o r y meanings, the m e d i e v a l I
mirror symbolized perfection and imperfection, eternity
and e v a n es c en c e , v ir tu e and vice, o f t en simultaneously,

I
and b ec am e an a t t r i b u t e for s e ve r al allegorical and
Biblical figures. This s tudy discusses n e w s u bj e c t matter

i
lor the mirror, as seen in p r o t o t y p i c a l images, and ;

i
considers possible sourc e s, whether in e a r l i e r art or in j
c la s s i c al , Bi bl ic al , or m e d i e v a l works or t r a d i t i on s . j
I
Following an i n t r o d u c t i o n to the s u b j e c t in C h a p t e r
I, the s e co n d chapter surveys the m i r r o r as a s y m b ol in
ancient art and c h a r t s its m a j o r u se s in the Ne ar E a s t and
Egypt, and in G reece, E t ru ri a, and Rome, through the late
classical period. Chapter III f o c u s e s on the s y m b o l i c
mirror in the M i d d l e Ag e s and its t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s as
classical i ma g e r y was s y n c r e t i z e d w i t h C h r i s t i a n , and n e w
i mage types acquired the a t t r i b u t e of the l o o k i n g glass.
First, s y m b o li c m i r r o r s of p e r f e c ti o n, truth, and v i r t u e
are considered in i ma g es of v i s i o n s of God, of angels,
h o l y figu re s, and V i r t u e s such as P r u d e n t i a and Fides.
Representations of L u x u r i a and the G r e a t Whore of the
A p o c a l y p s e with the a t t r i b u t e of a m i rr or , are d is c u s s e d,
a l o n g w it h o ther m i r r o r s of i m p e r f e c t i o n , d el us i o n , and
vice. The m i r r o r as an o bj ec t of scientific study is als o
considered here, as is the q u e s t i o n of t h e i r availability j
■ in d aily life. Chapter IV s u m m a r i z e s the m i r r o r ' s ma n y !
transformations in m e d i e v a l art. An i n c r e a s e in m i r r o r j
; t yp es is noted, especially t hose of a cautionary nature, ;

■ i
beginning in the m i d - t h i r t e e n t h century and continuing in j
i i
the fourteenth c e n t u ry . By the time of the devastating !
I
B l a c k D e a t h of 1348, the terminus of this dissertation,
the principal meanings of the s y m b o l i c mirror hav e been j
established for the art of the R e n a i s s a n c e . j

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T A B L E OF C O N T E N T S
'A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S .......................................... i
1L I S T OF P L A T E S .............................................ii
j
IC H A P T E R I: I N T R O D U C T I O N ................................ 1
i CHAPTER II: THE SYMBOLIC MIRROR

IN A N C I E N T A R T ........................... 10
i
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1C H A P T E R III: T R A N S F O R M A T I O N S IN T H E
! I C O N O G R A P H Y OF T H E M I R R O R
j IN M E D I E V A L A R T ..........................80
i
CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSION ................................. 232
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................... 243
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
l
I A l o ng the way to and through this d i s s e r t a t i o n , in
| my t r a ve ls and at home, many individuals generously gave
I me advice, a s s i s t a nc e , and time, and I would like to
i r e c o rd my t ha n ks to the m here. A b o v e all, I am i n d e b te d
j to my advise r, J o h n How et t, for his i n s p i r e d coun s e l, his
| i l l u m i n a t i n g c o m m e n t a r i e s and c r i t i ci s m , and his c o n s t a n t

i
! encouragement. I am g r a t e f u l to E l i z a b e t h S t e v e n s o n and
I R o b e r t Si ll im an , m e m b e r s of my c o m m i t t e e , for t h ei r
!
t h o u g h t f u l gu id an ce . I w o u l d like to t h a nk K e l l y Mo r r is ,
who read the m a n u s c r i p t at s e ver al s ta g e s and m a d e
invaluable s ug g e s t i on s .
Special t h an k s go to the s t a f f s of the E m o ry
University Libra ry , the I n d ex of C h r i s t i a n Art at
D u m b a r t o n Oaks, the M o r g a n L ib r ar y , and the W a r b u r g
In s ti tu te . A m o ng m a n y h e l p f u l f r i e n d s and c o l l e a g u e s , I
am p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l to t he la te K a t h r y n L a v en d a r,
S h a r o n and A l e x a n d e r Pe rs o n , J o a n R au l e r s o n , Gudmund
Vigtel, A ma n d a W oods, and Er ic Z a fra n. Fina l ly , I thank
all of my f am il y for th eir support and p at ience.
; L I S T OF P L A T E S
|
;P l a t e !
I la Kub ab a. w i t h m i r r o r , r e li e f on stele, A n at o l i a n , ;
fro m M a l a t y a (13), Syria, t e n t h to s e v e n t h
c e n t u r y B.C. j
lb D r a w i n g of K u b a b a stele, M a l a t y a (13). j
j [ After J. D. H a w k i n s , " K u b a b a at K a r k a m i S and |
E l s e w h e r e , " A n a t o l i a n S t u d i e s 31 (1981),
j fig. 2 (d).)
! '
; 2 M i r r o r w i t h H a t h o r f a c e s , br o n ze , E g y p t i a n , e a rl y j
! E i g h t e e n t h D y n a st y . Ber li n , A g y p t i s c h e s Mus e u m,
Passalacqua Collection. j
|
3 W al l p a i n t i n g . T o m b of S n . t . T h e be s, E gy p ti a n ,
e a r l y M i d d l e K i n g d o m , Thebes, Egypt, e a r l y |
| Middle Kingdom. !
!
I
4 C a r y a t i d m i r r o r w i t h h a n d l e in the f o r m
of the god B e s . bronze, E g y pt i an , E i g h t e e n t h
D y n a s t y ( r e i g n of T u t h m o s i s III, 1 4 7 9 - 1 4 2 5 B. C. ). j
C l e v e l a n d M u s e u m of Art, P u rc ha s e , L e o n a r d C. j
H anna, Jr., B e q u e s t . j
5 C a r y a t i d m i r r o r w i t h h a n d l e in th e f o r m of a |
c o n c u b i n e , bro nz e, E g y p t ia n , E i g h t e e n t h D y n a s t y I
( re i gn of T u t h m o s i s III, 1 4 7 9 - 1 4 2 5 B . C . ) . j
C l e v e l a n d M u s e u m of Art, P u r ch a s e , L e o n a r d C. |
Hanna, Jr., B e q u e s t . !
6 A s h ur n w i t h r e c l i n i n g f i g u r e h o l d i n g r o u nd box
m i r r o r . E t r u s c a n , s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C. V o it e rr a ,
Museo Guarnacci.
7 C a r y a t i d in b e l t e d p e p l o s , fr o m the A r t e m e s i u m ,
T h a so s, bro n ze , Greek, si xth c e n t u r y B.C. Thasos,
A r c h a e o l o g i c a l M u se u m.
8 C a r y a t i d m i r r o r , bronze, Greek, ca. 5 5 0 -5 25 B.C.

N ew York, M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of Art.
9 C a r y a t i d m i r r o r stand, w i t h A p h r o d i t e and E r o t e s .
b r o n z e , Greek, c a . 5 0 0 B.C. B o s t o n , M u s e u m of
F i n e Arts.
iii
P l at e
; 10 C a r y a t i d m i r r o r and s t a n d , bronze, Greek, ca.
460 B.C. B oston, M u s e u m of F in e Arts.
11 C a r y a t i d m i r r o r and stand, w i t h s i r e n s , bronze,

Greek, ca. 5 6 0 - 5 5 0 B.C. G l y p t o t h e k und M u s e u m
a n t i k e r K l e i n k u n s t , M u nich.
12 R e d - f i g u r e b e l l - k r a t e r w ith A p h r o d i t e l o o k i n g into
a m i r r o r . A p u li an , 3 7 5 - 3 5 0 B.C. Cleveland Museum
of Art, Gift f r o m J. H. Wade.
13 V en us m a k i n g he r t o i l e t t e , d e ta il of m o s a i c
V en us and the S e a s o n s , G r e e k or Roman, E l - D j e m
(Thysdrus), f o u r t h c e n t ur y A.D. Susa M u s eu m ,
Tunisia.
14 H y d r i a h a n d l e a t t a c h m e n t , w i t h E r o s l o o k i ng
into a m i r r o r , b ronze, Greek, ca. 350 B.C.
M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of Art, N e w York.
15 M i r r o r and c o v e r , bronze, Greek, f rom C or i n th , ca.

325 B.C. M u s e u m of F i n e Arts, B os to n , G i f t of
E. P. Warren.
16 L ek yt h os , w it h b o u d o i r s c e n e , m a rble, Greek,
ca. 400 B.C. M u s e u m of F i n e Arts, B os to n.
17 M i r r o r back w i t h b o u d o i r s c e n e . E t r us ca n ,
f i f t h c e n tu r y B.C. L ondon, B r i t i s h M us e um .
[After E. G e rha rd , A. K l u gm a nn , G. Korte,
E t r u s k i s c h e S p i e g e l (Berlin: G. Reimer,
1 83 4-1897; r e pr i n t, B e r l i n and N e w York: De
G r uy te r, 1974), pi. 14.]
18 B o x mirror, w i t h head of A t h e n a , bronze,

Greek, ca. 385 B.C. C l e v e l a n d M u s e u m of Art,
P u rc h a s e , L e o n a r d C. Hann a, Jr., B e qu e st .
19 M i r r o r back, w i t h Venu s. Adonis, and M e n v r a .

E tr us c a n. [After G e rh a rd , K lu gm a nn , Korte,
E t r u s k i s c h e S p i e g e l , pi. 112]
20 M i r r o r back, w i t h D i o s k o u r o i , bronze, E t r u s c an ,
third c e n t u ry B.C. T o ro nt o, R oy a l O n t a r i o
Museum.
21 E n t h r o n e m e n t of D i o n y s o s , det ai l of r e l i e f on an
ivory pyxis, f if t h c e n t u r y A.D. Bol og na ,
M u s e o C i v ic o A r c h e o l o g i c o ._______________ ___
P la te
22 B r i d e a r r a n g i n g her h a i r , fresco, P o m p e ii , V i l la
i of the M y s t e r i e s ( Villa Item), R oman, ca. 60 A.D.,
1 fresco.
j
23 D i o n y s i a n i n i t i a t i o n s c e n e , f r e sc o, P o m p ei i , V i l l a !
of the M y s t e r i e s (Villa Item), R om an , ca. 60 A.D. ;
; 24 M i r r o r w i t h s i r e n , bronze, G reek, s e c o n d half of

f ifth c e n t u r y B.C. The N o r b e r t S c h i m m e l
I Collection.
25 S i r e n e x a m i n i n g h er f a c e , c a r n e l i a n gem, G reek,
s ixth c ent ur y. T h e Hague.
’ 26 C o d r o s P ai nt er , ”C up of V u l ci ": D i v i n a t i o n scene; ;
A e g e u s c o n s u l t i n g T h e m i s at D e l p h i , Greek,
ca. 4 4 0 - 4 3 0 B.C. S t a a t l i c h e M u s e u m , B e r li n .
N a r c i s s u s w i t h E r o s , d r a w i n g of w a l l p a i nt i n g,
I 27 P o m p ei i , R o m an , f i r st c e n t u r y A.D. [ Af te r j
I W. H. R o s c h e r , A u s f u h r l i c h e s L e x i k o n der
I
) g r i e c h i s c h e n und r o m i s c h e n M y t h o l o g i e ( Le ipzig:
I
B. C. T e u b n e r , 1 88 4- 19 2 4) , vol. 3, pt. 1, 19.] j
i
28 Cra te r, w i t h H e r a l o o k i n g in to a m i r r o r , d e ta i l !
of J u d g e m e n t of P a r i s scene, G r e ek , ca. 4 0 0 B.C.
P aris, C a b i n e t des M e d a i l l e s .
29 M i r r o r back, w i t h Pele. T h e t h i s ( T h e t is ) , and

C a l a i n a . E t r u s c a n , ca. 350 B.C. N e w York,
M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of Art. [ Af te r G e r h a r d , j
K l u g m a n n , Korte, E t r u s k i s c h e S p i e g e l , pi. 96.] j
I
30 F a l l e n P e r s i a n and his r e f l e c t i o n , d e ta i l of {
B a t t l e of D a r i u s and A l e x a n d e r m o s ai c , P o m p e i i , j
H o u se of the Faun, Roman, s e c o n d c e n t u r y B.C.,
N a pl es , M u s e o N a z i on a le .
31 T h e t i s in the w o r k s h o p of H e p h a e s t u s , w a l l p a i n t
ing, P o m p ei i , H o u s e I X . I . 7, R o m a n copy of a
H e l l e n i s t i c work, f irst c e n t u r y A.D. N aples,
M u s e o N a z i on a le .
i
M i c r o c o s m , in a t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t of j
H i l d e g a r d of Bin ge n, L i b e r d i v i n o r u m o p e r u m . |
Lucca, Bibl. Gov. Ms. 1942, fol. 27v. j
V
Plate
33 M i c r o c o s m , m i n i a t u r e in a t w e l f t h c e n t u r y m a n u
s c r i p t of Bede, De i n d i g i t a t i o n e and De p l a n e t i s ,
Prufening. V i en na , Nat. B i bl. C o d e x 12600, fol.
29r.
34 Th e S a c r i f i c e of C h r i s t and the C h u r c h , in a
m a n u s c r i p t of H i l d e g a r d of B i n g e n ' s L i b e r S c i v i a s ,
ca. 1 1 6 5 -1 1 75 . W i e s b a d e n Ms. 1.
35 V i s i o n of God, Man, and the C i t y , in t h i r t e e n t h

c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t of H i l d e g a r d of B i n g e n ’s
L i b e r d i v i n o r u m o p e r u m . L u c c a , Bibl. Gov. Ms.
1942, fol. 1 1 8 r .
36 D i v i n e O m n i p o t e n c e , in t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a n u
s cr i p t of H i l d e g a r d of B i n g e n ’s L i b e r d i v i n o r u m
o p e r u m , t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu r y. L u c c a Bibl. Gov.
Ms. 1942, fol. 1 3 5 r .
37 G od as a M i r r o r , in the R o t h s c h i l d C a n t i c l e s ,
early fourte en th century. N e w H aven, Y a l e U n i v e r
sity, B e i n e c k e R a r e B o o k and M a n u s c r i p t L i b r a r y
Ms. 404, fol. 40.
38 T h e S a p i e n t i a l C h r i s t , in f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y
m a n u s c r i p t of the R o m a n de la R o s e by G u i l l a u m e de
L o r r i s and J e a n de Meun. N e w York, M o r g a n L i b r a r y j
Ms. 132, fol. 130v. |
39 C h o i r of A n g e l s , in m a n u s c r i p t of H i l d e g a r d of
B i n g e n ' s L i b e r S c i v i a s . ca. 1 1 6 5 - 11 7 5. Wiesbaden
Ms. 1, fol. 38ro.
40 L a d d e r of V i r t u e s , in m a n u s c r i p t of H i l d e g a r d
of B i n g e n ’s L i b e r S c i v i a s , ca. 1 1 6 5 - 1 17 5 .
W i e s b a d e n Ms. 1.
41 A t t r i b u t e d to M a s t e r H o n or ^, H u m i l i t a s and
S u p e r b i a . in a l a t e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t
of the S o m me le R o i . L o n do n, C o l l e c t i o n of Dr.
E. G. M i ll a r, fol. 97ro.
42 A t t r i b u t e d to M a s t e r Hon o re , H u m i l i t a s a nd |
S u p e r b i a . in a l a t e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t
of the S o m me le R o i . Lon do n, B r i t i s h M us e u m , Add.
2 8162, fol. 5vo.
vi
IP l a t e
| 43 I l l u m i n a t i o n for P r o v e r b s 3 1 ; 2 2 . d etail, in a
I B i b l e m o r a l i s e d t h i r t e e n t h ce n tu r y . P a r is
! B i b l i o t h S q u e N a t i o n a l e lat. 11560, fol. 59vo.
44 G iotto, P r u d e n t i a , A r ena Chapel, Padua, ca. 1305-

1309.
45 A r c h b i s h o p F r e d e r i c k and the C a r d i n a l V i r t u e s , in
a R h e n i s h L ec ti o n a ry , ca. 1130. Cologne Cathedral
Ms., fol. 59, I.r.
46 U n i c o r n a n d V i rg i n wi th a M i r r o r , in the
S m i t h f i e l d D ec r e t a l s, s e c o n d q u a r t e r of
f o u r t e e n t h century. L ondon, B r i t i s h M u s e u m Ms.
R oyal 1 0 . E . 4.
j 47 K i l l i n g a u n i c o r n , scene on an e n am e l plaque,
F rench, f o u r t e e n t h century. Munich, Bayerisches
| Nationalmuseum.
j 48 W o u n d i n g a u n i c o r n , s cene on an i v o r y casket,
Paris, m i d - f o u r t e e n t h c en tu ry . N e w York,
M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of Art.
49 A m b r o g i o L o r e n z e t t i , Mae st £, ca. 1335.

M a s s a M a r i tt im a , P i n a c ot e ca , P a l a z z o del Pode st a.
50 F id e s g i ve s a m i r r o r to P h r o n e s i s (P r u d e n t i a ) , in
a m a n u s c r i p t of A l a n of L i l l e *s Anticlaudianus,
first h al f of f o u r t e e n t h cent ur y, P o m m e r s f e l d e n
Cod. 215, fol. 162v.
51 T he P r o j e c t a C a s k e t . Roman, ca. 380 (from the

E s q u i l i n e T r e a su re ) . L ondon, B r i t i s h Mu se um .
52 T he God of L o v e , scene on an i v or y m ir r o r case,

F rance, s e c on d q u a rt e r of the f o u r t e e n t h centu ry .
B a l ti m or e, W a l t e r s Art G a ll er y.
53 B r o n z e gilt hand m i r r o r , Ger ma n , t w e l f t h century.

F r a n k f u r t am Main, M u s e u m fur K u n s t h a n d w e r k .
54 Ivory m i r r o r b a c k . France, f o u r t e e n t h century.

N ew York, M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of Art, Gif t of
G e o r g e B iu m en t h a l .
vii
jPlate
55 T o i l e t t e s c e n e , m a r g i n a l drawing, in the L u t t r e l l
! Psal te r, E a st A n gl ia , ca. 1340. Lon d on , B r i t i s h
M u s e u m Add. Ms. 42130.
' 56 N e r e i d - s i r e n , w o v e n t ap es t ry , C o p ti c , f o u r t h
! c e n t ur y A.D. W a s h i n g t o n , D. C., D u m b a r t o n Oaks.
57 Ne re i d and s e a - m o n s t e r , s ce ne on a s il ve r flask,
late Roman, s e v e n t h c e n t u r y A.D. L e n i n gr a d,
| H e r mi t a ge .
58 M e r - m a n ( ? ) . m i n i a t u r e in m a r g i n of late
i thirteenth century manuscript. Paris,
j B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e Ms. fr. 95, fol. 295v.
j 59 C a p i t a l , A b b e y of M a u b u i s s o n ( S e i n e - e t - O i s e ) ,
last q u a r t e r of t h i r t e e n t h c e nt u ry . Paris,
L o uv r e M u s e u m.
60 L u x u r i a , in the r o s e - w i n d o w , early thirteenth

century, P aris, N o t r e Dame.
61 T r ee of V i c e s , in the B u r c k h a r d t - W i l d t
A p o c a l y ps e , fol. 6 r, end of t h i r t e e n t h cent ur y.
London, P r i v a t e C o l l e c t i o n .
62 I l l u m i n a t i o n for P r o v e r b s 9 : 1 3 - 1 5 , detail, in a
B i b l e m o r a l i s l e . t h i r t e e n t h c en t ur y . Paris,
B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e Ms. lat. 11560, fol. 46.
63 L u x u r i a , on a c a p i t a l f ro m the D u c a l Pal ac e,
Venice, ca. 1350. Venice, M u s e o del P a l a z z o
Ducale.
64 Lau x F u r t e n a g e l , P o r t r a i t of H a ns B u r g k m a i r and
his W i f e . 1529, oil. V ienna, K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e s
Mus eu m.
65 T he G r e a t W h o r e s e at e d u p o n the W a t e r s , in a
m a n u s c r i p t of the A p o c a l y ps e , b e f o r e 1245.
Paris, B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e Ms. fr, 403,
fol. 33.
66 The G r e a t W h o r e s e a t e d u p o n the W a t e r s , in a
m a n u s c r i p t of the A p o c a l y ps e , ca. 1 24 5-1255.
Ne w York, M o r g a n L i b r a r y Ms. 524, fol. 16v.
(Photo: C o u r t e s y of the M o r g a n L i b r a r y . )
iPlate
67 St. J o h n sees the G r e a t W h o r e , in a m a n u s c r i p t of
the A p o c a l y p s e , b e f o r e A p o c a l y p s e , b e f o r e 1245.
Paris, B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e Ms. fr. 403, !
fol. 33[2]. j
i
68 St. J oh n sees the G r e at W h o r e , in a m a n u s c r i p t of
the A p oc a l yp s e, ca. 1 2 4 5- 1 25 5 . N e w Yo rk, M o r g a n ;
L i b r a r y Ms. 524, fol. 16v. (Photo: C o u r t e s y of
the M o r g a n L i br a r y . )
69 T h e G r ea t W h o r e s ea t e d u p o n the W a t e r s , and the

S e v e n - h e a d e d B e a s t . T r i n i t y A p o c a l y p s e , ca. 1 2 42 - !
1250? C am b r i d g e, T r i n i t y Ms. R.1 6 , 2, fol. 20r.
70 T h e G r e at W h o r e D e f e a t e d , in a m a n u s c r i p t of the
A p o c a l y p s e , b e f o r e 1245. Paris, B i b l i o t h e q u e
N a t i o n a l e Ms. fr. 403, fol. 35. i
71 V a n i t a s . m i n i a t u r e in the m a r g i n of a F r e n c h m a n u - j
script, ca. 1 2 9 0 - 13 0 0. N e w York, M o r g a n L i b r a r y i
Ms. 796, fol. 91v. !
72 A t t r i b u t e d to B u f f a l m a c o , H e l l . d e ta i l of f resco,
s ec o nd q u a rt er of f o u r t e e n t h c en t ur y . Pisa,
C a m p o Santo.
73 O i s e u s e , in a f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t of
G u i l l a u m e de L o r r i s and J e a n de Meun,
R o m a n de la R o s e . N e w York, M o r g a n L i b r a r y Ms.
324, fol. 5v.
74 N a r c i s s u s . in a ca. 1320 m a n u s c r i p t of G u i l l a u m e
de L o r ri s and J e a n de Meun, R o m a n de la R o s e .
L o n do n , B r i t i s h M u s eu m , R o y a l Ms. 20A XVII,
fol. 14v.
75 M a s t e r of the D o m i n i c a n E f fi g i e s , C o r p o r a l e
B e l l e z z a , ca. 1340. Florence, Biblioteca
N a z i o n a l e , Ms. P alat. 600, fol. 6 v.
76 A m b r o g i o L o r e n z e t t i , A l l e g o r y of Bad G o v e r n m e n t ,
detail, 133 8- 1 33 9. Siena, P a l a z z o P u bb l i c o .
77 T h e P e d l a r and the A p e s , in a m i d - f o u r t e e n t h
century manuscript. Lon do n, B r i t i s h M u se u m,
R o y a l Ms. 10.E.IV, fols. 149r and 150r.
Pl a t e
I 78 T i g e r an d m i r r o r , in a b es t i ar y, s ec o n d h al f of
j t w e l f t h c e nt u ry . N e w York, M o r g a n Lib ra ry ,
P. 81, fol. 35ro.
79 T i g e r an d m i r r o r , in an A n g l o - N o r m a n be st ia ry , ca.
1260. Dou ay , B i b l i o t h e q u e M u n i c i p a l e , Ms. 711.
80 B a s i l i s k and m i r r o r , in the P s a l t e r of the D u k e of

; R u t l a n d, ca. 1260. Eng la n d, B e l v o i r C a stle.
! 81 T he F iv e S e n s e s , in a m a n u s c r i p t of A r i s t o t l e ’s
De s e n s u et s e n s a t o , Pari s, t h i r d q u a r t e r of the
t h i r t e e n t h cen tu r y . Ge ne va , B i b l i o t h e q u e
j p u b l i q u e et u n i v e r s i t a i r e , Lat. 76, fol. 246.
\ 82 T h e T h r e e - M i r r o r E x p e r i m e n t , in an It al i a n
' m a n u s c r i p t of D a n t e ’s D i v i n e C o m e d y , thi rd q u ar te r
' of the f o u r t e e n t h Cent ur y. E n g l a nd , H o l k h a m Hall,
! Ms. 514. 4
1
CHAPTER I j
INTRODUCTION j
I
i
I
T h r o u g h o u t h is to r y, t he m i r r o r has s e r v ed many |
|
purposes — as a talisman or m a g i c a l m ed iu m , v o t i v e !
j
of fe ri n g , useful instrument, and s ym bo l. It has o f t e n
been v i ew e d with ambivalence. Essentially n e u t ra l, it is
a t a b u l a r a s a w h i c h h as b ee n interpreted in b o th positive I
and n e g a t i v e ways, often simultaneously.
An o b j e c t that reflects light, the m i r r o r has been
associated with the sun and its l i f e - g i v i n g e ne rgy, and
with the h e a v e ns . It has b e e n viewed as a s u r r o g a t e for
the d iv ine. Clouds have been seen as r e f l e c t o r s , a nd the
moon no less a m ir r or , with reflected images to be d i s
c er ne d and m e s s a g e s to be i n t e r p r e t e d . It h as b e en w i d e l y
believed that the m i r r o r is a w i n d o w that opens onto
another world, and so it c ou l d be a m e d i u m through which
the gods w e re encountered. The looking glass has been
t h o u g ht of as an eye of god, and, as such, it could be a
witness. Since a n ti q u i t y , t he m i r r o r w as been linked to
love, beauty, and f e rt i l i t y . Its p r a c t i c a l utility for
personal a d or n m e n t , and for the enhancement of s e x u a l
attractions, made it a n a t u r a l reference to beauty and
2
i ’
I love. With its c a p a c i t y to d o ub l e or r e pe a t the i m ag e |
j j
i of w h o e v e r looked into it, the m i r r o r se em ed a n a tur al
i i
i !
' s ym bo l of f ec u nd it y . j
T he r e fl e c t e d image, t hough fleeting and w i t h o u t
sub st an ce , has been r e g a r d e d in several cultures as a j

i
separate being, a l iv i n g double, or, like a p e r s o n ' s ;
shadow, the p r o j e c t i o n of o ne's own soul and life force. j

T h e m ir r or i tself was sometimes see n as a k e e pe r of the J
sp ir i t or p r o t e c t o r of the o w n e r' s being, an a p o t r o p a i c [
object.
An i n s t r u m e n t that r e f l e c t s wha t is put b ef o r e it,
the m i rr o r has been v ie we d as a m e an s to truth, to k n o w l
edge, and to i l l u m i n a t i o n . The k n o w l e d g e thus a c q u i r e d
c ould be of e x t e r n a l appearances but also of inner v e r i
ties. E v e n as it p h y s i c a l l y e xt e n d s vision, it has also
been used as a m e d i u m for r e v e l a t i o n b e yo nd time, place,
or p e r s o na l p r e sence, and for d i v i n i n g the future.
This shiny r e f l e c t o r of v e r i ty and k n o w l e d g e has
also been v ie w ed as an i n s t r u m e n t of illusion, d e c e pt io n ,
and tempt at i on , and as a s i gn of vice and evil. While on
the one hand, it p r o m i se d self-knowledge, on the other,
it inv it ed self-absorption, provoking a t ur n i n g a w a y from
the d i vi ne toward the pleasure of a pp e a r an c es .
In the a n c i e n t Near East and M e d i t e r r a n e a n , the
m i rr o r possessed a r ange of r e l i g i o u s and m a g i ca l mean-
3
■ 1
ings, o f t en ma d e c lear by the p r e s e nc e of a d e i t y ’s image
on its handle, back, or stand. In a dd i t io n, representa
t i o n s of go ds and g o dd es se s, quasi-divine c r e at u r es ,
i
i
j heroes, and others, wit h m i r r o r attributes, in p a i n t i n g s
j and s c u l p t u r e a ls o s er v ed to f oc us the particular s y m bo l -

i .
| ism.
| At the b e g i n n i n g of the C h r i s t i a n era, the m e a n i n g s
of the m i r r o r in p a gan cultures and in a n c i e n t Israel
passed into the n e w art and thoug h t . Its s ym b ol i c mes
s ages w e re transformed to meet the n e e d s of the Church.
Successive transformations of m e a n i n g occurred throughout
the M i d d l e Ages. Som e of the a n t i q u e go ds and g o d d e s s e s
wh o had bee n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the m i r r o r e ve n into late
classical t i mes l i n g e re d in E ar ly C h r i s t i a n art, but were
soo n e i t h e r transmogrified into f i g ur e s who se rv ed the
n ew r e l i g i o n as e x e m p l a r s of a n c i e n t v ir t u e or vice, or
they w er e replaced by a n e w cast of h cl y and a l l e g o r i c a l
f igur es . The mirror a t t r i b u t e wa s r e t a i n e d by some, and
acquired by others, and its m u l t i v a l e n t m e a n i n g s wer e
altered.
These transformations in the i c o n o g r a p h y of the
mirror in the art of the M i d d l e Ages, fr om the third
century A.D. to the m i d d l e of the f ou r te e n t h , are the
subject of this d i s se r t a t i o n . N e w s u bj ec t m a tt e r for the
mirror and its p o s s i b l e sources, whether in e a r li e r art
4
or in c l a s si ca l, B i b li c a l, or m e d i e v a l literature, or in
historical e v en t s or m o v e m e n t s , will be e xa m i n e d . Si n ce
I only prototypical i m a g e s and principal t h e me s w il l be of
i i n t er e s t to t his study, an e n c y c l o p e d i c survey of m i r r o r s
and their r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in v a r i o u s m e d i a has not been
attempted.
The peri od u n d e r consideration s t ar t s w i t h e ar ly
efforts in the third and fourth c e n t u r i e s A.D. to s yn-
cretize classical imagery that could be used to a d v a n t a g e
and to b a n i sh w ha t c ou ld not. It c o n c l u d e s w i t h the
f o u r t e e n t h century, the dawn of the R e n a i s s a n c e , and the
ye a rs of t r a n s i t i o n that surrounded the B l a c k D e a t h of
1348. This cataclysmi c e v en t t hat w i p e d out m o r e than
half the p o p u l a t i o n of both F l o r e n c e and Siena, b r o u g ht
ab o ut p r of o u n d changes in ev e ry a s p ec t of soci et y, and
a l t e r e d the c a l c u l u s of life and tho ug h t . It p r o v i d e s a
caesura for the study of art, and m os t pertinently for
this d is s e rt a ti o n , in the st ud y of i c o n o g r a p h y .1
The art of the t h i r t e e n t h and fourteenth centuries
saw a b r o a d e n i n g of u se s for the s y m b o l i c m ir r or , w it h
m a ny variations on a fe w themes. By the m i d d l e of the
f o u r t e e n t h century, the principal mirror-related im ag e
types are in place for the R e na i s s a n c e .
Th e m e ta p h o r of the m i r r o r in the M i d d l e A ges was
a pervasive literary figure, and it is that l i t e r a r y
R eproduced w ith perm ission o f the copyright ow ner. F urther reproduction prohibited w ith o u t perm ission.
5
looking glass that has r e c e i v e d particular scholarly
attention. T he num be r of w o r k s on the iconography of the j
mirror in m e d i e v a l art is not large, and no s i ng l e st u dy j

i
I
has been devoted specifically to it. But it has received :
i
i
some c o n s i d e r a t i o n in s e v e r a l works of a g en er a l n a tu re . j
I
G. F. Hartiaub's Z au b e r des Spiegels (1951), the fi rs t j
I
large study to tr ea t this subject in art, is a broad,
scholarly survey, and p r o v i d e s an e s s e n t i a l introduction
to t he symbolism of the m i r r o r . 2 However, w it h the m a j o r
exception of G i o t t o ' s A l l e g o r y of P r u d e n c e and a few j

other fourteenth c e n t ur y w o r k s in w h i c h a lo o ki n g g la s s j
appears, Hartlaub d ev ot e s l i t tl e attention to the m i r r o r
in m e d i e v a l art.
Jurgis B a l t r u S a i t i s , in Le M i r o i r (1978), ranges
widely in s ci e n c e, p h i l o s o p hy , literature, and art to
provide a useful m os ai c on the s u b j e c t . ^ Herbert Grabes
h as m a d e a v a l u a b l e and e n c y c l o p e d i c contribution to the
study of the m i r r o r in his work, The Mutable Glass
(1982), which is an E n g l i s h translation of his o r i g i n a l
1973 G e r m a n editi on , entitled S pe cu l um , M i r r o r und
L o o k i n g - g l a s s .^ His specific subject is m i r r o r i m a g e r y
in b o o k t i t l e s and texts in literary works of the M i d d l e
A g e s and the E n g l i s h R e n a i s s a n c e , and w o r k s of art are
used largely to i l l u s t r a t e his study of m et a ph o r .
John B. Friedman's essay, " L 'i c o n o g r a p h i e de Ve nu s
6
et de son m i r o i r a la fin du M o y e n a g e , " is i m p o r t a n t for I
a consideration of V e n u s and her a l l e g o r i c a l progeny in
medieval ar t . 5 Heinrich S c hw ar z, Jan Bialostocki, Walter j

I
S. G i b son, Robert B a ld w in , Carla Gottlieb, and A n t h o n y F.
Ij J a n s o n ° h av e all w r i t t e n on m i r r o r symbolism of the
| p e ri o d ox its f r i ng es , and references ar e m a d e to t he i r
works in the chapters that follow.
T hi s dissertation is o r g a n i z e d according to the
following plan: After this i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a pt er , Chapter

I
II d e a l s w i t h the m i r r o r as s ym bo l in a n c i e n t art f r o m
earliest t im e s in the N e o l i t h i c N ea r E a s t and Egypt,
t h r o u g h G re ec e, E t ru r i a , and Rome, and concluding with
images of the l at e classical period. This chapter pro
vi de s a g e n e r a l r e v i e w of the m a j o r symbolic ty p e s and
presents a discussion of t he i r probable meanings in
antiquity. It serves as b a c k g r o u n d fo r C h a p t e r III,
which treats the symbolic mirror of the M i d d l e Ages, the
focus of this dissertation.
In C h a p t e r III, I examine the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in
the symbolic mirror in m e d i e v a l art, from the E ar l y
Christian p eriod, as E u r o p e a n culture is i t s e l f c h a n ge d
f rom pa ga n to C h r i s t i a n , through the R o m a n e s q u e , and into
the G o t h i c pe riod, c o n c l u d i n g my study with the m i d
fourteenth c e nt u ry . In t his period, the m i r r o r is used
R eproduced w ith perm ission o f the copyright ow ner. F urther reproduction prohibited w itho ut perm ission.
7
as an o bj ec t that c o n v e y s bo t h good and evil, vith its
meaning determined by c on t ex t. Its a m b i v a l e n c e provides
a framework for this c ha p t e r : The first part is c o n
c e r n e d w it h symbolic mirro rs of p er fe ct i on , truth, and
v irtue, and c o n c e n t r a t e s on prototypical i m ag e s of
beatific visions of Go d and the cosmos, of ang el s, and
a p a n op ly of V i r t u e s and h o l y figures.
T he s e c o n d part of C h a p t e r III is d e v o t e d to m i r
rors of i m pe r f e c t i o n , d el us io n, and vice. The looking
g l ass of the g o d d e s s V e n u s j.s p a s s ed a lo ng to a l l e g o r i c a l
f i g u r e s of sin — Luxuria (Lust), Vanitas ( Va n ity), the
G reat Whore of the A p o c a l y p s e , 'v'ana G lo ri a (Vainglory),
a nd C o r p o r a l e B e l l e z z a ( C or p o r e a l B ea ut y) . Oiseuse
( Id le ne s s ), a V e n u s - s u r r o g a t e , and N ar c i s s u s, revived
from a n t i q ui t y, a re both a s s o c i a t e d wit h m i r r o r s in the
g r ea t m e d i e v a l poem, the R o m a n de la R o s e . Images of
a n i m a l s b ei ng t r i ck e d by l o o k i n g g l ass es a r e als o dis -
s us s ed in this secti on .
Chapter III also f o c u s e s on m i r r o r s of scie nc e.
This is a m o r e c i r c u m s c r i b e d area of imagery, and is
p r e s e n t e d w it h b r ief r e v i e w of the r ange of s t u d i e s in
the s c ie nc e of m ir ro rs , c a t o p t r i c s , and a c o n s i d e r a t i o n
of the a v a i l a b i l i t y of m i r r or s.
C h a pt e r IV c o n c l u d e s the d i ss e r t a t i o n , with a
R eproduced w ith perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ith o u t perm ission.
8
| s u m m a r y of the s y m b o li c m i r r o r ’s m a n y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in
i
I
the art of the M i d d l e Ages.
9
Notes
I W h i l e the full m e a s u r e of its e f f e c t on the art

that f o l l o w e d may not yet be taken, its c o n s e q u e n c e s
h a v e b ee n s t u d i e d by M i l l a r d M e i s s in h is s e m i n a l work,
P a i n t i n g in F l o r e n c e and S i e n a A f t e r the B l a c k D e a t h
( P r i n c e t o n , N. J.: P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Pr es s, 1951).
2 g . H. H a rt l a u b , Zauber des S p i e g e l s (Munich: R.

P i p e r & Co., 1951).
^ J u r g i s B a l t r u S a i t i s , L e M i r oi r: E s s a i sur u ne
l e g e n d e s c i e n t i f i q u e . r e v e l a t i o n s , s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n et
f a l l a c i e s (Paris: E d i t i o n s A l i n e E l m a y an , 1978).
^ H e r b e r t Gr ab e s, Th e M u t a b l e G lass: Mirror-imagery
in T i t l e s and T e x t s of the M i d d l e A g e s and the E n g l i s h
R e n a i s s a n c e , trans. G o r d o n C o l l i e r ( C a m b r i dg e : Cambridge
U n i v e r s i t y P ress, 1982). O r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d in G e rm a n
as S p e c u l u m . M i r r o r und L o o k i n g - g l a s s : K o n t i n u i t a t und
O r i g i n a l i t a t der S p i e g e l m e t a p h e r in den B u c h t i t e l n des
M i t t e l a l t e r s und der e n g l i s c h e n L i t e r a t u r des 13. b is 17.
J a h r h u n d e r t s (Tu b in ge n: M a x N i e m e y e r , 1973).
5 j o hn B. F r i ed m a n , " L ’i c o n o g r a p h i e de Ve'nus et de
son m i r o i r 9 la f in du M o y e n a g e ," in L ’e r o t i s m e au
M o y e n a g e . E t u d e s p r e s e n t e e s a u T r o i s i e m e c o l l o q u e de
1 fI n s t i t u t d ’e t u d e s m e d i ^ v a l e s de l ’u n i v e r s i t e de
fjontreal, 1976, e d it e d by B r u n o R o y ( M o nt re a l: Les
E d i t i o n s de l ’A u r or e, 1977), 5 2-82.
^ H e i n r i c h S ch w ar z , " T he M i r r o r in A r t , " Art

Q u a r t e r l y 15, no. 2 (S um me r 1952): 9 7-118; Jan
B i a l o s t o c k i , "M an and M i r r o r in P a i n t i n g : R e a l i t y and
T r a n s i e n c e , " in S t u d i e s in L a t e M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e
P a i n t i n g in H o n o r of M i l l a r d M e i s s . ed. I r v i n g L a v i n and
J o h n P l u m m e r (New York: N e w Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y Press,
1977), vol., 61-72; W a l t e r S. G i b so n, " H i e r o n y m u s B o s c h
and the M i r r o r of M a n , " Pud H o l l a n d 87 no. 4 (1973):
205-226; R o b e r t B al dw in , " M a r r i a g e as a S a c r a m e n t a l
R e f l e c t i o n in the M i r r o r of J a n v an E y c k ’s A r n o l f i n i
W e d d i n g ." Pud H o l l a n d 98 no. 2 (1984): 57-75; Carla
G ot t li e b , "Th e B e w i t c h e d R e f l e c t i o n , " So ur ce : N o t es in
the H i s t o r y of Art 4, nos. 2/3 ( W i n t e r / S p r i n g 1985): 59-
67; and A n t h o n y F. J a n so n, "Th e C o n v e x M i r r o r as V a n i t a s
S y m b o l , " ibid., 51-54.
10
CHAPTER II
THE SYMBOLIC MIRROR IN A N C I E N T ART
Throughout e ar l y h is to r y , mirrors served not only
! as u s e f u l p e r s o n a l aids, but w e r e frequently bearers of
I special m e a n in g , often with cosmic or m a g i c a l implica
tio ns . R e f l e c t i o n and reflecting surfaces — s ti l l
j wa te r , s hi n y me tals, polished stones, g la s s — were of te n
associated with the s u p e r n a t u r a l , and the m i r r o r it se l f
was sometimes s ee n as a m a g i c a l o b ject, or as one t h a t
represented or s y m b o l i z e d certain p o w e r s a nd e x p r e s s e d
particular q ua li t ie s .
This c ha pter, which focuses on m i r r o r symbolism
f r o m the N e o l i t h i c era through late classical, non-
Christian art, is a b ri e f survey of m aj o r types of
imagery decorating mirrors and the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the
mirror as se en in p a i n t i n g and s c ul p t u r e . A discussion
of a n c i e n t Near Eastern mirrors is f o l l o w e d by a c o n
sideration of m i r r o r symbolism in a n c i e n t E g yp t . Greek,
Etruscan, and R o m a n w o r k s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d together, as
t he y o f t e n d e p i c t closely related mythologies.
In a n t i q u i t y , as in lat er p er io d s, the n o t i o n of
r e f l e c t i n g w o r l d s was w i d e s p r e a d and at the h e a r t of
11
various cosmological s ys te m s , philosophies, and b e l i e f s .1
In s u c h a system, the u n i v e r s e w a s envisioned as
m a c r o c o s m and m i c r o c o s m , a s t r u c t u r e in w h i c h the w h o l e
was repeated or m i r r o r e d in e ac h smaller part. According
to an e a r l y Persian c r e a t i o n myth, the fi rs t m an w as m a d e
in the i m a g e of the u n i v e r s e . 2 Ancient Judaic thought

1
j encompassed a similar view, as revealed by G od in G e n e s i s
J 1.26: " L et us m a ke m an in our image, after our l ik e -
{ ness." In the same tradition, Philo of A l e x a n d r i a
(second century A.D.) referred to m an as a s m a l l w or ld ,
and the c o s m o s as a l a r g e man, with e a ch individual a
replica of the cosmos.3
Macro-microcosmic views are seen in G r e e k thinking
from the sixth c en t u r y B.C. f or w a r d . For e xa mp le ,
Anaximandros (ca. 610-545 B.C.) a nd H e r a c l i t u s (fl. ca.
480 ?)4 i n c o r p o r a t e d elements in t h e i r philosophies.
Plato (4277-347 B.C.), in the T i m a e u s , said t h at god
constructed the c o s mo s as a l i v i n g entity, a single b ei n g
with soul and intelligence, in w h i c h all individual
be ings, though complete in t h e m s e l v e s , are parts.5
Astrology, of a n c i e n t o ri gi n , centers on a m a c r o -
cosmic-microcosmic relationship of c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s and
influences, and contained the i d e a of an a n i m a t e d cosm os :
The heavenly bodies, which had pow er o ve r m a n ’s d es ti n y,
12
were envisioned as gods wi th h u ma n characteristics, and a j
man's t e m p e r a m e n t was a reflection of the particular j
! p la ne t — planetary god — that g o v e r n e d him.6 The !

' |
j belief inastral g o v e r n a n c e was s t r o n g in the a n c i e n t !
i !
I
I world.^ j
.
I I
I j
j These few e x a m p l e s fro m B i b l i c a l and other sources
| are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the t ex ts fro m a n t i q u i t y in w h i c h
j the i ma ge of the m i r r o r or the p h e n o m e n o n of r e f l e c t i o n

I
se r ve d as a metaphor of cl ear and expressive m e a n i ng , j
providing an a n a l o g u e for the r e l a t i o n s h i p of m a n to the
c o s m o s .®
Near East
In the a nc i e n t Ne ar East, obsidian o b je c t s, c o n ic a l
in shape, p ol is he d , and s li gh t ly c onvex, h av e b ee n f o und
in or near N e o l i t h i c b ur i a l shri n es , assumed to be t h o se
of women, at C at al Hu'yuk in A n a t o l i a . 9 These o b j e c ts ,
da ti ng fro m ca. 6 0 0 0 - 5 9 0 0 B.C., are the earliest f ound
that are t h o ug h t to be m i r r o r s . 10 The circu mstances of
i n t e r m e n t h av e suggested that t here was a c o n n e c t i o n
b et w e e n the m i r r o r s and the s a n c t u a r i e s in w h i c h they
were found, and that they may have been a s s o c i a t e d with
p r i e s t e s s e s .11
13
In M e s o p o t a m i a , m e t al m i r r o r - l i k e discs have been
d i s c ov e re d , with the earliest dating from the f o u r t h
m i l l e n n i u m B . C . 12 tr t ombs (ca. 3 2 00 B .C .) at T el l o , and
at K i s h (ca. 3000 B .C . ) , and at o t h er sites, t h e s e m ir r or
di scs w e r e found among perfume jars or j e w e l r y , w o m e n ’s
things presumably placed in t heir bu r ia l c h a m b e r s . 13
These earliest mirrors are g e n e r a l l y w i t h o u t decoration
and lack i n s c r i p t i o n s or o t he r identifying elements that
would provide clues to any p o s s i bl e symbolic references.
By the second m i l l e n i u m B.C., evidence of m i r r o r s
is w i d e s p r e a d in the Nea r E a s t . ^ T he e a r l y and o b v i o u s
association of m i r r o r s and w om e n is c l a r i f i e d in H i t t i t e
t e xt s of the late s e c o n d m i l l e n i u m , in w h i c h a mirror and
a spindle together a re c a l l ed s y m b o l i c of w o m a n h o o d .
The depiction of a f e m a l e h o l d i n g a m i r r o r in one hand,
w i t h a spindle, d i s t af f , lyre, or a n o t h e r object in the
other, became a familiar motif in b a s - r e l i e f s . Sometimes
the fi gu re is i d e n t i f i e d as a wif e or d a u g h t e r and of
h i g h rank, while other examples s ho w a s t a n d i n g or s eated
goddess carrying a mirror disc.
A goddess, identified as K u b ab a, holds a mirror in
several works dating from the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y B.C.
f o r w a r d . 17 ^ stele fro m M a l a t y a [ PLATE 1 (a) and (b)],
which s hows a se a te d g o d de s s (right) holding a mirror in
her right hand and a spindle (or p o m e g r a n a t e ? ) in her
14
r ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------ ---— ■— ------------------------------ -------------- -------------- — — - |
! I
j left, b e ar s an i n s c r i p t i o n identifying the f i g u r e as |
I |
! Kubaba.18 Th is deity, whose origin is uncl ea r, m a y h av e j
| j
J bee n a p r o t o t y p e for C y b el e, the A n a t o l i a n M o t h e r of all i
I 1 Q I
j men and a n i m a l s who presid es over procreation. She is j
j l a te r i d e n t i f i e d w it h A p h r o d i t e . 20
i
I Mirrors decorated wit h animal, plant, and geometric
! i
I I
j motifs hav e al s o been f o un d at v a r i o u s a n c i e n t s i t es in j
the Near E a s t . 2 1 In some (apparently rare) instances, j

i
l
a mirror is d e p i c t e d nea r men of h i g h station on r e - j
l i e f s . 2 2 Th e m i rr o r is m o s t o f t e n se en as an a t t r i b u t e
of g o d d e ss e s, and p e r h a p s by i n t e n d e d association, of
women of n o b i l i t y or w ea l t h . This typ e of m i r r o r s t an d s
clearly for i de a s of w o m a n h o o d , as t e x ts and images s ta te
an d imply. It is l ik e ly that t he m i r r o r refers to
b eauty, to its e n h a n c e m e n t , and to lo v e or f e r t i l i t y .
Since the m i r r o r "reproduces" what is p la ce d before it,
it w a s perhaps se en as a g e n e r a t i v e object or at l ea st
emblematic of f e r t il i ty . Its a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h K u b ab a ,
the g o d d e s s who mos t probably gave rise to the G r e a t
Mother g o d d e s s Cybele, m ay have be e n r e l a t e d in par t to
the m i r r o r ' s capacity to d u p l i c a t e . F ur t he r , the m i r ro r ,
as an o b j e c t r e f l e c t i n g light, an ech o of the sun, may
h a v e a ls o been in this c o n t e x t a reference to the
divinity of the bearer.
S e v er a l a d d i t i o n a l aspects of the m ir r o r should be
15
raised here. Fir st , t he r e is the n o t i o n of the m i r r o r as
an a p o t r o p a i c o bj e ct . In the a n c i e n t Near Ea st and in
Egy pt , it w as often regarded as a t a l i s m a n w i th p ow e r to
w a rd off e v i l . 23 According to C a r l a G o t t l i e b , evidence
of the use of m i r r o r s as a m u l e t s h as be en noted on a
limestone re li e f excavated in J e r u s a l e m and dating f ro m
the fifth century A . D . 2 4 The r el ief, which depicts two
large me norahs standing in an a r c h i t e c t u r a l s et t in g, no
longer holds its m i r r o r s , b ut c i r c u l a r depressions in the
limestone indicate their original p l a c e m e n t . 25 The
mirror, used here in c o n j u n c t i o n with the m e n o ra h , may be
viewed as the eye of God, and as a v e r s i o n of the " m u c h -
suffering" eye of H o r u s which, in E g y p t i a n mythology, w as
torn f r o m his h ea d and then r e s t o r e d . Mirrors, as
objects reflecting divine light, then, a re s u g g e s t i v e of
God's protective p r e s e n c e . 26 The u se of t he m i r r o r as an
a p o t r o p a i o n m ay date to an e a r l y practice in the N ea r
East, one th at s p r e a d to E g y p t , 27 and, later, throughout
the w h o l e M e d i t e r r a n e a n .
Light is a n e a r l y universal s ig n of a d i v in e
presence and frequently of a h o l y revelation, as is
clearly understood in the B i b l i c a l description of the
shining ("horned") face of M o s e s after his encounter w i th
the L or d on Mt. S i n a i , 28 and j[n the c o n v e r s i o n of
S a u l , 29 w h 0 was struck down and transformed by G o d ' s
16
- |
blinding l i g h t . 30
T he m i rr or , an o b j e c t of illumination, s e r v e s as a
metaphor for the emanations of God. W is do m , in the B oo k
' of W i s d o m , 7:26, is
i
i
i
j . . . the b r i g h t n e s s of e t e r n a l light,
! and the u n s p o t t e d m i r r o r of G o d ’s !
i m aj es ty , and the i m a g e of his g o o d n e s s . 31 j
j (Douay-Rheims) j
Wisdom (7:21) possesses understanding and k n o w l e d g e , as j

i
f rom God, and is t e a c h e r of all t h in g s "as are hid and I
I
I
not f o r s e e n . "
The concept of th e r e f l e c t i o n as a p r e m o n i t i v e sign
to be r ead an d i n t e r p r e t e d must also be c o n s i d e r e d w i t h
th e se earliest uses of the m i r r o r as a t t r i b u t e . Based
on the wo rd of later commentators, c a t o p t r o m a n c y , or the
use of r e f l e c t i v e s u r f a c e s, including water ( h y d r o m a n c y ),
for p u r p o s e s of d i v i n a t i o n , originated in B a b y l o n i a ,
s pr e a d to Egypt, and t he n to G r a e c o - R o m a n civilization
not l a t e r than the f ir s t c e n t u r y B.C. and possibly
e a r l i e r .32
Divination using reflecting surfaces was a lso k no wn
and practiced by the a n c i e n t I s r a e l i te s , and references
to it are f ou nd in the B i b l e . 33 i n the b ook of Gen es is ,
Joseph i n s t r u c t s his steward to r e c o v e r his cup, t ak en by
his b re th re n , and to say to them:
R eproduced w ith perm ission o f the copyright ow ner. F urther reproduction prohibited w ith o u t perm ission.
17
| The cup w h i c h you h a v e s to le n is that

| in w h ic h my lord d ri nketh, and in w h i c h
j he is wo n t to divine. (44:5)
i
I
When Joseph himself c o n f r o n t s his b r o t h e r s wh o h a v e the
c up in q ue stion, he s pe a k s of his g r ea t s k i ll in "the
j •
s c i e n c e ofc divining.
• • t i^ A
W h i l e we do not k n o w w h e n d i v i n a t i o n w as practiced
f ir st in the a n c i e n t Near East, we do k n o w that the
r e f l e c t i o n i t s e lf — as the m ea ns by w h i c h s igns m a y be
i nt e rp r e te d , v i s i o n s beheld, s ouls and s p i r i t s c a ug h t
and kept, or o t he r i m p r i n t s of i d e n t i t y or life m a d e —
figured in m a g i c a l or r e l i g i o u s beliefs f ro m e a r ly
t i m e s . 35 T hi s p ower of the r e f l e c t i n g s urf ac e, the
mirror, ma y r e s o n a t e in t he se e a rly images.
A l t h o u g h the m i r r o r was v i e w ed as a s p i r i t u a l
m e d i u m for p o s i t i v e ends in a n c ie n t I s r a el as s e e m i n g l y
it w a s in o ther e a r l y Nea r E a s t e r n civilizations, t he re
was in H e b r a i c t h o u g h t a d a r k side to it as well. In
fact, the use of a m i r r o r w as p r o h i b i t e d in d ai ly life,
w i t h only rare e x c e p t i o n s .36 In the boo k of I s a i a h
( 3 . 1 6-24), looking-glasses are c o n d e m n a b l e , used by vain
a nd w a n t o n women, and G o d ’s p u n i s h m e n t for the h a u g h t y
daughters of Sion wil l be to take th e m away, along wi th
o t h e r o b je c ts of v a n i t y . 37
_________Clearly, the m i r r o r itself, and its r e p r e s e n t a -
18
j tions, had significance in the a n c i e n t N ea r Ea s t and a

j
| n u m b e r of symbolic r ef er e n c e s , although certain particu-
| lar m e a n i n g s and functions remain speculative. It was
i o f t e n v i e w e d as a sign of d i v i n e p r e s e n c e or k n o w le d ge ,
i
I
j or even as a m e a ns of e n c o u n t e r i n g the god s or o b t a i n i n g
jI k n o w l e d g e ; as a v ot i ve object especially relating to

I
| f e r ti l i ty ; as a t u t e l a ry i n st r u me n t; and as a m e d i u m for
j
d i v i n a t i on . In a n c i e n t I sr ae l alone, the m i r r o r s eems to
have been an o b j ec t of a m b i v a l e n c e , serving bot h as an

I
i n s t r u m e n t w it h s p ir i t u a l associations and as an
instrument of vice.
Egypt
A l t h o u g h no stone objects similar to t h o se d i s
covered in the N e o l i t h i c N e a r East hav e bee n f ound in
a n c i e n t Egypt, certain oval disc-like stone palettes fro m
the predynastic period, wetted to m a k e t he m refle ct , may
h a v e been us ed as m i r r o r s . 38
T he e a r l i e s t me tal m i r r o r s f ound at s e v er a l loca
t i o n s in E gy pt are b e l ie v ed to da te f ro m the A r c h a i c or
Early Dynastic P e ri o d (Dynasties I - I I I , ca. 3 0 0 0 B . C . -
ca. 2 7 8 0 B . C . ) 3 9 These Eg yptian m i r r o rs , generally
cordiform ( h e a r t -s h a pe d ), we r e f o un d in b u r i a l sites.
A mirror disc fro m Sedme nt , the only one Icnown fro m the
19
p e ri o d that has a specific provenance, was f oun d at the
feet of the d e c e a s e d . ^
j From the Ol d K i n g d o m (ca. 3 00 0- c a. 2155 B .C.) for-

i
| ward, s l i g h t l y c o n v e x m i r r o r d i s c s of c o p p e r and b r o n z e
j
| are f ound in g r e a t e r n u m b e r s . ^ At the sa me time, the
i
j r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of m i r r o r s in p a i n t i n g s or r e l i e f s is
seen.Depictions generally show the m i r r o r being used
in t o i l e t t e sc en e s, and m o r e frequently associated with
women th an men; being manufactured; or as par t of f ri se s
d *ob j e t s . In s e v e r a l instances, there a re scenes in
which y ou ng w o m e n h o l d i n g mirrors perform a d a n c e . ^
Other s c en e s show mirrors b e ing presented as v o t i v e
o f f e r i n g s .^5
Mirrors have o f te n b e e n found in t ombs, n e ar b od i e s
of the dead ( both m a l e and female), or, in at l e a s t one
case, inside layers of the d e c e a s e d ’s w r a p p i n g s .^6 While
the m i r r o r m a y h a v e been p r e s e n t as a u s e f u l object for
the d e c e a s e d in the a f t e r l i f e , along with the o t h e r trap
p in gs and e v e r y d a y a r t ic l e s , it is a p p a r e n t that the disc
had a d d i t i o n a l significance for the a n c i e n t E g yp t i a n .
T hi s h i g h l y polished m e t al instrument of l i gh t and
r e f l e c ti o n, gleaming like the life-giving sun, shining
li ke the r e f l e c t i v e moon, and capable of generating an
im age — a double — of the be ho ld er , wa s likely to h a ve
been the repository of c o m p l e x s y m b o l i s m . ^7
20
i S olar myths, as t a l e s of rebi rt h, provide a cor e

1 j
I :
I of m e a n i n g for the m ir ro r , w i th images or s ig ns of sun- j
i |
I related deities H a t ho r, Horus, and Ra on r e f l e c t i v e d i sc s j
j j
j from the Old and M i d d l e (2134-1785 B.C.) Kingdoms forward, j

| g i vi n g e v i d e n c e for i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of this type. The !
| '
m ir ro r, as an a t t r i b u t e of d e i t i e s w i t h powers to protect,
i
i
to r e s t o r e and r e g e n e r a t e , may hav e served as an a p o t r o - j
i
I
paic object, an a m u l e t of s orts that c ou ld reassure the j
living. It c ou l d a ls o have s e rv ed the dead, for the
m i r r o r may als o hav e bee n v i ew e d as the l o cu s for t he de-

!
c e a s e d ' s lea, or separable personality, or for the _ba, or |
s o u l . 48 On c a r y a t i d m ir r or s , which g r ew in p o p u l a r i t y in j
the Ne w K i n g d om , the supporting figure of a y o u n g w oman, i
perhaps a s e r v a n t or a c o n c u b in e , is s o m e t i m e s seen. In
the tim e of the N ew K i n g d o m , the g r o t e s q u e image of Bes,
the god of c o s m e t i c s and reve lr y, protector of h e a r t h and
p r e g n a n t women, is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m ir r o r s , possibly
h a v i n g an a p o t r o p a i c function or s e x u a l i m p l i c a t i o n s .49
The m i r r o r disc i tself, s hiny and r e f l e c t i v e , has
be en interpreted as a s ola r s y m b o l . 50 Certainly, the
s h ap e of mos t a n c i e n t Egyptian m i r r o rs , f r om c o r d i f o r m to
slightly flattened cir cl e , recalls the s u n . 51
Inscriptions referring to s o l a r - r e l a t e d deities such
as Ra, Hathor ( I s i s ) , 52 an(j H a t h o r ' s son, the sky god
Horus, or r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of them, further lin k the m ir r o r
and the s u n . 53 An i n s c r i p t i o n referring to the sun god
21
_ . n
i
Ra, found on a m i r r o r w it h a divine standard handle, has |

j
b ee n recorded by V i c t o r Loret.54 T he sky g o d de s s Hathor, j

i
i
who, in an early m a n i f e s t a t i o n , was m o th e r of the sun, is j
frequently represented on m i r r o r h a n d l e s . 55 Thi s cow- !

I
headed deity, who w as a ls o goddess of beauty, love,
f er t il i t y, and the dance, is c r o w n e d by a sun disc, su p
ported a bo ve her h o r ns as in this E i g h t e e n t h D y n a s t y
mirror from the A g y p t i s c h e s Museum in B e r l i n . 56 [ P LA TE 2]
T he papyrus plant, which symbolized life and w hi ch
also se r ve d as H a t h o r ' s scep te r , o f te n d e c o r a t e s m irror
h a n d l e s a l o ne or s er v es as an a r c - l i k e c a n o p y a bo ve the
head of o th e r deities or f i g u r e s . 57
The sun, as d i v i n e life-giver, was at the c en t er of
the a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n ’s i d ea s of r e g e n e r a t i o n and m y t h s of
r eb ir th . Hathor, as g en et ri x , was the g o d d e s s who each
day gave birth to the sun, and w ho each e v e ni n g k ep t it
s af e for the next day's regeneration. In a c i v i l i z a t i o n
in w h i c h life was preparation for d ea th and r e s ur r e ct io n,
thi s may e x p l a i n w h y m i r r o r discs, as s ol a r sym bo ls
associated wit h her cult, ha v e be e n found so o ften near
the d e a d . 58 F ur t he r, the i m ag e in the m i r r o r may have
been interpreted as a do u bl e, a s ec on d life, a regenera
tion of the b eh o l d er , or the p r e s e n c e of an image "in"
t he m i r r o r may ha v e fostered the b e li e f that it served
as a r e p o s i t o r y for the soul. These b e l i e f s may have
22
contributed to the m i r r o r ' s symbolic u se and presence in
b u ri al c h am be r s, near the h o p e f u l d e a d who had been
accoutered and prepared for resurrection.
In a d d i t i on , it s h o u l d be n o t e d that H a t h o r was
c a ll e d " s h e w ho has two faces." Arielle Kozloff has
referred to this e pi th e t, suggesting a further connection
b e t w e en H a t h o r and m i r r o r s . A janus-faced c ow im ag e
s er v e d as her c u l t 's totem. Kozloff remarks t ha t E g y p t i a n
m ir r o r s, w h i c h w er e polished on both sides, were thus able
to r e f l e c t two images, and so r e f e r to H a t h o r ' s e p i t h e t . 59
Because of this inherent phenomenon of d o u b l i n g, the
mirror seems to i l l u s t r a t e the two f a c e s of j an u s im a ge r y
wi th or w i t h o u t a separate j a n i f o r m i m a g e . 60
A connection between the m i r r o r and the Jca, an
individual's spiritual double or p e r s o n a l i t y , wa s d r a w n by
Je an C ap ar t , who n ot e d the i n c i d e n c e of m i r r o r disc and
k a - si g n, in w h i c h two a r ms a re e x t e n d e d in a p r o t e c t i v e
em brace, in f r i s es d ' o b i e t s on d i v i n e s t a n d a r d s . 61
Lilyquist h as r e f e r r e d to s c e n e s in w h i c h m i r r o r s and
ointment are b ro u g h t to the d e c e a se d , for his or her k a .62
In one s uc h sce n e [PLA TE 3], an i n s c r i p t i o n l in k s the ka
and the sun god R a, 6 3 and ma y allude to the k i n g ' s daily
l us t ra t i on , in which, through cleansing and the use of
ointment and co sm e ti cs , he w as born a g a i n as R a . ^ 4
Su ch a rite m ay have become part of the ceremony for the
d e a d . 65 H er e the m i r ro r was of practical use in the
| application of o i nt me n ts , but it had also probably ac-

i
! quired symbolic meaning for the process of r e g e n e r a t i o n of
! the d e a d .66 There is some indication that it may have

|
| been c o n s i d e r e d an aid ir. the r e s t o r a t i o n of the de-
|
j c e a s e d ' s s i g h t . 67
! In a d d i t i o n to a i d i ng in the r e b i r t h of the deceased
and possibly prov iding a p r o t e c t i v e h av e n for the kji, the
mirror may have h ad f ur t he r apotropaic f un c t i o ns . B. B.
Pavlov has a dv an c ed the t h e or y that for a n c i e n t Egyptians
a mirror, in addi tion to its practical use in a p p l y i n g
c os me t i cs , was be l ieve d to c o n s e r v e o n e ’s a p p e a r a n c e .
More i m p o rt a nt l y , it was the k e e per, and t hu s p r ot ec to r,
of the soul ( b a ) .68 T he idea that o n e ' s soul is p r e s e n t
in a r e f l e c t i o n i n w at e r or a mirr o r, is an a n c i e n t b e li e f
in many cul tu re s , but m o re evidence is n e e d e d b e f o re this
can be c o n c l u d e d for the m i r r o r s of a n c i e n t E g y p t . 69
The use of the wad jet (meaning "hale,
s o u n d " ), or "eye of H o r u s , " in c o n j u n c t i o n with mirrors
d a t in g f ro m the M i d d l e K i n g d o m appears to be a s i g n of
protection, although its full ramifications are not
c l e a r . 70 In the legend, the g o d ' s eye, which Set rip pe d
from its soc k et and t h re w into f ar t h e s t d a r kn es s, was
found and restored by Thoth, the m o o n ' s g ua rdian.
24
Thus, this v is u a l reference to the sky or sun d e i ty Horus,
son of H a t h o r - I s i s , is first one of r e g e n e r a t i o n , rene wa l,
survival.Further, the mirror, accompanied by the
wad j e t . may function as the po we r f u l g od's eye, affording
the user or o w ne r the protection of Horus. In a n o t h e r
form, the eye is a sign of d e s t r u c t i v e f o rc e and fury,
or of the p o wer of Horus, who o v e r t h r e w Set and was
victorious.
The presence of the god Bes on New K i n g d o m m i r r o r s
dating fro m the E i g h t e e n t h Dynasty a ls o may be a p o t r o -
paic.^ Illustrated is an u n us u al c a r y a t id example in
the c o l l e c t i o n of the C l e v e l a n d M u s e u m of Art. [ PL AT E 4]
This grotesque, leonine god of c o s m e t i c s and m e r r y m a k i n g
was al s o the god of the h earth, and protector of pregnant
women and women in c h i l d b i r t h , and of c h il dr e n . The
t he o ry has been a d v a n c e d that the Bes i mage may derive its
appearance and protective n a tu r e from the statues of
guardian l io n s that w e r e known in e ar ly Dynastic t imes and
which were believed to be a p o t r o p a i c .^5 A. P i a n k o f f has
expressed the idea that Bes, who is s o m e t i m e s s ho wn m a ki n g
music, is p e r h a p s u si n g sounds to " d ri v e off m a l e v o l e n t
f o r c e s . "76
The Bes-image may als o have d i re c t sexual connota
tions, r e la te d to his reveler's role, and the p r e s e n c e of
the god of m e r r y m a k i n g on m i r r o r s may have referred to or
25
presaged s ex ua l a c t i v i t y .77 Supporting thi s |contention,

|
R o b e r t B i a n c h i has n o ted the ma n y N ew K i n g d o m m i r r o r s w i t h ;
i
n a k e d y o u n g women, p e r h a p s c o n c u b i n e s or s e r v i n g girls, on j
the h a n d l e s [PLATE 5],7® a nd one in p a r t i c u l a r of a be-
jeweled n ud e f i g u r e with the i m a ge of B e s incised on bo t h j
h er thi ghs .7^ X h e mirror p l a ys a ro le in the increased |

I
erotic imagery of the N e w K i n g d o m . ® ® j
I
t
F r o m the time of the late Old K i ng d o m, mirrors w e re |
i
se en in d a n c i n g scenes, perhaps related to the c u l t of
Hathor, the g o d de ss wh o p r e s i d e d ove r the dance and
drunkenness.®^ H. Hickmann has suggested that the
actions of the d a n c e r s w e r e captured in m i r r o r s , while
Hathor's nam e w a s invoked.®®
Ha th or , mother of the sun, wa s a l so goddess of
beauty and love, and f e r t i l it y . T h e m i rr or , an object of
practical use for the t o il et t e , for the e n h a n c e m e n t of
beauty and sexual attractiveness, was a natural attribute
for thi s godd es s. H a th o r merges with the goddess Isis,
and t he m i rr o r is a s ha r e d s ymbol. In T h e G o l d e n A s s .
Apuleius of M ad a ur a , writing in the s e co n d c e n t u r y A.D.,
vividly described a procession of the h a n d m a i d e n s of Isis,
in w h i c h the f a v o r e d and familiar objects of the goddess
— m i r r or , comb, and perfume pot — w er e carried in
tribute.®® The i m ag e of Isis, with comb and m i r r or , is
the vision of s u c c e s s i v e goddesses of beauty, fertility,
I
26
I and the earth, as w ell as of t e m p t r e s s e s of lesser s ta tu r e |

J Q , i
■ in the lat er civilizations of G r e e c e and R o m e . ° ^ j
i |
i ]
! i
i I
. I
j Greece, Etruria, and Rome j
j By the late second m i l l e n i u m B.C., hand m i r r or s

j
had spre a d to the A e ge an and to M y c e n a e a n Greece, p er h ap s J
f ro m Egypt. 85 The e a rl ie st o b j e ct s found, ca. 1400 B.C., j

i
are m et al d is c s w i t h sim pl e functional handles of w o o d or j
l
ivory. 86 Any symbolic meaning that m i g h t have b een
attached to t he s e m i r r o rs r em a in s o b s c u r e . 87 The
earliest mirror found on the I ta l ia n p en i ns u la , in
E tr ur i a , is a te n th c e n t ur y B.C. p l a i n flat bron ze disc
f r o m T a r q u i n i a .88
Among the o l d es t m i r r o r s for w h i c h a clear c on t ex t
can be e s t a b l i s h e d are an E t r u s c a n w or k f r o m the late
s ev e n t h c e n t u r y B.C. found at P o p u l on i a ® ^ ; and s e v er al
G r e e k h and m i r r o r s f rom the s e v e n t h - s i x t h c e nt u r i e s
B . C . 90 T h e s e m i r r o r s w ere e x ca v a t e d at b u r i a l sites^l
and s a nc tu a r i e s , and, among the G r e e k examp l es , i n cl u de d
some that had h a n d l e s in the f orm of a h u m a n figure,
of te n a n ude woman, w it h h a n d s r a i s e d . 92
A number of later Greek, E tr u sc an , and R o m a n me ta l
hand, caryatid or stand mirrors, and box mirrors, and
representations of m i r r o rs in p ai n t in g and sculpt ur e ,
27
have a ls o been f ound at f un er ar y si t e s . Examples have
been discovered in s a n c tu ar i es , and are assumed to be
voti ve objects. Mirrors have al so been f o un d at d w e l l i n g
site s. For many of t he se works, th e ex c a v a t i o n records
a re u n c e r t a i n or the provenance is unkn own. Thus, it is
not a lw a y s possi ble to a s s o c i a t e a type of i m a g e r y w it h
context or funct i o n .
T he r ange of s u b j e c t m a t t e r is wide, but a su rv ey
of c e r t a i n m aj or t y p es of i m ag er y suggests the m e a n i n g s
the m i r r o r may have had for these c u lt u re s . S in ce there
is o ften similarity in s u b je c t m a t t e r and in the pantheon
of p r i n c i p a l d ei ti e s , Greek, E t ru sc a n, and R o ma n imagery
will be g e n e r a l l y considered t o g e t h e r . 93
In the i c o n o g r a p h y of the mi r ro r, several princi
pal t h e m a t i c g r o u p s can be a d d u c e d . 94 Images of gods
and g od d es s es , as w e l l as h u ma n figures, relating to
t he m es of love and to a d o r n m e n t are c ommon, as are d e
p i c t i o n s of heroes, h u m a n and divine, and s ce n e s from
mythology recalling heroic events. Sirens and o t her
f a b u l o u s and real creatures decorate a number of m i r ro rs .
Scenes showing a ssemblies of d e it i es and o thers, o ften
depicting moments f ro m epic and myth, are seen. Scenes
fr om d a il y life, including pastimes, are represented on
v a r i o u s mirro rs , especially from E t ru ri a . T he practice
28
of divination by the use of r e f l e c t i n g surfaces is d e
picted in a n um b e r of vase p ai nt i ng s. Mythological
figures and s ce n es involving p ro p hecy, revelation, or
knowledge are subjects for m i r r o r decoration or are shown
in r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s .
Female figu r es , n ud e or cloth ed , and, more rarely,
male figures, also o c c ur on c a r y a t i d or stand m i r r o rs , a
f o r m that is k n o w n in G r e e c e from the sixth century B.C.,
and is r e m i n i s c e n t of the a n t h r o p o m o r p h i z e d handles or
stands on E g y p t i a n m i r r o r s . 95 [ PLATE 7] While excava
tio n r e c or d s for m os t of the G r e e k caryatid mirrors are
not known, the few that do hav e a c l e a r proven ance were
f ound at b ur ia l s it e s and in s a n c t u a r i e s .96 Many of
these female, c a r y a t i d s are n ud e y o u ng girls, with musical
or ri t ua l a t t r i b ut e s. T h e y ha v e bee n v a r i o u s l y inter
preted as c e r e m o n i a l dancers or a c ol yt es , or h e t a e r a e
associated with temples dedicated to A p h r o d i t e , the sea
born goddess of love, beauty, and f e r t il i ty , or A rt em i s,
goddess of the h u n t . 97 [ PLATE 8 ]
O t h er G r e e k c a r y a t i d f i g ur e s of a m o r e regal,
womanly type, often accom pa nied by sirens, pomegranates,
doves, and sometimes sp hi nx e s, w o u l d ap p ea r to r e p r e s e n t
Aphrodite^S D r o th er g o d de s se s , or p r i e s te s se s , and, in
the case of m o r e individualized figures f r o m the end of
the f ifth c e n t u r y B.C., p o s s i bl y the ow ne rs of specific
29
mirrors or particular p r i e s t e s s e s .99 L e n o r e 0. Keene
Congdon h as s u g g e s t e d that t he s e m i r r o r s may h av e be e n

i
I votive o bj e c ts , p e r h a p s u se d by p r i e s t e s s e s in the per-
| formance of r e l i g i o u s r i t e s . 100 Theassociation of a
i mirror with A p h r o d i t e in her role as g o d d e s s of be au t y

j
j would s ee m one. But the goddess ha d a far l ar g e r domain
and m e a n i n g for a n t i q u it y .
The Greek goddess Aphrodite — Venus in her R o m an
incarnation, and T u r a n to the E t r u s c a n s — was, in the
familiar myth, born from the s e a. ^ 01 She s pr a ng full
grown and n aked fr o m the f oa m (a p h r o s , in G re ek ) tha t had
collected a b ou t the severed genitals of the sky god
Uranus, w h i c h his son C r o n u s had c h o p p e d off and f lu n g
into the ocean. Goddess of love a n d d e s ir e, of f e r t i l
ity, and of beauty, she wa s u s u a l l y c al l e d the m o t h e r of
Eros (Cupid). As for her nature, Aphrodite-Venus was,
for bo t h the G r e e k s and the R o ma ns , a goddess of two
a s p e c ts , expressing both physical and spiritual s id es
of love. In the S y m p o s i u m , P l at o speaks of two l o v es
a nd therefore of two A p h r o d i t e s , o ne who is c o m m o n and
the v u l g a r embodiment of l i b i d i n o u s drive, and the o ther
who is h e a v e n l y and w h o s e love is i n t e l l e c t u a l and
e t h e r e a l . 1^2
For L u cr e t i u s , V e n us is the p r o g e n e t r i x who in
s p i r e s c re at i o n , both through physical d e si r e and
30
i t h r o u g h s p i r i t u a l joy: indeed, in the o p e n i n g l in es of

i
| De r e r u m n a t u r a , he i n v o ke s Venus, as g u i d i n g p ower of
f
I the w orld, to f av o r his e f f o r t s at verse, and to b r i ng
j harmony and p e a ce to the p eo p le of R o m e . l O ^

I
As the goddess of love, Aphrodite was protectress
of c o u r t e s a n s , and her cult may h a v e bee n a c e n t e r for
prostitution.^^ In the G r e e k A n t h o l o g y , we read of
courtesans or e x - c o u r t e s a n s w ho gratefully dedicate to
Aphrodite boudoir objects that w e re perhaps v ie we d as
aids to t h ei r s uc ce ss . For one courtesan n a me d C a l l i c l e a
t hey i n c l u d e d
. . . h er p a l e - b l u e b o s o m - b a n d , her bronze
m i r ro r , and her b road b o x - w o o d c om b that
g a t h e r e d in h er l o c k s . 105
Aphrodite is i d e n t i f i e d as the figure represented
on a n u m b e r of c a r y a t i d mirrors f r o m the end of the
s i x t h c e n t u r y and the f i fth c e n t u r y B.C. On the e a r
lier of the two caryatids illustrated here, a work
d at ed ca. 5 00 B.C., Aphrodite holds a f lower.
[ PL A TE 9] In the c as e of the m o r e recent figure, ca.
460 B.C., a harel07 is p u r s u e d by d og s a r o u n d the disc,
and the g o d d e s s holds out a dove. [PLATE 10] On b ot h
mi rr o r s, she is a c c o m p a n i e d by w i n g e d erotes.
Aphrodite is f l a n k e d by the bird-like s i r e ns wh o
are f r e q u e n t l y seen as her companions in a n t i q u i t y , on
31
an e arly s ix th c e n tu r y B.C. Greek mirror handle. |
[PLATE 11} T h e se b i r d- wo m e n , so f a m i l ia r as s i n ge r-
i temptresses of p o w e r fu l and d i s a s t r o u s allure, wer e

i
] als o g rave g u a rd i a ns . Although they w e r e s o m et i m e s

j ^ I
I v ie w e d as c o u r t e s a n s , * ^ complimenting the e ro ti c sid e |
i
j i
l
! of A p h r o d i t e ' s nature, they w e re also r e g a r d e d as m o r e j
j spiritual creatures with s p ec ia l inner k n o w l e d g e . ;
i
Aphrodite is d e p i ct e d f r e q u e n t l y on G r e e k and Etruscan j
|
mirror b a ck s and stands, H O as well as box co v er s of j
G r e e k and E t r u s c a n origin, often w it h Ero s or A donis. j
She is als o seen w it h o th er d e i ti e s and w i t h o th e r s in
whose l ives she p la ye d a role, such as H e l e n ^ H and
Paris. W i t h her m i r r o r a t t ri bu t e , the g od d e s s is
represented at her toilette in vase p a i n t in g s, suc h as
thc»depiction of her on an A p u l i a n red-figure b ell-
krater, ca. 3 7 5 - 3 5 0 B.C., [ PLATE 12] and on a f ou rt h
c e n tu ry A.D. Greek or R o m a n m o s a i c f ro m E l - D j e m
( Th ysdrus) in T un is ia . [ PLATE 13]
What s pe c if ic f u n c t i o n the e arly Aphrodite stand
mirrors might have had w h e n b ur ie d w i t h the dead, is
not c l e a r .*12 g u t h er d o m a i n s of f e r ti li t y, i.e., an
ingredient necessary to c o n t i n u i n g life, and of beauty,
t r a n s c e n d i n g life on earth, may have g i v en her image,
w i t h the mir r o r, a particular religious s i g n i f ic a nc e .
32
As we h av e seen, Aphrodite continues as a ver y popular
subject on l ater m i r ro r s, where the early, possibly
r e l i gi o us , m o t i v e m ay h a ve rece d ed . In r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
of the g o d d e s s at her t oi l e tt e , in c o n f l a t i o n s of b i rt h
a nd toilette scenes, and in t ri um p hs , the m i r r o r is one
of her m o s t e n d u r i n g a t t r i b u te s.
Eros e x t e nd s the t h e me of love. He is also
associated w i t h a mi r ro r, apart f r o m A p h r o di t e . On
the h a nd l e attachment of a G r e e k b ro n z e hy d r ia , ca. 350
B.C., a winged Eros, partially draped, l o ok s at h i m s e l f
in a mir ro r. [ PL AT E 14] The l it t l e god of sexual love
also figures in e r o t i c scenes, as on this G r e e k m e t a l
mirror cover, ca. 325 B.C. [ PL AT E 15], where he f l ie s
above a copulating couple. In O r p h i c myth, Er o s w a s a
special sort of spirit, a k e r of l i f e . H 3 He w a s the
winged f i g u r e who c a me to c ol l e c t the s o u ls of the
dead. Thus, Eros the p s y c h o p om p, in one t r a d it io n , is
associated with life and death, and w o u l d h a v e bee n
regarded as a p p r o p r i a t e imagery for m i r r o r s w i th
funerary associations.
S i n ce the m i r r o r in G reece, E t r u r ia , and R o m e was
viewed as an o b j e c t m a i n l y for w omen, the subject
matter that d e c o r a t e d the m may have been selected in
par t for its a pp ea l to f e ma l e u s ers and own er s. Themes
relating to love and c ou r t s h i p , to beauty, and to the
33
b o ud o ir , wer e r e p e a t ed on n u m e r o u s m ir r or s , and the use
of the m i r r o r as part of the t o i l e t t e 114 was r e p r e
sented in vas e p a i n t i n g s and r e l i e f s as well, as seen

i
I
I on an A t t ic marble lekyt ho s , ca. 400 B.C., n o w in the
| collection of the M u s e u m of Fin e Arts, Boston.
[ P LATE 16] T h is s cene on a g r a v e r el i ef may also
allude to t he m es of m o rt a l i t y , the p r e s e r v a t i o n of lif e
or the soul i n the mirror, and r e g e n e r a t i o n . ^6
T he E tr u s c a n s , who favored the love stories of the
Greek pantheon on ma ny of t h ei r m i rr or s, a d de d other
subjects of s p ec ia l importance to women, including
depictions of m a rr ia ge , birth, and the r a i s i n g of
children. S ce n es of e v e r y d a y life w e r e a l s o d e
p icted, as on this m i r r o r fro m the B r i t i s h M u s e u m
s h o w i n g a y o un g boy h o l d i n g a m i rro r. [ PLATE 17]
The i m a ge of A t h e n a ( Mi n erva, Menvra), the G r e ek
goddess of w i s d o m and of war, is seen on m i r r o r b a ck s
and lids, usually in armor, and w i t h h e l m e t and shield.
[ PLATE 18] This daughter of Zeus, who, in one v e rs io n
of the story, s pr an g f ro m the h ea d of her father, w as
patroness of the cit y of Athens, of le a rn in g, and of
the arts. L i ke Artem is , she w a s a v i r g i n goddess.
She w as a protector of man y h e r o e s — H e rc u l e s , Jason,
O d y ss e us , and Pers eu s. It w as A t h e n a who h e lp e d
Perseus o ut w i t the G o r g o n M e d us a , instructing h im to
34
look only at her reflection in the h i gh l y p o li sh ed
s hi e l d she gave him, and not directly at the s e r p en t -
haired monster-, thus s a v in g him from M e d u s a ' s petrify
ing l o o k . Using the shield like a mirror, w i th the
reflection of M e d u s a as his guide, Perseus beheads her.
Athena is c o m mo n 1 y d e p i c t e d w i th the snake-entwined
head of M e d u s a on her aegis, on a s hi el d or on a
breastplate, as on this Etruscan mirror back, with
M en vr a, the e q u i v a l e n t Etruscan deity, at right.
[PLA TE 19]
The terrible G or go n, who, w i th her evil-eyed
look, was capable of t u r n i n g a n y o n e w ho met her glance
into stone, was killed by the skillful and c l e ve r use
of a reflection. The m i r r o r is thus p r o te c ti v e . The
shiny, reflective shield, w i th its G o r g o n head, is an
apotropaic sign of de a th and destruction. The m i r ror,
with the s am e reflective characteristics as the
goddess's p o l is h ed shield, is an a n a l o g u e for the
s hield. L i ke the shield, it may h a ve been t h o ug ht to
e x te nd to the possessor the same protection that A t he n a
did to P er s e u s . The r e f l e c t i n g shield, which deflects
and slays the enemies of Athena, or a s i m i l a r breast
plate, embossed with the head of M ed u sa , is the
goddess's p ri n ci p a l a tt r i b u t e . Th e mirror amplifies
the s y m b ol is m , and is an e x t e n s i o n of the s h i e l d .120
35
i Images recalling exploits by o t h e r heroes and

i
j by g od s decorate the backs of m a n y Greek and E t r uscan

I
j mirrors. Hercules, Dionysos, Achilles, and the
j Dioskouroi are s e e n r e p e a t e d l y .121 S o me depictions are
: of s c e n e s of s t r u g g l e or of m o m e n t s that p r e c e d e or
j
! f o l l o w c o n f l i ct . O t h e r s p r es e n t g a t h e r i n g s of g o d s and
j
! heroes without reference to a k n o v n story, providing
images th at summon up r e c o l l e c t i o n of q u a l i t i e s and
achievements. Scenes of b a t t l e a nd carnage might not
J seem like a p p e a l i n g subjects for the w o m e n w ho are
j generally believed to h a v e b ee n the principal daily us er s

I
J of m i r r o r s , but it is p r o b a b l e t ha t m en u s e d mirrors
regularly, and these subjects might s e em to h a v e h e ld
special interest for t h e m .122
T he D i o s k o u r o i — the d i v i n e twins Castor and
Pollux — are frequently depicted on m i r r o r s , particular
ly on E t r u s c a n examples dating f r o m the H e l l e n i s t i c
p e r i o d . ^23 [PLA TE 20] Their presence seems to r e f e r
to the m i r r o r i ts elf. Richard de P u m a h a s pointed out
that depictions of the immortal t w i n s m ay have u n d e r
scored the " t w i n a s p e c t s of the v i e w e r and the i m a g e
reflected in the m i r r o r . " 1 24 Paired figures other than
the D i o s k o u r o i , often in m i r r o r i n g s t a n ce s , h av e b e e n
noted by N a n c y T h o m s o n de G r u m m o nd , w ho suggests t ha t
the theme of " t w i n n i n g may h av e b e e n associated
36
;especially w it h the soul, w h i ch a p p e a r e d in the shiny |

i !
i b ro n z e s u r fa ce as the d ou b le of the i n d i v i d u a l l o o k i n g j
j into the m i r r o r . "125 J
! !
I |
j It is p o s s i b l e that the p r e s e n c e of suc h f i g u r e s i
t
| and t he m e s e x pr e s s e d l it t le mor e than a d e v o t i o n to the
!
| gods and a r e c o g n i t i o n of the popularity of O l y m p i a n
j t ales and epic cycles. Sut the d e p i c t i o n of a g re at hero

I I
o v e r c o m i n g d eath may have s erved as a kind of t a l i s m a n
for the o b j e ct ' s owner, a vehicle for r e c e i v i n g the
hero's s t r e ng t h and prowess, or for a v ow i ng a b e li e f in
i m m o rt a li t y . O t h e r objects, especially gems and s to n e s
engraved with symbolic i ma g es such as these, were c o m m o n
ly v ie w ed as h a v i n g a p r o p h y l a c t i c use, and, in man y
ins ta nc es , as e x p r e s s i n g s p e ci a l d e v o t i o n or a dm i r a t i o n ,
thus, putting the p o s s e s s o r in a s t r o n g e r position to
s ee k f a vor and p r o t e c t i o n . 126 M i r r o r s w it h symbolic
i ma ge s m i gh t hav e a r e l a t e d meani ng , w it h the m i r r o r
it se lf p r o v i d i n g an a d d i t i o n a l dim en si on .
B e c au s e of its c a p a c i t y to reflect, the g od' s or
h e r o ’s iconic p r e s e n c e on the m i rr o r is l inked w i t h the
possessor's reflected i m ag e in a t a n g i b l e way. D a i l y use
of the m i rr o r then b e c o m e s a kind of d e v o t i o n a l act, a
way of in vo k i n g the p r o t e c t i v e favor of the god or other
fi gu r e depicted. In c e r e m o n i a l or f u n e r ar y contexts the
m i r r o r ' s m e a n i n g and fu nc t i o n w ou ld have had added
37
| p o te n c y. Thi s idea m ig ht also be e x t e n d e d to m i r r o r s on

I
i w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l d e i t i e s or a s s e m b l i e s of the gods are
presented, without d ir e c t reference to a k n o w n story.
Th e m i r r o r p lays a significant role in the O r p h i c
i m yt h of the w i ne god D i o n y s o s (B ac chus), and als o in his

i
| cult. A f ifth c e n t u r y A.D. i vory pyxis, now in B ol og na ,
!
s ho ws the birth of D i o n y s o s , a son of Z e u s and ei t he r
! Persephone or Sem el e, and hi s i m m e d i a t e e n t h r o n e m e n t as
king of the w o rl d w h i l e s t i l l in the b ir th cave. T he
n aked bab y on his t h ro n e is b e ing s ho wn his i m ag e in a
mirror h el d by a n u r s e . 127 [ PL A TE 21] Nonnos recounts
the d e a t h of the d i v i n e child, w h o m he c a l ls Zagr eu s, who
is k i l l e d " with i n f e r n al knives" by e m i s s a r i e s of a
j e a l o u s Hera, w h i l e he is l o o k i n g at his reflection in
t he m i r r o r . 128
B ut D i o n y s o s is resurrected, 129 a n d r e t u r n s to
rule. T h e m irror, the i n s t r u m e n t in w h i c h he g ained
knowledge of his e x i s t en c e, has a ls o bee n a c c o r d e d a
saving role, s ince the b e l i e f was that as the m i r r o r was
reflecting an image, it al s o c a u g h t and he l d the soul.
Thus, the g od's sp ir i t w a s preserved in the m i r ro r, eve n
while his body w a s destroyed .120 Associated her e with
immortality and a ls o wi t h transformation, the m i r r o r is
both epiphantic and protective for D i o n y s o s , and a m e a n s
to rebi rt h .
38
A reflecting surface was used in the performance
of certain initiation r it es for the Dionysian cult, as
seen in f r e s c o e s executed ca. 60 A.D. in the V i l l a of
Mysteries ( V il l a Item) at P o m p e i i . 131 j n one f r es c o in
the s o - c a l l e d Hall of P r e p a r a t i o n s , a y ou n g woman,
interpreted as e i t he r a b r i d e or an i n i t i at e, fix es her
hair w i t h the aid of a s ma l l r e c t a n g u l a r 132 m i rr or , held
by a l i t t le w i n g e d Eros. [ PL AT E 22] H er r e f l e c t e d image
is s ee n in the m i r r o r . 133
In the light of the g o d 's o wn story, the m i r r o r
has b ee n s e e n in part as an instrument of k n o w l e d g e and
of e p i p h a ny . Ka rl K e r e n y i proposed that the y ou n g woman,
whether an i n i t i a t e of D i o n y s o s or a bride, m ay see her
r e f l e c t i o n m u c h as the c h i ld Dionysos saw his b e f o r e his
m ur de r. Once in it i at ed , through ritual t r a n s f o r m a t i o n or
"death," and rebirth in the m y s t e r i e s of the god, the
im a ge se en in the m i r r o r w i l l h av e different m e a n i n g . 134
In a n o t h e r f r e s co in this s e q u e n c e at the V i l l a of
M y st e r i e s , a yo u ng m a l e ( sa ty r ?) l oo k s into a bowl, which
s e rv e s as a c o nc a v e m ir ro r . [ P L AT E 23] T he bowl is held
by a b e a r d e d S il e n u s figure, while a satyr h ol d s up a
grotesque m a s k b e hi nd t h e m all, so t ha t its im ag e is
reflected in the v e s s e l . 135 Transformation of a k i n d has
o cc u rr e d , a nd r e v e l a t i o n , as the y o u t h sees a reflection
that is u n l i k e w h a t he k n e w to be h is e x t e r n a l appear-
39
ance.136 T he e x a c t nature of this rit e and its m e a n i n g
are u n c l e a r . 137
Much speculation has c e n t e re d on the use of the
D i o n y s i a n m ir r o r as an i n s t r u m e n t of d i v i n a t i o n . 138 The
practice of c a t o p t r o m a n c y , i.e., a type of d i v i n a t i o n
using mirrors or p o l i s h e d or r e f l e c t i v e surfaces to
reveal hidden knowledge and to p r e d i c t the futu re , w as
common enough in a n t i q u i t y and later, and m ay h a v e bee n
employed in D i o n y s i a n rites. 139 T he m i r r o r of D i on y s o s ,
w h i c h m ay al s o a l l u d e to k n o w l e d g e a nd the soul, recalls
the a s s o c i a t i o n of the m i r r o r and the b i r d - s i r e n s of
antiquity.
T he s irens, in a d d i t i o n to b e i n g seen as the
handmaidens of A p h r o d i t e in a n c i e n t art, constitute a
separate subject for m i r r o r i m a g e r y . 1^0 When ac company
ing the g o d d e s s of love, the y w o u l d s e e m to r e f e r to
sensual p l ea su re , an d the m i r r o r a t t r i b u t e tha t is s ha re d
by the s i r e n s and A p h r o d i t e became an e m b l e m of e r o t i c
lo ve and beauty. H o w e v er , t h e se b i r d - l i k e creatures
h ad b r o a d e r c o n n o t a t i o n s for a n t i q u i t y , and the m e a n i n g
of the m i r r o r as an i n s t r u m e n t of k n o w l e d g e and as a
place for the soul to r e s i d e resonates in the i m a g e s of
t h es e bird-women. They appear on n u m e r o u s Greek hand
mirrors,!^! [ PLATE 24] and were d e p i c t e d w i t h m i r r or s ,
40
as on this carnelian gem fro m the s ix th century B.C.
[ P L A TE 25]
T he most famous account of t hese a n c i e n t sirens,
whose sweet hut dangerous s o ng s lured sa il o rs to s h i p
wreck on the r o ck s and d eath, is, of c o u r s e in H o m e r ' s
Odyssey. They charm their victims with promises of great
d elig ht , but als o w i t h the prospect of k n o w l e d g e and
wis do m, since the s i re n s say:
. . . we k no w all the t o i l s that in w i de Tro y

the A r g i v e s and T r o j a n s e n d u r e d t h r o u g h the
will of the gods, and we k n o w all t h in g s that
come to pass u p o n the f r u i t f u l e a r t h .
Ovid spoke of the learned s i re n s (d o ct a e s i r e n e s ) in
the M e t a m o r p h o s e s .*^3 They, like s p hi n xe s , wer e vi ew e d
as possessors of s p e c i a l knowledge, of b o th past a n d the
f u t u r e . 1^4 They we re grave g u ar d i a n s , overseers of
the dead w ho a p p e a r on funerary art into H e l l e n i s t i c
t i m e s . 145 j a ne Harrison identified the bird-sirens as
" d e m o n s of the u n d e r w o r l d , " who w e r e als o a fo rm of the
soul (k e r ) . 1^6
The soul envisioned as a bird was a f re q ue n t image
in the a n c i e n t w o r l d . W i n g e d creatures, whether birds
or fabulous inventions with the gift of flight, ha ve been
expressions of the div in e , or hav e been seen as heavenly
emissaries, in man y cultures and times. In a n c i e n t
G reece, b irds may hav e been seen as an e p i p h a n y of the
41
g o d s . 148 B i r d s we r e omens, augurs whose appearance and
a c t i o n s held m e s s a g e s to be i n t e r p r e t e d . 1^9 With t h eir
bird-like form, the s i r e n s may be l in k e d w it h p r o p h e c y
and the spirit.
T he s i r e n ’s m irror, a probable reference to i n n er
k n o w l e d g e and the soul, when seen as an a t t r i b u t e of
these c r e a t u r e s of p r o p h e c y w ho w e re a s s o c i a t e d with the
spirit, would seem to b e co m e an instrument of r e v e l a t i o n
and a s ym bo l of s p i ri t u a l power.
T he p r a c t i c e of d i v i n a t i o n by the use of a r e
flecting s u r fa ce is seen in a n um b e r of vase p ai n ti n gs .
On a f if t h c e n tu r y B.C. red-figured v as e k n o w n as the Cup
of V ulci, A eg e u s is s ho wn c o n s u l t i n g the o r ac l e of
The mi s. The oracle, s ea te d on her three-legged delphic
stool, h o l ds a b ra n c h of l a ur e l in her r ig ht han d and
consults the c o n t e n t s of a bowl held in her left hand.
[ PLATE 26] Th i s scene, and similar ones, h av e been
g e n e r a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d as r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of a f or m of
c a t o p t r o m a n c y .150
References to this f o rm of p r o p h e c y are found
in a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e . 151 Armand Delatte n o t ed that
the ol d es t G r e ek text w h e r e this o c c u r s is T he A c h a r n i a n s
by A r i s t o p h a n e s (ca. 445-385 B . C . ) . l 52 In th i s work,
L a m a c h o s uses a r e f l e c t i n g surface, his o iled s hi e l d w i th
its M e d u s a - h e a d image, as a m e a ns of s e e i ng i n t o the
hi
future. L a te r examples include t h o se of A p u l e i u s (second
c e n t u r y A.D.), wh o w r o te in his A p o l o g i a of an i n c i de n t
in w h i c h a w a t e r m i r r o r was consulted in o r d e r to o b t a i n
information a b out a war; and that of P a u s a n i a s (fl. ca.
175 A.D.) w ho described the comparative v i r t u e s of
metallic and li qu id m i r r o r s for o r a c u l a r p u r p o s e s . 153
Zosimus ( f o ur t h c e n t u r y A.D.) told of a m a g i c m i r r o r that
had been m a d e for A l e x a n d e r the G r e a t and in w h i c h the
f ut u r e c ou ld be s e e n . 154
Although d i v i n a t i o n and ot her magical art s wer e
commonly practiced in a n ti qu it y, th ey w er e not always
a c c e p t e d . 1^5 For i ns ta n ce , Apuleius was accused of u si ng
m agic, and of p o s s e s s i n g a m i r r o r (a fact a l s o see n by
h is d e t r a c t o r s as an act of v a n i t y ) . 1 5 6 j n defending
hims el f, he r e c o u n t s in the A p o l o g i a m a n y commendable
u se s of m a g i c in the past, use s that w e r e a c c e p t e d by the
st ate and by r e l i g i o u s authority. One i n c i d e n t told
concerns the f a mo u s p h i l o s o p h e r Varro, who, in o r d e r to
ob t ai n i n f o r m a t i o n a bo ut the o u t c o m e of a war, had the
f ut u r e f o r e t o l d by "a boy w ho was g a z i n g at an i m ag e of
Mercury reflected in a bowl of w a t e r . "157
The m i r r o r is an i n s t r u m e n t of k no w l e d g e , and of
death, in the f a m i l i a r l eg en d of N a rc i s s u s . As Ovi d
t e l ls the story, the boy's fate w as foretold by the
b lind seer Ti re si as , who predicted that N a r c i s s u s could
R eproduced w ith perm ission o f the copyright owner. F urth er reproduction prohibited w itho ut perm ission.
43
expect to liv e a long li fe only "if he n e ' er know him
self. "1 58 a y o u t h of s u r p a s s i n g bea ut y, Narcissus
inspired l ov e in all w h o saw him, but in his p r i d e and
arrogance, he s p u r n e d e ve ry o n e . T he lovesick nymph Ech o
was rejec te d by him, and she pined aw ay in grief. A
y o u n g man, al so suffering fro m u n r e q u i t e d love, prayed
that N a r c i s s u s would "himself love, and not gai n the
t hi ng he l o v e s . "15 9 N e m e si s, hearing the prayer, an
swered it: When Narcissus, b e n di n g ove r a c l e ar stream
to drink, sees a b e a u t i f u l face in the w ater, he f a l l s in
l ove w i t h his own r e f l e c ti on . Soon he recognizes that
the y o u t h in the w a t e r is not a n o t h e r being, but h im se lf ,
and h i s rapture t u r n s to s e lf - lo ve . The s c e n e is repre
s e n t e d on a f i rs t c e n t u r y A.D. wa ll painting from Pompeii
[ PLATE 2 7 ].160 Unable to p o s se s s the r e f l e c t i o n in the
w a t e r or to tear h i m s e l f away, he e v e n t u a l l y dies.
Prophecy and prayer are fulfilled. For N a rc i s s u s ,
a water mirror is an i n s t r u m e n t of s e l f - k n o w l e d g e or
self-consciousness, and his s tory m i g h t s e e m to be a
cautionary tale a b o ut the c o n s e q u e n c e s of o v e r w e e n i n g
pride, arrogance, and s el f -l ov e .
For a n t i q ui t y , h o we ve r, it is l i k e l y that t he re
w as a n o t h e r m e a n i ng , or a l ar g e r one. Early beliefs in
the m i r r o r as the repository of a p e r s o n ' s soul, and
44
associating it w i t h d e a t h or the a f t e r l i f e , mus t be r e
c a l l e d here. J a m es Frazer f ound tha t in a n c i e n t Gre ec e ,
and e l s e w h e r e, it w as considered perilous for a p e r s o n to
loo k at his reflection in water, because the spirits
living in it w o u ld pull hi s reflection — or soul — to
the b o t t o m and l e a v e h i m to die s o u l l e s s . 161 jn F r a z e r ' s
o p in i on , the s t ory of N a r c i s s u s probably b e g an in this
old belief, but was l ater f or g ot t en : the n o t i o n of d ying
for lov e of his own r e f l e c t i o n w as a subsequent accre
tion. 162 L at e i n t e r p r e t e r s , presumably unaware of the
older, traditional association of the m i r r o r and the
soul, read the m y t h as a tal e of c o n s u m i n g , and thu s
pernicious, s e l f - lo v e . F or a n o t h e r age, the r e f l e c t e d
image is an i l l u s i o n and d e c e p t i o n ; Narcissus is f a t a l l y
self-obsessed and s e l f - d e l u d e d .163
Plotinus (205?-270? A.D.), w ho echoed Plato in
seeing the w or ld of m a t t e r as m e r e l y a w o r l d of a p p e a r
a nces, r e f e r s in the E n n e a d s to the N a r c i s s u s myth in
warning against the s n a r e s of i l l us i on :
He that has the st re ng th , let h i m a r i se

and w i t h d r a w i n t o h i m s el f , f o r e g o i n g
all that is k n o w n by the e yes, t u r n i n g awa y
f o r ev e r from the m a t e r i a l b ea u t y that
once m ad e his joy. W h e n h e p e r c e i v e s t h ose
s h a p es of g r ac e that s ho w in body, let him
not pursue: he m u s t k n o w th e m for copies,
v es t ig es , shad ow s, and has ten a wa y t o w a r d s
T ha t they tell of. For if a n y o n e f o l l o w
w ha t is like a b e a u t i f u l s ha pe p l a y in g
45
over w a t e r — is t h e r e not a m y t h t e lli ng

in s y mb o l of s uc h a dupe, h o w he sank
into t he d e p t h s of t h e c u r r e n t and was
s w ept a w ay to n o t h i n g n e s s ? - ^ ^
T hus, despite the m i r r o r ' s largely religious
connotations, it w a s occasionally see n in a n e g a t i v e
light in the G r a e c o - R o m a n w orld, as an o b j e c t of i l l u s i on
or of vice. T he r e f l e c t i n g s u rf ac e , with its c a p a c i t y to
i m i t a t e or c r e a t e an e v a n e s c e n t reproduction of reality,
provided a perfect metaphor for i ll us i o n, and the w orld
of a p p e a r a n c e s . Plato u se d it. Reflection, or i m i t a
tion, was at the h e a r t of P l a t o n i c t h ou gh t in the
doctrine of Forms.
In T h e R e p u b l i c , a l l o b j e c t s in the w o r l d are
merely c o p i e s or i m i t a t i o n s of i d e al p r o t o t y p e s that
exist on a h i g h e r p l a n e . 165 These prototypes — the
universal F o r ms or e t e r n a l I de as — are r e f l e c t e d in the
mundane c o p i e s .*66 Th e i m a g e of r e f l e c t i o n is e x t e n d e d
in the d ia l o gu e , as S o c r a t e s discusses the n at u re of
r e al i ty , imitation, and c r e a t i o n : to c r ea t e the u n i
v erse, one has o n ly tc t ur n a mirror to r e f l e c t the sun
and heavens and the earth — th us " m a k i n g ” i m a g es of all
in the m i r r o r . 1^7 T he p oi n t , of course, that S o c r a t e s is
making is that the w or ld created in this m a n n e r is an
i ll u s i o n , a world of a p p e a r a n c e s . T he e a r t h l y c o p i e s are
but an i l l u s i o n of the u n i v e r s a l mod el s .
46
In the third E n n e a d , Plotinus reinforced the idea
of the m i r r o r im ag e as an i ll u s io n :
/ Ma t t e r is/ like s o m e t h i n g in a m i r r or
w h i c h r e a l ly e x i s t s in one p l a c e but is
r e f l e c t e d in an ot he r; it s e e m s to be
filled, and h o ld s n o thing; it is all
s ee ming. " I m i t a t i o n s of real b e i ng s
pass into and out of i t , "168
g h os t s into f o r m l e s s ghost, v i s i b l e
b e c a u s e of its f o r m l e s s n e s s .169
Later, in the same passage, he a g a i n uses the a n a l o g y of
the m ir ror:
. . . the p r o d u c e r s of the a p p e a r a n c e s
are d i f f e r e n t f r o m the t h i ng s s ee n in
matt er , and we can l ea r n from t h is the
f a l s i t y of the a f f e ct i o n , s i n c e what
is seen in m a t t e r is fa l se and has
no sort of l i k e n e s s to w h a t p r o d u c e d it.
C e r t a i n l y , then, sin ce it is w e a k
and false, and f a ll i n g into falsity,
like t h i n gs in a d r e a m or w a t e r
or a m ir ror, it n e c e s s a r i l y l e a v e s m a t t e r
u n a f f e c t e d . . .170
Philo (ca. 20 B . C .- c a. 50 A.D .) , in De m o n a r c h i a .
warned against i m a g es that a p p e ar
. . . as in a m ir ror, d e c e i v i n g the
o u t w a r d s e n s es and i m p o s i n g u p o n them
w i t h traps, and a p p e a r i n g as if they
w o u l d last for a l on g time, w h i l e in
r e a l i t y they do not e n d u r e . 171
Mirrors d e l ud e the senses, and, as Seneca (ca. 4
B . C . -65 A.D.) c om pl ai ne d ,
47
. . . / t h e y / do not r e p r o d u c e e v e r y t h i n g w i t h
f id e l it y . T h e r e a r e som e m i r r o r s y ou are
a fr a i d to loo k into: the y r e f le ct su c h
a d e f o r m i t y from the d i s t o r t e d i ma ge of
the viewer; the l i k e n e s s is p r e s e r v e d —
but it is m a d e to loo k w o r s e than it is.
T h e r e are o th e r m i r r o r s w h i c h can m a k e you
p l e a s e d w i t h your s t r e n g t h w he n you loo k
into t h e m . 172
He c o n t i n u e s a recitation of the various kinds of
mirrors th a t m a k e the o n l o o k e r s ee m m u ch larger, or
invert, or t w i s t the r e f l e c t e d f a c e . 173
In his d i s c u s s i o n of h e a v e n l y p h e no m en a , Seneca
d i r e c t s his a t t e n t i o n to the r a i n b o w and the q u e s t i o n of
whether or not t h ere is a d e f i n i t e substance in it.
I am not s a t i s f i e d w i t h the t he o r y that

t h e re e x i s t s some d e f i n i t e s u b s t a n c e
in a r a i n b o w or a co ro na , but I
c o n c l u d e tha t w h a t o c c u r s is in
fact s i m p l y the d e c e p t i o n of a mir ro r ,
w h i c h doe s n o t h i n g o t h e r than
c o u n t e r f e i t an o b j e c t that is
o u t s i d e i tself. W h at is shown doe s not
r e a l l y e x i s t in the mir ro r. Otherwise
it w o u l d n ot pass out of it or be
c ov e r e d i m m e d i a t e l y by a n o t h e r i ma g e
and c o u n t l e s s s h ap e s w o u l d not not
fade, n o w be r e f l e c t e d. What, then?
T h e s e a re i l l u s i o n s and the u n s u b s t a n t i a l
i m i t a t i o n s of real o b j e c t s w h i c h
t h e m s e l v e s m a y be p e r v e r s e l y d i s t o r t e d
in m i r r o r s c o n s t r u c t e d by s o m e o n e
in su ch a wa y that t he y can do this. . .174
Mirrors are a l s o instruments of vice, and S en e c a
t e l ls the s t o r y of one H o s t i u s Qua dr a , w h o had m a g n i f y i n g
m i r r o r s m a d e and a r r a n g e d so as to see e n l a r g e d reflec
t i on s of his p e r v e rs e sex acts, t ak in g p l e a s u r e in the
48
i l l u s i o n . 1^5 D e p l o r i n g H os t iu s ' b eh av i or , Seneca
discusses the uses and abuses of the mirror:
At first, c h a n c e r e v e a l e d to m an
h is own face. Then, w h e n l ov e of self,
i n n a t e in m o r t a l s , had m a d e the sight
of t h e i r for m p l e as i n g, m en l o o k e d down
o f t e n e r i nt o t h o s e s u r f a c e s w h e r e
t he y s a w t heir own images. . . . T h e n cam e
the o t h e r e v i ls of the earth. T h e ir
s m o o t h n e s s o f f e r e d a r e f l e c t e d i m age to
p e o p l e i n t e nt u p o n s o m e t h i n g else;
one m an saw his r e f l e c t i o n in a cup,
a n o t h e r in b r o n z e that wa s p r o c u r e d
for some real use. . . .176
Seneca, who l iv ed during the r e i g n of N e ro and w as
f o rc e d to c o m m i t suicide by him, ha s thus w r i t t e n a
telescoped m o ra l history of m a n and the mir ro r .
Reflec te d Images
and the S c i e n c e of M i r r o r s
So me representations of an i ma g e r e f l e c t e d in a
mirror a r e see n in the f i f th c e n t u r y B.C., and w i t h m o r e
frequency by the b e g i n n i n g of the H e l l e n i s t i c era. Among
the e arly representations of a r e f l e c t e d i m ag e in art
is one seen on a c r a te r, ca. 40 0 B.C., depicting the
Judgement of Paris. Hera is s h o w n intently studying her
i m ag e in w h a t appears to be a c o n v e x m irror. [ PL AT E 28]
An E t r u s c a n m i r r o r back, ca. 350 B.C., s hows T h e t i s in a
similar a tt i t u d e. [ P LA T E 29] In t h e s e i n st a nc es , the
49
reflected im ag e is r e d u c e d in size, as w o u l d be the case
with a convex mirror held at a s l i g h t distance from the
viewer.
Two o t h e r w o r k s from Pompeii must be m e n t i o n e d .
O ne is the m o s a i c of the B a t t l e of D a r i u s and A l e x a n d e r
f r om the H o u s e of the Faun, a second century B.C. work
perhaps deriving from a ca. 3 00 B.C. original. [ PL AT E 30]
In t hi s d r a m a t i c wor k, a mirror-like shield s ee m s to
reflect the face of a f a l l e n P e r s i a n . 177
Another work from Pompeii is a f ir s t century A.D.
wall painting f r om H o u s e I X . I . 7 s h o w i n g T h et i s , a s ea -
goddess gifted in p r o p h e c y and m o t h e r of A c h i l l e s , in
the w o r k s h o p of H e p h a e s t u s . [ P L A TE 31] As H o m e r de
scribes it in the famous passage in B o o k 18 of T h e Iliad,
the s hi el d , made for A c h i l l e s to use in the war at Troy,
was decorated with a c o s m ic vision of all the w o r l d and
heavens. The s h i el d w as thus a s c r e e n or m e d i u m in w h i c h
visions could be seen, not a s u r f a c e t ha t reflected w ha t
w as before it. But, in t h i s work, Thetis is s h o w n star
ing at her own i m a g e reflected in the l a r g e shield held
b e f o r e her, not a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the u n i v e r s e . 1 ^ 8
H er m i r r o r i ma g e is p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y smaller in the convex
s u r f a c e of the armor.
J o hn O n i a n s has suggested that the increased
representation of the r e f l e c t e d im ag e in a rt in
50
Hellenistic t imes is p r o b a bl y r e la te d to a g r ow i ng
interest in optics, and in c at op tr ic s , the s c ie n ce of
m i r r o r s . 1^9 T hi s developing i n t e r es t is see n in G r e e k
philosophical and scientific writings from the f i ft h
century B.C. forward. In the T i m a e u s , P l a t o (ca. 4 2 7 -3 4 7
B . C. ) discussed p la ne and c o n c a v e mirro r s, and r e v e r s e d
and inverted r e f l e c t i o n s .180 Aristotle ( 38 4 -3 22 B.C.)
also wrote about the phenomenon of r e f l e c t i o n in the
M e t e o r o l o g i c a , with particular reference to the rainbow,
w h i c h he a r g u e d w as a r e f l e c t i o n . 181 Lucretius (ca. 100-
ca. 55 B .C.), in his philosophical poem, De r e r u m
n a t u r a ) . considered the phenomenon of r e f l e c t io n , and
also addressed q u e s t i o n s a b o ut i m a g e f o r m a t i o n in m i r r o r s
a nd r e v e r s a l s .182
It w a s onl y w i th Eu c li d (fl. 300 B .C.), the
founder of g e o m e t r i c a l optics, that a m a t h e m a t i c a l b asis
was set out in the d i s c u s s i o n of mirr or s . The law of
reflection — the a ng le of r e f l e c t i o n e q ua l s the a n g l e of
incidence — w h i c h was k n o w n by the f ou r th century B.C.
and perhaps earlier, was use d by E u c l i d in his O p t i c s ,
a nd in the C a t o p t r i c s . a w o r k a s c r i b e d to E u c l i d but not
by h i m . 183
Hero of A l e x a n d r i a (fl. 62 A.D.) and P t o l e m y
(fl. 1 2 7 -1 4 7 A .D.) both w r ot e on c a to pt r ic s , each
providing proofs for the b a sic law of r e f l e c t i o n .184
51
In his t r ea ti s e, Ptolemy treats the subject of perception
a nd o u t l i n e s the g e n e r a l conditions for r e f l e c t i o n s . He
includes a discussion of the s p a t i a l relationship of
mirror and an o b j e c t b e in g reflected in it, as w e l l as the
s u b j e c t oif m i r r o r i l l u s i o n s . 185
As this c h a p t e r has demonstrated, the m i r r o r had
many r e l i g i o u s and m a g i c a l meanings in a n t i q u i t y . From
earliest times, these sun-like objects of illumination
and r e f l e c t i o n w e r e viewed as s u r r o g a t e s of the h e a v e n l y
s ou r c e of l i f e - g i v i n g l i g h t and as a m e d i u m or a sig n of
the gods. T h e y w e r e u se d as v o t i v e o b j e c t s in the
a n c i e n t w orld. The mirror was often associated with
life, with death, and w i t h n o t i o n s of the a f t e r l i f e , and
w as vi e w ed , it is b e l i e v e d , as a r e p o s i t o r y of t h e soul
in a n c i e n t E gy p t and G r e e c e , and possibly in o t h er
civilizations. Extending this, and perhaps because of
its c a p a c i t y to r e p r o d u c e w h a t w a s p la c ed b e fo r e it, the
mirror was connected with i d ea s of r e g e n e r a t i o n and
rebirth. I m a ge r y that r e l a t e s to fecundity is one of the
f i rs t t y p es seen in a n t i q u i t y and remains one of the mos t
c on s ta nt : the m i r r o r is an a t t r i b u t e for fertility
52
deities in the a n c i e n t N ea r Eastern and E g y p t i a n wor ld s,
and in the G r e c o - R o m a n orbit, sometimes with o ve rt l y
e ro ti c connotations.
W it h its s u p e r n a t u r a l associations, it was
regarded as an a p o t r o p a i o n . Images of the protective
gods and quasi-divine creatures li k e s i r e n s decorated
mirror stands, handles, and backs. Fertility or love
deities like A p h r o d i t e and Venus, and the sirens,
r et a i n e d the m i r r o r attribute in r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s in
s c u l p t u r e and pa in ting. The Greek goddess of w i s d o m and
l ea rning, A thena, and her R o m a n counterpart, M in er v a,
w er e d e p i c t e d w i t h the r e f l e c t i n g shield, emblazoned with
a g o r g o n ' s head, recalling its p r o t e c t i v e ro le in the
s t o r y of P e r s e u s and M e d u s a . T he i de a of c o n n e c t i n g the
g o d d e s s of w i s d o m and k n o w l e d g e w i t h an i n s t r u m e n t
t h r o u g h w h i c h we a c q u i r e k n o w l e d g e of our external selves
s e ems o bv i ou s. As D i o g e n e s Laertius ( third century
A.D.) told it, Socrates sa w the use of the m i r r o r as
a d v is ab l e , connecting knowledge of a p p e a r a n c e and in ner
development:
He r e c o m m e n d e d the c o n s t a n t use of the

m i r r o r to the y ou ng so that h a n d s o m e
men m i g h t c o n du ct t h e m s e l v e s
c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , and ugl y men learn
to c o n ce al t heir d e f e c t s t h r o ug h
education.
Self-knowledge through the m i r r o r led to s e l f - l o v e
53
in the case of N a r c i s s u s . The destruction that c ome s
through preoccupation with o n e ’s own a p p e a r a n c e seems to
be a m e s s a g e not fully plumbed or used in G r e c o - R o m a n
a n t i qu i ty . But it w a s m ad e c le a r to the a n c i e n t Israel
ites, with the connection between mirrors and the evils of
v an i t y and lust in the boo k of I s a i a h . 187 By the tim e of
Apuleius ( s e co n d century A.D.), t h e re was an i n d i c a t i o n
that the p o s s e s s i o n of a mir r o r, or e x c e s s i v e use of it,
might be i n t e r p r e t e d as an act of some vanity.
For N a r c i s s u s , the r e f l e c t i n g w a t e r is d e c e pt i v e,
leading h i m to b e l i e v e at f irst that a n o t h e r being is
looking bac k at him. The message fr o m thi s a n g l e w o u ld
s ee m to be an e x t e n s i o n of P l a t o ’s use of r e f l e c t i o n as a
metaphor to c o n v e y the evanescence of the w o r l d of a p p e a r
ances.
In o ne way, the p e r s o n a l i n ne r and external
knowledge obtained in the m i r r o r c ou ld b r i ng a fresh
perception or r e c o g n i t i o n of se lf — or a r e v e l a t i o n of
sorts. It is t hi s r e v e l a t o r y — and t r a n s f o r m i n g —
dimension that m a y be p r e s e n t in the m i r r o r ' s use in
Dionysian rites.
The sense of the m i r r o r ' s revelatory power, and the
object's widespread association with the god s and the
supernational, m ay ha ve led to the use of r e f l e c t i o n s in
the practice of d i v i n a t i o n . In this way, the m i r r o r is
54
use d to r e v e a l not w ha t is in f r on t of it, but, rat he r, a
vision of the beyond. H ow e ve r, the e f f i c a c y of the m i r r o r
as a m e a n s of l e a r n in g of the f u t u r e or of o b t a i n i n g some
sign to be i n t e r p r e t e d was questionable, and its use
deprecated in some q u a rt er s , as A p u l e i u s had reason to
k n o w . ^89
We h a v e seen, too, that the n o t i o n of reflection
figured in a n c i e n t v i e w s of the c osmos, in t he relation
sh ip of m a c r o c o s m to m i c r o c o s m , and in the fundamental
doctrine of a s t r o l og y , "as above, so b e l o w . "
55
Notes
^For a t h o r o ug h t r e at m e n t of the s u b je c t of the

m i c r o c o s m and e x t e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h i e s , see G e o r g e P e r r i g o
C onger, T h e o r i e s of M a c r o c o s m s and M i c r o c o s m s in the
H i s t o r y of P h i l o s o p h y (New York, 1922; r epr in t, N e w York:
R u s s e l l & R u ss e ll , 1967), and R u d o l f A l l e r s ," M i c r o c o s m u s ,
f r o m A n a x i m a n d r o s to P a r a c e l s u s , " T r a d i t i o 2 (1944): 319-
407.
2Fr itz Saxl, " M a c r o c o s m and M i c r o c o s m in

M e d i a e v a l P i c t u r e s , " in L e c t u r e s (London: The W a r b u r g
I n s t it u te , 1957), vol. 1, 58.
^Conger, M a c r o c o s m s . l b - 1 /. C o n g e r c ites P hi l o ' s

Q u i s r e r u m d i v i n a r u m h a e r e s sit XLVIII, 146-156. Philo,
w ho a t t e m p t e d to unc o ve r the h a r m o n i e s in H e b r e w and G r e ek
thought, i n t e r p r e t e d this l i k e n es s as one of the soul, not
the body (De m un di o p i f i ci o XXIII, 69-71), thus f u r t h e r i n g
an a l l e g o r i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the Bible.
^ Al l er s, " M i c r o c o s m u s ," 338ff.
5 p i a t o T i m a e u s 30C. P l a t o ' s P h i l e b u s 29-30, is

al s o c i t ed as a sou rc e for the ide a of the m ic r oc o s m . In
t h is d i a lo g ue , S o c r a t e s s ta t e s that only four e l e m e n t s
e xi st in t he u ni v erse, and that they are pre se n t in each
i n d i v i d u a l , too, t ho ug h in a d i l ut e d form. See Conger,
M a c r o c o s m s . 7-10; and G e o r g e Boas, " M a c r o c o s m and
M i c r o c o s m , " in the D i c t i o n a r y of the H i s t o r y of I d e a s , e d .
P h i l i p P. W i e n e r (New York: C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons,
1973), vol. 3, 126-131.
^ O n the s u bj ec t of a s t r o l o g y in the a n c i e n t
world, see G e o r g Luck, A r c a n a M undi: M a g i c and the O c c u l t
in the G r e e k and R om an W o r l d s ( B a l t i m o r e and London:
T h e J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1985), e s p e c i a l l y
309-358; L o u i s M ac N ei c e , A s t r o l o g y (Gar de n City, N ew York:
D o u b l e d a y and Comp an y, 1964); F r a n z Cumont, A s t r o l o g y and
R e l i g i o n A m o n g the G r e ek s and R o m a n s (New York: G. P.
P u t n a m ' s Sons, 1912; reprint, N ew York: Dover P u b l i c a
tions, 1960); idem, O r i e n t a l R e l i g i o n s in R om a n P a g a n i s m
(London?: G. R o u t l e d g e & Sons, Ltd., 1911; repri n t , New
icrk: D o v e r P u bl i c a t i o n s , 1956), e s p e c i a l l y chap. 7.
7 S i g n s or omens in w h i c h the f u t u r e was r e fl e c t e d

or could be read we r e to be found on e a rt h as well. For
d i s c u s s i o n of d i v i n a t i o n and the m i r r o r in this d i s s e r t a
tion, see 16-17 and 41-42.
56
8Her bert G r a b e s has no t ed the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the j
j m e taphor of the m i r r o r in a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e in T he j
iM u t a b l e G l a s s , 3. For a list of r e l e v a n t s t u d i e s on the
|subject, see V i k t o r P os c h l, H e l g a G ar t n e r, and W a l t r a u t I
|Heyke, B i b l i o g r a p h i e zur A n t i k e n B i l d e r s p r a c h e
( He i d e lb e rg : C ar l W i n t e r U n i v e r s i t a t s v e r l a g , 1964), 560. j
^See J a m e s M e l l a a r t , f a t a l Huyu k: A N e o l i t h i c !
iT o w n in A n a t o l i a (New York: M c G r a w - H i l l , 1967).
I ^ P a u l i n e A lb en d a, " M i r r o r s in t he A n c i e n t Near !
East," Source: N o t e s in the H i s t o r y of Art 4, nos. 2/3
[ ( W i n t e r / S p r i n g 1985): 2.
j ^ F u r t h e r study is n e e ded. C i r c u m s t a n c e s of
j b u r ia l and the t y p e of m a t e r i a l o b j e c t s f ou n d h av e led I
iJames M e l l a a r t to d e d uc e the g e n d e r of the d ec e a se d ,
i Certain b ur i a l s it e s y i e l d e d the r e m a i n s of we ap on s, and j
!are i n t e r p r e t e d as m e n ' s tombs; others, s t o c k e d w i t h .

[ je welry, st o ne spoons, and o b j e c t s t ho u g h t to be m ir ro rs , j
[are s ee n as w o m e n ' s b u r ia l c h am b e r s . S ee M e l l a a r t , " f a ta l j
j Huyiik, A N e o l i t h i c City in A n a t o l i a , " P r o c e e d i n g s of the j

! B r i t i s h A c a d e m y 51 (1965): 207; idem, f a t a l Huyiik, 79;
and C h r i s t i n e L i ly q u i s t , A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s f r o m the
Earliest T i m e s t h r o u g h the M i d d l e K i n g d o m (Munich:
D e u t s c h e r K u n s t v e r l a g , 1979), 49.
de G e n o u i l l a c , F o u i l l e s de T e l l o h : ^poques
p r e s a r g o n i q u e s (Paris, 1934), vol. 1, 48, pi. 9: 3a; and j
A lb e n da , " M i r r o r s , " 2. j
l ^ Lo u is C. W a t e l i n and S. L a n g d o n , E x c a v a t i o n s at !
K i s h IV: 1 9 2 5 - 1 9 3 0 (Paris, 1934), 28-29, pi. 19: 1; and
Al be nd a , " M i r r o r s , " 2.
i
! l Â lbenda, "Mirrors," 2-3.

i
i
^ A l b e r t Goet z e , A n c i e n t N ea r E a s t e r n T ex t s
R e l a t i n g to the O ld T e s t a m e n t , ed. J a m e s B. P r i t c h a r d ,
s ec o n d e d i t i o n ( P ri n ce t o n, N. J.: Princeton University
Press, 1955), 349, 354; and A lb e n d a, " M i r r o r s , " 3.
l Âlbenda, "Mirrors," 3-7.

I
lÂn A n a t o l i a n b a s - r e l i e f from A l a c a Hiiyuk, ca. j
t h i r t e e n t h c e nt u r y B.C., sho ws a s e a t e d f i g ur e i d e n t i f i e d j
as K u b a b a h o l d i n g a m i r r o r in her left hand and a cup in

h er right. See H e l m u t h T. Bo ss e rt , A l t a n a t o l i e n (Berlin, j
1942), pi. 516.
57
l^T hi s ste le is d at e d ca. t e n t h - s e v e n t h c e n t u r y

B.C. See J. D. H aw ki ns , " K u b a b a at K a r k e m i s and E l s e
where," A n a t o l i a n S t u d i e s 31 (1981): 169, figs. 2-3;
| and A lb e n d a , " M i r r o r s , " 3 and 8 , ns. 16 and 17. For
a d d i t i o n a l b i b l i o g r a p h y , see A lb en da , 8-9. Other examples
f r o m M a l a t y a and C a r c h e m i s h in n o r t h e r n Syria, w h i c h
d e p i c t a g o d d e s s or m o r ta l w o m a n c a r r y i n g a m ir r or , and
p r o b a b l y d a t i n g f r o m the t e n t h to the s e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s
B.C., h a v e been found.
19o. R. G ur ney, T h e H i t t i t e s, 2nd e d i t i o n

( H a r m o n d s w o r t h , E ng la n d: P e n g u i n Books, 1961), 138, 190.
F or a d i s c u s s i o n of K ub aba, see H aw ki ns , "K ub ab a "; K.
B i t t e l, " P h r y g i s c h e s K u l t b i l d aus B o g a z k o y , " A n t i k e
P l a s t i k 2 (1963): 7-21; E. L a r o ch e , "K ou ba ba ^ d e e s s e
a n a t o l i e n n e et le p r o b l ^ m e des o r i g i n e s de C y b e l e , " in
E l e m e n t s o r i e n t a u x d an s la r e l i g i o n g r ec q u e (1960): 113-
128; and W. F. A l br i g h t , ''The A n a t o l i a n G o d d e s s K u b a b a , "
A r c h i v fur O r i e n t f o r s c h u n g 5 (1929): 2 29 - 23 1. T h e Ne ar
E a s t e r n g o d d e s s e s of p r o c r e a t i o n are a n c e s t o r s of or
r e l a t e d to s i m i l a r d e i t i e s in ot he r M e d i t e r r a n e a n
c i v i l i z a t i o n s , e.g., A p h r o d i t e in G ree ce . See W a l t e r
B u r k e r t , G r e e k R e l i g i o n , trans. J o h n R a f f a n ( C a m b r id g e ,
Mass.: H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1985), 177ff.
2 0 S e e B ur ke r t, G r e e k R e l i g i o n . 178; and E r i c h
N eu ma n n , T he G r e a t M o th e r: An A n a l y s i s of the A r c h e t y p e
s e c o n d e d i t i o n ( Pr i n ce to n, N. J.: Princeton University
P r es s, 1963), 175.
2 l F o r i n st a nc e, a b r o n z e m i r r o r of the s o c k e t e d
t yp e (ca. l at e s i x t h c e n t u r y B . C . ), e x c a v a t e d at S a r d i s in
w e s t e r n A n a t o l ia , is ed g ed w i t h g e o m e t r i c p at t e rn s , and a
c l a m p d e c o r a t e d w i t h two a d d o r s e d horses' hea ds . See
A n d r e w O l iv e r , Jr., "A B r o n z e M i r r o r f r om S a r d i s , " in
S t u d i e s P r e s e n t e d to G e o r g e M. A. H a n f m a n n . ed. D a v i d
G o r d o n M i tt e n , J o h n G r i f f i t h s P e d l e y , and J a n e A y e r S co t t
( Mainz: P h i l i p p von Z ab e rn , 1971), 113-120, pis. 29-30.
22 An a p p a r e n t l y r a r e i n s t a n c e in w h i c h a m i r r o r ( ? )
is r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a m an is seen on an e i g h t h c e n t u r y
B.C. o r t h o s t a t r e l i e f f r o m Z i n c i r l i . A disc, i n t e r p r e t e d
as a m i r ror, is seen ab o ve the h e a d of B a r r e k u b , a
r e g i o n a l g o v e r n o r or ruler. See E k r e m A k u r g a l and M a x
H i r m e r , T he Art of the H i t t i t e s (London, 1962), pi. 139;
and E k r e m A k u r g a l, T h e Art of G r e e ce : Its O r i g i n s in the
M e d i t e r r a n e a n and N ea r E a s t (New York, 1966), 127, pis.
26-27. F or f u r t h er d i s c u s s i o n of N ea r E a s t e r n m i r r o r
m o t i f s , see A lb enda, " M i r r o r s , " 2-9.
58
j 2 3 p or f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n on the a n c i e n t h i s t o r y
of a m u l e t s in E gyp t and the e ar ly Ne ar East, see A l f r e d
W i e d e m a n n , "Di e A m u l e t t e der a l t e n A e g y p t e r , " Per alt e
O r i e n t 12 (1910): 15-18; and L i s e l o t t e H au sm a nn , A m u l e t t
und T a l i s m a n : E r s c h e i n u n g s f o r m und G e s c h i c h t e (Munich,
1966), 237, nos. 8 15 - 8 19 . For an i l l u m i n a t i n g d i s c u s s i o n
of thi s use of the mi rr o r , see C a r l a G o t t li eb , "The
| B e w i t c h e d R e f l e c t i o n , " e s p e c i a l l y 62-63.
j
^ G o t t l i e b , "Th e B e w i t c h e d R e f l e c t i o n , 6 2-63. For

a r e p r o d u c t i o n of this r e l i e f and f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n , see
Kar l Katz, P. P. Kah an e , and M a g e n Br os hi , F r om the
Beginning: A r c h a e o l o g y and Art in the Is ra el M u s eu m.
J e r u s a l e m (Ne w York: R e y n a l & C o m p an y , 1968), fig. 107,
and 124-125.
2 5 K a tz, K ah an e , and Br os hi , From the B e g i n n i n g ,

124-125.
26 Ibid.
2 ? S e e below, 20, and 23-24, for my d i s c u s s i o n of

E g y p t i a n m i r r o r s v i e w e d as a p o t r o p a i c o bj e c ts .
2 8 E x o d u s 3 4 :2 9 -3 0 . All B i b l i c a l r e f e r e n c e s are to
the D o u a y - R h e i m s v e r si o n, u n l e s s n o t ed o t h e r w i s e. The
H o l y B i b l e , t r a n s l a t e d f r o m the L a t i n V u l g a t e (New York:
P. J. K e n e d y & Sons, 1914).
29 S au l, converted to C h r i s t i a n i t y , is c a l l e d Paul
thereafter.
3 0 A ct s 9:3-9.
3 1 l n the M i d d l e Ages, the " u n s p o t t e d m i r r o r " of

W i s d o m is t r a n s f e r r e d to the V i r g i n Mary, and b e c o m e s one
of h e r p r i n c i p a l a t t r i b u t e s . See below, C h a p t e r III, 103.
3 2 S ee I a m b l i c h u s O n the M y s t e r i e s of E g y pt 2.1.;
and E u s e b i u s T h e P r e p a r a t i o n of the G o s p e l 4.5., in Luck,
A r c a n a M u n d i , 2 20 - 22 2 . F or a d d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s on the
s u b j e c t of d i v i n a t i o n , and an i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c u s s i o n of
a n c i e n t d i v i n a t o r y p r a c t i c es , see Luck. 254.
3 3 G e n e s i s 44:15. M e e t i n g his b r o t h e r s w i t h the

s t o l e n cup, J o s e p h q u e s t i o n s t h ei r t hi ev e r y : "And he said
to them: W h y w o u l d you do so? k n o w you not that t he re is
no one like me in the s c i e n c e of d i v i n i n g . "
59
^ P a u l ' s 1 C o r i n t h i a n s 1 3: 1 2 v e r s e in w h i c h we see
G od as " t h r o u g h a gla ss in a d a r k m a n n e r , " m ay a l s o h a v e a
divinatory meaning. See G. K i t t e l ' s e x p l i c a t i o n of the
| te xt a nd its d e r i v a t i o n in H e b r e w th ou g ht , see his
a r t i c l e , Vu/y/ytiA. ' - C a - o T T T p o ' ^ »" in T h e o l o g i s c h e s
W o r t e r b u c h z um M e u e n T e s t a m e n t , ( S t u t t g a r t , 1933) vol. 1,
1 7 7 - 17 9. For a d i s c u s s i o n of K i t t e l ’s view, as w e l l as a
v a l u a b l e s u r v e y of t he r a n g e of i n t e r p r e t i v e l i t e r a t u r e
r e l a t e d to P a u l ’s m i r r o r text s, see N o r b e r t H u g e d e ' s
i m p o r t a n t study, La M e t a p h o r e du M i r o i r d an s les E p i t r e s
de S a i n t P a u l a ux C o r i n t h i e n s ( N e u c h a t e l and Paris:
D e l a c h a u x & N i e s tl d , 1957), e s p e c i a l l y 42-44, and p as sim.
3 5 s o m e of th es e b e l i e f s are c u r r e n t to da y in
s e v e r a l r e l i g i o n s , s uc h as S h in to , in f o l k l o re , a nd in
certain primitive civilizations. S ee J a m e s G e o r g e F r a zer,
T h e G o l d e n B o u g h (London: M a c m i l l a n and C o m p an y , 1911;
r ep r i n t, 1955), vol. 3, 77ff.
36a. M a r m o r s t e i n , " Th e M i r r o r in J e w i s h R e l i g i o u s
L i f e , " in S t o r i a d e l l e R e l i g i o n i 8 (1932): 37-41, as c it e d
in Hu g ed e , La M g t a p h o r e du M i r o i r , 48 n. 2.
3 7 T h e p a s s a g e b egi ns , "And t he L o r d said: Because

the d a u g h t e r s of S i o n are h a u g h t y , a nd h a v e w a l k e d w i t h
s t r e t c h e d out neck s, and w a n t o n g l a n c e s of t he ir eyes, and
m a d e a n o i s e as t he y w a l k e d w i t h t h e i r feet and m o v e d in a
set pace. . ." ( I s a i a h 3:1 6) , a nd c o n t i n u e s w i t h a r e c i t a
t io n of h ow the L o r d w il l h u m b l e t h e s e w o m e n and w h a t
a d o r n m e n t s he w i l l r e m o ve , i n c l u d i n g " l o o k i n g - g l a s s e s , and
lawns, and h e a d b a n d s , and f i n e v e i l s " (3:23). In E x o d u s
38, M o s e s a s k s for o f f e r i n g s to b ui l d the t em ple, and the
" m i r r o r s of the w o m e n that w a t c h e d at the d o o r of the
t a b e r n a c l e " (38:8) a r e used to m a k e the b r a s s laver.
A n o t h e r v e r s i o n of t hi s o c c u r r e n c e is r e c o u n t e d by L o u i s
G i n z b e r g in L e g e n d s of the J e w s : " M o s e s did not at first
w a n t to a c c e p t c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m the w o m e n (for the
t a b e r n a c l e ) , but t h e s e b r o u g h t t h e i r c l o a k s and t h e i r
m i r r o r s , sayi ng : ’W h y dost t h o u r e j e c t our g if ts ? If
thou d oe s t so b e c a u s e th ou w a n t e s t in the s a n c t u a r y
n o t h i n g t ha t w o m e n u se to e n h a n c e t h e i r c ha rm s, behold,
h e r e are our c l o a k s that we use to c o n c e a l o u r s e l v e s f r o m
the e y e s of the men. But if t h o u art a f r a i d to a c c e p t
fr om us a n y t h i n g t ha t m i g h t be not our p r o p e r t y , b ut our
h u s b a n d s ’ , b eh old, h e re are our m i r r o r s that b e l o n g to us
alone, and not to our h u s b a n d s . ' W h e n M o s e s b e h e l d the
m i r r o r s , he w a x e d v er y angr y, and b ad e the w o m e n to be
d r i v e n f r om him, e x c l a i m i n g : 'What r i g h t in the s a n c t u a r y
60
3 7 ( co n ti nu ed )
hav e these m i r r o r s that e x i st only to a r o u s e s e n su al
d e s i r e s ? 1 But Go d said to Moses: 'Truly d ea r er to Me
t han all o th e r g if ts are t h e s e m i r ro rs , for it was t h es e
m i r r o r s that y i e l d e d Me My hosts. W h e n in E gypt the men
w e r e e x h au s te d f r om t he ir h eavy labors, the w o m e n w er e
won t to come to th em w i t h food and drink, take out their
m irrors, and c a r e s s i n g l y say to t heir h u sb a n d s : 'Look
into the mir r o r, I am m u c h mo r e b e a u t i f u l t ha n thou,' and
in this w a y p a s s io n s ei ze d the me n so that they f o r g o t
their c ar e s and u n i t e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h t hei r wives, who
t h e r e u p o n b r ou gh t man y c h i l d r e n into the world. T ak e now
these m i r r o r s and f a sh i on out of th em the l aver that
c o n t a i n s the w a t e r for the s a n c t i f y i n g of the priests.'
F u r t h e r m o r e out of this la ver was f e t c h e d the w a t e r that a
w o m a n s u s p e c t e d of a d u l t e r y had to d r i n k to p r ove her
i nn ocence. As f o r m e r l y the m i r r o r s had be en use d to
k i n d l e c o n j u g a l a f f e c ti o n, so out of t h e m w a s m ad e the
v essel for the w a t er that was to r e s to r e b r o k e n p eace
b e t w e e n h u s b a n d and wife. W he n M o s e s up o n G o d ' s c o mm a nd
m ad e k n o wn to the p eo p l e that w h o s o e v e r w a s of a w i l l i n g
heart, man or woman, m i gh t b r ing an o ff er i n g , the zea l of
the w om en w as so great, that they t h r us t a w a y the m en and
c r o wd ed f o r wa r d w i t h t h eir gifts. . ." G i n z b e r g p oi nt s
out that in the s t ory of t h e s e m i r r o r s it is the w o m e n ' s
i n t e n t i o n s that a re m o r e i m p o r t a n t tha n the deed. See
L ouis G in z b e r g , L e g e n d s of the J e w s ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : Th e
J e w i s h P u b l i c a t i o n S o c i e t y of Ameri ca , 1911), vol. 3,
174-175; and vol. 6 , 70-71 n. 364.
38w. M. F l i n d e r s Pet ri e, O b j e c t s of D a i l y Use

(London: B r i t i s h S c ho o l of A r c h a e o l o g y in Egypt,
P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1909), 28. R o b e r t S te v e n B i a n c h i c o n s i d e r s
this a s s e r t i o n q u e s t i o n a b l e since no o b j e c t s that c o u l d be
i n t e r p r e t e d as h a v i n g that p u r p o s e have b e e n i de nt if i ed .
See Bianchi, " R e f l e c t i o n s of the S ky 's E y e s , " S o u r c e :
N otes in the H i s t o r y of Art 4, nos. 2/3 ( W i n t e r / S p r i n g
1985): 10. For a d i s c u s s i o n of e a r l i e s t E g y p t i a n m i r ro rs ,
see L i l yq ui s t , A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s , e s p e c i a l l y 4 and
49. M i r r o r s mad e of m i c a m a y al so h av e b e e n used in
a n c ie nt E gypt. See C o n s t a n c e Hus so n, L ' O f f r a n d e du M i r o i r
dans les T e m p l e s E g y p t i e n s de l ' E p o q u e G r e c o - R o m a i n e
(Lyons: Audin, 1977), 24. B e f o r e the u s e of st o ne s or
metal, w a t e r c o n t a i n e d in small r e c e p t a c l e s is l ik e ly to
have s erved as the f ir st mi rr o r . A r i e l l e K o z l o f f has
s p e c u l a t e d on the use of an A r c h a i c P e r i o d s tone dish in
the c o l l e c t i o n of the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of Art for such
a purpose. T hi s dish, in the shape of an ank h ( O ) is
61
3 8 ( C o n ti n u ed ) I
! h el d by the e m b r a c i n g arm s m o t i f that s i g n i f i e s the spirit
! (kja). She p oi nt s out that an k h w as not onl y the w o r d for 1
! " li f e" in a n c i e n t Egypt, but also for " m i r r o r . " See
| K oz l of f , "Mir ro r , M i r r o r , " T h e B u l l e t i n of the C l e v e l a n d j
i M u s e u m of Art 71, no. 8 ( O c to b er 1984): 274. Bianchi I

d i s a g r e e s w i t h K o z l o f f ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of this dish. For
i h i s d i s c u s s i o n of the subject, see Bianc h i, " R e f l e c t i o n s , " j
I 10-11. In 1902, V i c t o r L o r e t s u g g e s t e d that the E g y p t i a n \

■ mir r or , so s i m i l a r in s hape to the ank h and w i t h its j
j r e f e r e n c e s to life and the l i f e - g i v i n g sun, w as the in- j

; s p i r a t i o n for the a nk h sign. T h i s vi e w h as bee n r e j e c t e d j
I by a n um b e r of s c h o l ar s w ho h a v e p o i nt ed out that the ank h |

i s i g n also r e f e r r e d to a n u m b e r of o th er t h i ng s, i n c l u d i n g
a b e e t l e and a cobra. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n of th is r e l a t i o n - j
s h i p and the l i te r a tu r e, see L i l y q ui st , A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n

Mirrors, 66.
J 3 9 g ee L i l y q u i s t , A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s . 4-5,
j and 50. |
i i
40 Ibid. |
* llbid., 71.
42 A few m i r r o r s of s i l v e r hav e a ls o bee n

d i s c o v e r e d, but the m a j o r i t y of E g y p t i a n m i r r o r s e xt a n t
a re of copper, c o p p e r c o m p o s i te s, and bro n z e. See
L i l y q u i s t , A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s . 4 9-50 and 100-101,
for d i s c u s s i o n and a n a l y s e s of the m e t a l l i c c o m p o s i t i o n of
s o m e E g y p t i a n mi r ro r s .
^ S e e C. E v r a r d - D e r r i k s , " Le M i r o i r r e p r e s e n t e sur
les p e i n t u r e s et b a s - r e l i e f s e g y p t i e n s , " in O r i e n t a l i a
L o v a n i e n s i a P e r i o d i c a 6-7 ( 1 9 7 5 -1 9 7 6) : 223ff.
4 4 T h i s d a n ce may be a rite of the g o d d e s s Hat ho r.

S ee below, 25.
I
^^For an e x a m i n a t i o n of the use of m i r r o r s as
v o t i v e objec ts , see H u ss on , L ' O f f r a n d e du M i r o i r .
^ L i l y q u i s t , A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s . 16; also
7-8 and p a s s i m for e x a m p l e s of b u r i a l s w i t h m i r r o r s .
4701 xver H. M y e r s h a s n o te d that w h e n its c o r r o d e d j
s u r f a c e w a s cleaned, t r ea te d , and then p ol is h ed , an

a n c i e n t b r o n z e m i rr o r dis k gave a good r e f l e c t i o n . He
62
j ^(continued) |
I a ls o p o i n t s out that the q u a l i t y of the r e f l e c t i o n j
j a c h i e v a b l e today is u n d o u b t e d l y i n fe r i o r to w h a t w o u l d j
| h a v e been p o ss i b l e w h e n the m i r r o r was new. We do not
! k n o w w ha t wa s o r i g i n a l l y used to p o l is h m i r r o r disks. See j
I Sir R o b er t M ond and O l i v er H. Myers, C e m e t e r i e s of A r m a n t !
I (London: T h e E g y p t E x p l o r a t i o n Society, 1937), vol. 1, j
I 117-118, pi. X L I X , fig. 1. |
1 i
^Lilyquist, Ancient E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s , 98. j
l
^See below, 24-25.
i
t
5C>See L i l y q u i s t , A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s , 94. |
A l s o see G u s t a v e J e q ui e r , Les F r i s e s d ' o b j e t s des
S a r c o p h a g e s du m o y e n E m p i r e fMIFAO, 47] (Cairo, 1921),
134; V i c t o r Loret, "Les E n s e i g n e s M i l i t a i r e des T r i b u s et
^,es S y m b o l e s H i e r o g l y p h i q u e s des D i v i n i t e s , " R e v u e
E g y p t o l o g i q u e 10 (1902): 99; H e i n r i c h Sch a f er , "Die
A u s d e u t u n g der S p i e g e l p l a t t e als S o n n e n s c h e i b e ,"
Z e i t s c h r i f t fur A e g y p t i s c h e S p r a c h e und A l t e r t u m s k u n d e 68
(1932): 1-2; and A l e x a n d e r Sch a rf f, " A g y p t i s c h e H a n d -
s p i e g e l , " B e r l i n e r M u s e e n. B e r i c h t e aus den p r e u s s i s c h e n
K u n s t s a m m l u n g e n 42 (1 9 2 0- 21 ): 130.
S l Ko zl of f, "M irror, Mirror," 274.
S^ T he sky g o d d e s s H at hor, w h o s e cult c e n t e r at

D e n d e r a wa s a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d in the Old K i n g d o m , is
e i t he r r e p l a c e d by I sis or m e r g e s w it h her. H a t h o r was
o f t e n d e p i c t e d as a c o w - h e a d e d f ig u r e wh o h eld a sun disk
b e t w e e n he r horns. Isis is a ls o seen w i t h co w h o r n s and
disk. At times, they w e r e e ac h k no wn as the m o t h e r of
H or us . H a t h o r - I s i s and t he ir s y m b o l i c r ol e on m i r r o r s
w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d below. See 2 1- 2 2 and 25. For f u r t h e r
d i s c u s s i o n of H a t h o r - I s i s and t h e i r l egends, c o n s u l t
M. Lurker, The G od s and S y m b o l s of A n c i e n t E g y p t (London:
T h a m e s & Hudson, 1980), e s p e c i a l l y 5 8 - 59 and 7 1 — 72; R. T.
R u n d l e Clark, M y t h and S y m b o l in A n c i e n t E g y p t ( London:
T h a m e s & H udson, 1959); E ri k H o r n un g , C o n c e p t i o n s of God
in A n c i e n t Egypt: T he O ne and the M a n y , trans. J o h n
B a i n e s (Ithaca, N e w York: C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y Pres s ,
1982); and B a r b a r a W a t t e r s o n , T h e G od s of A n c i e n t E g y p t
(London: B. T. B a t s fo r d, 1984),
^ L i l y q u i s t , A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s . 94, and
K o z lo ff , "Mirror, M i r r o r , " 274.
| S^Loret, "Les E n s e i g n e s M i l i t a i r e , " 99.
63
j 5 5 L i l y q U ist, A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s , 94, and |

J K o z l o ff , " Mi r r o r , M i r r o r , " 274.
| ^This mirror is j a n u s - h e a d e d . See below, 22.
] 57j[0 z i 0 f f f " Mi r r o r , Mirror," 274.

I j
5 8 s ee ibid. A l s o see L i l y q u i s t , A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n i
M i r r o r s , 98, and Hus so n, L ' O f f r a n d e du Miro ir , passim. j
I
59Kozloff, " Mi rr or , Mirror," 274. j
6 0 j a n u s h e a d s u s u a l l y loo k in o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s , |
p r e s i d i n g , as the R o m a n god J anus, o ve r b e g i n n i n g s and j
e nd in gs . T h i s is not u s u a l l y the c a s e w i t h a r e f l e c t e d
image, of co ur s e , but m o st m i r r o r s do r e v e r s e the v i e w e r ' s
i mage. T h e m i r r o r and a j a n u s - h e a d are l in k ed a g a i n in
the a l l e g o r i c a l i m ag e of the v i r t u e of P r u d e n t i a
( P r u d e n c e ), bot h see n t o g e t h e r for the f ir s t t i m e w i th
this V i r t u e in G i o t t o ’s g r i s a i l l e r e n d e r i n g of this f i g u r e
in the A r e n a C h a pe l , P adua, ca. 1305. See C h a p t e r III
below, 1 0 4- 10 5 . E r w in P a n o f s k y ' s d i s c u s s i o n of the
i c o n o g r a p h y of T i t i a n ' s t r i c e p h a l o u s A l l e g o r y of P r u d e n c e
and its d e r i v a t i o n in a n o t h e r E g y p t i a n sun deity, Sera pi s,
s h o u l d be c i t e d here. S ee " T i t i a n ' s A l l e g o r y of P r u d e n c e :
A P o s t s c r i p t , " in E r w i n P a n of s ky , M e a n i n g in t h e V i s u a l
A r t s ( G a r d e n City, N.Y.: D o u b l e d a y & C o m p a ny , D o u b l e d a y
A n c h o r B o o k s, 1955), 1 4 6- 16 8.
6 1 j e a n Cap ar t , "Un M i r o i r E g y p t i e n de la C o l l e c
t io n de R a v e s t e i n , " B u l l e t i n M u s e e s R o y a u x d ' A rt et
H i s t o i r e 2 (1902): 10; and L i l y q u i s t , A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n
M i r r o r s , 95. In L i l y q u i s t ' s view, h o w e v e r , t he p r e s e n c e
of o t he r o b j e c t s in t h e s e f ri s es t e n d s to w e a k e n C a p a r t ’s
case.
^Lilyquist, Ancient E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s , 98.
63 Ibid.
6 ^ S e e A y l w a r d B l a c k m an , "The H o u s e of the M o r n
i n g, " J o u r n a l of E g y p t i a n A r c h a e o l o g y 5 (1918): 148-1 65 .
65 Ibid.
^Lilyquist, Ancient E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s , 98.
6 ? Ib id . , 99. L i l y q uist h er e l in ks the m i r r o r and

its p r o b a b l e s o lar and l ig ht s y m b o l i s m to p a s s a g e s in the
64
! 6 7 (continued) j
P y r a m i d T e x t s in w h i c h Osi ri s' v i s i o n w as r e s t o r e d and
i m p r o v e d by R a ' s light, and, t h r o u g h the u se of the eye of j
H or u s, it w a s p r o t e c t e d . See U t t e r a n c e 6 3 9 e s p e c i a l l y , in j
Raymond Oliver Faulkner, t r a n s . , The Ancient Egyptian j
P y r a m i d T e x t s (Oxfo rd : C l a r e n d o n P ress, 1969), vol. 1, j
i 264. See L i l y q u i s t , A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s , 99, for a I

| d i s c u s s i o n of m i r r o r s in c of f in s , p l a c e d for use.
^ ^ L i l y q u i s t , A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s , 98, c i t e s
B. B. P a v lo v , X ly A a * £ c . T A E - H H o £ P e r A E c n o A P E & H E C O
C r H n T A (1959), 109. I w a s not a b l e to see the P a v l o v j
work.
6 9F r az er , T h e G o l d e n B o u g h , vol. 3, 94ff. Cf.

H a r t l a u b , Z a u b e r des S p i e g e l s , 21ff; and A. W i e d e m a n n ,
" Bi l d und Z a u b e r im a l t e n A g y p t e n , " Deutschen Gesell-
s c h a f t fur A n t h r o p o l o g i e , E t h n o l o g i e u nd U r g e s c h i c h t e ,
K o r r e s p o n d e n z - B l a t t , 48 (1917): 6 . For a d i s c u s s i o n of j
N a r c i s s u s , see below, 42-44.
^See B i a n ch i , "Reflections," 13.
71 See R u n d l e C la rk , M y t h and L e g e n d in A n c i e n t
E g y p t . 218-2 30 . T h e m e a n i n g s of the E g y p t i a n eye a nd its
w ad jet f o r m are c o m p l e x and not a l w a y s c le ar . It is
ce r ta i n , though, that the eye w as g e n e r a l l y s y m b o l i c of
the G r ea t G o dd es s, the d e i t y w ho w a s at v a r i o u s t i m e s and
p l a c e s i d e n t i f i e d as H a t ho r, Neith, Mut, etc. See ibid.,
18 and 218. Als o see a bove, 23-24. On s e v e r a l m i r r o r
d is c s f r om the L a t e P e r i o d ( a f te r 720 B .C .) , f o l l o w e r s of
Mu t are s ho wn p r e s e n t i n g m i r r o r s to the g o d d e s s. The
r i tu a l o f f e r i n g of m i r r o r s to a d ei ty o c c u r s a g a i n in
l at e r t e m p l e sce ne s . T h e ritual, a c c o r d i n g to B i a n c hi ,
r e f e r s to the m i r r o r s as sun and moon, and, in c o nt ex t ,
the y ar e s y m b o l s of r e g e n e r a t i o n . T h e s e la t e d e p i c t i o n s
ma y be a r e s u r f a c i n g of an e ar l ie r , lost, t r a d i t i o n of
p r e s e n t i n g m i r r o r s to d i v i n i t i e s . S ee B i a n c h i , " R e f l e c
t i o n s , " 14-15.
72Wad jets are f r e q u e n t l y seen on c o f f i n s dating

fr o m the M i d d l e K i n g d o m ( 2 1 3 4 - 1 7 8 5 B .C.).
7 3 R U ndle C l ar k, M y t h and L e g e n d in A n c i e n t E g y p t .
220 and 223.
7^ Se e K o z l o f f , " M i r ro r , M i r r o r , " 2 71 - 2 76 , and

figs. 1, 2, 5, 6 . A n o t h e r N e w K i n g d o m m i r r o r ( ea r l y to
m i d - E i g h t e e n t h D y n a s t y ) w i t h B e s - i m a g e in the c o l l e c t i o n
65
^(continued) j
of the M u s e u m of Fine Arts, H a r v a r d U n i v e r s it y , is di s- !
j c u ss e d and i l l u s t r a t e d in J. F. R o m a n o and C. L i l y q ui s t,
! E g y p t ’s G o ld e n Age: T h e A rt of L i v i n g in the N e w K i n g d o m
j 1 5 5 8 - 1 0 5 8 B . C . , e x h i b i t i o n c a t a l o g u e (Boston: M u s e u m of
; F in e Arts, 1982), 186-187, and fig. 216.
i! '5 See J. F. Romano, "The O r i g i n of the B e s - I m a g e , "

i B u l l e t i n of the E g y p t o l o g i c a l S e m i n a r of N ew Y o r k 2
j (1980): 49-50. R o m a n o c i te s an a n o n y m o u s author, w r i t i n g
j in the B r o o k l y n M u s e u m A n n u a l for 1967-68, for th is J
| s p ec u l a t i o n . j
; !
I 7()See a . P i an ko ff , "Sur une s t a t u e t t e de Bes,"
B u l l e t i n de l ' I n s t i t u t f r a n p a i s d *archae'ologie o r i e n t a l e
37 ( 1 93 8- 19 3 9) : 30-31. A l so see R om an o , " O r ig i n of the j
B e s - I m a g e , " 47. j
i
^Bianchi, "Reflections," 13.
^ E g y p t i a n c a r y a t i d s su ch as this one are c l e a r l y

p r e c u r s o r s of later G r e e k c a r y a t i d s . See P L A TE 8 .
79Bianchi, " R e f l e c t i o n s , " 13, and fig. 5. Thi s

m i r r o r is bronze, E i g h t e e n t h D y na st y , ca. 1 5 7 0 - 1 3 5 0 B.C.,
and is in the c o l l e c t i o n of the B r o o k l y n Mus e u m, acc. no.
60.27.
8 0See ibid., 13 and 17 n. 60, for a d d i t i o n a l

references.
^Lilyquist, A n c i e n t E g y p t i a n M i r r o r s , 72.
8 2 h . H ic km a nn , "La D a n s e a ux M i r oi r s. Essai de
r e c o n s t i t u t i o n d'une D a n s e p h a r a o n i q u e de l ’a nc i en
E m p i r e , " B u l l e t i n I n s t i tu t d ’^ g y p t e 37 ( 1 9 54-55):
151-190.
S Â p ul e iu s , T he G o l d e n Ass, or T he T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s
of L u c i u s, trans. Ro b er t G r a v e s (New York: F a rr ar , S tr a us
& G iroux, 1951), XI, 9, pp. 268-269.
S ^S ee above, 13-14. Th e a t t r i b u t e s of c o mb and

m i r r o r are r et ai ne d by A p h r o d i t e - V e n u s in the C h r i s t i a n
era. Sea s ir en s and n e r e i d s h av e the same a t t r i b u t e s .
See below, C ha pt e r III, 135-138.
66
I 8 i)Le n o r e o, K e e n e C on g d on , " G r e e k M i r r o r s , "

S o u rce; No t e s on the H i s t o r y of Art 4, nos. 2/3
( W i n t e r / S p r i n g 1985); 20; G . M. a 7 R i c ht e r , A. H a n d b o o k
of G r e e k Art (New York: P ha id o n , 1959), 201.
i
S ^ L e n o r e 0. K ee ne C on gd o n , C a r y a t i d M i r r o r s of
A n c i e n t G r e e c e (Mainz: P h i l i p p von Za bern, 1981), 7.
A l s o see M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of Art, G r e e k A rt of the
A e g e a n I s l a n d s , e x h i b i t i o n c a t a l o g u e (New York, 1979),
50-51; W. Lamb, G r e e k and R o m a n B r o n z e s (New York:
L i n c o l n M a c V e a g h ; and L on don: M e t h ue n , 1929; reprint,
C hi c a g o: A r g o n a u t Inc., 1969), 7; H. J. K an t or , " I v or y
C a r v i n g in the M y c e n e a n P e r i o d , " A r c h a e o l o g y 13
(1960): 22ff., fig. 21; and A. de R i dder, " S p e c u l u m , " ^
D i c t i o n n a i r e des a n t i q u i t e s g r e c q u e s et r o m a i n e s d ' a p r es
les t e x t e s et les m o n u m e n t s , e d . C. V. D a r e m b e r g and E.
S a g li o (Paris, 1915), vol. 4.2, 1423, fig. 6526.
8 7 The c i r c u m s t a n c e s of burial, and ot he r

s u r v i v i n g e v i d e n c e s uc h as t e x t s or ot h e r w o r k s of art,
h a v e e n c o u r a g e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of m a n y E g y p t i a n m i r r o r
t y p e s and c e r t a i n a n c i e n t Ne ar E a s t e r n e xa m pl e s . In the
case of t h e s e e a r l i e s t G r e e k m i r ro r s, h o w ev e r, k n o w l e d g e
se em s too s l i g h t for m u ch s c h o l a r l y s p e c u l a t i o n . See
C o n g d o n, C a r y a t i d M i r r o r s , 12-13.
8 8 N a n c y T h o m s o n de G r u m m o n d, ed., A G u i d e to
E t r u s c a n M i r r o r s ( T a l l a ha s se e , F l o r id a : Archaeological
News, Inc., 1982), 8 . T h is m i r r o r has b ee n d a t e d by
H. H e n c k e n as one of the o l d e s t w o r k s in V i l l a n o v a n I at
T a r q u i n i a ( 1 0 0 0 - 7 5 0 B.C .) . S ee H. H e n c k e n , T a r q u i n i a and
E t r u s c a n O r i g i n s (London, 1968), 45, 47, 117, and pi.
59; and idem, T a r q u i n i a . V i l l a n o v a n s and E a r l y E t r u s c a n s
( C a m b r i d ge , Ma ss . , 1968), 47.
8 9 T h i s p r e - A r c h a i c m i r r o r w as p u b l i s h e d in 1940
by A. Minto. See de G r u m m o nd , G u i d e to E t r u s c a n M i r r o r s ,
8.
9 0 s e e C o n gd o n, C a r y a t i d M i r r o r s , 7-8. Based
on the e v i d e n c e of d a t a b l e finds, m i r r o r use m ay have
b e e n i n t e r r u p t e d in G r e e c e at the end of the M y c e n a e a n
Period, r e s u m i n g only in the late s e v e n t h or ear ly
s i x t h c e n t u r y B.C. W h a t m i g h t h a v e a c c o u n t e d for such
a long h i a t u s r e m a i n s u n e x p l a i n e d for the p r e s en t . Cf.
Lamb, B r o n z e s , 125.
67
j
| 9 1 w i th the e x c e p t i o n of a f e w E t r u s c a n m i r r o r s j
j that w e r e fo u nd in a v o t i v e c on te xt , a lm o s t all E t r u s c a n !
| m i r r o r s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d in e x c a v a t i o n s of tombs. S ee j
j de G ru m m on d , "The E t r u s c a n M i r r o r , " 34-35. Funerary J
j s c u l p t u r e on v a r i o u s a sh u r n s f ro m E t r u r i a s h o w s m i r r o r s I
j b e i n g h el d by r e c l i n i n g women. [ P LA TE 6] j
j i
^ C o n g d o n no te s that e x a m p l e s have b e en d i s- j
c o v e r e d at t e m p l e s at K o t i l o n and the A r g i v e H e r a io n , I
a m o n g ot he r sites. See C o n gd o n , C a r y a t i d M i r r o r s , 8. |
9 3x h e n u m b e r of s u r v i v i n g works, m i r r o r s w i th
i m a ge s and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of m i r r or s , v a r ies: l ar g e
n u m b e r s of E t r u s c a n m i r r o r s are extant, w h i l e G r e e k
e x a m p l e s are m or e limited, and R o m a n m i r r o r s that are
p e r t i n e n t to this st ud y are s c a r c e r still.
9^ No t l is te d h e r e a re d e c o r a t i v e p l a n t m ot if s ,
v ol u t es , and ot he r o r n a m e n t a l e l e m e n ts , as w e l l as
g e o m e t r i c p a tt er n s , w h i c h a re o f t e n p r e s e n t on m i r ro r s ,
in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h s om e of t he s u b j e c t m a t t e r i d e n t i f i e d
h er e and a l s o s e p a r a t e l y . In the c a s e of R o m a n m i r r o r s ,
g e o m e t r i c f o r m s are e s p e c i a l l y w i d e s p r e a d . D i s c u s s i o n of
t he s e d e c o r a t i v e m o t i f s is b e y o n d t he re a ch of t hi s
dissertation.
9 5 N e w K i n g d o m (ca. 1 5 7 0 - 1 0 8 5 B.C.) m i r r o r s w i t h
nu de y ou n g w o m e n and o t h e r f ig ures, such as the god Bes,
may h a v e b ee n an i n s p i r a t i o n for t h e s e G r e e k m od el s . See
C o n g do n , C a r y a t i d M i r r o r s . 11-12. A l s o see above , 20,
and P L A T E S 4 and 5. C a r y a t i d f i g u r e s as a r c h i t e c t u r a l
s u p p o r t s and a n t h r o p o m o r p h i z e d h a n d l e s or d e c o r a t i v e
e l e m e n t s on v ar i o u s sma ll o b j e c t s h a v e a l o n g h i s t o r y in
the N e a r E a s t and Egypt; and c a r y a t i d s w e r e u s e d in
G r ee c e, n o t a b l y as s c u l p t u r a l su p po r t s , b e f o r e th ei r use
on m i r r o r s. See C on g d o n, C a r y a t i d M i r r o r s . 7-12. F or a
d i s c u s s i o n of the p o s s i b l e N e a r E a s t e r n t r a n s m i s s i o n of
this form, t h r o u g h t r a d e and G r e e k c o l o n i z a t i o n , see
F. Matz, G e s c h i c h t e der g r i e c h i s c h e n Kunst: D ie
g e o m e t r i s c h e und d i e f r u h a r c h a i s c h e F o r m ( Fr a nk f ur t ,
1950), vol. 1, 382ff. On the c a r y a t i d f or m in G r e e k art,
see Matz, 319, figs. 2 18 - 2 20 ; C o n g do n, C a r y a t i d M i r r o r s ,
passim; and G. M. A. R i ch t er , Korai: Archaic Greek
M a i d e n s ( Lo n d on and N e w York, 1968), 27, no. 3, figs.
31-32, and 28, no. 6, figs. 38-40, 44. On the i n c i d e n c e
of m a l e c a r y a t i d m i r r o r s , C o n g d o n h as c a t a l o g u e d only
four w o r k s i d e n t i f i e d as f in d s f ro m the G r e e k m a i n l a n d .
F i n d s p o t s are k n o w n for only two of the four, one
68
| 9!j(continued)
J d i s c o v e r e d in the n e c r o p o l i s of R h e n e a at D e l o s an d now
j in the A r c h a e o l o g i c a l M u s e u m at M y k o n o s ( C o n g d o n ' s no.
! 110), and a s ec on d f i gu r e f o un d at T h e b e s and n o w in the
j B r i t i s h M u s e u m ( C o n g d o n no. 111). See C o n g do n, C a r y a t i d
j M i r r o r s . 2, 7, 207-209, pis. 92, 93 (nos. 11 0- 11 3) .
j F i o n a C a m e r o n ’s study of G r e e k h a n d - m i r r o r s in s o u t h e r n
I t a l y r e v e a l s a d i f f e r e n t story, w i t h m al e f i g u r e s on
t he se c o l o n i a l c a r y a t i d m i r r o r s q u i te comm on . See
C a m e r o n , G r e e k B r o n z e H a n d - M i r r o r s in S o u th Italy
(Oxfo r d: B .A.R. I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e r i e s 58, 1979). T he
i m a g e s of m e n and m a l e d i v i n i t i e s a p p e a r s in g l y a nd in
the c o m p a n y of w o m e n and g o d d e s s e s on the backs of later
ha nd and box m i r r o r s f r o m all l o c a t io n s.
^ C o n g d o n , "Greek Mirrors," 21; and idem,

C a r y a t i d M i r r o r s , 80ff.
9 ^ Se e G. M. A. Ri ch t e r , "An A r c h a i c G r e e k
M i r r o r , " A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l of A r c h a e o l o g y 42 (1938): 343.
B o t h A p h r o d i t e and A r t e m i s h av e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d w i t h
a s p e c t s of Kyb el e , the G r e a t G o d d e s s of A si a M in or ,
a. k. a. Kub ab a, w h o a ls o w a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a m ir ro r .
See a bove, 13-14. A p h r o d i t e , w h o r e t a i n s the m i r r o r
a t t r i b u t e w h i l e A r t e m i s d oe s not, is c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to
I s h t a r - A s t a r t e , the S e m i t i c g o d d e s s of love; and to
H a t h o r - I s i s , the c o r r e s p o n d i n g E g y p t i a n g o dd es s . See
B u r k e r t , G r e e k R e l i g i o n , e s p e c i a l l y 149-156; N eu m a n n ,
T h e G r e a t M o t h e r , passim; and J a n e H a rr i s o n , P r o l e g o m e n a
to the S t u d y of G r e e k R e l i g i o n (London, 1903; r ep ri nt ,
N e w York: M e r i d i a n B o o ks , 1955), e s p e c i a l l y 3 07 - 31 5 .
^ A l t h o u g h t h e re is c a u t i o n on the pa rt of some
s c h o l a r s to i d e n t i f y the m o s t l i k e l y c a r y a t i d s as
f o l l o w e r s of A p h r o d i t e or the g o d d e s s h er se lf , it is
c l e a r th a t the a t t r i b u t e s or c o m p a n i o n s that are seen
w i t h m a n y of t he se e a r l y f i g u r e s — sirens, erotes,
d oves, p o m e g r a n a t e s , and the m i r r o r — are A p h r o d i t e ' s in
later representations. See Co ng d o n , C a r y a t i d M i r r o r s .
13f f .
^ T h e late f i f t h c e n t u r y B.C. c a r y a t id s , w h i c h
ma y be p o r t r a i t s of the o wners, are g e n e r a l l y c lo th ed .
C o n g d o n , " G r e e k M i r r o r s , " 21.
l^See ibid.; and idem, C a r y a t i d M i r r o r s . 12-13.
69
101 H e s i o d t e l l s the s t ory of her b i r t h in his

T h e o g o n y 1 54 -2 06 . A n o t h e r v e r s i o n c a l l s A p h r o d i t e the
o f f s p r i n g of e i t h e r O c e a n u s and the s e a - n y m p h T e t hy s , or
of E a r t h a n d Air. S ee R o b e r t G r a ve s , T h e G r e e k M y t h s ,
(New York: G e o r g e B r a z i l l e r , 1959), vol. 1, 49.
A p h r o d i t e ' s birth, her b e a u t y and i ts a t t e n d a n t rituals,
and her e x p l o i t s as g o d d e s s of love and d e si re , w e r e
r e p r e s e n t e d in the v i s u a l ar t s e x t e n s i v e l y s i nc e a n t i q
uity. See below, C h a p t e r III, 129- 13 3, for a d i s c u s s i o n
of A p h r o d i t e - V e n u s and her m i r r o r in the E a r l y C h r i s t i a n
J p e r i o d and the M i d d l e Ages.
| 1 02 T h e S y m p o s i u m , in Plato, T h e W o r k s , trans. B.
j J o w e t t (New York: T h e Di al Press, n.d.), 304- 30 5.
i
I l O ^ L u c r e t i u s , On the N a t u r e of the U n i v e r s e ,
j trans. R o n a l d L a t h a m ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h , E n g l a nd : Penguin
B ooks, 1951), Bk. 1, pp. 27-28. C i c e r o s p e a k s of no
I f ewer tha n fi ve V e n u s e s in De n a t u r a d e o r u m III, 57-59.
I It should, of c o ur se , be n o t ed t ha t m a n y of the a n c i e n t
gods, so o f t e n a m a l g a m s of s e v er a l s o ur ce s , w e r e i n t e r
p re t e d as h a v i n g m u l t i p l e n at ur e s , e x p l a i n i n g p e r h a p s the
d i v e r s e and o f t e n c o n t r a d i c t o r y e l e m e n t s in t heir
s y n c r e t i z e d c h a r a c t e r s a n d a ct i o n s . E.g., C i c e r o De
n a t u r a d e o r u m III, 48-62.
l O ^ I s h t a r - A s t a r t e , the S e m i t i c or P h o e n i c i a n
g o d d e s s of l o v e w h o f i g u r e s in A p h r o d i t e ' s b a c k g r o u n d ,
w a s a h e t a e r a h e r s e l f , as w el l as t he d i v i n e c o n s o r t of
the king, a nd h e a v e n l y q ueen. See B ur k er t , G r e e k
R e l i g i o n , e s p e c i a l l y 152-1 53 . A l s o see E. M. Y a m a u c h i ,
''Cultic p r o s t i t u t i o n , ” in O r i e n t a nd O c c i d e n t : Essays
for C. H. G o r d o n , ed. H a r r y A. H o f f n e r ( N e u k i r c h e n - V l u y n ,
1973), 2 1 3 -2 22 .
10 5T h e G r e e k A n t h o l o g y , t rans. W. R. P a t o n
( Ca m br i dg e , M as s . : H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P ress, 1980), vol.
1, VI, 211, p. 409.
1 0 6 p i o w e r s a re an a t t r i b u t e of A p h r o d i t e . Gardens
ar e s a c r e d to her.
1 0 7 H a res or r ab b it s, c o n n e c t e d w i t h f e r t il i ty , are
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h A p h r o d i t e , and a l s o w it h A r t e m is , since
they c ou l d be h u n t e d . D o g s are g e n e r a l l y r e l a t e d to
A rt e m i s . S e e C o n g d o n , C a r y a t i d M i r r o r s , 17, and
H a rr i s o n , P r o l e g o m e n a , 204-205.
70
1 0 8 E s p e c i a l l y in H e l l e n i s t i c times, s i re n s w e re j
r e g a r d ed as p r o s t i t u t e s — "c om e ly h a r l o t s , " as they w e r e !

c al l e d by H e r a c l i t u s . See De i n c r e d i b i l i b u s 14, q uoted
in Hug o Rahner, G r e e k M y t h s and C h r i s t i a n M y s t e r y , trans.
B r i a n B a t t e r s h a w (London: B u r n s & Oates, 1963), 356.
1 09This o t he r a sp e c t of the siren and its m i r r o r i

s y m b o l as an i n s t r u m e n t of k n o w l e d g e is d i s c u s s e d |
below, 39-41. J
^ ^ A p h r o d i t e - V e n u s f o ll o ws the lov e or f e r t i l i t y
d i v i n i t i e s in the Ne a r East and t h e ir c o u n t e r p a r t s in J
Egypt, who also ha d a m i r r o r a tt r i b ut e . i
H l H e l e n wa s also a su bj e c t for m i r r o r imag er y.

She was a f igure of some s p e ci al i n t e r e s t for the !
E tr us c a n s. As the m o st b e a u t i f u l w o m a n on e ar th and
t h r o u g h her role in the T r o j a n epic, she w as l i nk e d to
A p h ro di t e , and was an a p p r o p r i a t e s u b j e c t for i t e ms for
the boudoir, p a r t i c u l a r l y m ir ro rs . H e l e n ' s egg — the
egg from w h i c h she and p o s s i b l y al s o her b r o t h e r s C a st o r
a nd P o l lu x (the D i o s k o u r o i ) w e re h a t c h e d — was p e r h a p s
an even m o r e p o p u l a r s u b je c t for m ir r or s. In the best
k n o w n v er s io n of the story, the egg was the r es u lt of a
l i a i s o n b e t we e n Leda, H e l e n ' s h u m a n mot he r , and Zeus, w h o
a p p e a r e d to her in the for m of a swan. T h e t w in s C a st o r
and P o l l ux wer e a m o n g the m o s t f r e q u e n t l y d e p i c te d
f i g u r e s on E t r u s c a n m ir r o r s . See below, 35-36.
112A s n oted above, 18-19, g r av e f u r n i s h i n g s

t h r o u g h o u t the M e d i t e r r a n e a n and the N ea r E as t o f t e n
i n c l u d e d m i r r o r s for the use of the dead in the
afterlife.
113gee H a rr is o n , P r o l e g o m e n a . especially 631ff.
H ^ R e f e r e n c e s in c l a s s i c a l l i t e r a t u r e to p r i m p i n g
in front of m i r r o r s s hould be cited here, for e x a m p l e in
the wo rks of Ovid. See A m o r e s I, e l e g y 14, l ines 36-38;
and Ars A m a t o r i a I, l i ne s 302-307; II, l in es 215-216;
III, lines 13 5- 13 6 and 681-68 2. A l s o see G rabes, The
M u t a b l e G l a s s , e s p e c i a l l y 3 30 fn. 12.
a d i s c u s s i o n of this work, see H a r o l d N.

I Fowler, "An A ttic G ra v e R e l i e f , " in S t u d i e s P r e s e n t e d to
| D a v i d M o or e R o b i n s o n , ed. G e o r g e E. M y l c n a s (St. Louis:
l W a s h i n g t o n U n i v e r s i ty , 1951- 19 53 ), vol. 1, 588-589.
71
H^Cf. E g y p t i a n m ir r o r s , discussed above, 22-23.
H ^ N a n c y T h o m s o n de G r u m m o n d , "The E t r u s c a n
M i r r o r , " Sou rc e: N o t e s in the H i s t o r y of A rt 4, nos.
2/3 ( W i n t e r / S p r i n g 1985): 26-35.
i
]
• H ^ T h e ba si li sk , a m y t h i c a l ani ma l, also k i l l e d
| w i t h its glance, as P l i n y w r o t e in his N a t u r a l H i s t o r y
| VIII, 33. In the M i d d l e Ages, this a n i m a l is fo i le d by a
mirror. See below, 163.
H ^ s n a k e s , an owl, o l i v e b r a n c h or tree, and

s o m e t i m e s books, a re f a m i l i a r a t t r i b u t e s of A t h e n a in
antiquity. A l t h o u g h the M e d u s a s to ry p r o v i d e s a r e a s o n
f or sn a k e s on the g o d d e s s ’s a eg is , t he re is also a t he o ry
tha t A t h e n a m a y h av e been c o n n e c t e d or i d e n t i f i e d w it h
the M i n o a n S n a ke G o d de s s. See B ur k er t , G r e e k R e l i g i o n .
140. Sna k es , t h o u g h an a m b i v a l e n t symbol, wer e o f t en
s e e n as w i s e c r e a t u r es , p e r h a p s p o s s e s s i n g k n o w l e d g e of
primal mysteries: thus, th e y w e r e an a p p r o p r i a t e
a t t r i b u t e for the g o d d e s s of w i sd om . The id e a of the
p r u d e n t s e r p e n t is v o i c e d in the B i b l i c a l text, "Be ye
t h e r e f o r e w i s e as s e r p e n t s , " M a t t h e w 10:16. For the
r e l a t i o n s h i p of the g o d d e s s of w i s d o m and the V i r g i n M a r y
in the M i d d l e Ages, see below, 103. For a d i s c u s s i o n of
t he m a n i f e s t i o n of A t h e n a - M i n e r v a as the a l l e g o r i c a l
f i g u r e s of S a p i e n t i a ( Wi sd o m ) and P r u d e n t i a ( P r ud en ce ),
a n d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e to the s y m b o l i c m i rr or , see
below, 115-120.
1 2 0 x n the C h r i s t i a n era, the g o d d e s s of w i s d o m is

t r a n s f o r m e d into the a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s of S a p i e n t i a and
P r u d e n t i a . B ot h s h ar e the m i r r o r as an a t t r i b u t e , as
w e l l as s n a k e s and, as e v i d e n c e of l ea rn i n g, books. See
b elow, 115-120.
1 2 1 s e e de G ru m m o n d , "The E t r u s c a n M i r r o r , "
e s p e c i a l l y 32. F or s e v er a l of the go ds and h e r o e s d e
p i c t e d on m ir ro rs , r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s p l a y e d a r o l e in
t h e ir stor ie s, e.g., A thena, P e r s e us , and D i on y s o s . For
a d i s c u s s i o n of the p o s s i b l e i m p l i c a t i o n s of D i o n y s o s in
a n o t h e r c o n t ex t, see below, 38-39.
122 F o r ex am p l e , s c e n e s of w r e s t l i n g and o t h e r
s po r ts are seen on a n u m b e r of E t r u s c a n m i r r o rs . As for
the a s s u m p t i o n that s po r t s s u b j e c t s w o u l d n o t have
a p p e a l e d to women, and that s c e n e s of s t r u g g l e and
b l o o d s h e d w o u l d h a v e made t he m s qu ea m is h , we s h ou ld note
72
122(c o n tinued)
that this g e n e r a l l y hel d o b s e r v a t i o n c o me s f r om m o d e r n
sensibilities. W h i l e s uc h s ce n es m i g h t n ot s e e m a p p r o
p r i a t e for the b ou d o i r , we m i g h t r e c a l l tha t ma n y R o m a n
w o m e n w e r e as a r d e n t as m e n for the b r u t a l i t i e s of the
C o l i s e u m ' s g l a d i a t o r i a l c o m b a t s and s p e c t a c l e s of
slaughter.
12 3g ee de G r um m o n d , G u i d e to E t r u s c a n M i r r o r s ,
183-184. De G r u m m o n d s u g g e s t s tha t a p o s s i b l e r e a s o n for
the p o p u l a r i t y of D i o s k o u r o i w a s that H e l e n w as t h e ir
sister. T he m o st b e a u t i f u l of m o r t a l w om en , H e l e n was
h e r s e l f a p o p u l a r s u b j e c t in a d o r n m e n t scenes. On
E t r u s c a n H e l l e n i s t i c m i r r o r s she is s o m e t i m e s s ee n wit h
the D i o s k o u r o i . See ibid., 186.
1 2 4 p i c hard de Puma, "The D i o s k o u r o i on Fo u r

E t r u s c a n M i r r o r s in M i d w e s t e r n C o l l e c t i o n s , " Studi
E t r u s c h i 41 (1973): 168.
125j)e G r um m o n d , Guide to E t r u s c a n M i r r o r s , 186.
1 26 g ee J o a n E vans, M a g i c a l G e m s of the M i d d l e Ages

and the R e n a i s s a n c e (Oxford, 1922; r ep r i n t , N e w York:
D o v e r P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1976), e s p e c i a l l y 13-28.
^27i,he b i r t h m y t h told he re is f r o m the O r p h i c

t ra d it i o n. See C. K er e n yi , D i o n y s o s : A r c h e t y p a l I mage
of I n d e s t r u c t i b l e L i f e , trans. R a l p h M a n h e i m ( P ri n c et o n,
N. J.: P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, B o l l i n g e n S e r i e s
LXV.2, 1976), 265ff. L i k e o t he r a n c i e n t d i v i n i t i e s ,
D i o n y s o s ’ p a r e n t a g e and b i r t h s t o r i e s s o m e t i m e s vary.
The l i t e r a t u r e on the m y t h and cult of D i o n y s o s - B a c c h u s -
Z a g r e u s is vast. In a d d i t i o n to K e r e n y i ' s D i o n y s o s :
A r c h e t y p a l I m a g e , o t h e r w o r k s by the aut ho r, b ot h w i t h
e x t e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h i e s , s h ou ld be c o n s u l t e d . See
K e r e n y i ' s essay, "De r S p i e g e l n d e S p i e g e l , " in F e s t s c h r i f t
fur Ad. E. J e n s e n . I, ed. Ei-ke H a b e r l a n d , M e i n h a r d
S c h u s t er , and H e l m u t S t r a u b e (Munich: K l a u s R e n ne r ,
1964), 285-291; and "Ma n and M a s k" by K e r e n y i in
S p i r i t u a l D i s c i p l i n e s ( P a pe r s fro m the E r a n o s Y e a r b o o k s ,
4), ed. J o s e p h C a m p b e l l (New Y o r k and L o n do n : Pantheon
B o o k s Inc., B o l l i n g e n X X X . 4, 1960), 151- 16 7 . A l s o see
B ur k er t, G r e e k R e l i g i o n , e s p e c i a l l y 1 6 1 -1 6 7 and 290- 29 5.
128flonnos D i o n y s i a c a VI, 165-173.
1 2 9 D i o n y SOg an(j B a c c h i c i m a g e r y are se e n fre -

q u e n t l y on s a r c o p h a g i . For f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n and
73
' 129(continued) I
| a d d i t i o n a l b i b l i o g r a p h y , see G u n t r a m K o ch and H e l l m u t j
| S i c h t e r m a n n , R o m i s c h e S a r k o p h a g e (Munich: C. H. i
j B e c k ' s c h e V e r l a g s b u c h h a n d l u n g , 1982), 1 9 1 - 1 9 5 and |

i 4 1 9 - 4 2 2; K ar l L e h m a n n - H a r t l e b e n and E r l i n g C. O ls e n , j
j D i o n y s i a c S a r c o p h a g i in B a l t i m o r e ( B al t i m o re , M d ,: T he |
; I n s t i t u t e of F i n e Arts, N e w Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y and the
! T r u s t e e s of the W a l t e r s Art G al l er y , 1942); and F r a n z
i C u m o n t, R e c h e r c h e s sur le S y m b o l i s m e F u n e r a i r e des
! R o m a i n s (Paris: L i b r a i r i e O r i e n t a l i s t e P a u l G eu t h n e r ,
I 1942), 2 8 f f . I
! |
I 1 3 0 g ee Keren yi , D i on y s o s : A r c h e t y p a l I m a g e , 265; j
j a nd idem, "D er s p i e g e l n d e S p i e g e l , " 2 85 - 2 9 1 . j
I 131^ d i s c u s s i o n of the full s e q u e n c e of D i o n y s i a n ]
I f r e s c o e s at the V i l l a of M y s t e r i e s is b e y o n d the r e a c h of J
| this t hesis. For a r e v i e w and g e n e r a l b i b l i o g r a p h y on I
i the subj ec t , see O t t o B r e n d el , Th e V i s i b l e I d e a , trans.
I M a r i a B r e n d e l ( W a s h in g to n , D.C.: D e c a t u r H o u s e Pr es s,
1980), 91-138.
l32 T h e r e c t a n g u l a r s h a pe of the m i r r o r is u n u s u al : j
R o m a n m i r r o r s wer e n o r m a l l y discs, as w e r e E t r u s c a n ,
G r e e k, and E g y p t i a n mi rr o r s . A l t h o u g h some E t r u s c a n disc
m i r r o r s w er e p l ac e d in r e c t a n g u l a r c o m p a c t s or boxes,
t h a t d o e s n ' t s e em to h a v e r e l e v a n c e here.
1 3 3 p or a d i s c u s s i o n of r e f l e c t e d images, see |
below, 48ff.
1 34 s ee K e r en y i, D i on y s o s : A r c h e t y p a l I m a g e , 359;
a nd idem, "M an and M a s k , " passim. T h i s s e q u e n c e of
f r e s c o e s d e p i c t i n g D i o n y s i a n r i te s of i n i t i a t i o n is not
well understood. A l s o see B re n d e l , T h e V i s i b l e I d e a .
9 1 - 13 8; and M. P. N il s so n , T h e D i o n y s i a c M y s t e r i e s of the
H e l l e n i s t i c and R o m a n Ag e (Lund: C. W. K. G l e e r u p , 1957;
r e p r i n t , N e w York: A rn o Press, 1975).
135v. M a c c h i o r o c h e c k e d the a n g l e of r e f l e c t i o n
and f o un d that the m a s k would, in fact, be r e f l e c t e d in
the mir ro r. See M a c c h i o r o , Z a g r e u s (Bari, 1920 and
1930), 191. A l so see K e r e n y i , "Ma n and M a s k , " 163; and
H ug e de , La M e t a p h o r e du M i r o i r , 87, n. 4.
136T h e presence of masks, used in m a n y t r a n s - |

f o r m a t i o n r i t u a l s t h r o u g h o u t h i st or y, and w h i c h w e r e part
of the p a r a p h e r n a l i a for D i o n y s i a n rites, l en ds some
74
-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
i
! i
: l^^(continued) !
I c r e d e n c e to the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t hi s s c e n e as a de- !
j p i c t i o n of a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n rite. See K e r e n y i , " M an and j
I M a s k , " passim.
! i
I 137jf i t i s a p a r a l l e l w i t h D i o n y s o s ' own story j
; that is i n t e n d e d here, that is, of d e a t h and r e b i r t h ;
j t h r o u g h the m e d i u m of the m ir r or , t h e n the sig ht of the j
! r e f l e c t i o n is a c u l m i n a t i n g ev e n t in this ri te of j
I i n i t i a t i o n and r e v e l a t i o n , or p er h a p s, of r e s u r r e c t i o n . j
j It s h o ul d be n o t e d that at le as t to the t im e of P l o t i n u s |
(A.D. 2 0 5 ? - 2 7 0 ? ) , t he m i r r o r of D i o n y s o s w a s v i e w e d as j
the m e d i u m in w h i c h one saw his soul. See P l o t i n u s j
E n n e a d s I V . 3.12. Cf. B r e n de l , T h e V i s i b l e I d e a , 119. j
I
1 3 8 g e e M a c c h i o r o , Z a g r e u s , 191; and A r m a n d j
D e l at t e, La C a t o p t r o m a n c i e G r e c q u e et ses D e r i v e s (Paris,
1932), 189ff. F or f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n and b i b l i o g r a p h - j
I ical i n f o r m a t i o n , a l s o see B r e nd e l , T he V i s i b l e I d e a ,
9 1- 138.
1 3 9 s ee D e l a t t e , La C a t o p t r o m a n c i e , 189.
lÔ'These b i r d - c r e a t u r e s , w h o s e s u b l i m e song lured

s a i l o r s to s h i p w r e c k on the rocks, w e r e t r a n s m o g r i f i e d
into s e a - s i r e n s or m e r m a i d s near the st ar t of the
C h r i s t i a n era, p e r h a p s m e r g i n g w i t h i m a g e s of the
n e r ei d s. T h e y c o n t i n u e d as the c o m p a n i o n s of
A p h r o d i t e - V e n u s in the ir n ew m a n i f e s t a t i o n . See below,
135-138.
l ^ S e e Petra Oberlander, Griechische H a n d s p i e g e l ,

d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of H a m b u r g ( Ha mb u rg , 1967),
e s p e c i a l l y 150ff.
l4 2 H o m e r T h e O d y s s e y XII, 1 89 - 1 9 1 .
1 4 3 Me t a m o r p h o s e s V, 555.
l4 4 H ar r ison, P r o l e g o m e n a , 199.
l 4 5 Ra h ne r, G r e e k M y t h s . 354.
146 H a r r i s o n , Prole g o m e n a , 200.
l 4 7see G. W e i c k e r , Per S e e l e n v o g e l in der alt e n

L i t e r a t u r und K u n s t (Leipzig, 1902), 83-84. Cf. Rahner,
G r e e k M y t h s , 339.
75
l^Sfjiisson, Th e M i n o a n - M y c e n a e a n R e l i g i o n . 330 -
340. Cf. Burk e r t, G r e e k R e l i g i o n . 40.
^ - ^ A n t h r o p o m o r p h i z e d s pi ri t figu re s, su ch as the
E t r u s c a n Lasa, are w i ng e d . T h e s e f i gu re s, w ho a p p e a r
w i t h f r e q u e n c y on E t r u s c a n m i r r o r backs, a w a i t d e f i n i
tive i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . L as a may be a g o d d e s s of fate.
F i g u r e s i d e n t i f i e d as L a s a s o ft en are p r e s e n t in s ce ne s
i n v o l v i n g Turan, the E t r u s c a n A p h r o di te , a l t h o u g h the y
a re seen in o th er c o n t e x t s as well. C h e r y l L. S o w d e r has
n o te d that Lasa m a y be a g e n er i c term, n ot a s p e c i f i c
deity. See Sow de r , in de G r um mo nd , ed., G u i d e to
E t r u s c a n M i r r o r s . 114-115.
1 50 se e H u g e d e , La M e t a p h o r e du M i r o i r , 84ff;
De la t t e, La C a t o p t r o m a n c i e . 185-186; and P. A m a nd r y, La
M a n t i q u e A p o l l i n i e n n e a D e l p h e s (Paris, 1950), 6 6 .
151-Certain B i b l i c a l t exts have b e en i n t e r p r e t e d as

r e f e r r i n g to the m a g i c mirror, which, in the cas e of the
O ld T es ta m en t, is s p o k e n of in v ei l e d l a ng u ag e . See
above, 16-18. S ee H u g ed e, La M e t a p h o r e du M i r o i r , for a
d i s c u s s i o n of c a t o p t r o m a n c y , its p o s s i b l e i n c i d e n c e in
t he Bible, and the J e w i s h and G r e e k p h i l o s o p h i c a l and
r e l i g i o u s t h o u g h t p e r t i n e n t to the a u t h o r ' s s e a r c h for
the s o ur c es and m e a n i n g of P a u l ' s r e f e r e n c e s to the
m i r r o r (1 Cor. 1 3 . 12 and 2 Cor. 3.18).
1 5 2 A r i s t o p h a n e s , T h e A c h a r n i a n s , t rans. B e n j a m i n
B i c k l e y R o ge r s (London: G e o r g e B el l & Sons, 1910), vv.
11 28-1129, 173. A l s o see D e la tt e, La C a t o p t r o m a n c i e ,
133ff.
1 5 3 A pu l ei u s , T h e A p o l o g i a and F l o r i d a of A p u l e i u s
of M a d a u r a . trans. H. E. B u t l e r (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1909; r ep r in t, W es t p o r t , Conn.: G r e e n w o o d Press,
1970), chap. 42, p. 78; P a u s a ni a s , G u i d e to G r e e c e ,
trans. P e te r L ev i ( Ba lt i m o r e , Md.: P e n g u i n Bo ok s, 1971),
VII, 21, 12. See D e l a t te , La C a t o p t r o m a n c i e . and Huge d£ ,
La M e t a p h o r e du M i r o i r . for e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n s of
d i v i n a t i o n wit h m i r r o rs .
1 5 4 Z o s i m u s TTe p L o *-o l T rf g Tftar QttotrjfiAtft-V XII,

in M. B er t he l o t , La C h e m i e au M o y e n Age (Paris, 1893),
vol. 2, 247. B e r t h e l o t ' s t r a n s l a t i o n is f r om the tex t in
S yrian. See R i c h a r d R e i t z e n s t e i n , H i s t o r i a M o n a c h o r u m
und H i s t o r i a L a u s i a c a . F o r s c h u n g e n zur R e l i g i o n und
L i t e r a t u r des A l t e n T e s t a m e n t s 24 (Gott in ge n, 1916),
247 and 260ff. Z o s i m u s the a l c h e m i s t is d i s c u s s e d by
76
154(continued)
Hu ge de , La M e t a p h o r e du M i r o i r , 55ff. Also see Gr abes,
T he M u t a b l e G l a s s , 127.
1 55 M a g i c or sorcery, w h e n p r a c t i c e d as p art of an
a u t h o r i z e d r e l i g i o n and for the good of t he state, was
u s u a l l y a c c e p t a b l e . In P l a t o ’s A t h en s, this was true;
and in the R o m a n E mpire, b e fo r e C h r i s t i a n i t y was s a n c
t i o ne d by C o n s t a n t i n e , m a g i c w a s l e g a l i z e d w i t h i n the
s t r u c t u r e of the o f f i c i a l s ta te cult. S o r c e r y of evil
i nt ent, as p e r c e i v e d by the state a u t h o r i t i e s , was
co nd e m ne d . Laws p e r t a i n i n g to m ag i c w e r e e n fo r c e d or
i g n or e d, d e p e n d i n g upon the s i t u at i on . Se e Kurt
S e l i g m an n , Magi c, S u p e r n a t u r a l i s m and R e l i g i o n (New York:
P a n t h e o n Books, 1947), 73.
1 5 6 Apu leius, Th e A p o l o g i a , e s p e c i a l l y chaps. IS

IS,, pp. 36-42, an d chap. 42, p. 78. See De la t t e, La
C a t o p t r o m a n c i e . and H ugede, La M e t a p h o r e du M i r o i r . for
e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n s of d i v i n a t i o n w i t h mirrors.
1 5 7 A p U i e i USt The A p o l o g i a , chap. 42, p. 78.
1 ^ M e t a m o r p h o s e s H I , 348. The l e g e n d o f
N a r c i s s u s m a y h av e had its o r i g i n in a G r e e k folk b e li ef
s uch as the idea t hat s p i r i t s in w a t e r c ou l d pull a p e r
s o n ' s r e f l e c t i o n d ow n u n d e r the wate r. See F ra ze r , Th e
G o l d e n B o u g h , vol. 3, 94. P l u t a r c h told the s to ry of a
m a n n a me d E u t e l i d a s , who g r e a t l y a d m i r e d his own r e f l e c
tion. See P l u t a r c h Q u a e s t i o n e s c o n v i v i a l e s I, in M o r a l i a
V.7.4.
1^ M e t a m o r p h o s e s III, 405.
l ^ H i s r e f l e c t i o n is sh o w n r e v er s ed , s l ig ht ly
r e d u c e d in size, and at an a n g l e o p p o s i t e to the f i g u r e
of N a r c i s s u s . See below, 48-51, for a d i s c u s s i o n of the
d e l i n e a t i o n of r e f l e c t e d images.
16 lF razer, The G o l d e n B o u g h , vol. 3, 94.
162 Ibid.
I G ^S e e below, 1 51-153, for a d i s c u s s i o n of

N a r c i s s u s in the M i d d l e Ages.
16^Plotinus Ennead 1.6.8.
R eproduced w ith perm ission o f the copyright owner. F urth er reproduction prohibited w ith o u t perm ission.
77
1 6 5 p i a to T he R e p u b l i c X, 596.
1 6 6 p i a t o e x t e n d s his i m a g e to the w o r k of art,

w h i c h is but a co py of a copy — a r e f l e c t i o n t w i ce
r e m o v e d f r om the Idea.
1 67 m . H. A b ra m s h as n o t e d that P l a t o ' s c h o i c e of
the a n a l o g y of t he r e f l e c t o r , w h e t h e r a m i r r o r or w ater,
or s h ad ow s, w a s n ' t c asual. " T h e s e he u s e s to c l a r i f y the
i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s of all the i t em s in the u n iv e r s e : of
things, n a t u r a l or a r t i f i c i a l , to t h e i r p r o t o t y p e s , or
Ideas; and of i m i t a t i o n s of th in gs , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e in
the arts, to t heir m o d e l s in the w o r l d of s e n s e . " See
A brams, T he M i r r o r and the L a m p (London: Oxford Univer
sity Press, 1953), 30.
1 6 8 p i 0 £ i nu s is q u o t i n g fro m T i m a e u s 50.
1 6 9E n n e a d I I I . 6 .7. A l s o see E n n e a d I I I . 6 .1 3 on
the r e f l e c t i o n in the m i r r o r as an i l l u s i o n .
17 0E n n e a d I I I . 6.13. P l o t i n u s a l s o u s e s the
a n a l o g y of the m i r r o r in a p o s i t i v e se ns e. When dis
c u s s i n g the c r e a t i o n of the u n i v e r s e , he d e s c r i b e s the
u n f o l d i n g f ro m the One to the M any, as in a m u l t i p l i c a
ti on of m ir r o r s . See E n n e a d IV. 3.2.
17 1p e m o n a r c h i a I. 2.
172geneca Naturales Quaestiones 1.5 . 1 3.
173ibid. Also see ibid., 1.6.2.
174geneca Naturales Quaestiones 1 . 15 . 7 - 8 .
175geneca Naturales Quaestiones 1 . 16 . 1 - 9 .
1 7 6 I b i d . f 1 .17.6.
177^. S c h a u e n b u r g d i s c u s s e s the u s e of r e f l e c t i n g
s h i e l d s in a n c i e n t art in P e r s e u s in der K u n st des
A l t e r t u m s (Bonn, 1960), 24-25.
1 7 8 M a r t i n R o b e r t s o n h as s u g g e s t e d t ha t T h e ti s , w h o
had the gift of p ro ph ec y, is p r a c t i c i n g c a t o p t r o m a n c y
here. See R o be r t s o n , A H i s t o r y of G r e e k A r t (London:
C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1975), 585. P. R. H a r d i e
n o te s the p o s s i b i l i t y that the m o t i f of d e p i c t i n g a
r e f l e c t e d i m a g e in a s hi e l d m a y h a v e d e r i v e d f r o m k n o w l
edge of a c o m p o s i t i o n in w h i c h the s h i e l d of A r e s s er ve s
78
| 178(continued)
as a m i r r o r for A p h r o d i t e . See H a rdie, " I m ag o Mund i:
C o s m o l o g i c a l and I d e o l o g i c a l A s p e c t s of the S h i e l d of
A c h i l l e s , " Th e J o u r n a l of H e l l e n i c S t u d i e s 105 (1985):
19. For f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of the s u b j e c t of T h e t i s and
the s h i e l d of A c h i l l e s in t h e s e and l at er works* and
a d d i t i o n a l b i b l i o g r a p h y , see Bren de l, Th e V i s i b l e I d e a .
67-82; S u z a n n e Lewis , "A C o p t i c R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of T h e t i s
at the F o r g e of H e p h a i s t o s , " A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l of
A r c h a e o l o g y 77 (1973): 3 0 9 - 31 8; and E u g e n e J. Dwy er ,
" N a r r a t i v e and A l l e g o r y in a C o p t i c T e x t i l e , " A m e r i c a n
J o u r n a l of A r c h a e o l o g y 78 (1974): 295 -2 97 . On the s u b
ject of r e f l e c t e d i m a g es in H e l l e n i s t i c and R o m a n art,
see J o h n O n ians, Ar t and T h o u g h t in the H e l l e n i s t i c Age:
T h e G r e e k W o r l d View. 3 5 0 - 5 0 B.C. (London: T h a m e s and
H ud s on , 1979), 40-46 . O t h e r P o m p e i i a n p a i n t i n g s of this
s u b je c t, such as one ( f ir s t c e n t u r y A .D . ) from the Casa
di Sirico, and n o w in the M u s e o N a z i o n a l e , N a pl es , are
f a i t h f u l to the H o m e r i c text, and s ho w a v i s i o n of the
c os m os , not a r e f l e c t i o n of Th et i s . See B r en d e l , T he
V i s i b l e I d e a , figs. 9 and 13.
1 7 9s ee O ni an s, Art and T h o u g h t , 40-46.
180piato Timae us 46.
l^lAristotle Meteorologies I I I . 2.
1 8 2 L u c r e t ius On th e N a t u r e of t he U n i v e r s e IV,
pp. 1 3 4-135.
I S ^ M a r s h a l l C l ag e t t , G r e e k S c i e n c e in A n t i q u i t y
(New York: C o l l i e r Book s, 1963), 102. F o r the t e x t s of
t h e s e two works, see E uc l id , L ’O p t i q u e et la C a t o p t r i q u e .
trans. P au l Ver E e c k e (Paris: A l b e r t B l a n c h a r d , 1959).
T h e C a t o p t r i c s of E u c l i d is p r o b a b l y a c o m p i l a t i o n of
s o u r c e s put t o g e t h e r by T h e o n of A l e x a n d r i a in the late
f o u r t h c e n t u r y A.D. See M o r r i s R. C o h e n and I. E.
D r a b k i n , A S o u rc e B o o k in G r e e k S c i e n c e (New York:
M c G r a w - H i l l B oo k C o m p a n y , Inc., 1948), 2 6 1- 26 2. In the
C a t o p t r i c s a t t r i b u t e d to E u c l id , b u r n i n g m i r r o r s are
d i s c u s s e d in the T h i r t y - f i r s t P r o p o s i t i o n . T h e s e w er e
c o n c a v e m i r r o r s p o s i t i o n e d to c o l l e c t and c o n c e n t r a t e
s u n l i g h t and then send the b u r n i ng rays to a d i s t a n t
t ar g et . D i o d e s (fl. s e c o n d c e n t u r y B .C .) a ls o w r o t e a
t r e a t i s e on this s u bj e ct . See D i o d e s , O n B u r n i n g
M i r r o r s ( f r a g m e nt s ) in A r c h i m e d i s O p e r a O m n i a c um
C o m m e n t a r i i s E u t o c i i I t e r u m . ed. J. L. H e i b e r g (Leip zi g ,
1915). A c c o r d i n g to t r a d i ti o n , A r c h i m e d e s (ca. 2 8 7 - 2 1 2
79
1 8 3 ( c o n t in u ed )
B. C .) u s ed b u r n i n g m i r r o r s to set f i r e to the R o m a n fleet
t ha t had laid s ie ge to S y r a c u s e . Archimedes wrote a
t r e a t i s e on c a t o p t r i c s , but t he w o r k is not exta nt . See
C o h e n a nd D r a b k i n , S o u r c e B o o k , 2 6 1 - 26 2 .
1 8 4 H e r o ’s C a t o p t r i c s m a y be the o l d e s t s u r v i v i n g
t r e a t i s e on t he s ub ject, s i n c e the w o r k w r o n g l y a t t r i b
u t ed to E u c l i d p r o b a b l y d a t e s f r o m a l a t e r p er iod. See
n. 183 abo ve . H e r o ' s C a t o p t r i c s in t he o r i g i n a l G r e e k is
lost, but the e x t a n t L a t i n e d i t i o n is b e l i e v e d to be the
t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y t r a n s l a t i o n of W i l l i a m of M o e r b e k e .
F o r t h i s e d i t i o n , see Hero, H e r o n i s A l e x a n d r i n i O p e r a
Q u a e S u p e r s u n t O m n i a ( Le i pz ig , 1900), vol. 2, fasc. 1
185-rhe o r i g i n a l G r e e k e d i t i o n of P t o l e m y ' s O p t i c s ,
in w h i c h he d i s c u s s e s m i r r o r s , is lost. We k n o w this
t r e a t i s e o nl y f r o m a L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n , p o s s i b l y f r o m an
A r a b i c e d i t i o n (also lost), w h i c h w a s m a d e in the t w e l f t h
c e n t u r y by E u g e n e of P a l e r m o , a d m i r a l of S i c ily. T he
f i r s t b o ok of the O p t i c s is m i s s i n g . B o o k s II, III, and
IV d e al w i t h m i r r o r s , and B o o k V d e s c r i b e s P t o l e m y ' s
e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h r e f r a c t e d light. S ee P t o l e m y , L 'O p t i q u e
de C l a u d e P t o l e m e e d a ns la V e r s i o n L a t i n e d ' a p r e s l ' A r a b e
de l ' E m i r E u g e n e de S i c i l e . ed. A l b e r t L e j e u n e ( L o uv ai n :
U n i v e r s i t e de L o u v ai n, R e c u e i l de t r a v a u x d ' h i s t o i r e et
de p h i l o l o g i e , 1956), ser. 4, fasc. 8 .
1 8 6 ] ) i ogenes Laertius, Lives of the P h i l o s o p h e r s ,

trans. and ed. A. R o b e r t C a p o n i g r i ( C h i c a go : Henry
R e g n e r y , 1969), 74.
187gee abov e, 17.
188see Apuleius, T h e A p o l o g i a , chaps. 13-16, pp.

36- 42 , a nd abov e, 42.
189see Apuleius, T h e A p o l o g i a , chaps. 13-16, pp.

36-42.
80
CHAPTER III
TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE I C O N O G R A P H Y
OF T H E M I RR O R IN M E D I E V A L ART
Fro m the b e g i n n i n g of the C h r i s t i a n era, and
throughout the M i d d l e Ages, the legacy of a n t i q u i t y
underwent repeated reappraisals and reinterpretations in
the light of the n ew r e li gi on . All of a n c i e n t culture
was r e as s e ss e d, and the e l e m e n t s that co uld be r e c o n c i l e d
with C h r i s t i a n i t y and its Old T e s t a m e n t h e r i t a g e w er e
absorbed into its f ra mework, and the c o n d e m n a b l e aspects
of a n t i q u i t y wer e used as c a u t i o n a r y lessons.
P ag an depravity and p agan v i r t u e a l i k e w e r e grist
for the e a r ly t h eo l og ia n s . Classical myths were mo ral
ized by C h r i s t i a n m y t h o g r a p h e r s and by a r t i s t s of the
L a t i n W es t and of B y za nt iu m, and m o r a l s w e r e d rawn from
both the c o r r u p t i o n and the n o b i l i t y of the past.
The new art, w h i c h was la rg el y d id ac t i c, also
found s u bj e ct m a t t e r fro m a nt iq u i t y . But, s i n ce the
iconography of C h r i s t i a n art did not r e a d i l y p r e se n t many
opportunities for i nc l u s i o n of the pagan gods, their
q u al i t i e s and characteristics — and sometimes t heir
attributes — wer e frequently t r a n s f e rr e d to a l l e g o r i c a l
and B i b l i c a l figures.
________ The s y m bo l ic m ir ro r ent er e d Christian art in
81
several ways, retaining certain associations and refer
ences from c l as s i c a l a n t i q u i t y and from Old T e s t a m e n t
t r a d i t io n, and a c q u i r i n g new ones in the d e v e l o p i n g
iconography of m e d i e v a l art.
The s y m b o l i s m of the m ir r o r in the art of the
M i d d l e Ages is the c e nt ra l f o c us of this c ha pt er , and
subject of this thesis. U s i n g key, and w h e n e v e r
p o s s ib le , prototypical images, I will examine its
representations, transformations, and m e a n i n g s in
medieval art from the E ar ly C h r i s t i a n period to the B lack
D e a t h of 1348.
In this chapter, we will look at the m u l t i v a l e n t
mirror in art in s ev er a l ways, by turn: First, it will
be e x a m i n e d as it se rv ed as a c e n t ra l m e t a p h o r for the
M i d d l e Ages, and p e r v ad e d m e d i e v a l thought as an i mag e
for the c os m o s and of God, and of m a n ’s r e l a t i o n s h i p to
God. An e m b l e m of pu ri ty and virtue, the m i r r o r b e ca m e
an a t t r i b u t e for hol y and a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e s who
embodied ideal characteristics. T h is is the e x e m p l a r y
m i r r o r of p er fe c t io n, truth, and virtue. It was
sometimes u n d e r s t o o d as a m e d i u m for b e a t i fi c visi o n s.
Next, we will consider images of the l o ok i ng g l as s that
signified or r ev e al e d m a n ' s b as e ness. This is the m ir ro r
of i m p e r f ec t i o n , which, in the h ands of the s in fu l or the
u n pr e pa r e d, is d e c eptive. It t empts the s i nf u l to vain
82
and w a n t o n p ur suits. It d e l u d e s the w i c k e d and i n st r u c t s
the f a i t h fu l a bout the d a n g e r s of becoming preoccupied
with the f l e e t i n g delights of this world. This caution
ary m i rr o r s i g na l s c a l amity, damnation.
Each m ajor i ma ge type, w it h a mirror att r ib ut e,
w il l be e x a m i ne d and transformations c ha rt ed , in the
l ight of e v o l v i n g medieval culture and s oc ie t y . Wha t did
the m i r r o r i n h er i t fro m a n ti q u i t y ? What new d i m e n s i o n s
to its m e a n i n g s wer e a dded by the C h r i s t i a n Middle Ages?
What changed in its m e a n i n g s ove r the centuries? W ha t
are the p o s s i b l e r e as o ns for the c h a n g e s or the s o ur c es
for the n ew i ma g er y ? T he se are q u e s t i o n s to be a d d r e s s e d
in the f o ll o w i n g ch ap ters.
The Universal Mirror
From antiquity, the m e d i e v a l world i n h er i t e d
a v i si o n of the u n i v e r s e as r e f l e c t i n g e n t i t i e s , a
succession of m ir ro rs , and a concept of the m i r r o r as
a m e a n s to see or be seen by the go d s. l T h e mi r ro r
(s p e c u l u m ) b ec a me a dominant i m ag e in the M i d d l e Ages, a
constant and pervasive metaphor and concept that was used
repeatedly in t h e o l o g i c a l and secular literature alike.
83
As e x e m p l a r or as a d m o n i t i o n , the a n al o g y seems omni
p re se nt . 2
Scripture was a mirror of G od ^ and in it man
cou ld see h im self, measuring how far he was f ro m the
ideals it set forth. T he saints, the V i r g i n Mary, and
m an h i m s e lf w er e a l s o m i r r o r s of G od . ^ Conventionally,
the eye is c a ll ed a mirr or , reflecting the soul or the
heart, or a n o t h e r ' s visage. Knowledge is l i k e n e d to a
mirror in the M i d d l e Ages. In the l o ok in g g la ss we see
truth, g a i n i ng knowledge of o u r s e l v e s and our imperfec
tions, and learning about w ha t we sho ul d become. Our
f o i b l e s and faul ts are r e v e a l e d and e x po s ed in the
mirror.
The deceptive mirror is p r e s e nt throughout the
M i d d l e Ages. It is seen as an i n s t r u m e n t that fools and
deceives both h u m a n s and a n im al s, promising the substance
of r e a l i t y in the r e f l e c t i o n , but d e l i v e r i n g on ly a
s e m b l a nc e, an a p p e a r a n c e , a t r a n s i t or y , insubstantial
and fal se image. Sinful behavior as self-deception is
epitomized in the l o o k i n g glass.
In text and title, the use of the m e t a p h o r of
the m i r r o r w as w i d e s p r e a d in t h e o l o g i c a l and secular
literature, for the mirr or , with its p ro p e r t y of r e
f l e c t i n g w ha t is put b e fo re it, could serve as exemplar
of virtue, a sign of imperfection, and an a d m o n i t i o n .
84
It als o s u m m o n e d up the i d e a of v i s i o n s , whether of
the d ei ty as seen " t h r o u g h a g la ss in a d ar k manner"^
stemming from Paul's Corinthian texts, or denoting
visions of the f u t u r e or the past.
In b o ok titles, the terra s p e c u l u m b ec a me increas
i ng ly popu la r, especially in the m i d - t h i r t e e n t h cent ur y ,
though some works appeared in the eleventh and t w e l f t h
centuries.^ Works too n u m e r o u s to m e n t i o n he re we r e
entitled s p e c u l u m , and l a t er al so m i r o i r , s p i e g e l ,
s p e c c h i o , and looking-glass.'’ The popularity of m i r ro r
t i t l e s w as exceeded only by b o o k s called l ib er and
s u m m a .8 A sampling of t h e s e speculum titles may s erve
to sho w the w i d e s p r e a d u s e of the m e t a p h o r : H o n o r i u s of
Autun's Speculum ecclesiae ( ca . 1 1 00 ) , and a work similar
ly t i tl e d by P s e u d o - H u g h of St. V i c to r, ca. 1150, were
followed by m a n y o t h e r such mirrors of t he c h ur ch . A
Speculum Mariae by an u n k n o w n a u t h o r w as known p r io r to
1175. A book a b ou t ignorance and s t up i d i t y , the S p e c u l u m
s t u l t o r u m , was w r i t t e n in 118 0 by N i g e l de L o n g c h a m p s
(N i ge l W i r e k e r ) . A l b e r t u s M a gn us , Bonaventure, J oh n
P e c k h am , W i l l i a m of A u v e r g n e , Alexander Nec ka m , John
Gower, and J o h n W y c l i f f e all mad e use of the m e t a p h o r i c a l
mirror in titles of t h eir works.9
The l a r ge s t encyclopedia of the thirteenth
centu r y, a work by V i n c e n t of B e a u v a i s , w as entitled the
85
S p e c u l u m n at u r al e, h i s t o r i al e , doctrinale. T he Speculum
perfectionis was a c o m p i l a t i o n of the teachings of
F ra n c i s of A ss i si by his fr ie n d Brother L e o . 10 The
Speculum humanae s alv ationis, written by an u n i d e n t i f i e d
Dominican ( s om e t i m e s a t t r i b u t e d to L u d o l p h of Saxony)
ca. 1324, was one of the mos t p o p ul a r and w i d e l y circu
lated m a n u s c r i p t s of the f o u r t e e n t h century.H
Mirrors of P e rf e c ti o n. T ruth, and V i rt u e
The C o s m o s and God
Let us m ak e m an
in our image, a ft er
our l ik en e s s.
G e n e s i s 1:26
For the e arly m e d i e v a l world, the m i r r o r wa s an
appropriate and c o n s t a nt m e t a p h o r for the r e l a t i o n s h i p of
man to God and to the cosmos. The prevailing picture of
the u n i v e r s e was of the m a c r o co s m , the grea te r , all -
encompassing s t ru c tu re , b eing reflected in the m ic r oc o sm ,
its smaller, constituent parts. The central n o ti o n of
reflection was heightened in a w or l d in w h i c h imitation
of b e a t i fi c v ir t ue was a p ri n c i p l e , and a principal
ideal. God was a m i r r o r in w h i ch ma n was r ef l ec te d , and
man was a m i rr o r of god, and a " s ma ll world," reflecting
the cosmos. It was an a c c e p t e d relationship, but, at the
86
same time, one to be m a i n t a i n e d t h r ou gh correct actions
and u n d e r s t a n d i n g , for only the pure soul is a m i r r o r of
God, 12 an(j it is i n c u m b e n t on man h i m s e l f to ke ep his
soul clean, becau se , in the w or ds of B a si l of C a e s a r e a
(ca. 330-397):
. . . from a s oi l ed m i rr o r you c an n o t get

images; nor can the soul that is filled
wit h w o r l d l y c ar es and over w h ic h the f l e s h
s p r e a d s d a r k n e s s r e c e i v e the i l l u m i n a t i o n
of the Hol y S p i r i t . 13
P l a t o n i s m and N e o - P l a t o n i s m w e re m a j o r sources for
the view of a r e f l e c t i n g c o s m o s . 1^ P l a t o ' s T i m a e u s , in
which the idea of the m a c r o c o s m was e x p re s se d , w as k n o wn
throughout the M i d d l e A g e s . *5
The N e o - P l a t o n i s t s , w h o s e c hief e x p o n e n t was
Plotinus ( 2 0 5 7- 27 0 ? A.D.), developed and e x p a n de d
Platonic concepts in the f i rs t c e n t u r i e s of the C h r i s t i a n
era. For them, the w o r l d w a s an e m a n a t i o n of the One, an
unfolding of c r e a t i o n that was lik en e d to the m u l t i p l i c a
tion of a s i n g l e figure when it is r e f l e c t e d in many
mirrors.
Macrobius, writing in the e arly f i f t h c e nt ur y ,
r es ta te d and summarized this idea in his C o m m e n t a r y on
the Dr eam of S c i p i o , a w or k that was also w i d e l y read in
the M i d d l e Ages. He provided the image of the "great
c h ain of b eing" as a s e q u e n c e of mirrors:
87
Since, fr om the S u p r e m e God M i n d a rises,

and from Mind, Soul, and s i n c e this in
turn c r e at e s all s u b s e q u e n t t h i n g s and
fi lls them all w i t h life, and since this
s i n g l e r a d i a n c e i l l u m i n e s all and is
r e f l e c t e d in each, as a s i n g l e face m i g h t be
r e f l e c t e d in man y m i r r o r s p l a c e d in a series;
and s in ce all t hi n g s f o l l o w in c o n t i n u o u s
s u c c es s io n , d e g e n e r a t i n g in s e q u e n c e
to the very b o t t o m of the series,
the a t t e n t i v e o b s e r v e r wi l l d i s c o v e r a
c o n n e c t i o n of parts, f r om the S u p r e m e God
down to the last d r e gs of things, m u t u a l l y
l i n k ed t o g e t he r and w i t h o u t a break.
This is the g o l d e n c h a i n of H o m e r which,
he tells us, God o r d e r e d to h an g down
f rom the sky to the e a r t h , 17
The m e d i e v a l world picture was a c o s m o s essen
tially based on an i m ag e of this nat ur e, a hierarchical
s y s t e m of c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s and r e f l e c t i n g dependencies.
This universal matrix of g r a d u a t e d interrelationships
and influences was als o c e n t r a l to a s tr o l o g y , which,
though d e no u n c e d by e a r ly theologians su ch as A u g u s t i n e ,
w as practiced in the M i d d l e A g e s . 18 T he concept of
reflecting worlds is also see n in the C o r p u s H e r m e t i c u m ,
a grouping of m y s t i c a l dialogues concerned largely with
a s t r a l m ag ic and p h i l o s o p h y . 19 Probably dating from the
second or third century A.D., so me of the H e r m e t i c writ
ings, such as the P i m a n d e r and the A s c l e p i u s , w e r e known
during the M i d d l e A g e s . 20 These treatises were gathered
under the name of H e r m e s Trismegistus (Hermes "Thrice
Great"), w ho was identified by the G r e e k s with Thoth, the
Egyptian god of wis d o m. In the P i m a n d e r , the f irs t of
88
the H e r m e t i c d ia l o g ue s , man is c a l l e d the i m ag e of the
sun, the sun an im ag e of the cosmos, and so o n . 21 In
the A s c l e p i u s , m an is c a l le d a c o s m o s .22
The idea of the m a c r o - m i c r o c o s m o s was readily
absorbed i nt o C h r i s t i a n theology from the thi rd century
f o r w ar d. Clement of A l e x a n d r i a (d. 215 A.D.), St.
Gregory the G r e a t (d. 604 A.D.), Isidore of S e v i l l e (ca.
560/576-636), A l a n of L i l l e (ca.1128-1202/3), and
Honorius of A u t u n ( tw el f th c e nt ur y) , are only a f ew of
the m e d i e v a l t h e o l o g i a n s w ho e x p r e s s e d this v i e w . 23
Alan of L i l l e (ca. 1116-c a. 1202/3) in his
A n t i c l a u d i a n u s 2 4 places a thr ee-fold mirror in t he h a n d s
of R a t i o ( R e ason), and reveals the w o r l d in its r e f l e c
ti on s ( 1 .4 5 0 - 5 1 0 ) . In the first m i rr o r, she sees the
s y s t e m of c au se s , and its w o r k i n g s in the m a t e r i a l world,
the fusion of f o r m and m at t e r, and the e nd s of e x is t e n c e .
In the s e c o n d mirror, brighter than the first, Ratio
perceives "matter divorced f ro m f o r m r e t u r n to primordial
c h a o s and p u r e f o rm seek a g a i n her own s o u r c e . . . "
[ 1 . 4 68 - 46 9 ] The third glass reveals
. . . the fount of things, the gen us

of the u n i ve rs e, the idea, e xe mp l ar ,
s pe ci e s , cause, fir st b e g i n n i n g and
u l t i m a t e end of the w o r l d . . . She sees
by w h a t plan, by w h a t caus es , why, how,
when, this u n st a bl e , g e n e r a t e d , un st ea d y ,
c h a n g i n g u n i v e r s e got its shape, being,
. . . life and o r i g i n f r o m the u n g e n e r a t e d . . .
89
how the h e a v e n l y ide a b e ge t s the e ar th l y

form, tran s f o r m s c h a os int o the s pe c ie s
we k n o w . . . He re it was p o s s i b l e to see how
the i m ag e of the ide a is r e f l e c t e d in the
uni v e r s e a nd the i d e a ' s pu re s p l e n d o u r is
sen sed in i ts copy. . . .
[ 1 . 4 8 9- 49 7]
For A lan , the m i r r o r is bot h th e m e d i u m in wh ic h we can
see this vision of the c o sm i c b l uep ri nt , and an a n a l o g u e
for its d e s i g n .
B o n a v e n t ure (1 22 1 -1 27 4 ), commenting on W i s d om
7:26 , in w h i c h w i s d o m is c a ll e d "the unspotted mirror cf
God 's ma j e s t y ," e x p a n d s on the m e a n i n g of the mirror:
All c r e a t i on is said to be a m i r r o r . . .
s in ce the i n v i s i b l e t h i n g s of God are
r e p r e s e n t e d in it, as it w e r e t h r o u g h a
trace of Him: "For t he i n v i s i b l e t hi n gs
of H i m f ro m the c r e a t i o n of the w o r l d are
c l e a r l y seen, b ei ng u n d e r s t o o d by the t h in g s
that a r e m a d e " ( R o m an s 1:20). "For n o w we
see t h r o u g h a glass, d a rk l y" (1 C o r i n t h i a n s
1 3 : 1 2 ) . 25
Thomas Aquinas (1225/77-1274), in Q u a e s t i o n e s
disputatae de v e r i t a t e , o f f e r e d a similar view, using the
sam e text fro m R o m an s:
T h e r e f o r e , to k n o w God, man, as he is a f t er
the fall, n e e d s a m e d i u m w h i c h is like a mi rr or ,
in w h i c h t he re a r i s e s a l i k e n e s s of God
H im s e l f . F o r we m u s t r ea ch "the i n v i s i b l e
th in g s of H i m . . . by the t h i n g s that ar e m a d e ,"
a c c o r d i n g to R o m a n s 1:20 . . . .2^
In the sam e work, Thomas referred to a u n i v e r s e of
two m i r r o rs , a speculum i n f e r i u s . or m i r r o r of c r e at io n,
and the speculum s u p e r i u s . the m i r r o r of G o d .22
90
j For Dan te ( 1265-1321), in the P a r a d i s o , (the t hi rd j

S j
|
c an t i c l e of The D i vi ne C o m e d y ), the c o sm os is i n f o r m e d by j
| i
■ G od 's light and r e v e r b e r a t e s w i t h it. i
i l
i
j The g lo r y of the A l l - M o v e r p e n e t r a t e s i
! t h r ou g h the u n iv e rs e and r e g l ow s |
in one part more, and in a n o t h e r less. j
S (Canto I, 1-3)28 j
i ;
The amo un t of s p l en do r reflected is the e ff ec t of '
i ;
| that par t ' s v i r tu e or w o r t h i n es s, a determination made |
by G o d . 29 Intensities of light and d a r k n e s s r e v ea l the j
sum of vir tu e t h r o u g h o u t The D i v i n e C o m e d y , as Dante en- !

i
v i s i o n s a u n i v e r s e that is s e e m i n g l y a matrix of m i r r o r s
in w h i c h God is re fl ec te d. In the final epiphany of
Dante's journey, he (the poet) sees the s o ur c e of all
e ar t hl y m irrors, a v i si o n of b e a t i f i c glory. 20 The
u n i v e rs e, at its center, is e q u a l l y a trinitarian glass.
In his c l im a c t i c visi on in the P a r a d i s o . Dante, g u i de d by
light, sees the s t ru c t u r e of C r ea t io n :
W i t h i n the p r of ou nd and s h i n i n g s u b s i s t e n c e
of the lofty Light a p pe a r e d to me t hr ee
c ir cl es of three c o lo r s and one m a g n i t u d e ;
and one seemed r e f le c t ed by the other, as
r a i n b o w by r ainbow, and the third s ee me d fire
b r e a t h e d forth e qu a l l y f rom the one and the
other.
(Canto XXXIII, 115-120)
R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the c o sm os are seen in a n u m be r
of m e d i e v a l m a n us c ri p t s , as in a t h i r t e e n t h c e n t ur y
illumination [PLATE 32] for the Li be r Divinorum Operum
91
i ~~ 1
| ( Lucca m a n u s c r i p t 1942) by the t w e l f t h c e n t u r y abbess, :
! Hildegard of B i n g e n ( 1 09 8 - 1 1 7 9 ) . 3 1 A m an w i t h arms
| o u t s t r e t c h e d , as in the m a n ne r of V i t r u v i u s , s t a n d s at \
i :
! the ce n te r of the s p he ri c al u ni ve r se , c o n n e c t e d by rays
i
' to the w i n d s and the stars. T h e w h o l e c o sm o s is e m b r a c e d !
j by, and is part of, God. H i l d e g a r d ' s i mage of the co sm i c j

I structure is al s o e x p r e s s e d in her text:
j j
j |
E v e r y t h i n g that God has c r e a t e d is !
c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n hi m from the !
b e g i n n i n g of time . . . . just as a !
m i r r o r r e f l e c t s all b e fo re it, so all
of G o d ' s w o r ks a p p e a r a l wa y s in H i m s e l f . 32
In a t w e l f t h c e n t u r y illumination for B e d e ' s
De i n d i g i t a t i o n e and De p l a n et i s [ PL A TE 33], Man the
M i c r o c o s m h o l d s w ha t a p p ea r s to be a m i r r o r in his r ight
h a n d . 33 He, like H i l d e g a r d ' s figure, is c o n n e c t e d to
the w i n d s and e l e m e n t s by rays. The presence of a m ir r or
in a p i c t u r e of this s ub je c t may h a ve bee n rare, for this
work is the on ly one that a p p e ar s to hav e s u r v i v e d . 34
In a nt i qu it y , as we have seen, ftJie m i r r o r was w i de l y
vi e we d as a m e d i u m in w h i ch a d ei t y was present, and
m i g ht be r ev ea le d. As an ob je c t of illumination, the
light-bearing or l i g h t - r e v e a l i n g m i r r o r was both a sign
of d i v i n i t y and of k n o w l e d g e of the deity. Drawing on
this a n ci e nt belief, Paul c o n v e ye d the idea to the
C h r i s t i a n world. In 1 C o r i n t h i a n s 13:12, he use s the
92
I im age of the m i r r o r as a means, t ho u gh imperfect, to
I impart the e xt en t of our k n o w l e dge of G o d ; 3 5
We see now t h r o u g h a glass in a

; dark man ne r , but then face to face.
j
1 Paul's metaphor in 2 Cor i n t h i a n s 3: 18 underscores
I
| and c l a r i f i e s the sense of the m i r r o r as a m e d i u m for
k n o w l e d g e of the d i v i n e and its transforming power:
But we all, w i t h o p e n face

b e h o l d i n g as in a g l a s s the glory
of the Lord, a r e c h a n g e d into
the same i m a g e f r om g l o r y to glory,
even as by the S pi ri t of the L o r d . 36
P a u l ’s f a m i l i a r verses provided the M i d d l e A g es
w i t h an u r - t e x t for the n o t i o n of God m a d e visible in a
mirror. It was an i m ag e u s e d frequently in the p a t r i s t i c
age and t h r o u g h o u t the M i d d l e Ages. For i n st a n c e , in
the Ode s of Solom on , written in the e ar ly s ec o n d century
A.D., the a ut h o r exa lt s : "Beh ol d, the L o r d is our
m i r r o r !"37
C l em e nt , Bishop of Rome, writing to the
Corinthians a bout 96 A.D., echoed Paul:
T h r o u g h Him (Chr is t ) we can loo k up to

the hig hest h e a v e n and s e e , as in a gl
the p ee r l es si p e r fe c t ion of the face of
T h r o u g h Him the eyes of our hea rts a re
opened, and our dim and c l ou de d
u n d e r s t a n d i n g u n f o l d s like a f lower
to the light . . .38
Paul's words are r e f l e c t e d a gain in A u g u s t i n e , who
93
is c o n c e r n e d that some are blind to the m i r r or of God:
. . . t h os e who see the t r i n i t y in their

m in d but do not b e l i e v e or u n d e r s t a n d
it to be an image of God, t hose p eople
i nd e ed see a mir ro r , but they fail
to see t h r ou g h the m i r r o r the God who
m us t be seen there; they do not
even k n o w that the m i r r o r they see is a
mirror. If they did they w ou l d seek
t h r ou g h that m i r r o r for the One w h o m
it r ef le c ts , in o r d er that, t heir
h ea r t s c le a ns e d by a fa ith u n f ei gn e d,
they m i g h t see h i m face to f a c e . 39
T h r o u g h the P a u l i n e t e xts and such p a t ri s t i c
writings as these, the i m a ge of God and the m i r r o r was
transmitted to the l ater M i d d l e Ages.^0
T he ide a of God as a m i r r o r is r e p r e s e n t e d in
s e v e r a l w a y s in i l l u m i n a t i o n s for t e x t s by H i l d e g a r d of
Bin ge n. This extraordinary twelfth century a b b e s s w a s an
influential writer on s c i e n t i f i c and m e d i c a l s ub je c ts ,
and, at the same time, a mystic and v is io n ar y, who
described wi th vivid p o wer her v i s i o n s of the c o s m o s and
the m e a n s to s a l v a t i o n in s e v e r a l works.
In the L i be r S c i v i a s , the f irst book in w h i c h
Hildegard recorded her v i s i o n s and interpreted th e m in
wor d and picture, the m i r r o r is used as a m e d i u m in w h ic h
visions of God a p p e a r . ^1 [PLATE 34] The illumination
for the S i x t h Vision, Pa rt Tw o in W i e s b a d e n manuscript 1,
ca. 116 5- 1 1 75 , r e vea ls ho w the c o s m i c and e a rt h ly are
connected through the M a s s . ^2 Flames s hoot down from
94
a bove, and in t h r o u g h the f ie ry casca de , a vision of the
crucified Christ and M o t h e r Church appears to the w oman
kneeling beside the a ltar. " W hi l e I beheld t hese thin g s ,"
the w o m a n (Hildegard) states that " si g n s a p p e a re d as if
th ey w e r e in a m i r r o r . T h e y w e re si gns of the nativity,
the passi on , the burial, and the resurrection of our
s a v i o r . j n a sense, Hildegard has e x p a n d e d on the
familiar t e x ts in 2 Corinthians 3: 1 8 in w h i c h Pa ul spoke
of " b e h o l d i n g as in a g l a ss the g l o r y of the L o r d , " and
his characterization in 1 Corinthians 13:12, of the
earthly v i s i o n of G od as " t h r o u g h a g l a ss in a dark
m a n n e r ."
An i l l u m i n a t i o n for the thirteenth century Lucca
manuscript of L i b e r divinorum operum illustrates
Hildegard's vision of the relationship of God, Man, and
t he City. A dove, alluding to D i v i n e P r o v i d e n c e , is seen
in a m i r r o r disk.^ [ PL A T E 35] Reflected in this
brilliant mirror of the di vi ne , Hildegard w rote, are the
great mysteries and all the diversity of things.
In a n o t h e r illumination for the L u c c a m a n u
script of the L i b e r d i v i n o r u m . the a r ti s t has f ol l ow ed
Hildegard's description in her N i n t h V i s i o n of the figure
of D i v i n e O m n i p o t e n c e , depicting a s t r a n g e man c o ve re d
in scales, w it h fiv e m i r r o r s attached to his w i n g s . ^5
[ P L A T E 36] The hea d of an old bearded man is seen on his
95
chest. To the left is the fi gu re of D i v i n e W i s do m , and
a bove, the city. Hildegard is s e at ed at right, pen in
hand, l o ok i ng up at the s c en e she d e s c r i b e s . In eac h
of the five mirr or s , are the "Way and T r u t h , " with in
scriptions which identify th em as the " l i g h t s " of s e ver al
epochs — Abel, Noah, A b r ah a m, Moses, and C h r i s t .^6
S e v er al ot her instances of d i v i n e m i r r o r s in art
can be m e n t i o n e d here. God as a m i r r o r is the s u b j e c t of
an illumination from an e a r ly fourteenth century Franco-
Flemish devotional bo ok of m i s c e l l a n e o u s w o r k s k n o w n as
the R o t h s c h i l d Canticles. ^ [PLATE 37] The accompany
ing text, conflated f ro m s e v e r a l B i b l i c a l s o u r c e s, s pe a ks
of the D e it y as the s p e c u l u m si n e m a c u l a , as f r o m the
B o o k of W i s d o m (7:26), and in this pictorial exegesis of
the passage, G o d 's face is o b s c u r e d by the s h i n i n g
mirror.
Another example is seen in a f o u r t e e n t h century
manuscript of the m o n u m e n t a l thirteenth century poem, the
R o m a n de la Rose [ PLATE 3 8 ] . ^ It a c c o m p a n i e s J ea n de
Meun's lines, in w h i c h God is c al l e d the m i r r o r
. . . w h e n c e all t h i n g s spring. In th i s
fair, s h i n in g glass, w h i c h e'er r e m a i n s
W i t h i n His p r e s e nc e, He sees e ver y act
T h a t will o cc ur as t h o u g h it p re se n t were:
He sees w h e r e s ouls that s erve H i m l o y a l l y
Wi ll go; and of the one s who hav e no care
For l o ya lt y and t r u th He sees the fate.
A c c o r d i n g to the w o r k s that they perform,
96
I S a l v a t i o n or d a m n a t i o n He a s si gn s, i
j W i t h i n His mind, to e a c h . 5 0 |
!
[
!
I
| The a r t i s t has illuminated t hese l in e s w it h the i m ag e of j
i j
j Chr is t, who is s hown l o o k i n g i n t e n t l y at his own r e f l e c - ;
j tion in the m i r r o r disc that he holds. Thus, the D e it y j

I I
| sees "all a c t s ," in the m i r r o r that is H ims el f. It is
J the m i r r o r that c o n t a i n s all things, and fro m w h ic h
' Nature l e arn ed " wh e n she at first w as m a d e His c h a m b e r - i

i
l a i n . "51 j
! W hi l e the n ot i o n of God as a m i r r o r 5 2 w a s a meta-

i i
phor r e g u l a r l y us ed in m e d i e v a l theological texts, as I
have a l r e a d y noted, its l i t er a l translation into v i s ua l
imagery appears to hav e been u n u s u a l . 53
Angels
T he a n g e l i c h ost s w e r e m i r r o r s of d i v inity.
Pseudo-Dionysius ( D i o ny s i u s the A r e o p a g i t e ) p r o v i de d the
M i d d l e Ages w it h a description of the n a t u r e and p u rp o se
of angels, c a l li n g them pure and l u m i n o u s mirrors of
God, reflecting the light of the D i v i n e . 54 Again, we
t ur n to H i l d e g a r d of B i n g e n and the L i b e r S c i v i a s , for a
pictorial e xe g e s i s of this view, and a correlation of
text and image. Her v i s i o n of n i n e a n g e l i c armies, all
r e f l e c t i v e of the W o r d of God, are a r r a y e d "in a c i r c l e
97
as if they w e r e a c r o w n , "55 and r e n d e r e d in g l o w i n g
detail by the m i n i a t u r i s t for the W i e s b a d e n manuscript of
Scivias. [ P LA T E 39]
Following the P s e u d o - D i o n y s i a n hierarchical
scheme, Hildegard's angelic h osts a re a s s e m b l e d from the
lowest o r de r of a n g e l s at the o u t e r m o s t rim to the h i g h
est s e r a p h i m on the innermost circle. 56 H er vis io n, as
recorded in S c i v i a s , is full of m i r r o r m e t a p h o r s : arch
an ge ls , who for m the s ec on d outermost sph e r e, look "as
if they w e r e the i m a ge of the Word of G od shining in a
mirror. "57 The c he r u bi m, who occupy the s ec o n d circle
f ro m the c enter, ar e a v i s i o n "full of eye s and w i n g s . "58
In e ac h c h e r u b i c eye, a mirror could be seen, an d in each
mirror, a person's face. It is the c h e r u b i m w h o " s i g n if y
the k n o w l e d g e of Go d in w h i c h they see the s e c r e t s of
the h e a v e n l y mysteries. 59 Fina ll y, the s e ra p h i m , the
h i g h e s t o r d e r who are a s s e m b l e d in the i n n e r m o s t c ircle,
are d e s c r i b e d as h a v i n g w i n g s that, like m i r r o r s, r e f le c t
the o r d e r s of the c h u r c h . 50
T he illumination that accompanies the W i e s b a d e n
manuscript of H i l d e g a r d ' s S ci v i a s is a m a n d a l a of power
ful conception and r e n d e r i n g of the a u t h o r ' s v is io n , with
its nine spheres echoing the structure of the m e d i e v a l
u n i v e rs e . It is f a i t h f u l to the text, but for the m a jo r
and d i f f i c u l t d etail of the m e t a p h o r i c a l m i r r o r s. Al-
98
: !
t ho u g h the a r c h a n g e l s a pp e a r to have f a ce s emblazoned on j
i ■
! j
j t he ir chests, evidently signifying the p r e s e n c e of i ma g es !
| in r e f l e c t i n g discs, there are no m i r r o r s as d e s c r i b e d i
I for the c h e r u b i m and s e r a p h i m . 61
The Virtues
F r o m the e a rl y M i d d l e A ge s through the
Renaissance, allegorical representations of the t hree
Theological Virtues of F i d es (Faith), Spes (Hope), and
Caritas (Charity), the four C a r d i n a l Virtues of P r u d e n t i a
( Pr u de n c e) , Justitia (J ustice), Temperantia ( T e m pe r a nc e )
and Fortitudo ( Fo rt i tu d e ) , and various o t h e r V ir tu e s,
were frequently the s u b j e c t s of m a n u s c r i p t illuminations,
s cu lp tu re , and p a i n t i n g s. Th e y wer e use d on m an y objects
w i t h m or al significance — c h a l i c e s and o t h e r liturgical
vess el s, c hu r ch doors, and t o m b s . 62 Their presence
s p ok e of q u a l i t i e s m os t h o n o r e d or sought, and they
expressed in c lear v is u a l for m the u n i v e r s a l l y held
i de a l s of c h ar a c t e r and cond uc t. T h e V i r t u e s, following
classical tra d i ti on , were usually personified as women.
In the c ou r se of the M i d d l e Ages, the V i r t u e s acquired
attributes that symbolized the q u a l i t i e s eac h e mb od i ed .
Mirrors are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the a l l e g o r i c a l representa
t io n s of the v i r t u e s of H u m i l i t a s ( H u m il i ty ) and C a s t i t a s
99
(Chastity) which, I b el ie ve , a pp e ar for the first time in
the h i s t o r y of art in a m i n i a t u r e fr o m the ca. 1 1 6 5- 1 1 7 5
Wiesbaden manuscript of H i l d e g a r d ' s S c i v i a s .64
[ P L A T E 40]
Throughout the M i d d l e Ages, H u m i l i t a s was
presented in v a r i o u s ways. She is seen w it h s is t e r
V i r t u es , in i n d i v i d u a l medallions, identified by i n s c r i p
t i o ns or legends on b a n d e r o l e s . In a p s y c h o m a c h i a .
battling the vices, she is d r e s s e d as a warr i or , and
sometimes carries a b o o k . 65 In r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the
trees of V i r t u e and Vice, Humilitas is d e p i c t e d at the
ro o t of the v i r t u e s tree, while Superbia (Pride) is at
the r oo t of the o t h e r . 66 T he u s u al a t t r i b u t e of
Humilitas is a d o v e . 67
In the revelation of H i l d e g a r d that this m i n i a t u r e
illustrates, t hese two v i r t u e s and o th er s are envisioned
as w o r k e r s who l abor to b u i l d the Cit y of God, the s ymbol
of s a l v at i o n. T h e ir task is to g at h e r m a n ' s good d eeds
t ha t w i ll s e r ve as b u i l d i n g blocks for the city, and so
complete the job. The m i n i a t u r i s t has d e p i c t e d the
virtues descending on a l a d d e r fr om the c i ty ' s wa ll s. At
the top of the c ol u m n is G r a t i a Dei (Grace of God), a
radiant f i gu r e clo th ed in g l o w i n g robes. B e l o w her, at
r ight, are the c r o wn ed f i g u r e of H u m i l i t a s ; C a r i t a s ,
with arm s o u t s t r e t c h e d ; Timor Domini (Fear of God), who
100
— !
\ I
is c o v e r e d all over w it h eyes; Oboedientia ( O b e di e nc e ) ; j
and F i d e s , who w e a rs a red n e c k l ac e , symbolic of con- j
stancy.68 a dove, symbolizing the Ho l y Ghost, hovers j
over the head of C a s t i t a s . Spes t u rns t oward a c r uc if i x , j
Following Hildegard's description of H u m i l i t a s , j

!
the m i n i a t u r i s t reveals a crowned f i g u re wi t h j
. . . a b ri g ht m i r r o r u po n her breast
in w h i c h the i m ag e of the i n c a r n a t e
W o rd of God a p p e a r e d w it h w o n d e r f u l
c la r it y. This means that the O n l y -
B e g o t t e n of God d i s p l a y s all the W o r d ' s
w o r ks piously, humbly, b ri l li a n t l y ,
s t r o ngly, and b od i l y -- m a n i f e s t c le ar l y
in the w o r ld — in h um i li t y , w h i c h is in
the h eart of the s ac r e d temple, w h i c h —
in turn — is the m o s t b l e s se d and
mo s t b r i l l i a n t k n o w l e d g e . 69
Furt he r , this " mo st glorious q u ee n of the
v i r t u e s , i s the m e d i u m for " th e f irst r e v e l a t i o n of
the Word of G o d . " 71 For H i l d e g a r d , the m i r r o r of
H u m i l i t a s 7 ^ is the m e a ns for s e e i n g the w o rk s of God.
This Virtue is a p r i n c i p a l characteristic of Chr is t, as
it is of the V i r g i n M a r y , 7 ^ for, indeed, it is this
quality of h u m b l e n e s s or h u m i l i t y that is e m b o d i e d in the
f irst B ea t it u de , as in M a t t h e w 5:3: " B l e s se d are the
poor in spirit: for t h ei r s in the k i n g d o m of h e a v e n . "
In a dd ition, Hildegard use s the m i r r o r of
Humilitas as a m e a n s of r e a c h i n g to the h ea rt of the holy
p la c e w h i ch is the ve ry c en te r of d i v i n e k n o wl e dg e .
101
Thus, the V i r t u e' s m i r r o r resonates with ancient n o ti on s
of a m an t i c l o ok in g glass: it is a m e d i u m in w h i c h to
see a d i v i n e vision, to see the world, and to a c q u i r e
k no wl e d ge . Pa ul 's Corinthian texts, in w h i c h the m i rr o r
is a r e c e p t a c l e w h e r e God is to be seen — t h o u g h d ar k ly
— may a g a i n be r e c a l l e d as the m e a n s of t r a n s m i t t i n g
this idea to the M i d d l e Ages.
In this sam e m i n i a t u r e , C a s t i t a s , w i t h a dove
representing the Ho l y G h o st a bo ve her head, is seen
[ P LATE 40] near the b o tt o m of the column at the left.
This Virtue, who, in her purity, opposes Luxuria (Lust)
in v a r i o u s m e d i e v a l representations and t e x t s ^ , is
vividly described by H i ld e g a r d . S he is d r e s s e d in a
t un ic glittering li ke crys ta l , and, clearly associating
the V i r t u e of C a s t i t a s w it h the V i r g i n Mary, the a u th o r
w r i t e s that
On her womb, as if in a m i rr o r, t here

a p p e a r e d a v er y w h i t e i nfant on w h o s e
f o r e h e a d the w o r d 'innocence' had been
w r i t t e n .75
Following Hildegard's text, C a s t i t a s h o l d s a s c e p t e r in
her r i gh t hand, while pointing to her b r e a s t and the
image of the i n f an t w i t h h er l e f t . 76
In the S er m o n on the Mount, it is the pure of
h e a r t who are b l e s s e d w i th a vision of God ( M a t th e w
5 :8 ),77 and the mirror, as a medium in w h i c h God m ay be
102
i seen, would be an a p p r o p r i a t e and logical image. We mus t i

I
recall, too, the B i b l i c a l text, applied to the V i r g i n j
Mary, in w h i c h the chaste Sapientia (W is do m ), whose j
| p ur it y p e r mi t s her influence to re ach everywhere, is j
!
; I
i
; . . . the b r i g h t n e s s of e t e r n a l light, j
| and the u n s p o t t e d m i r r o r of G o d ' s m a j e s t y , j
' and the i m a ge of his g o o dn es s. j

| ( W is do m 7:26) i
This passage, and its r e f e r e n c e to S a p i e n t i a ' s " u n s p o t t e d j
i
mirror," the s p e c u l u m sin e m a c u l a , ^ is p e r h a p s another j
i
s ou r ce for H i l d e g a r d ' s description.
|
j
Sapientia and Prudentia j
It is the w i s e w o m an w h o l ooks int o am i r r o r in !
an illustration for P r o v e r b s 3 1 :2 2 in a t h i r t e e n t h
century Bible moralisee (Paris, Bibliotheque Nationale
lat. 11560, fol. 59vo). [ PLATE 43] The illumination,
which shows a w o m a n w e a r i n g a hat and gazing int o a
m irror, and flanked by t h re e m ai de n s , accompanies a text
in w h i c h the a c t i v i t i e s of a good, wise, and valiant
w o m a n are set down. She l ooks wel l after her h usb an d,
c ar es for the poor, provides for her h o u s e h o l d and
provisions her d o m e s t i c s with warm garments against the
cold, and sees equally to herse lf . T he specific text of
Proverbs 31:22 opposite the m e d a l l i o n say s that "sh e ha th
103
! m ad e for herself clothing of t ap e s t r y: f in e linen, and j
I
i purple is her covering." F ur th er : "Strength and beauty j
i are her clothing and she sh al l laugh in the l a t te r day.

I
j She hath o pe ne d her mo ut h to w is dom, and the law of j
j clemency is on her tongue." ( 3 1: 2 5 - 2 6 ) j

Although the P r o v e r b s text d o e s not r e fe r to a j
mirror, we may n ot e once m o r e that t he p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of j
Wisdom in the B i b l i c a l b oo k of W i s d o m (7:26) is c a l l e d i
"the unspotted mirror of G o d ’s m a j e st y , and the i m a g e of j

i
his goodness." The pure mirror of S a p i e n t i a , the
speculum sine m a c u l a , w h i c h becomes a standard designa
tion for the V i r g i n M a r y in the e a r l y M i d d l e Ages,^^ may
have b e en a s o u r c e for th is B i b l e m o r a l i s e e miniaturist.
We must n ot e here t ha t d i s t i n c t i o n s were often
made in a n t i q u i t y and the M i d d l e Ages between Prudentia,
or p r a c t i c a l w i sd om , and S a p i e n t i a , which w as of te n
defined as a h i g he r or t r a n s c e n d e n t q ua li t y. For
Aristotle, Prudence provides the c o n d i t i o n s for the
development of W i s d o m . A n d , according to Cice ro , in
De o f f i c i i s .
. . . the f o r e m o s t of all v i r t u e s is w i s d o m —
w h a t the G r e e k s call s o p h i a ; for by p r ud e n c e ,
w h i c h they c a l l p h r o n e s i s , we u n d e r s t a n d
s o m e t h i n g else, namel y, the p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e
of thi n g s to be s o u g ht for and of t h i n g s to be
avoided . . . wisd om . . . is the k n o w l e d g e of
t h i n g s hu m an and d i v i n e . . .81
In the Bible, a l t h o u g h ma n is i n s t r u c t e d to k n o w
104
a nd o b t a i n w i s d o m , ® ^ it may not r e a l l y be a t t a i n a b l e
since it is divine. In Job, for i n st ance, we a re told
t hat w i s d o m is h i dd e n f ro m our eyes, and on ly "G od u n d e r -
standeth the way of it." (Job 28:21-23)83 For man,
w i s d o m is pr ud ence, as the a ut h o r of P r o v e r b s states.®^
Still, the c o n c e p t s overlap in B i b l i c a l literature, and
in u sa ge throughout the M i d d l e A g e s . ® ® S a p i e n t i a and
Prudentia o v e r l a p p e d at times in m e d i e v a l art, as well,
with Sapientia s u b s t i t u t i n g for P r u d e n t i a ®® as o ne of the
four C a r d i n a l V i r t u e s . ® ^
A mirror is used as an a t t r i b u t e for P r u d e n t i a in
G i o t t o ’s f re sc o c ycle of the V i r t u e s and V i c es in the
A r e n a Cha pe l, Padua, p a i n t e d ca. 1 3 0 5- 13 0 9. [ P L A T E 44]
It is the f i rst time in the h i s t o r y of art that a
mirror is see n w i t h thi s V irtue, as n o te d by S e l m a
P f e i f f e n b e r g e r .8® P r u d e n t i a is s h ow n as a J a n u s - f a c e d
female figure: a b e a rd ed mal e fac e in p r o f i l e can just
be m a d e out at the back of her head, w h i l e her fe m al e
fac e p e e rs i n t e n t l y in t o a small r o un d c o n v e x m i r r o r he ld
in her le ft hand. In her right hand, she has a m e a s u r i n g
c om p as s . She is s hown as a scholar, s ea t ed behind a
desk, w i t h an o pe n b oo k on a l e c t e r n b e f o r e her. In
presenting Prudentia as a scholar, G io t t o has f o l l o w e d an

i
e s t a b l i s h e d t r ad it io n, for, a c c o r d i n g to I s i d o r e of
Seville ( 56 0 -636), she is the s c i e n t i a s c r i p t u r a r u m . the
sy mb ol of s or ti ng out good from e v i l . ® 9 T h e m i r ro r,
105
;however, is a new e l e m e n t for an a l l e g o r y of P r u d e n t i a , j

| j
! as is the J a n u s h e a d ^ O and the c o m p a s s . 91 j
! I
i I
| Other attributes, traditional in the r e p r e s e n t a -

1 i
! tion of this Virtue, are m is si ng : Throughout the M i d d l e
I Ages, P r u d e n t i a 1s m o s t frequent companion is a snake, ana !
| she is al so sometimes accompanied by a dove, following
1 the text in M a t t h e w 10:16, "Be ye t h e r e f o r e wi s e as ;

j j
| s e r p e n t s and s im pl e as d o v e s . "92 [ PLATE 45]

I
! B e f o r e e x a m i n i n g the new i c o n o g r a p h y of the m ir ro r
I for an a l l e g o r y of P r u d e n t i a , we m us t look b r i e f l y at the 1
s e t t i n g and the p r o g r a m in w h i c h it a p p ea r s. The A r e na
C h a p e l was b ui lt in P a d u a by E n r i c o Scrovegni, a wealthy
me rc ha n t, as a p la ce for f a m i l y w o r s h i p . Although the
c ha p el was c o n s e c r a t e d in 1305, G i o t t o ’s f r e s c o c ycle
w as probably completed sometime after that d a t e . 93
Dedicated to the V i r g i n A n nu n ci a t e , the C h a p e l contains
thirty-eight scenes f ro m the life of the V i r g i n and the
life of Chr is t , and, on the i nner entrance wall, a f re s c o
of the Las t J u d gm e nt . T he s ce n es depicting Christ and
the V i r g i n M a r y are a r r a n g e d on the w a l l s in t hree tiers.
B e l o w th ese n a r r a t i v e scenes, on the long na v e walls,
at eye level, is a s e r i e s of s mall images, p ai n te d in
g r i s a i ll e , of S ev e n Virtues on the r i ght wa l l and S e ven

'
Vices on the left. Giotto b e gi n s his sequence of the
Virtues at the apse end of the r ig ht (south) wall wi th
106
the a l l e g o r y of P r u d e n t i a . F r o m her p lac e on the r i gh t -
h a n d wall and near the apse, P r u d e n t i a *s b e a r d e d m al e
face is t u r ne d t o wa r d the a p s e and s ce ne s of the
A n n u n c i a t i o n and Visitation, while the f e m a l e h e a d faces
the f re s c o of the Last J u d g m e n t on the wes t entrance
wall. The female side of the f i g u r e h o ld s and l o ok s into
the small mirror.
We n o w tu rn to the m ir r o r as a n ew a t t r i b u t e for
Prudentia. In its use here, we can be c e r t a i n that the
mirror is m ea nt as an i n s t r u m e n t of k n o w l e d g e and truth,
even as D i o g e n e s L a er t i u s , who w r o t e in the t h ir d century
A.D., t el ls us that Socrates told his s t u d e n t s to loo k
o f te n at t he ir m i r r o r i m ag e s in o r de r to l e a r n the t ru th
about t h e m s e l v e s .94
In the Bible, as we have seen, the m i r r o r is
clearly connected to S a p i e n t i a . She — Sapientia — is
"the b r i g h t n e s s of e t e r n a l light, and the u n s p o t t e d mir
ror of G o d ' s ma je s t y , and the i ma ge of h i s g o o d n e s s . "95
(W i sd om 7:26) F u r t h er , the a u t h o r of the O ld T e s t a m e n t
boo k of W i sd om , traditionally b el i ev e d to be S ol om on ,
characterizes Sapientia in o t her w ay s that s ho u l d be
considered here. Sapientia is s ou gh t a b o v e all other
t h i n gs by Solomon, who
. . . loved her a b o v e health and beauty,
107
I----------------------------------------------------------------------------- — ------------------------------------------ ■----- 1

I
and c h o s e to have her i n s t e a d of light: j
! for her l ight c a n n o t be put out. (7:10)
| j
! Thus, Sapientia is light, a source of i n e x t i n -
! guishableillumination.Illumination means knowledge j
i and e n l i g h t e n m e n t , and it is t h r o u g h the a c q u i s i t i o n of

i
j
!
;
i w is d o m , an a c t i v i t y d i r e c t e d by God, that we gain " tr ue |
i t
knowledge of the t h in g s that a re ." (7:17) F ur th e r ,
. . . all suc h t n i n g s as are hid and j

j not f o r se e n, I have learned: for w i sd o m, !
w h i c h is the w or k e r of all things, t au gh t :
me. (7:21) j
God is both the d i r e c t o r of m a n ’s s e a r c h for
wisdom, a nd its pure source, s in ce she is a m a n i f e s t a t i o n
of his power,
. . . a c e r t a i n pure e m a n a t i o n of the g lory

of the a l m i g h t y God: and t h e r e f o r e
no d e f i l e d t hi ng c o m e t h into her. (7:25)
T h e mir ro r, the i n s t r u m e n t associated fro m a n t i q
u it y w i t h light, w it h illumination, with the a c q u i s i t i o n
of k n o w l e d g e — of s e l f - k n o w l e d g e , of r e v e l a t o r y k n o w l
edge of the d e i ty or of h i d d e n things, is c l e a r l y
i nd i c a t e d . It is in the ne xt v e r s e th at the S o l o m o n i c
author of t he se w o r ds l e ad s to the a n a l o g y that l inks
Sapientia and the mirror.
We hav e a l r e a d y n o te d the connection and over
lapping of P r u d e n t i a and S a p i e n t i a , and w i t h G i o t t o ' s
a l l e g o r y we als o see a t r a n s f e r r a n c e of thi s B i b l i c a l
108
reference to P r u d e n t i a . The passages f r o m the b o o k of
W i s d o m q u o t e d a b o v e m ay be the f ir s t source for the
m i r r o r of P r u d e n t i a in the A r e n a C h a p e l . 96
Another possible s o u r c e of the p r u d e n t i a l mirror
is C i c e r o ( 1 0 6- 4 3 B .C.). The Roman philosopher wrote
about the m o r al v ir t ue s , including P r u d e n t i a , in s e v e r a l
of his w or k s , e s p e c i a l l y in De i n v e n t i o n e , De o f f i c i i s ,
! De n a t u r a d e o r u m , and De f i n i b u s b o n o r u m et maloruia. ^
i
In De i n v e n t i o n e . an early, i n c o m p l e t e d i s c o u r s e
! on r h e t o r i c, he d i s c u s s e s the four Virtues of P r u d e n t i a ,

I ”
i J u s t i t i a , F o r t i t u d o , and T e m p e r a n t i a , and the n d i v i d e s

!
j ea c h V i r t u e into s e v e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t parts. He d e f i n e s
P r u d e n t i a an d its p a r t s in thi s way:
P r u d e n c e is the k n o w l e d g e of w h a t is good,
w h a t is bad a nd w h a t is n e i t h e r goo d nor
bad. Its p a r t s are m e m o ry , i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
f o r e s i g h t (m e m o r i a , i n t e l l i g e n t i a , p r o v i d e n t i a ) .
M e m o r y is the f a c u l t y by w h i c h the m i n d r e c a l l s
what has happened. I n t e l l i g e n c e is t h e f a c u l t y
by w h i c h it a s c e r t a i n s w h a t is. F o r e s i g h t is
the f a c u l t y by w h i c h it is s e e n t ha t s o m e t h i n g
is g o i ng to o c c u r b e f o r e it o c c u r s . 98
I •%■-•
Thus Prudentia is k n o w l e d g e of w h a t is or h a s
p a s s e d or k n o w l e d g e of wh a t is in t he f u t ur e, and the
application of b o t h to the p r e s e n t time. G i o t t o ’s J a n u s -

i
h e a d e d 9 9 P r u d e n t i a , aided by the c o n v e x mirror, is able
to see and a s s e s s w h a t is b ehind, or w h a t is past, as
well as w h a t is ahead, or w h a t may come. W i t h her
109
! l ooking glass, she als o sees the p r e se n t time. Thus, she j

j possesses the C i c e r o n i a n p a rts of the Virtue, and it may
! he c o n i e c t u r e d that C i c e r o ' s De i n v e n t i o n e contributed to

! J i
• this i m a g e r y . j
| In De o f f i c i i s , C i c e r o d i s c u s s e s P r u d e n t i a and the j
! I
j truth, asserting that e v e r y t h i n g m o r a l l y c o rr e ct comes j
I first fro m that w h i c h is c o n c e r n e d "with the full per- j

! i
c ep ti on and i n t e l l i g e n t development of the true" and it j
i
is here that we m u s t p l ac e S a p i e n t i a and Prudentia, for
they b elong to the p u rs ui t of t r u t h . 1^1 S in c e the m i rr o r !
was r eg a r d e d as an o bj e c t in w h i c h t ruth m i g h t be d i s
cerned, one in w h i c h not only p r e se n t t r u t h s c ou ld be
perceived, but f u t ur e t r u t hs could be seen, or f or e s ee n,
we may c o n n e c t the m i r r o r s ymbol to this a sp e c t of
Prudentia.
S a p i e n t i a , or P r u d e n t i a , and the m i r r o r are
connected by Ori ge n, the third c en t ur y t h eo l og i a n , who
w r o t e in De p r i n c i p i i s ;
. . . W i s d o m is a ls o c alled the s t a i n l e s s m ir r o r
of the e ne rg y or w o r k i n g of God . . . . a sor t of
vigour . . . by w h i c h God o p e r a t e s e it h er in
creation, or in p ro v i d en c e, or in j u d g m e n t . . . .
For as the i mage f o rm e d in a m ir r o r u n e r r i n g l y
r e f l ec t s all the act s and m o v e m e n t s of him who
gazes on it, so w o u l d W i s d o m hav e h e r s e l f to be
u nd e r s t o o d w he n she is called the s t a i n l e s s m ir r or
of the power and w o r k i n g of the F a t h e r . . . . 102
The m i rr o r also f i gu r es importantly in the
11
A n t i c l a u d i a n u s , the epic p o e m by A la n of L i l l e ( Al a nu s
! de In s ul is ), written between 1181 and 1 1 8 4 . 1 0 3
P r u d e n t i a .10^ w i t h her s i st e r R a t i o (Reason), journeys
j to H e a v e n to find a p e r f e ct man. At the e d ge of the

i
universe she falters, but F i d e s arrives to sustain and
g u i d e her. Soon the b r i g h t light of H e a v e n ah e a d b l in ds
| her, but the r e s o u r c e f u l Fides giv e s P r u d e n t i a a mirror,

!
one that is " r ef l e c t i v e , polished . . . equipped with
i m a g e s ." 1 0 5
In this m i r r o r is r e f l e c t e d e v e r y t h i n g
w h i c h the fiery r e g i o n e n c o m p a s s e s : in it
s h in e s clear, e v e r y t h i n g w h i c h the h e a v e n l y
u n i v e r s e h ol d s . . . . The m i r r o r a c t s as an
i n t e r m e d i a r y to p r e v e n t a flood of fiery
li gh t f ro m b e a m i n g on her ey es and r o b b i n g
them of sight . . . . As her e ye s e x p l o r e
the mirro r, S o p h i a l 0 6 sees t he r e all that
the d i v in e w o r l d e m br a ce s . W h i l e she s ee s some
t h in g s new to her, l oo k s in w o n d e r at e v e r y t h i n g ,
f i n d s joy in the c o m p l e t e whole, the s t r a n g e n e s s
of the o b je c ts p r o d u c e s n e w joys. H er m in d as
well as her eyes is d e l i g h t e d . . . .107
With the aid of the a p o t r o p a i c m ir ror, Prudentia
is a b l e to t r a v el on to the p al a c es of God, jubilant at
having survived the a r d u o u s tr ip and a w e s t r u c k by the
heavenly environs:
. . . her eyes are a s t r o u n d e d by e v e r y t h i n g

w h i c h the m e s s a g e in the m i r r o r offers.
N o t h i n g that f l a s h e s t he r e is mortal,
t ra ns it o ry , wani ng , earthly: there is
r e f l e c t e d only the e te r n al , the hea ve nl y ,
the p e rmanent, the i m mo va b l e, the fixed.
H er e she . . . v ie w s c e l e s t i a l ideas, the form
of man, the first b e g i n n i n g s of things,
Ill
the c a us e s of causes, the s eed s of reason,

the laws of the Fates, the p r o c e s s i o n of
destiny, the m in d of the T h u n d e r e r . 108
Through the " m e d i um " of the m ir r o r she sees why
God f av o r s some a n d crushes o t h e r s . 109 she p as s e s s cenes
of u n e q u a l e d b eauty, surpassing P a ra di se , and f i n al l y
comes to the c i t a d e l of God. God responds to the
entreaties of P r u d e n t i a to send t he w or ld a perfect soul,
and has a f or m c o n s t r u c t e d in w h i c h "everything of g r ace
finds a h o m e . " H O Prudentia returns to e a r t h and g ives
Natura a gift fro m Heaven, w ho s h ap e s the ideal body
for the p e r f e c t s o u l . HI T h e w or k concludes with a
p s y c h o m a c h i a . in w h i c h P r u d e n t i a is p it t ed against and
vanquishes Stultitia (Folly), her traditional f o e . H - 2
Al a n of L i l l e ' s w orks, especially the A n t i-
c l a u d i a n u s . were widely known in the t h i r t e e n t h and
fourteenth c e n t u r i e s . H3 n e was a d o c t o r universalis of
his t i m e . H 4 There can be l it t le d o ub t tha t D a n t e k ne w
his w r i t i n g s , H5 an(} w e raay conclude that G iotto, or
o t he r possible authors of the A r e n a C h a p e l prog ra m , knew
at least this, his mos t f am o u s w o r k . H 6
Thomas Aquinas wrote at l e ng t h on the V i r t u e of
Prudentia in his S u m m a t h e o l o g i c a .H 7 ^s for its
p r o p e r t ie s , he q u o t e s A m b r o s e (De o f f i c i i s m i n i s t r o r u m .
i.24):
112
P r u d e n c e is c o n c e r n e d w i th the q u e s t of truth
and fi ll s us w i t h the d e si r e of f ul le r
! k no w l e d g e .
Further, he cit es I s i d o r e of S e v i l l e (E t y m o l o g i a e
1 X):
A p r u d e n t m a n is one who sees as it w e r e from

afar, for h is sight is keen, and he f or e s e e s
the e ve n t of u n c e r t a i n t i e s . * ^
Lat er , Aquinas says:
P r u d e n c e r e q u i r e s d i l i g e n c e , that one may

f o r e s e e a r i g h t wh at h a s to be d o n e . *20
In c o n s i d e r i n g all the pa rt s of P r u d e n t i a he
concludes that:
. . . f o r e s i g h t is the p r i n c i p a l of all the

p ar t s . . . s i n c e w h a t e v e r e l s e is r e q u i r e d for
p r u de nc e, is n e c e s s a r y p r e c i s e l y th at some
p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g may be r i g h t l y d i r e c t e d
to its end. H e n c e it is that the v er y name of
p r u d e n c e is t a k e n f r o m f o r e s i g h t (p r o v i d e n t i a )
as f r o m its p r i n c i p a l p a r t . 121
Following Aristotle and C i c e r o , Aquinas maintains
that a memory is a part of the V i r t u e of P r u d e n t i a , for
"prudence requires the m e m o r y of m a n y t h i n g s . "122 jn
ord er to r e m e m b e r
. . . we s h o u l d o ft e n r e f l e c t on the thin gs
we w i s h to r e me m b e r . H e n c e the P h i l o s o p h e r
( A r i s t o t l e) s ay s (De m e m o r i a i.) that
" r e f l e x i o n p r e s e r v e s m e m o r i e s , " b e c a u s e as
he r e m a r k s (ibid. ii) " c u s t o m is a s e c o n d
n at ur e" : w h e r e f o r e w h e n we r e f l e c t on a
t h i n g f r e q u e n t l y , we q u i c k l y call it to mind,
t h r o u g h p a s s i n g f r o m one t h i n g to a n o t h e r
by a kind of n a t u r al o r d e r . *23
113
This passage linking memory, a principal part
of the V i r t u e of P r u d e n c e according to C i c e r o in De
i n v e n t i o n e ,124 a n d the act of r e f l e c t i o n , which is bo th a
property of m i r r o r s and a m e n t a l process associated with
a wise or p r u d e n t m a n c o u l d be a n o t h e r source for t h e new
attribute of the m i r r o r for G i o t t o ' s Vi rtue.
j It is p r o b a b l e t h at Giotto's new i m a g e r y for

i
j Prudentia in t he A r e n a C h a p e l derives f ro m s e v e r a l
literary s o u r ce s , not a single t e x t . 125 Cicero was a
major influence, and I would c it e h is De i n v e n t i o n e as a
primary t e x t for P r u d e n t i a . e s p e c i a l l y for allusions that
m ay have inspired b ot h this Virtue's mirror a t t r i b u t e and
also the J a n u s head. In a d d i t i o n , the u se of t he m i r r o r
appears to s t e m f ro m s e v e r a l other principal literary
sources — the b o o k of W i s d o m , Origen, Alan of L i l l e , and
Thomas Aquinas.
We m a y suppose t ha t Giotto's mirror for P r u d e n t i a
was selected n ot only for its learned references but
because of its a p t n e s s to the s ub j e ct . Since antiquity,
the m i r r o r had b e en k n o w n as an instrument for divining
knowledge of the f ut ure. Its property of reflection
connects it, by a n a l og y , to the m e mo r y , and to the
activity of r e f l e c t i n g , a t e r m a p p l i c a b l e to the
occupation of a p h i l o s o p h e r and the s c h o l a r . 126 The
philosopher and the s c h o l a r were thought to possess
114
S a p i e n t i a or P r u d e n t i a , or at least to c u l t i v a t e these |
virtues, and throughout the M i d d l e Ages, P r u d e n t i a had
been t r a d i t i o n a l l y shown as a scholar. W h e n used j
p r o p e r l y and p ru dently, the m i r ro r r e f l e c t e d the truth. !
It r e m a i n e d a pure, u n ta i n t e d surface. j
We may also n ote here that, in this C h ap el that !
was d e di c a t e d to the V i r g i n A n n u n ci a te , the m i r ro r l in k s !
the V i r tu e of P r u d e n t i a w ith the V i r g i n Mary. T he m i r r o r \
served as an e m bl em of purity for the Virgin, who wa s the j
s p e c u l u m sine m a c u l a , the m i rr or w i t h o ut blemish, which |
was, as m e nt i o n e d above, a designation for Sapientia in J

i
the Old T e s t a m e n t book of W i s d o m . 127 A m o n g the ea rl y
medieval references is one found in a song w r i t t e n by
Hildegard of B i n g e n . 128
It was a t it le that characterized the V i rg i n M a r y
throughout the M i d d l e A g e s . *29 J a c o po de V o r a g i n e
( 1 2 3 0 -1 29 8) r ec o rd e d in his Mariale some 144 v i r t u e s of
the Virgin, and the s p ec u l u m sine m a c u l a was one of her
e m b l e m s of p er fe ct io n . She is c a ll ed a mirror for
s ev er al reasons, fi rs t b ec a us e of the m a t e r i a l s used in
m a k in g a mirror: glass, w hi c h signifies her vi rg in it y ,
and lead, which, being both d u c t i le and ash en in color,
stan ds for h umility. Further,
. . . for as all t h in gs are r e f l e c t e d from

a mirror, so in the B l e s se d Virgin, as in
115
the m i r r o r of God, ought all to see their

i m p u r i t i e s and spots, and p u r if y and
c or re ct them, for the proud, b eh o l d i n g
her h u m i l i t y see th ei r bl e mi sh es ,
the a v a r i c i o u s see t h ei r s in her poverty,
the l o ve rs of p l e a s u r e t h ei rs in her
virginity.
The V i r g i n and the U n i c o r n
Although the d e s i g n a t i o n of the V i r g i n M a r y as a
mirror is found in l i t e r a t u r e in the early medieval
period, at least by the t w e l f t h century, representations
of the V i r g i n w it h this a t t r i b u t e are of a later
v i n t a g e . 131 Several fourteenth century works depicting
the V irgin, or a v ir gin, with a u n i c o r n and a m ir ro r , are
known. An i l l u s t r a t i o n [PLATE 46] f rom the m a n u s c r i p t
k n o w n as the S m i t h f i e l d D e c r e t a l s ( B r it i s h M u s e u m M a n u
s c r i p t R o ya l 10 .E . 4), f ro m the s e c o nd q u a r t er of the
f o u r t e e n t h c e ntury, d e p i c ts a m a iden, h o l d i n g a round
mirror in her right hand, and g e s t u r i n g w i t h her
l e f t . 132 a u n i c or n p r a n c e s t o w ar d s her. An ename l
plaque from Pa ri s [PLA TE 47], now in the B a y e r i s c h e s
N a t i o n a l m u s e u m , Mu ni c h , and d at in g f ro m the third d e ca d e
of the f o u r t e e n t h c e nt u ry , represents the k i l l i n g of a
u ni co r n . The scene, set in a lan ds ca pe , sh o w s a y ou th in
a tree, t h r u s ti n g a spear into the animal, wh o is k n e e l
ing b e s i d e a seated maiden. She h o ld s a m i r ro r disc in
her right hand, and t o u c h es the u n i c o r n ' s horn w i t h her
116
r i g h t . 1^3 There is a s u g g e s t i o n of a r e f l e c t i o n in the
l o ok i n g glass, which appears to be the im a ge of the
m a i d e n .134
The third w o rk to be m e n t i o n e d here is an ivory
casket, f r o m Paris, and now in the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m
of Art, from the m i d d l e of the fourteenth century
[PLA T E 48]. On an end pa ne l is a b i f u r c a t e d scene, with
a spreading oak tree dividing the two parts. At right,
we see the w o u n d i n g of a u n ic o rn . In a f o r e s t e d s e tt i n g
s i m i la r to the one d e p i c t e d in the enamel plaque, a
hunter delivers the fa t al b l o w w i t h h is la nc e to a u n i
corn who k n e e l s before a seated m ai d en . T he details of
the m i r r o r and the c a r e s s i n g of the a n i m a l ' s h or n are
nearly identical to t h os e on the e n a m e l discussed above.
There is a s l i gh t indication of a r e f l e c t e d image, but it
is i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e . The s c e n e at the left of the oak
tree is of a m e e t i n g of the l o v e r s T r i s t r a m and Iseu lt .
A bo v e them, hidden in the l e a f y branches of the oak tree,
is I s e u l t ' s h us b a nd , K i n g Mark, w ho h as come to spy on
them. Tristram p o i n ts to the r e f l e c t e d im a g e of the
King, seen in the fo u n ta in . The "reflection" appears as
a head in the water.
In the M i d d l e Ages, the v i r g i n represented in such
sce ne s w i t h a u n ic o r n was strongly associated with the
V i r g i n Mary, while the u n i c o r n was identified w it h
117
j C h ri st . We see in the P h y s i o l o g u s .135 th at the unicorn
! — a fabulous b ea st of g re a t b ea ut y and prowess — co uld
i onl y be c a ug h t by a v irgin. 136 Thus, when c a p t u r e was
s ou g h t by hunters, a pure m a i d e n w o u l d xure the b east

I
! and o v e r c o m e his f i e r c e n es s. An a n o n y m o u s b e s t i a r i s t
j
j described the strate gy :
! A v i r g i n girl is led to w h e r e he lurks,

and t he re she is sent off by h e rs e lf
into the wood. He so on l eaps into her
lap w h e n he se e s her, and e m b r a c e s her,
and h e n c e he g et s caught.
(Ha rl e y M a n u s c r i p t 4 7 5 1 ) 1 3 7
The unicorn was not only captivated by c h a s t i t y
but w a s a p o s s e s s o r of that v i rt u e as well. It was be
l i ev e d that the b e a s t ' s horn, when dipped int o p o i s o ne d
water, would p ur i f y i t . 138
In the Old T e s t a m e n t , the m o n o c e r o s or u n i c o r n is
v ie w e d as a s tr o n g and s wift a nimal, of s u r p a s s i n g b ea u ty
and nobility of s p i r i t . 139 v/e k n o w f r om the P h y s i o l o g u s
t h a t the u n i c o r n w as e q ua te d w i t h the p e rs o n of J e s u s . 1^0
Ambrose ( 340 7- 39 7) , accepting this c o n n e c t i o n , wrote in
h is C o m m e n t a r y on P s a l m x l i i i ,
W h o is this U n i c o r n . . .(?)
but the o n l y - b e g o t t e n Son of G o d . 1^1
B o t h B a sil (ca. 330- 3 79 ) and G r e g o r y the G r e at
(d. 604) compared God's nature to that of the u n i c o r n . 1^2
This association of the u n i c o r n w i t h C h r i s t e x i s te d
118
, j
! t h r o u g h o u t the M i d d l e Ages, w i t h the a l l e g o r i c a l i m p l i c a - |
! !
! tions clarified by the a n o n y m o u s b e s t i a r i s t of H a r l e y ;
| i
; Manuscript 4751: |
i ;
! i
j Our L o r d J e s u s C h r i s t is a l so a U n i c o r n
I s p i r i t u a l l y , a b o u t w h o m it is said: ’And
he w as b e l o v e d l ik e the Son of the U n i c o r n s , ’
And in a n o t h e r psalm: 'He h a th r ai s e d up a h o r n
of s a l v a t i o n for us in the h o u s e of h is son D av id .' j
The f ac t that it has just one h o rn on its h ea d |

m e a n s w h a t he h i m s e l f said: ’I and the F a t h e r
are One.' Also, a c c o r d i n g to the A p o st le :
’The h e a d of C h r i s t is the L o r d . ’ It s a y s that
he is v e r y s w i f t b e c a u s e n e i t h e r P r i n c i p a l i t i e s ,
nor P ow e rs , nor T h r o n es , nor D o m i n a t i o n s could
i k ee p up w i t h him, nor c ou l d H e l l c o n t a i n him, j
nor c o u l d the m o s t s u b t l e D e v i l p r e v a i l to c a t c h
or c o m p r e h e n d him; but, by the sole w il l of the
F at her, he c am e d ow n i n t o the v i r g i n w o m b for
our s a l v a t i o n . It is d e s c r i b e d as a t in y a n i m a l
on a c c o u n t of t he l o w l i n e s s of his i n c a r n a t i o n ,
as he said h i m s e l f : 'Le ar n f r o m me, b e c a u s e
I am m i l d and l o w l y of heart .' It is l ik e a kid
or s c a p e g o a t b e c a u s e the S a v i o u r h i m s e l f was
m a d e in the l i k e n e s s of s i n f u l flesh, and f ro m
sin he c o n d e m n e d s i n .
T hi s l e ge n d of the u n i c o r n a nd a v i r g i n is c l e a r l y
construed as an a l l e g o r y of the I n c a r n a t i o n here, and,
the b e a s t ' s sacrificial death (or c a p t u r e ) at the ha n ds
of the hunters is no less t ha n the redemptive d e a t h of
Christ.
The v i r g i n in the legend is the V i r g i n Mary, as
seen in an e a r l y fourteenth century p oe m a t t r i b u t e d to
W i l l i a m of S h o r e h am , a Franciscan, w ho g iv e s m an y of
Mary's titles and qualities, following with a v e r s e that
acknowledges her power:
119
j That u n i c o r n that was so wil d I

: A le yd is of a cheaste; !
I Th ou has itamed and i st il d j
' With m i l k e of thy b r e s t e . 1 4 4
; j
We must note that the s tory of the u n i c o r n did not |
; j
| a pp ly exclusively to the V i r g in M a r y . ^ ^ it a ls o was s
I used to refer to t em p or a l love, o ft en w i t h e ro t i c over- j

I
1 rones. For example, in the m i d - t h i r t e e n t h century,
I j
| R i c ha r d de F o u r n i v a l us e s the t h e me to e x p o un d on love in j
his B e s t i a i r e d ' A m o u r . T he m a i d e n is the o bj e ct of
c ou r t s h ip , and love is the d e s i g n a t i o n for the h u n t e r . 1^6 |

I
! In this light, the m i r r o r ' s p r e s e n c e w o u l d also refer to j
its use in t h e me s of lo ve and e n h a n c e m e n t , p o pu l ar sub
j e c t s for m e d i e v a l m i r r o r b oxes or cases, and u l t i m a t e l y
r e c a l l i n g V enu s and her a t t r i b u t e .
T he use of the m i r r o r in t hese few i ma ge s depict
ing the v ir g in and the u n i c o r n presents a layering of
allusions to be c o n s i d e r e d . Certainly, it w o u l d
r e f e r to the theme of p ur i t y and ch a s ti ty , and w o u l d
establish the i d e n t i f y of the m a i d e n as the V i r g i n Mary.
The title for the V i r g i n of s p e c u l u m sine m a c u l a w as well
established, and it w o u ld be u n l i k e l y that her a t t r i b u t e
would be use d w er e it not the Vi rg in , or we re the a r t i s t
not s e e ki ng to m a ke an a l l u s i o n to h e r . 1^9 H o w e v er ,
g i v e n the m i r r o r' s reputation as an i n s t r u m e n t of t r i c k
ery and illusion, there may be an o v e r l a y of s y m b o l i s m
w he n it is used in this scene. In ma n y of the same
120
bestiaries that s p ea k of the unic or n , the m i r r o r is used
by h u n t e r s as a lure or m e an s of t r i c k i n g and distracting
animals (such as tigers), and so c a p t u r i n g t he ir p r e y . 150
The m i r r o r as an i n s t r u m e n t of d e c e p t i o n w o u l d not be
e n t i r e l y out of p l a ce in the c o n t e x t of the legend's
C h r i s t i a n meaning: T h e u n ic or n — Christ — is i n c a r n a t e
in a wo rld of sin and delusion. T he pu ri ty of the V i r g i n
l u r e s h im to r i t u al d eath (and r e bi r t h ! 5 1 ) , w h i l e the
mirror c o m p l i m e n t s and e vokes both the V i r g i n ' s chastity
and the d e l u s i v e n a t u r e of the si nf ul world.
F ides
The a l l e g o r i c a l f igure of F i d e s (Faith) is r e p
r e s e n t e d w i t h the a t t r i b u t e of a m i r r o r in A m b r o g i o
Lo renzetti's Massa Maritti ma Maesta for the f i r s t time
in the h i s t o r y of a r t . 152 [ PLATE 49] T h i s a l t a r p i ec e,
p a i nt ed ca. 1 3 3 5 ,1 53 d e p ic ts the V i r g i n and C hild
enthroned on a t iered platform, and surrounded by an
a s s e m b l y of angels, s a i n t s , 1 5 4 an(j t h e w i n g e d f i g ur e s of
the T h r e e T h e o l o g i c a l V i r t u e s l 5 5 — F i d e s , Spe s (Hope),
and C a r i t a s ( C h a r i t y ).156 j U st b e l o w the V i r g i n and
Child, on the h i g he s t step on the p la t fo rm , is the
crowned f ig u r e of Chari ty . She is seated, in a f r o nt a l
p o s i tion, and with arm s e x te nded, she lo oks at the h e art
121
j in her left hand. Her figure and draped garment are I
j ti ng ed with red. The step u p o n w h i c h she sits, and w h i c h j
j is i n s c r i b e d w i t h her name, is a ls o red. On the ne xt j

! I
! step, at left, is the d arkly robed figure of S p e s . She !
! i
j !
i h o l ds a towering stepped e d i fi ce , which appears to have a |

\ i
| lily-like white-flowering p lant growing fro m its base, j

! and g azes upwa rd s. Her step is g r e en and is a l s o in- |
I ’
j |
| s c r ib e d w it h her name. T he figure of F i d e s , r o be d in j
t ► !
| |
white, is s e a te d at r ig ht on the l ow e st step leading to j
! |
! the throne. She g aze s int o an oval mirror which she j
i
holds, and in w h i c h an i m a g e of the T r i n i ty , s h o wn as J
a Janus-head surmounted by a dove, can be s e e n . ^^ 7
representing Fides w i th the a t t r i b u t e of a mir ro r,
instead of the u s ua l c r o ss and c ha li ce , Ambrogio has
departed fro m t r a d i t i o n a l depictions of this V i r t u e . 1^8
Howard Hibbard^59 saw N i c o l a Pisano's Siena p ul p i t
as a p r o b a b l e source for A m b r o g i o ' s rendering of F i d e s .
since Nicola's Virtue carries a banderole with a quota
tion fr om H e b r e w s (11:1) that is a l i ke l y base text for
Ambrogio's interpretation: Fides est substantia rerum
s p e r a n d a r u m a r g u m e n t u m n on aparentium (No w f a i t h is the
substance of t hi n g s to be h op ed for, the evidence of
t hi n gs that a p p e a r not.) Nicola's Fides does not hav e a
m irror, but the P a u l i n e text he used seems a probable
inspiration for t hi s n ew a t t r ib u t e .
122
I
Paul's Corinthian verses would s ee m to be s t i ll j
i
closer to A m b r o g i o ' s image, ^ 0 an(j they m u s t be r e c a l l e d j
once more. In 1 Corinthians, Pau l reminds us that j
We see n ow t h r o u g h a g l a s s in a dark mann er ,

but the n face to face. Now I k no w in part;
but then I shall k n o w eve n as I am k n own. I
(13:12) |
The glass in the ha n d of F a i t h r e v e a l s a vision of j

the T r i ni t y, but it c a n n o t compare with the reality to j
come. Paul follows this statement of p r o m i s e w it h an i

i
immediate reference to the V i r t u e s Ambrogio has !

i
r e pr e s e n t e d : j
And n o w there r e m a i n faith, hope, and

char it y , t hese three: but the g r e a t e s t
of t h e se is c ha ri ty . (13:13)
Th e m i r r o r text f ro m 2 C o r i n t h i a n s is e q u a l l y
r ev e l an t . Paul s pe a k s ( 3 : 13 -1 7) of the veil that M o s e s
had to put over his face to s h i e l d the p e o p l e of I s r a e l
f ro m the b l i n d in g l i g h t of G o d ' s revelation that trans
f or m e d h i m (Exodus 34: 33 ). That veil, he says, will be
t a ke n away w h en the p e o p l e are c o n v e r t e d to the L or d
(3:16). Then
. . . we all, w i t h o p e n face b e h o l d i n g as
in a glass the g l o ry of the Lord, are
c ha n ge d into the same i m a ge f ro m g lor y to
glory, even as by the S p i r i t of the L o r d . 161.
The m ir r o r becomes a f o rc e of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ,
123
even as the act of f ai th is bo th revelation and a t r a n s
formation. Paul's mirror is r e s o n a n t w i t h a n ci en t
associations: it is a m a n t i c looking g l as s in w h ic h
visions of God are r e v e a l e d ! 6 2 t 0 t h e i ni ti a t e d.
Ambrogio's imagery captures the m a g i c a l and s u bli me
dimensions of the P a u l i n e texts, texts that w ou ld see m
to be p r i n c i p a l sources for it.
Augustine's writings may a l s o h a v e i n f l u e n c e d
Ambrogio's unusual image ry . In T h e C i ty of G o d , he w r o t e
of the b e a t i f i c vision, citing repeatedly the two m i r r o r
verses f r o m C o r i n t h i a n s .1^3 A u g u s t i n e says that the
v i s i o n we wi l l ha v e
. . . is r e s e r v e d as the r e wa r d of our faith;

and of it the A p o s t l e J o h n a l s o says,
'When we s hall a pp ea r , we s hall be like Him,
for w e s hall see H i m as He i s . '164
[1 Joh n 3.2].
Further, as we see God
. . . d arkly, as in a mi r ro r, and in part, and

r a t h e r by f a i th t ha n by b o d i l y v i s i o n of
m a t e r i a l a p p e a r a n c e s , but by m e a ns of
the b o d i e s we s h all w e a r and w h i c h we
s h all see w h e r e e v e r w e turn our e y e s . "165
In the same p as sa g e , Augustine affirms 2
Corinthians 3:18, and the transforming p o w e r of the sight
of God as in a glass, saying th a t "it is by f ait h we d ra w
n ea r to God . . ,"166
Thomas Aquinas affirmed that the f a i t h fu l see

those things that are of faith ". . . not as by dem-
124
onstration, but by the li gh t of f ai t h that m a k e s t h em see
that they oug ht to b el i ev e them. "167 ^nd referring to
Hebrews 11:1, Thomas says that "the light of fa it h m a k e s
us see w h a t we b e li e v e . . ."168
A possible source, c l o s er to A m b r o g i o , is a ga i n
the A n t i c l a u d i a n u s by Alan of L i l l e (ca. 1116-ca. 1202).
Fides possesses a m i rr o r w i t h protective q u a l it i es . She
gives this gl as s to P h r o n e s i s (P ru d en ce ) who c a n no t
tolerate the bril l ia nt , blinding l ig ht of the h ea v en s.
This mirror is
. . - r ef le c t i v e , p o li sh e d , e q u i p p e d w i t h
imag es . In this m i r r o r is r e f l e c t e d
e v e r y t h i n g w hi c h the f i e r y r e g i o n
encompasses: in it s h i n es c l e a r e v e r y t h i n g
w h i c h the h e a v e n l y u n i v e r s e holds, but
the a p p e a r a n c e of t h e s e t h i n g s d i f f e r s from
the r e a l objects. H e r e one s e e s reali ty ,
here a shadow; h er e being, h e r e a p p ea r an c e :
h e r e light, the re an i ma g e of light . . . 169
This marvelous gl as s s e r v es P h r o n e s i s well,
steadying
. . . her eyes lest a li gh t too s t ro ng

for t h e m s t ri ke them, i n j u r e t h e m and
tire b o t h m in d and eyes. T he m i r r o r ac ts
as an i n t e r m e d i a r y to p r e v e n t a flood of
f ie r y light from b e a m i n g on her eyes
and r o b b i ng them of sight. By use of
this m i r r o r her eyes r e c o v e r . . .
and e nj o y the clear, g l e a m i n g light.
As her eyes e xp l o r e the mirr or ,
S o p h i a (P h r o n e s i s / P ru d e n c e ) sees th er e all
that the d i vi n e wo rl d e m b r a c e s . . . .
Her m in d as well as her eyes is
d e l i g h t e d and rids i t s el f of the m is t s
of d e l u s i o n as joy s u f f u s e s it. Every
125
s y m p t o m of her a f f l i c t i o n d i s a p p ea rs .
If her u n d e r s t a n d i n g of any a s p e c t s is
less th an c om p lete, the lady s t a n d i n g at
her sid e (F i d e s ) g ives her f u l le r
i n st r u c t i o n , m a k es good the d e f e c t s in
her u n d e r s t a n d i n g , lay s b a r e w h a t is h i d d e n
and lays op en wha t is cl os e d . . . . 170
An i l l u m i n a t i o n of this passage in a f o u r t e e n t h
c e nt u ry m a n u s c r i p t [ PLATE 50] n ow in the P o m m e r s f e l d e n
L ib r a r y (Ms. 2.15, fol. 162) s hows the scene: The f ig ur e
of Nou s (Soul), crowned and holding a scep te r, g e s t u re s
t oward F a i t h w h o h o l ds a mirror in her raised left hand,
and who, w i th her r ig ht hand, holds the ar m of a v ei le d
P h r o n e s i s .171
Bonaventure ( 1 2 17 -1 2 74 ), whose p h i l o s o p h y was
b a sed on the m e t a p h y s i c s of light, is p o s s i b l y anot he r
source for A m b r o g i o ' s iconography of the m i rr o r. Mirror
i m a g es a b o u n d in B o n a v e n t u r e 1s w orks, with the P a u li n e
f irst and s ec o nd C o r i n t h i a n t e xts frequently s er vi ng
as s p r i n g b o a r d s . In T he S o u l ' s J o u r n e y in to God
(I t i n e r a r i u m m e n t i s in D e u m ), B o n a v e n t u r e sees both the
p h y s i c a l w o rl d and the i n d i v i d u a l soul as m i r ro r s that
reflect God. 172 Through the e x p r e s s i o n of f aith in
prayer, we are i l l u m i n a t e d and ''receive l ight to d i s c e r n
the steps of the a sc e nt into G o d . "173 jn the steps
t oward God, there are t hr e e principal ones to take. The
first is to believe, to hav e faith, "to be led in the
path of G o d, " and once we hav e e n t e r e d into the " t r u t h of
126
j G o d , ” the c o m p a n y of the f a it h f ul , reaching the s e c o nd |

I
s ta g e of our j ou rney, we can see God "through a mirror or
I
| in a m i r r o r . "174
I
! A passage t ha t presents us w i t h an i m a g e s ti l l
j I
I . I
j closer to A m b r o g i o ’s F id e s w i t h its T r i n i t a r i a n i m a g o j
i !
dei in a m i r r o r is B o n a v e n t u r e ’s d e s c r i p t i o n of the t h ir d !
i
s ta g e we m u s t go t h r o u g h to r e a c h God. We must, he i
|
says, |
j
. . . en te r i n t o our v e ry selves;
and, as it were, l e a v i n g the o u t e r court,
we s h o u l d s t r i v e to see G od
through a mirror
in the s a nc t u a r y , that is,
in the f o r w a r d a re a of the t a b e r n ac l e .
H e re t he li gh t of truth,
as f r o m a c a n de l a b r u m ,
glo ws u p o n t he f a c e of our mind,
in w h i c h the i m a g e
of the m o s t b l e s s e d T r i n i t y
s h i n es in s p l e n d or . . . . *75
Later, Bonaventure reaffirms
W h e n . . . the soul c o n s i d e r s itself,

it r i s e s t h r o u g h i t s e l f as t h r o u g h a
m i r r o r to b e ho l d the b l e s s e d T r i n i t y
of the F at he r, the W o r d and Love:
t hr e e p er sons, c o et e r n a l , c o e q u a l
and c o n s u b s t a n t i a l .^76
And it is
the ima g e of our soul . . . / t ha t /

sho ul d be c l o t h e d w i t h the t h r e e t h e o l o g i c a l
vi rt ue s , by w h i c h the soul is p u r if ie d ,
i l l u m i n e d and p e r f e c t e d . . . . W h e n by
fa i th the soul b e l i e v e s in C h r i s t as the
u n c r e a t e d Word and S p l e n d o r of the F a ther,
it r e c o v e r s its s p i r i t u a l h e a r i n g and sight:
its h e a r i n g to r e c e i ve the w o r d s of C h r i s t
127
and its s ight to view the splendors of

that L i g h t . 177
B o n a v e n t u r e 1s i ma g e s of light, the mir r o r, and
faith, deriving f r o m St. Paul, would seem a c lose source
for Ambrogio's iconography for the T h e o l o g i c a l Virtue
of F i d e s . His composit io n confirms in a l i t e ra l way
B o n a v e n t u r e 's t h r e e f o l d pa t h to God, with Fides the first
s te p — and on the first step.l?® B o n a v e n t u r e 's d e s c r i p
t i o n of the T r i u n e God in the m i r r o r w ou ld al so s e e m to
link him closely to A m b r o g i o ' s singular interpretation.
Although the a s s o c i a t i o n of God and the m i r r o r
was established and expressed in t ex t and image, this
is the first, and possibly the only, depiction of the
Trinitarian i m a go dei in a m i r ro r. T he use of the image
as an a t t r i b u t e for the a l l e g o r i c a l figure of F i d e s is
surely uni qu e.
Mirrors of Imperfection. Delusion, and Vice
For the M i d d l e Ages, the m i r r o r had negative as
well as positive m e a n in g. T he m i r r o r of p e r f e c t i o n , the
pure me dium of d i vi n i t y , vir t u e, and truth, w as al s o
capable of signaling or r e v e a l i n g the presence of i m p e r
fection and of v ic e — i nner corruption not necessarily
visible in the sinner's outward appearance. As an i n
strument that reflected a fleeting semblance of re a li t y ,
128
I an i m ag e w i t h o u t s u bst an ce , the m ir r o r d ec e i v e d: Its j

| i
j r e f l e c t i o n s we re i l l us io n s. The m e t a p h o r i c a l or f i gu r a- |
I
S t ive use of " r e f l e c t i o n " and the m i r r o r in P l a t o and
j :
j Plotinus to c on v ey the i ll u so r y na tu re and imperfection
j i
! of the c r e at ed w o r l d provided a philosophical b as is for

i '
| this v i e w . 1 7 9 j
Augustine ( 3 5 4 - 4 3 0 A.D.), who m i s t r u s t e d the eye j

and its m e s s a g e s a b o ut reality, w as d ou b ly suspicious !
I j
of the mir ro r. In his S o l i l o q u i a , he w r o te of the s ed u c- j
j
tiveness of the r e f l e c t e d image, which is less real than j
wh at is t e m p o r a r i l y reflected in it.l**0 T he m i r r o r is j
the purveyor of a f a lse image; the r e f l e c t i o n is w i t h o u t
substance, transitory, an i ll us i o n . It is a t ri ck s te r,
fooling the u n w a r y or the u np r e pa r ed ; and a temptor,
enticing the v ie w er to b e l ie v e in the t ru t h of the re
flection .
Thus, the m i r r o r p u r v e y ed fa lse k n o w l e d g e as well
as true k n o w le d ge . In late a n tiq ui ty , and b ef o r e the
pe ri od of C h r i s t i a n d o mi na nc e , we k no w from a c c o u n t s such
as the A p o l o g i a of A p u l e i u s , 1 8 1 that the m i r r o r had begun
to a c q u i r e a bad r e p u t a t i o n as a d i v i n a t o r y ob je ct used
to d e c e i v e and trick.
Divination and o ther m a g ic a l arts w er e c o n d e m n e d
by e ar ly C h r i s t i a n s .182 Origen, in the third c e nt u ry
A.D.. wrote that d i v i n a t i o n was the work of evil
129
d e m o n s , 1^3 while T e r t u l l i a n (ca. 160-ca. 220) said that
the f al l e n a ng e l s we r e responsible for the i n v e n t i o n of
divination and m a g i c . 184 Hippolytus ( t hird century A.D.),
Lactantius (ca. 250-after 317 A.D.), and Augustine added
t heir v o ic e s to the indictment of the o c c u l t a r t s . 185
But despite the C h u r c h ' s general indictment against m a gi c
and sorcery, o cc u l t practices c o n t i n u e d .185
For the e arly C h r i s t i a n s , the l o o k i n g g lass was
associated w it h sin s of the flesh. The w a n t o n and haughty
daughters of Sio n wit h t he ir m i r r o r s and f i n er y ( I s ai a h
3:23) w e re to be shunned, for God had l i nk e d their use to
prideful and vain b eh av i o u r . Accounts such as S e n e c a ' s
telling of the m i s u s e of the m i r r o r for l e c he r y doubtless
added to its m a l o d o r o u s reputation d u ri n g the f ir st
Christian c e n t u r i e s .187 The immorality and m e r e t r i c i o u s
nes s of the m i r r o r w er e u n d e r s c o r e d by the visible
evidence of a n c i e n t pa gan art, the f r e q u en t use of sen
sual, eve n erotic, figures to d e c o r a t e m i rr or s , and, in
p a i n t i n g and s cu lp t ur e, the d e p i c t i o n of the d e i t i e s of
antiquity us ing them. All combined to give the m i r r o r its
negative connotations.
The M e d i e v a l V enu s
Venus appears in the Christian era as a f i g u r e of
130
j several facets: she is the pagan d ei ty of love, p r o c r e a-

!
! tion, and beauty; a planetary godde ss ; and a h a r l o t .
I The two V e n u s e s of a n t i q u i t y — one w ho r u le s over

l
I
s e n s u a l i t y , and one w h o as e e n e t r i x is the e p i t o m e of
| harmonious c r e a t i o n a nd balance — were known to the
! e a rl y m e d i e v a l world through the w r i t i n g s of L uc r et i us ,
| Plotinus, Fulgentius, and o t h e r s . *89
S he a p p e a r s on f o ur t h century A.D. work, the si lv er
bridal casket of S e c u n d u s and P r oj e c t a , from the E s q u i l i n e
j t r e a s ur e , sh ows Venus a n a d v o m e n e , seated in a s h e l l . *90
i [ P L A T E 51] Venus is h o l d i n g a m i r r o r just as P h i l o s t r a t u s
the E l d e r ( se co n d century A.D.) described the g o d d e s s ' s
typical action, and a p p e a r s to a d j u s t her h a i r . 191 Sea
creatures and e r o t e s s u r r o u n d her, as w as common in late
classical works depicting the g o d d e s s ' s t o i le t te . Below,
the b ri d e P r o j e c t a is s ho w n in her boudoir, her g e s t u r e
echoing the g o d de s s' s . A servant holds a mirror for her.
In bot h m i rr o r s, the a r t i s t has suggested reflected
i mages. V e n us and P r o j e c t a, the bride, are l in k e d by
shared activity and by implied references to lov e and
f e c u n d i ty . Other myt hological scenes and a s ce ne of
betrothal decorate the o ther s id es of the casket. The
inscription reads, "Secundus et P r o j e c t a vivatis in
Christo," thus placing the w o r k in its C h r i s t i a n cont ex t.
At t h i s e a r l y date, V enus, as goddess of love, w a s an
131
appropriate choice for a c a s k et celebrating love and

I
marriage. |
TheVenus of the P r o j e c t a c a s ke t w as the goddess of j

| I
! antiquity, acceptable in a Christian setting in this e ar l y j
j |
work. This casket d at e s from a period in w h i c h elements j
!
| f ro m b ot h c l a s s i c a l and C h r i s t i a n traditions inhabited the
same space ap parently without s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s and w i t h
out c l ea r m o r a l i z i n g of pa ga n t h e me s in w o r k s of art s uc h j
i
as t h i s . 192 The Venus of the syncretized Projecta casket,
clearly the a n c i e n t goddess of love, here represents the j
fruitfulness of love that is s a n c t i f i e d by a C h r i s t i a n
marriage.
Although the two V e n u s e s of a n t i q u i t y were known to
the M i d d l e A g e s , ^ 9 3 the prevailing i de a of the classical
goddess of l ov e d u r i n g the e ar ly m e d i e v a l centuries was
that of an e r o t i c c o ur t e s a n , not of the goddess of h a r m o n y
and b al an ce .
T h e r e was, in fact, the e u h e m e r i s t i c tradition that
saw V e n u s as a real c o u r t e s a n w ho had b ee n deified in
earliest times. Clement of A l e x a n d r i a (d. 216) w r o t e of
Venus in t h i s way, as did L a c t a n t i u s (ca.250-317) and
Firmicus Maternus (fl. 334-355).1^4
The Christian mythographer F u l g e n t i u s ,195 w ho
flourished at the end of the fifth century or the begin
ni ng of the s ix t h c en t u r y, wrote in his M y t h o l o g i s e , that
132
V enus, for the a nc ie n t s , was a "symbol of the life of
i 1.1 Qfs
pleasure* ~
The t heme of lust is r e p e a t e d throughout
Fulgentius' p a s sa g e on the g od de s s. He s a y s that she
! is d e p i c t e d as nu d e " e i t h e r because she s e n d s out he r
| devotees naked or b e c a u s e the sin of lust is n e ve r cloaked

j
I
or b e c a u s e it only s u i ts the n a k e d . "197 The a n c ie n ts ,
according to F u l g e n t i u s , s a w V e n us as the p a t r o n of the
"lecherous" dove, and the rose, because
. . . r oses bot h g ro w red and h a ve t horns,

as lust b l u s h e s at the o u t r a g e to m o d e s t y
and p r i c k s w i t h the s t i n g of sin; and
as the rose g i v e s p le a s u r e , but is s w e p t
awa y by the s w i ft m o v e m e n t of the s eason,
so lu st is p l e a s a n t for a m om en t, but
d i s a p p e a r s f o r e v e r . . . .198
She w as envisioned as s w i m m i n g in the sea, accord
ing to his u n d e r s t a n d i n g and interpretation, for the
reason that
. . . all lust s u f f e r s s h i p w r e c k of its a f f a i r s

w h e n c e also P o r f y r i u s in his E p i g r a m s d e c l ar e s:
'The s h i p w r e c k e d s a il o r of V e n u s in t h e deep,
n a k ed and d e s t i t ut e .' S he is a ls o d e p i c t e d
c a r r y i n g a s e as he ll , b e c a u s e an o r g a n i s m of
this kind, as J u b a (P l in y) n o t es in his
p h y s i o l o g i c a l w r i t i n g s , is a l w a y s l i n k e d in
ope n c o u p l i n g t h r o u g h its e n t i r e b o d y . 199
Thus, V en us is i d e n t i f i e d with the s i n of l u x u r i a
by t h e o l o g i a n s and m y t h o g r a p h e r s of the early Christian
e r a .200
133
! The characterization of the classical love goddess ;

I i
; as the e p i t o m e of l a s c i v i o u s n e s s was extended to the j
i i
i
j planetary Venus, who was a ls o generally personified as an
iastral d e i t y who g o ve r ne d s en su al love and the p ur su i t of
p l e a s u r e . 201 M a r t i n of B r a ca ra , writing in si xt h c e nt u r y
i !
j Spain, called the c e l e s t i a l V en us a whore, and all the j
i ;
! o th e r p l a n e t a r y gods c r i m i n a l s .202 :
i * |
j T h e mirror, s ym bo l ic of lust, entered the C h r i s t i a n j
i I
j era in the ha n d s of V e n u s . 203 Medieval representations of j
the goddess appear to h a v e been i n f r e q ue n t , if we can |

I
fairly j ud ge f ro m the l im it e d number of s u r v i v i n g wo r ks
from the E a r l y C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d . 204 The m i r r o r of V en u s
is soon transferred to a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r es w ho e mb o d y the
sinful nature of the a n c i e n t g od dess.
At the same time, we see m i r r o r handles and box
covers on w h i c h the a nc i e n t t h em e s of l ov e and beau t y
associated w i t h Venus, are presented without a p pa r en t
censure throughout the M i d d l e Ages. Ve n us h e rs e lf is
seemingly a b se n t in the i c on og r a p h y , although the "God of
Love," a Cupid-like youth, who f i g u r e s in s e v e ra l medieval
romances s u c h as the t w e l f t h c e n t u r y Le F a b e l dou D ie u
d *A m o u r s . and in the late thirteenth century poem R o ma n
de la R o s e , 205 a pp e a r s o ft e n on m i r r o r c as e s of the
fourteenth century.
In this iv o r y m i r ro r case fr om the second quarter
of the f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y [PLATE 52], the God of Love,
w it h a r r o w s in e ac h hand, stan ds in a tree, w h i l e a young

i
i man and w o m a n are c o u r t i n g under the f l o w e r i n g branches.

I
; The God has a l r e a d y p i e r c e d the w o m a n ’s h ea rt and she
i
j k n ee l s b e f o r e her bel ov e d . At the c a s e ’s borders,
| grotesque h um a n h e a d s w it h the ears of a s s e s look on,
p er h ap s s er v i n g as a m o c k i n g commentary on the folly of
l o v e .206
Scenes of love and c o ur ts hi p , of primping and the
p ur s ui t of f a s h i o n a b l e p le asures, are depicted on m any
mir ro r s . Lovers beneath a tree are seen on the back of a
late t w e l f th c e n t u r y G e r m a n b r on ze gilt m ir ro r , while the
f ig u r e s of a m a n and w o m a n e m b r a c i n g a re represented on
its h a n d l e . 207 [ P LA T E 53]
Th e f o u r t e e n t h ce nt u ry F r e n c h i v o r y m i r r o r - b a c k
no w in the M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of Art [ PL AT E 54] o f f er s a
v ie w of c o u r t l y p as t i m e s . In this ex a mp l e , a m a n and w o m a n
are seen on h o r s e b a c k e n ga g i n g in the popular sport of
f alco n r y. Genre scenes s uch as this w e r e c o m m o n . 2 ^®
I l l u m i n a t io n s, such as this m a r g i n a l drawing in the
Luttrell Psa lt er , ca. 1340, s how a servant holding a
mirror for a lady as she combs her hair. [PLA TE 55] All
r ec a l l the sc op e of i m ag e s for V e n u s in a n t i q u i t y , and
r e f l ec t a continuation of the t he m e s of love and beauty
— expurgated — in the M i d d l e Ages.
135
Si re n s and N e r e i d s
T he mi r ro r is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the sea s ir e n s of
the M i d d l e Ages, as it was w i t h the s ir en s of a n t i q u i t y
-- t hose c r ea t u r e s of b i r d - l i k e a s p e c t whose sweet song
l ur ed s a ilo rs to s h i p w r e c k on the r oc ks anu so to th eir
deaths. 209 The b i r d - s i r e n s of a n c i e n t lore, often seen
as the s e r v a nt s of A p h r o d i t e - V e n u s , wer e l in ke d to temp
t a t i o n and d eath as we ll as to kn ow l e d g e. T h e y wer e
transmogrified into the sea c r e a t u r e or m e r m a i d of the
Christian era, and w er e cautionary figures of sin and
deception for the M i d d l e Ages.
H om e r ' s description in the O d y s s e y 2 ^ of Od ys s eu s'
encounter wit h the d a n g e r o u s l y seductive si r en s w as a
strong i mage r ed o le nt of the e v i l s of s u c c u m b i n g to
earthly delights, one that was m o r a l i z e d in R o m e by such
L a t i n w r i t e r s as Seneca, w ho alluded f u r th e r to t he i r
l us t fu l nature.2H Classical references to the si re n s
s e r v e d to r e i n f o r c e the e vi l r e p u t a t i o n the y had in
Isaiah. On B i b l i c a l a u th o r i t y , the y we r e creatures of
v i c e . 2 ^2 In I s a i ah they a re the d e f i l e d inhabitants of
the w i c k e d city of B a b y l on , w h i c h the Lo rd threatens to
destroy as c o m p l e t e l y as S o d om and G o mo rr ah : So d e s o l a t e
w il l the once g l o r i ou s and p r i d e fu l Babylon be that it be
home only to wil d beasts, s er pe n ts , o s t r i ch es , owls, and
"sirens in the t e m pl e s of pleasure." ( Is ai a h 13:23)
136
J Taking up the B i b l i c a l text, Clement of A l e x a n d r i a

I
I
j (d. before 215) and other theologians of the P a t r i s t i c
| age called s i r e ns v o l u p t u a r i e s .213 Boethius (ca. 48 0-

i
j 524) e c h oe d this indictment in his e n o r m o u s l y influential
| C o n s o l a t i o n of P h i l o s o p h y , and was h i m s e l f f o l l o w e d by
I
j l a te r t h e o l o g i a n s such as A l an of Lille, who also a c c u s e d
the sirens of t a k i n g away m a n ' s r e a s o n . 214 The c o n d e m n a
tion ie st i ll vehement in the fourteenth c en tury, and in
the w o r k s of P i e r r e Bersuire and B r u n e t t o Lati ni , the
siren is a h a r l o t (m e r e t r i x ) .215 Bersuire, in his

|
R e p e r t o r i u m m o r a l e , p l a ce s the s i r en s e ve n ah e ad of the
Apocalyptic Great Whore of B a b y l o n in o r d e r of d i s c u s
sion, t h u s e m p h a s i z i n g th ei r insidious and pervasive
i m m o r a l i t y .216
In C h r i s t i a n po le mi cs , the s ir e n w as a p r o s t i tu t e,
a seductive t e m p t r e s s who, through deceptive p l e as ur e,
took away man's reason. The s ir e n ' s m ir r o r , howev er ,
d oe s not figure into the m e d i e v a l literary t r a d i t i o n . 217
In m e d i e v a l art, the a n c i e n t sir en is a p p a r e n t l y fused
with i d e a s and i m a g e s of the bi r th of A p h r o d i t e - V e n u s
and images of N e r e i d s, daughters of a sea god who lived
beneath the w a t e rs . The N er ei d s , like m a n y other sea
deities had the gift of p r oph ec y, have been s u gg e st e d
as a s o ur c e of the m e d i e v a l m e r m a i d . 218 They, too, had
the a t t r i b u t e of a m i rr or . [PL AT E 56] A C o p ti c w o v e n
137
tapestry from the f o u r t h century A.D., n o w at Dumbarton
Oaks, in W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., represents the b ol d image of
an e l a b o r a t e l y coiffed N er ei d , who gazes i nt o a la rg e
convex mirror which she h ol d s w i t h the r ig h t hand. Her
own image, reduced in size, is r e f l e c t e d in the c u r v e d
l oo k i n g glass.
A N e re i d, s h o wn w i t h a mirror and riding on
the back of a sea m o n s t e r , is d e p i c t e d on a s e v e n t h
century silver flask [PLA T E 57] no w in the H e r m i t a g e ,
L e n i n g r a d ,219 a w o r k that m i g h t lend further credence to
the idea of an e v o l v i n g mer-figure t ha t is a c o n f l a t i o n
of s ev e r a l images.
Mer-figures w i th m i r r o r s are s e en in the m a r g i n s
of m e d i e v a l manuscripts, s u c h as a w o r k f ro m the end of
the thirteenth century in B i b l i o t h e q u e Nationale fr. 95
[PL AT E 5 8 ].220 This male (?) figure, w i t h a fi sh tail,
looks into a ro un d m i r r o r w h i l e c o m b i n g h i s hair. A
reflected image is s u g g e s t e d by the a rt ist.
Sirens and m e r m a i d s were frequent subjects in
s cu lp t u re , and are a mo n g the f a n t a s t i c st o ne creatures
that decorated churches of the p eri od . Amidst foliate
forms and o th e r a n i ma l and bi rd f ig u r es , a mermaid or
siren studies her visage in a c i r c u l a r looking glass
[PLATE 59] on a l at e thirteenth century capital from the
Abbey of M a u b u i s s o n , now in the L ou vr e.
138
I The images d i s c u s s e d here, w hich are typ i c al

I
medieval representations, seem i n n o c en t enough, even
fanciful, when c o m p a r e d w i th the language of c o n d e m n a t i o n
used by the t h e ol og i an s. But, since the s ir en s were
d e c e i v e r s who t e mp te d all but the most wary, the a rtist
of the M i d d l e Ages was p r e s e n t i n g not a d e - n a t u r e d image
but a fit ti n g interpretation of the d a n ge r of t r u s t in g
m e re a pp ea ra n ce s . T he i r p r e s en c e as d r o l e r i e s in m a n u
s cr i p t s and in e c c l e s i a s t i c a l s e t t i n g s m us t h av e served
as s i gna ls of peril — cautionary r e m inders.
The s y m b ol i c m irror, a d ded to the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of the m e d i e v a l siren, would seem to d e r i v e f r o m sev er a l
sources. C e rt ai nl y, the b i r d - s i r e n of a n t i q u i t y w as
i ts e lf a s s o c i a t e d wi t h the m i rr o r in art, and e x a m p l e s
may have been k n o wn in the M i d d l e Ages. It is likely,
too, that the m i r r o r of V e n u s w as e as i ly transferred to
the sirens. The l a sc i v i o u s r e p u t a t i o n of V e n u s influ
e n ce d the m e d i e va l idea of the mirror: it was c l e a r l y an
ob je ct a s s o c i a t e d w it h c o n c u p i s c e n c e and o ther evils. In
this way, it w a s an o b vi ou s a t t r i b u t e for the s i re n s of
the M i dd l e Ages.
Luxuria
In text and image, the m i r r o r was c l e a r l y a s s o c i -
ated wi th i m p u r i ty and d ec e i t in the m e d i e v a l mind. The
139
mirror-bearing prostitutes of I sa i a h ( 3 :23 ),221 the h ar l ot
g o d d e s s Venus, and the temptress s ir e ns confirmed suc h an j
I
association. In the t h i r t e e n t h century, the a l l e g o r i c a l j
| f i g u r e of L u x u r i a (Lust) acquired the attribute of the
t I
j I
j m ir ro r , as did the G r e a t W h o r e of the A p o c a l y p s e and o ther i
i j
j agglomerated f i gu r e s representing the temptation and e v i ls j
j of lust, pride, and vanity; and in the f o u r t e e n t h cent ur y , j

j the m i r r o r becomes a symbolic o bj e c t for s till m o r e |
figures related to the a n c i e n t t e m p t r e s s e s of the Old j
Testament and of the c l a s s i c a l w orld.
Before the t h i r t e e n t h century, the a l l e g o r i c a l
f ig u re of L u x u r i a w a s r e p r e s e n t e d variously as a w a r r i o r
in b a t t l e d r e s s w i t h her s ister V i c e s in p s y c h o m a c h i a ; as
a richly-dressed woman in T r e e s of V ic e and in o t her
c o nt e xt s ; as a pair of lovers; and as a n ak ed w o m a n w h o s e
se xu al o r ga n s are b e i n g d e v o u r e d by t oads and
s n a k e s .222
The m ir ro r a p p e a r s as a new a t t r i b u t e for the
allegorical f i g ur e of L u x u r i a in the ea rly d e c a d e s of the
century in r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the Vic e at the c a t h e d r a l s
of Lyon, Auxe r r e, C ha r tr e s , Amiens, and N ot re Da me in
P a r i s . 223 p or i ns ta n ce , in the r o s e - w i n d o w at N ot re Dame
in P aris, we see a l u x u r i o u s l y - a t t i r e d figure, the per
sonification of L u x u r i a .224 [PLATE 60] She looks
intently at h e rs el f in the round l o ok i ng g lass w h i c h she
140
1
holds, in o rder to a dj u st her a p p e a r a n c e . This g e n er al
1 |
representation, so r e m i n i s c e n t of the familiar s u b je c t of i
| V e n u s at her toilet, b e c om e s a s t a n d a r d pose for this
Vice, with the m i r r o r as her mos t constant attri b u t e .225 :
I S i m il a rl y , in a T r e e of V i c es fr o m the B u r c k h a r d t - W i l d t
j !
j Apocalypse (end of the t h i r t e e n t h ce nt ur y) , we see L u x u r i a '
at the top of the tree, primping as she g a ze s into the

! :
i c i r c u l a r m i r r o r hel d in her r ight h a n d . 2 2 6 [ PLATE 6 1 ] I
i
i ;
i
jShe o c c u p i e s a c en t r a l position, in d ir e c t a xi s f r o m the j
l a rge dominant figure of S u p e r b i a (Pride), the sin fro m !
which all o th e rs spring, who is s e a t e d at the root in the
l o we r cen te r. Her sinful qualities are i n s c r i b e d on
branches to each side, as are t h os e of her s i st e r V i c e s
who are a r r a y e d on a u x i l i a r y limbs.
An i m a ge of a c o u r t e s a n - t y p e w i t h a m i r r o r in a
thirteenth c e n tu ry B i b le m o r a l i s e e in the B i b l i o t h e q u e
N a t i o n a l e 2 2 7 r e c al l s these i ma g es of L u x u r i a . [ PL AT E 62]
In a m e d a l l i o n illustrating Proverbs 9 : 3 T ? ; in w h i c h the
w a y s of S a p i e n t i a and S t u l t i t i a are c o n t r a s t e d , we see a
woman, s ea t e d in the c e n t e r u n der a gable, and beckoning
to m en who pass by on the street. She is d e s c r i b e d by the
author of P ro v erbs:
A f o o l i s h w o m a n and c l a m o r o u s , and
full of a ll u r e m e nt s , and k n o w i n g n o t hi n g
at all, sat at the door of her house,
upon a seat, in a high p lace of the city,
141
------------------------------------------------------------------------
I
| To call them that pass by the way, and
i go on their journey.
| ( P ro ve r b s Q :13— 15)
' In the a c c o m p a n y i n g miniature, the w om a n, who acts

i
! like a c o u r t e sa n , h o l ds up a l o o ki ng glass, as t h o u g h it
were an e m b l e m or sign of her i n t e n t . 228 At the left,
the robed f ig u re of S a p i e n t i a , h ol ds an op e n book; her
r i g ht hand, echoing the c o u r t e s a n ' s gestu re , is rai se d
as t h o u g h in w a r n i n g or a d m o n i s h m e n t . Following text and
image, the w o ma n is a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of S t u l t i t i a and
Luxuria c om b i n e d. H er m irror, with its d e c e p t i v e and
evanescent reflection of the world, underscores the fool
ishness of s e ek i ng the f l e e t i n g pleasures of the f l esh and
the world.
Great Whore of the A p o c a l y p s e
Throughout the M i d d l e Ages, t here w as an o m n i
present preoccupation with eschatology and a foreboding of
imminent apocalypse. The c a t a c l y s m i c revelation of John,
as d e s c r i b e d in the B i b l i c a l A p o c a l yp se , w as the a u t h o r i
t at i v e text that gav e history its t e r r i f y i n g c limax, and
the m e d i e v a l w o r ld the sure and terrible conviction that
the celestial c l o c k was s w if t ly ticking away to the m o m e n t
of J u d g m e n t and the End. 229 A ug u st in e , Gregory the Great,
Bede, and B ea t u s of Lieb an a, w e re a m o n g the e arly m e d i e v a l
142
i w r i t e r s wh o interpreted the B i b i i c a i text, commenting j
j on h i s t o r i c a l finitude and supplying visions of the j
| M i l l e n i u m . 230 |
i
j I
| In the t h i r t e e n t h c en tu ry , a new and urgent s ense j
j of impending doomgripped Europe. 231 Based on i n t e r p r e - \

j j
j tations of a C a l a b r i a n abbot and hermit, Joachim of F i o re j
( 1 1 4 5- 1 20 2 ) , it was believed that the w o r l d w a s due to end |
in the year 1260.232 Joachim's successors in p r o p h e c y j

j
offered alternative dates for A p o c a l y p s e f r o m the yea r j
1 30 0 to the 1380 's . 233 News of the appearance of the
Antichrist and imminent c a ta c l y s m , s pr ea d in part t h ro u gh
the w r i t i n g s and teachings of the F r a n c i s c a n S p i r i t ua l s,
produced a measure of h y s t e r i a and the s e n s e of impending
c a t a s t r o p h e w as omnipresent through the t h i r t e e n t h and
fourteenth c e n t u r i e s .234 j n both w or d and image, escha-
tological visions of the D i e s ira e a b o u n d . 235 Admonitions
to repent, to re fo rm , and to cast out sin in o r de r to
avoid damnation w er e preached with n ew i m m e d i a c y .
In the m i d d l e of the t h i r t e e n t h ce nt u r y , against
this background of d o o m - f i l l e d expectation and e xc i t a t i o n ,
a number of illuminated manuscripts of the A p o c a l y p s e
of J oh n a p p e a r s f i rs t in E n g l a n d and then in F ra nc e .
Although illustrated apocalyptic manuscripts had been
produced in e a r l i e r centuries, notably in S p a i n w i t h the
gloss of B e a t u s of L i e ba n a, t h ose of the t h i r t e e n t h
143
. . |
! century are e s p e c i a l l y p l en ti fu l. j
| In a n umber of A n g l o - N o r m a n manuscripts p r o d u ce d in |
j the m i dd l e of the t h i r t e e n t h centu ry , the G reat W h o r e of !

i |
| the A p o c a l y p s e is r e p r e s e n t e d for the f i rst time w i t h a i
i j
mirror. N ei t h e r the B i b l i c a l text nor the a c c o m p a n y i n g j
I
i
j glosses by m ed i e v a l commentators mention this particular !
! a t t r i bu t e. In the A p oc a l y p se , the Whore, p e r ha p s a j

j i
i personification of the devil's city, identified with \

1 !
B ab y lo n, is r ev e al e d to Joh n by one of the s even angels, j
w ho says to him: j
. . . Come, I wil l shew thee the

c o n d e m n a t i o n of the great harlot,
w ho s i t te t h upon m a n y waters,
W it h w h o m the k i n gs of the e a r t h have
c o m m i t t e d f o r ni c at i o n ; and they who
i n h a b i t the earth, have been made
d r u n k wit h the win e of her wh or ed om .
And he took me awa y in s p i ri t
into the desert.
( A p o c a l y p s e 17:1-2)
T h i s v is io n of the G reat W h o r e is e x e m p l i f i e d by an
illustration fro m an A p o c a l y p s e w i t h an a n o n y m o u s F r e n c h
g l o s s 2 3 6 Bibliotheque N a t i o n a l e Ms. fr. 403, probably
illuminated b efore 1 2 4 5 . 2 3 7 [ PLATE 65] T he Whore, s eated
upon the waves, h o lds up a round m i r r o r in her left hand,
into w h i ch she a p p ea r s to gaze. At left and center, are
the large f ig ur e s of John and the angel, and next to them,
at far left, a narrow architect ur al grouping suggesting a
city. The angel looks at the h al o e d John b e s id e him, and
144
po in t s to the W ho re , directing the s a i n t ' s attention to
h e r .238
In the n ex t p a s s a g e of the A p o c a l y p s e , J oh n
I
describes the W h o r e r i d i n g on the seven-headed beast:
And I saw a w o m a n s i t ti n g upo n a s c a r l e t

c o l o u r e d beast, full of n a m es of b l a s p h e m y,
h a v i n g s e ve n h e a d s and ten horns. And the
w o m a n was c l o t h e d r ound a b o u t w i t h p u r p le
and scarlet, and gilt w i th gold, and p r e c i o u s
s t o n e s and pearls, h a vi n g a g o ld e n cup in her
hand, full of the a b o m i n a t i o n and f i l t h i n e s s
of her f o r n i c a t i o n . And on her f o r e h e a d
a n a me was w ri tt en : A m y st er y; B a b y l o n the
great, the m o t h e r of the f o r n i c a t i o n s , and
the a b o m i n a t i o n s of the earth.
( A p o c a l y p s e 17:3-5)
Th e i l l u m i n a t o r of P a r i s B i b l i o t h £ q u e Nationale
manuscript fr. 403 represents the W h o re riding up on the
beast, as d e s c r i b e d in the B i b l i c a l text, w h i l e John, in
the a r ms of the angel, l ooks on (fol. 3 3{2)) . [P L AT E 67]
Th e W hore, s ea t e d side-saddle on the l e o p a r d - l i k e s e v e n
h ea d e d a nimal, is r i c h l y d r e s s e d and c r ow ne d. In her
r ight hand, she h o l ds up an o r b - l i k e covered cup. Her
r i g h t h an d grasps a circular mirror at w a i s t level, and
which is p r op p ed a g a i n s t her knee. A similar rendering
of the s c e ne is d e p i c t e d in the c l o s e l y r el a t e d Pierpont
Morgan Library manuscript 524 (fol. 16v), p r o d uc e d
ca. 1245-1255.239 [ PL A T E 6 8 ]
In the s um p tu o us , roughly contemporaneous Trinity
Apocalypse (R.16.2), a w o r k w i th excerpts of the g l oss by
145
j |
Berengaudus (in F re n ch ), the illustrator h as m a d e a j
i
c o m p o s i t e of the textual sequence of the w o m a n u po n the j
| waters and upo n the s e v e n - h e a d e d b e as t (fol. 20r).240 i

! i
| [ P L AT E 69] T he W hore, at far right, is s e at e d upo n a !
| i
i c a s c a d e of w ater, looking into a multi-colored m i r r o r disc |
! !
j held in her right han d w h i l e a d j u s t i n g her h e a d d r e s s w i t h j
i
her left in a g es t u r e that c l o s e l y e c h o e s the a c t i o n s of j
the a n t i q u e V e n us and early medieval sea s i r e n s . 241 j
Following this vision of f l o u r i s h i n g sin and j
t e m p o ra l riches, John s ee s the fall of the W h o r e and the j
ci t y of B a b y l o n ( 18 : 1- 2 4) . For the W h o r e ' s reign of vice
did not go u n n o t i c e d by God, and the L o r d ' s judgements are
visited on the g r ea t harlot who b r o u g h t s uc h c o r r u p t i o n to
the earth. John's imprecation is to
R e n d e r to her as she a l s o ha th
r e n d e r e d to you; and d ou b l e un t o her
d ou b l e a c c o r d i n g to h er works;
in the cup w h e r e i n she h a t h m in g l ed ,
m i n g l e ye d o u b l e u nt o her (18:6) . . . .
. . . . her p l a g u e s c om e in one day, death,

and m ou r ni ng , and famine, and she shall
be b u rn t w i t h the fire; b e c a u s e God is
strong, who s ha ll j ud ge her. (18:18)
The s moke f ro m h er b u r n i n g is seen to ri se forever
(19:3). John's vision of the d e f e a t e d W h o r e is i l lu s -
| t ra t e d in the P a r is Apocalypse, Bibliotheque Nationale

i
fr. 403 (fol. 35). [ P L A T E 70] The scene, as o b s e r v e d by
Joh n (at left), reveals the c o l l a p s e d Whore at the l o we r j
146
c e nt e r. She s till h ol ds her m i rr o r disc, while red s moke
r i se s f r o m her pyr e to the h e a v e n s and t he domain of the
Lord. He is seen there, enclosed in a q u a d r i l o b e d cap
sule, f l a nk ed by the symbolic b ea s ts of the E v a n g e l i s t s .
At left are m u s i c a l angels and below a company of c r o w n e d
e l d e r s w ho are suspended in w o r s h i p f u l attention within a
cloud-banked e nv el o p e . (19:1 -4 )
As we hav e seen, John m a k es no m e n t i o n of a m i r r o r
in this description or in any o ther v i s i o n s of the G re at
Wh ore, nor do the c o m m e n t a r i e s of B e r e n g a u d u s in M o r g a n
Manuscript 524 and the T r i n i t y Apocalypse and the a n o n y
mous glossator in the P a r i s A p o c a l y p s e discussed here.
Th e m i r r o r w a s c l e a r l y an e a s i l y - r e a d attribute for
harlotry, established on B i b l i c a l authority in the often-
c i te d verse in I s ai a h (3:23), in w h i c h the sinful behavior
of the w a n t o n d a u g h t e r s of Si o n is l i n k e d to the u s e of
looking g l a s s e s . 242 This meaning w as u n d e r s c o r e d by
Christian interpretations of p ag an art, and perpetuated
in the V e n u s - L u x u r i a and V e n u s - S i r e n conflations that
abounded in m e d i e v a l a r t . 2 4 3
The mirror-bearing figures of L u x u r i a , w h i c h are
see n in e c c l e s i a s t i c a l reliefs in the e a r l y decades of
the thirteenth century just a few y e a r s b e fo r e the G reat
Whore a c q u i r e s her looking glass, would appear to be an
immediate s o u rc e for the G r e a t W h o r e ’s a t t r i b u t e . 2 4 4
147
Vanitas
From the f irs t centuries of the C h r i s t i a n era, the
I mirror had bee n viewed by t h e o l o g i a n s as an object of
I
|
V
_
a_ n _i t_ a _s ( va n i t y ). Tertullian, writing in the t hird j
j
I
l
J centu r y, c o m m e n t e d on w o m e n * s excessive use of the l oo ki n g
j glass, observing h ow the y c o n s t a n t l y lo o ke d at t h e ms e lv e s , j
{ always seeking to increase t he i r a t t r a c t i v e n e s s .245

| '
Isidore of S e v i l l e (d. 636), in his w i d e l y influential
Etymologies (E t y m o l o g i a r u m l i b r i ) , a s s o c i a t e d the m i r r o r
i
w it h feminine vanity:
M i r r o r s a re o r n a m e n t s w h i c h w o m e n u se to look
at t h e i r faces. One say s ' s peculum' (mirr or )
b e c a u s e the w o m e n w ho u s e t h e m a p p r e c i a t e
t h e i r o w n 'speciem' (b e au ty ), and w h e n b e f o r e
a m i r r o r add all o r n a m e n t a t i o n that s e e m s to
be m i s s i n g . 246
Later mediev al glossaries follow I s i d o r e a nd link the word
speculum to v a n i t y . 247
H u g h of St. Cher (ca. 1200-1263) t o ok the f a m i l i a r
passage f ro m I s a i a h (3:23) in w h i c h the L o r d speaks of
taking the m i r r o r s and f i ne r y f r om the h a u g h t y women of
Sion, as a r e f e r e n c e to v a n i t y . 248
"Vanity of v a n i t i e s . . .all is v a n i t y , " said
Ecclesiastes (1:2). All the temporal pleasures, s e lf -
indulgence, and preoccupation with physical beauty, are
e ph e m e r a l , and death is the c o n st a n t . The v a n it a s t heme
148
j is seen in a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a s k e T e ta l f i gu r e of simian J
aspect l oo ki n g at i t se l f in a m i r r o r disc in a F r e n c h j
psal te r, ca. 1 29 0-1300, in the M o r g a n L i br a ry , Manuscript
796 (fol. 9 1 v ) .249 [PLATE 711

! !
! Thi s small m a r g i n a l drawing is an early, and pos- |
iJ s ibly a prototypical i m ag e in w h i c h death and the looking

. i
j
gl ass are c o nj o i n e d in a c a u t i o n a r y work. Looking in the
mirror, mortality is c o n f r o n t e d . Here, in a s o m e w ha t
h u m o r o u s vein, a dead person or m o n k e y - l i k e c r e a t u r e may
search the m ir r o r v ai n ly for the life that it onc e re
vealed. The image in the m i r r o r (not for us to see here)
was, like life, but fl e e ti ng .
A m ir r o r of v a n i t a s is later seen in the h a n d s of a
d a m n e d w o m a n in H e l l 2 5 0 in the f r e s c o c yc le in the C a m p o
S a nt o of Pisa, probably painted in the s e c on d quarter of
the f o u r t e e n t h c en tu ry , and sometimes a t t r i b u t e d to
F r a n c e s c o T ra i ni or, m or e r ec en t ly , to B u f f a l m a c o .251
[P L AT E 72] In this h o r r e n d o u s v i s i o n of da mn a t i o n, w i th
its tit an i c d emon p r e s i d i n g over the t or tu r e of w r i t h i n g
and d e g r a de d figures, a w om an , at e x t r e m e l ower right
corner, looks i n t e n t l y into a handmirror which she h o l ds
up in her r ight hand. She w e a r s a m o c k c r ow n as do the
s ev er al fig ur es ar o un d her. Eve n as she e n d u r e s eternal
d am na ti on , she d i s p l a y s the e m b l e m of the m o r t a l sin that
b r ou g ht her to such a t e r r i f y i n g end.
149
j
i Oiseuse
!
As m e n t i o n e d earlier, mirrors f alse and true ap p ea r
i in the R o m a n de la R o s e , the g r eat thirteenth c e n tu r y poem
j by G u i l l a u m e de L o r r i s (ca. 1212-ca. 1237) and Jea n de
| Meun (ca. 1237 - 1305 ).252 This monumental work, w h i c h was

! j
S composed ove r a span of m or e than four decades, was j
i |
! started bv G u i l l a u m e around 1237. It is p r e s u m e d that [

i ' !
he died b ef o r e he c ou ld c o m p l e t e it, and the poem was
r e s um e d a bo ut 1277 by Jean de M e u n . 253 Guillaume began
his poe m as an a l l e g o r y of love, an a c c o u n t of the p oe t ' s
youthful d r e a m - v i s i o n , the D r e a m e r ' s q u es t for a Beloved,
the id eal love who is the R o s e . 2 ^^ At the beginning of
the R o m a n , the D r e am e r c omes u p o n a wal l decorated wit h
i ma g es of V i l l a i n y and Avarice, Covetousness, Envy, and
ot her hateful vices, but i n s i d e this w a ll is g l i m p s e d a
fair g a r d e n of jo yo us bounty, and refuge. T he D r e a m e r
begs entry, and his e n t r e a t i e s are a n s w e r e d by a b e au t i f u l
and languorous y ou ng w o m a n n a me d O i s e u s e (I d l e n e s s ) , 2^5
who w e a r s a g o ld e n c h a pl et on her head, and a b o ve it,
A w r e a t h of r o s e s f resh fro m m o r n i n g dew.

Her hair was t r e ss ed bac k m os t b e c o m i n g l y
W it h r i c h e s t comb. H er hand a m i r r o r b o r e .2^6
[PLATE 73]
She has "no c are," she says, " e x ce pt to tress and
co mb my hair, am use myself, and take min e ease."2^2 Thi s
150
i n d o l en t figure, whose loveliness attracts the D r e a me r ,
i n h a b i ts a lush g ar d en of d el i gh ts , a n a t ur a l pa ra di se ,
but one that, lik e her roses, contains th o rn y consequences
and pain for the unwise, and for the g u l l i b l e wh o are
attracted by a p p e a r a n c e and s e d u c e d by the p r o m i s e s of
temporal p l e a s u r e . 258 ^s the r e a d e r of the R o m a n w i ll
di sc over, the w el l of N a r c i s s u s is at the c enter of this
pleasure g a r d e n . 2 5 9
Th e p r e s e n c e of the mir ro r, an i n s t r u m e n t tha t
p r o m i se s t ruth but only d e l i v e r s an e p h e m er a l and p h an -
t as m ic i ll usion, underscores the a u t h o r ' s apparent v ie w of
l o v e ' s c ou r s e — its d e l i g h t s and u n d e r l y i n g d a n g er s . The
m i r r o r of O i s e u s e , of course, is an a t t r i b u t e of Venus, as
are the com b and r o s e s . 260 As we h a v e seen, the m i r r o r
s p ok e mos t clearly of the allegorical f i gu r e of L u x u r i a .
the sirens, and the G re at W h o re of the A p o c a l y p s e , all
f i g u r e s of d e c e p t i o n and sin w ho h a d the l o ok i ng g l a s s as
an a tt ri b ut e.
Although c h a ng e d f r om the e s c h a t o l o g i c a l context of
c y c l e s of the V i r t u e s and V i ce s and apocalyptic v is i on s,
the m i r r o r in the s e c u l a r i z e d setting of the R o m a n is no
less a sign of d e c ep ti o n , and a w a r n i n g . Guillaume's
dream landscape reveals a Luxuria-surrogate in an Ed en of
temptations, and this opening s cene launches a narrative
of m oral allegory that r e c o u n t s the g r ea t d a n ge rs that
151
i confront man in s e a r c h of love. The author's references

!
I to the s i r en s and their songs, to m e r m a i d s , 261 ancj the

I
| p r e s e n c e of the well of N a r c i s s u s , u n d e r s c o r e the p e r i ls
j of life.
|
Narcissus
The fatal consequences of love, s e l f - l o ve , and
pride are seen in the R o m a n de la R o s e episode in w h i c h
the D r e a m e r finds the f o u n t a i n of N a r c i s s u s in the garden.
Although the m y t h of N a r c i s s u s was r e vi v e d in the twelfth
century in the w o r k of an u n k n o w n Norman-French p o e t , 262
its r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in the M i d d l e Ages is s ee n f i r s t in
miniatures illustrating this sequence in G u i l l a u m e ' s poem.
Among the ear ly illuminations is the d e c o r a t i v e , stylized
depiction of N a r c i s s u s in the B r i t i s h M u s e u m ' s manuscript
of the R o m a n . R o y a l 20A, (ca. 1 3 2 0 ) . 263 [ P L A T E 74] In
t h i s work, he p e er s at h is i ma ge reflected in a d i s c - l i k e
surface, which, t h o u g h it sits a t o p c u r l i n g w a ve s, lo o ks
very like a conv ex m ir ro r. This illustration of the sto ry
is typical of e a r l y fourteenth century depictions. Al
though l at er r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t hi s m y th b e c o me m or e
complex and more illustrative of the d e t a i l s of the poem,
the b as i c elements of this exemplum of S u p e r b i a (Pride),
and of P h i l a u t i a (S e l f - l o v e ),264 a n i m p l i e d aspect of both
152
Superbia a nd V a n i t a s , a r e present in this image.
The Narcissus s tory was a m o n g the m os t p o p ul a r
episodes in the R o m a n for illustration, rather than the
subsequent passage that s pins out the implications that
the tal e h ad upo n G u i l l a u m e ' s D re a me r . However, we s h ou ld
note them here, for the y illuminate another f a ce t in the
symbolism of the mir r or .
Guillaume's telling of the sto ry of N a r c i s s u s re-
calls Ovid's, and its dir e m e s s a g e is not at f i r s t lost on
the a u t h o r ' s protagonist. T he D r e a m e r is a f r a i d to look
into the d a n g e r o u s w a t e r s of the w e ll , but soo n overcomes
his c a u t i o n , a nd see s in its d e p t h s crystal stones of
wonderful hu es and r e f l e c t i v e scope, Guillaume describes
t h e ir m a r v e l o u s p o w er to t r a n s f i g u r e the ga rd en , a nd t heir
tru e revelations:
J u s t as a m i r r o r w i l l r e f l e c t e ac h t h i n g
T h a t n e a r is p laced, and one t h e r e i n can see
B o t h for m and c o lo r w i t h o u t v ar i an c e ,
So do t h e s e c r y s t a l s u n d i s t o r t e d sh ow
T h e g a r d e n ' s e a ch d e t a i l to a n y o n e
W h o l o o k s in to the w a t e r s of the spring.
For, f r o m w h i c h e v e r s i d e on e c h a n c e to look,
He se e s one hal f the gar de n; if he turn
A nd f r o m the o t h er gaze, he se e s the rest.
So t h e r e is n o t h i n g in the p l a c e so small
Or so e n c l o s e d and hid but that it s h o w s
As it p o r t r a y e d u p o n t he c r y s t a l s t o n e s . 265
B ut for the D r e a m e r - L o v e r , as for N a r c i s s u s , the
reflecting pool is c a p t i v a t i n g and deceptive. It is the
Mirror Perilous, as G u i l l a u m e c al ls it. T he w o n d e r f u l
153
crystals mesmerize the Dreamer, p e r ha ps by some m a g i c
means, and c a u s e him to love w h a t e v e r he se es w h i l e g azing
at the m i r r o r - l i k e s t o n e s . 266 fje is unable to tear h i m
s elf away, c au gh t almost like Nar ci ss us :
The m i r r o r s me de c ei ve d. Had I but k n o w n

t heir p ower and their force, I had not then
So c l o s e a p p r o a c he d . I fell w i t h i n the snare
That s or el y has b e t r a y e d and c au g ht full
many a m a n . 267
The Dream e r , howe ve r, does not fall v i c t i m to the
Mirror Perilous as N a r c i s s u s did. He, a f t er all, k n e w of
the myth, and so was f o r e w a r n e d and f o re -a r me d.
In the R o m a n de la R o s e ,the m i r r o r of V e n u s is
p r e s e n t as a m e d i u m for p e r c e i v i n g b e a ut y and for en
hancing allurements for love, wit h its a s s o c i a t i o n s of
love and lust and w o r l d l y p r eo c c u p a t i o n s . T hi s is both
the m i r r o r of O i s e u s e , whom the r e a d e r m e e t s as she p rimps
be fo r e her l o o ki n g glass, and the r e f l e c t i n g pool of
N a rc is su s , for w h o m the v is i o n of his own beauty becomes
all-absorbing. For both, the l o o ki n g g l as s is a m e d i u m of
dec ep ti on : w h i le it c o n v e y s reflections of m o r t a l i t y and
real a p pe a ra n c e , it also c on ve y s the f olly of b e l i e v i n g in
the value of its reality.
Corporale Bellezza
T he m i r r o r of V a n i t a s and L u x u r i a becomes an
154
attribute for the p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of C o r p o r a l e Bellezza
(Corporeal B ea uty) in a w o r k attributed to the M a s t e r
of D o m i n i c a n Effigies. T he ima ge is in a m a n u s c r i p t
f ro m the 1 3 4 0 !s of the A m m a e s t r a m e n t i degli a n t i c h i , an
e a r l y w o rk by the D o m i n i c a n theologian Bartolomeo da
San C o n c o r d i o (d. 1347 ).268 [PLA T E 75] The text,
written in T u s c a n , 269 i s c o m p o s e d of B i b l ic a l, patris
tic, and classical aphorisms on sin and repentence,
d e a t h and s al va t io n, interspersed with Bartolomeo's
commentaries.
The chapter on "Corporale bellezza" a s sa i l s
worldly l ov e and its v an ity. B e au t y , says B a r t o l o m e o ,
is but a v ai n thing, and he ci t e s the Old T e s t a m e n t
(Proverbs 31:30), J e rome, G r eg o ry , and B o et h i us , for
s up po rt . M o r e o v er , the possession of f l e s h l y beauty is
hazardous, for it le a ds to the sin of L u x u r i a . The
miniature, which accompanies th es e sentiments repre
sents a woma n , Corporale B e l l e z z a , gazing into a m i r r o r
and h o l d i n g a small d o g . 270
Boccaccio, in his T e s e i d a , may account for
B e l l e z z a *s mirror, for he gave her one in his b o o k . 271
T he m i r r o r w as s y m b o l i c of sins of V a n i t a s and L u x u r i a .
which Corporale Bellezza e m bo di e d .
155
V a n a G lo ri a
I T he a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e of V a n a G l o r i a ( V a i n g l or y )
! is r e p r e s e n t e d with a mirror in A m b r o g i o Lorenzetti's
!fresco cycle of a l l e g o r i e s of Go od and Bad G o v e r n m e n t in
j the Sala dei N ov e (Sala d el l a Pace), in the P a l a z z o j

j I
| Pubblico, S i e n a . 272 [ PL AT E 76] The artist's use of the j

j
mirror attribute for the representation of V a n a G l o r i a is
! the e a r l i e s t I have found. T h is w i n g e d figure of the Vice

I
associated with c on ceit, boastfulness, vani t y , and pride,
is e l a b o r a t e l y c oi ff e d and dress e d. She h o l d s a b a re and
withered branch in her left hand, and in h er right, a
mirror disc. Her gaze is fixed on the m ir ro r. This
monumental pictorial program is a f r e s c o c y c l e of r i c h n e s s
and gre at complexity, and a br ie f d e s c r i p t i o n of its
contents must be a t t e m p t e d in or de r to pla ce this s in g l e
figure in focus.
T he a l l e g o r i e s of Go od and B ad G o v e r n m e n t , c a r r i e d
out by A m b r o g i o in 1338 and 1339,273 jis an e n c y c l o p e d i c
statement of the p o li t ic al , philosophical, and theological
ideals of just and evil g o ve rn m e n t s , and the effects each
s y s t e m has on the g ov erned. Painted for the S a l a dei
Nove, the C h a m b e r of the Nine, where the g o v e r n i n g c o un c il
of the C o m m u n e of Siena met in the a r t i s t ' s day, th e se
frescoes were both an e x p o s i t i o n of the C o m m u n e ' s espoused
156
j i d ea l s and a p l e d g e or r e m i n d e r of c i v i c duty and respon- j
s ib il it y. T he c o n s e q u e n c e s of good and bad government j
j were graphically represented. These frescoes present a

I j
! world view for Siena, but e m b o d ie d in A m b r o g i o ' s cycle is j
a summation of p o l i t i c a l philosophy of his times. T he j
complexities of t h i s p r o g r a m have been studied at length j

i
by n u m e r o u s scholars and n e e d not be r e v i e w e d here, except
as their d i s c u s s i o n s are pertinent to th is iconographic
i n v e s t i g a t i o n . 2 7 4
Ra ng e d on t h r e e w a l l s of the Sala dei No ve are the J

frescoes of Good and B ad G o v e r n m e n t . The allegory of Good
Government adjoins the f r e s c o w h i c h shows its e f f ec ts .
T h e Good C om m u ne , personified as a S o l o m o n - l i k e figure,
is s u r r o u n d e d by the V i r t u e s — Fortitudo (Fortitude), j
Prudentia (Prudence), Temperantia (Temperance), Fides
(Faith), Spes (Hope), Caritas ( Ch a ri t y) , Magnanimitas
( M a g n a m i n i t y ), and Pax (Peace) — who g i v e h im c ou ns el .
T he f i gu re of J u s t i t i a ( J us t i ce ), with her scales in b a l
ance, is i n s p i r e d by S a p i e n t i a (W is do m) , who h o v e r s above
her, while Concordia ( C on c or d) is s e a te d below. T he
effects of this w i s e and just rule is seen in the a d j o i n
ing panoramic v i ew of a p r o s p e ro u s, safe, and h ap p y town
and c o u n t r y s i d e , which is o v e r s e e n by S e c u r i t a s ( Se c u r i t y)
f l o a t i n g above. |
Opposing this idyllic and ideal government is the |
157
allegory of Bad G o v e r n m e n t a nd a v ie w of its o ut co me .
Paralleling the c o m p o s i t i o n of the G o o d G o v e r n m e n t ,
Ambrogio p r e s e n t s an e n t h r o n e d leader accompanied by his
advisors: The personification of a s a t a n i c T yr ant, w it h
Vices in a t t e n d a n c e — Avaritia ( A va r ic e) , Superbia
( Pr i de ), Vana Gloria (Vainglory), Crudelitas ( Cr uelty),
Majestas ( T r ea so n) , Discordia ( D i s c or d ), Ira (Anger),
Violentia ( V i o l e n c e or Wa r) , and F r a u s ( Fr aud). Justitia,
crushed and bound, lies at the T y r a n t ’s feet, w i t h her
scales b ro k en . The effects of t hi s e vi l r e g i m e are seen
in the c it y and countryside ruined by v i o l e n c e , selfish
n es s , and gre e d. The supervisor of t h i s s c e n e is T i m o r
(Fear), who h o v er s over the ravaged countryside.
V a n a G l o r i a , h o v e r i n g a b o v e the T y r a n t and to the
right, is a c c o m p a n i e d by two o t h e r f l y i n g Vic es . At the
left is A v a r i t i a , and, floating directly above the t h r on e
of the T y ra n t , is S u p e r b i a . The remaining Vices are
seated next to the T y r a n t ' s raised dais. T h e V i c e s repre
s e n t ed here, as N i co l a s Rubinstein noted, are tho se that
have political m e a n i n g . 275
Various s o ur c e s h a v e been proposed for the i c o n o g
raphy of the G o o d and B a d G o v e r n m e n t f r e s c o es . T he B o ok
of W i s d o m appears to h a v e served as a b as i s for m u c h of
the i c o n o g r a p h y , as d e m o n s t r a t e d by C h i a r a F r u g o n i . ^ 7 6
Political i de a s in A r i s t o t l e ’s E t h i c s and P o l i t i c s , as
158
interpreted by T h o ma s Aquinas, Remigio d e 1 G i r o l a mi , j
D o m e n i c o C av alca, and others, h av e been d e t e c t e d by
jR u b i n s t e i n . 277 None of these t ex t s shed li gh t on the

• i
! c h o i c e of a m i r r or attribute for V a na G l o r i a . 278 I ns tead, j
j i
I Ambrogio's new a tt r i b u t e wo ul d appear to be a t r a n s m i s s i o n j
j {
j of the m i r r o r of V e n u s - V a n i t a s , for the V i c e of Vana j
! G lo ria, w h ic h embodied qualities of vanity, s e lf i s h n e s s , |
self-aggrandizement, and p ri d e f ul c on c e i t , w as c l o s e l y
i
related to V a n i t a s . I
I
I
A ni m a l s and M i r r o r s
In the m e d i e v a l bestiary, a popular literary com
pilation d er i ve d f ro m the P h y s i o l o g u s 2 7 9 a n ( j co pi e d with
many variations t h r o u gh o ut the M i d d l e Ages, the m i r r o r is
seen as an i n s t r u m e n t that f a s c i n a t e d a ni m a l s, and fre
quently t r ic k e d them. It is used as a r e f e r e n c e to an
animal's lust, vanity, pride, or folly, t hu s e c h o i n g the
didactic uses of the m i rr or w it h homo sapiens.
A e l i an (ca. 1 7 0-230+) in De n a t u r a a n i m a l i u m , a
c o m p e n d i u m of o b s e r v a t i o n s and lore on a n i m a l s and bi rd s i
w h i c h was an a u t h o r i t y of sor ts for the b e s t i a r i e s of the
M i d d l e Ages, r e c o u n te d a m e t ho d used in I n di a for c a p t u r
ing m o n k e y s — one in w hi c h an I n d ia n u se s a m i r r o r in the
si g ht of a m o n k e y . 280 ■pfig monk ey , evidently i nt r i g u ed ,
imitates the man, and gaz es c l o s e l y i n to the h u n t e r ' s
159
| sp ec ia l mir ro r , now e q u i p p e d wit h n ooses, which has been

I
j left behind. By m e a n s of a trick i n v o l v i n g a g l u e - l i k e
i s u b s t a n c e left on the mir ro r , the a n im a l is t e m p o r a r i l y

i
I b l i n de d and e as i l y e ns n a re d.
The m i r r o r ' s lur e for a n i m a l s such as apes is also

j
seen in m a r g i n a l illustrations fr om a m i d - f o u r t e e n t h m a n u
s cr i pt ( B r i t is h M u s e u m R o y al 10.E.IV., fols. 149r, 150r)
and u n d e r s c o r e the a t t r a c t i o n of m i r r o r s for a n i m a l s . 281
In this e ar l y v e r s i o n of the r e c u r r e n t theme of the P e d l a r
and the Apes, we see at left a s l e e p i n g p e d la r b eset by
apes, who s t ea l his p o s s e s s i o n s . [P LA TE 77] At r i g h t
(fol. 150r), one s ma ll ape sits in a tree, g az i n g i nt o the
s ma ll m i r r o r di s c it has t a k e n fr om the pedlar, perhaps
admiring its own image, or, w i t h an e x c l a m a t o r y gesture,
w o n d e r i n g at the " ot he r " ape in the l o o k i n g g l a s s . 282
The s u b je c t of t i ge r s a nd m i r r o r s w a s frequently
depicted in b e s t i a r i e s . A tiger, or t ig r es s, attracted by
the r e f l e c t e d im age in a m i rr o r and d e l u d e d int o t h i n k i n g
that that i ma ge is its cub, is r ob be d of its real o f f
s pr i n g by the c anny hun te r. A bestiary fr o m the s ec o nd
half of the t w e l f t h c en tu r y , n ow in the M o r g a n L i b r a r y
(P. 81), p r o v i d e s a good e x a m p l e of this s u b j e c t . 283
[P LA TE 78] T he hunter, c l u t c h i n g the s t o l e n cub, f le es on
ho rs e b ac k . The mother tiger, rearing on her hin d legs,
h o ld s the m i rr o r disc, and, t o ta l ly a b s or b ed , l icks the
160
smaller face r e f l e c t e d in it.
In an A n g l o - N o r m a n bestiary of the thirteenth
c e n t u r y ( D o ua y 711), the scene, w i t h two v i n e - w r a p p e d

1
' t r e es i n d i c a t i n g the a p p r o p r i a t e f o r e s t h a b i t a t and wi t h
i
I
| o th e r l a n d s c a p e s u g g e s t i o n s s k e t c h e d in, is mo r e f u ll y
i d e v e l o p e d .284 [Plate 79] The elements f o un d in the
Morgan Library manuscript are present — the h o r s e m a n
f l e e i n g w i t h a cub, and the tigress distracted by the
i ma g e in a mirror. This i l l u m i n a t i o n may be read as a
sequential image, in w h i c h two e p i s o d e s in a story are
told in the same f r a me or scene, a convention in m e d i e v a l
art. The e a r li e r e v e nt is at right, w it h th e k ni g ht
about to t h r o w the m i r r o r or s hiny s h ie l d to d i s t r a c t the
t i g r es s. At left, the m i r r o r has b e en t h r o w n and is

>
accomplishing its d e c e p t i v e work: the a n i m a l is p r e
occupied with it, evidently f ooled in to believing th a t the
reflection is its cub.
A second interp retation of this w o r k s e ems p o ss i b le ,
in v ie w of the many a s s o c i a t i o n s of the m i r ro r : There may
in fact be two m i rr o r s, with the s e c o n d one, in the
hunter's hand, s er v i n g perhaps as a kin d of insurance
p ol i c y or h a vi n g an a p o t r o p a i c r e s o na n ce , in case the
mother ti ger s m el ls a rus e and t urns away f r o m her rapt
contemplation of the c u b - s i z e d i mage in the m i rr o r the
horseman has drop pe d. The tigress, w ho like her cub looks
161
j m o re like a s p ot t e d jackel, gazes intently at the

! I
j r e f l e ct i on .
!
I The i ma g e of the cub in the m i r r o r is a p p r o p r i a t e l y

! !
reversed (as was the r e f l e c t i o n of the face in the M o r g a n j
| Library P. 81 m e n t i o n e d above), and, is r e d u c e d in size, !

I
as w o u l d be the case in a co nv e x m ir ro r. The m e s s a g e is |
i
i
that the h o r s e m a n has deceived the ti ge r i nt o believing j
t ha t the a n i m a l in the m i rr o r is its o f f s p r i n g . M a n has J
capitalized on the b e a s t ' s reputation of b ei n g a d e vo t e d j
m ot he r. T he m i r r o r ' s reputation as d e c e iv e r, as trick
ster, here is e nh an c ed , as it s e d u c e s even the most
attentive, clever, and faithful animal into forsaking
duty.
A source for the b e s t i a r y s t or y of the t i g er and
the m i r r o r is A m b r o s e ( 34 0 ? -3 97 ), who, in his H e x a m e r o n ,
written between 386 and 388, told of the h u n t e r taking
along a crystal sphere as well as his l a n c e . 285 fhe
tiger, he w r o te , is a t t r a c t e d by the gl as s and l o o k s at
the r e f l e c t e d image, allowing the h u n t e r to ste al a cub.
Ambrose c o n c l u d ed :
T h u s her zeal for duty (to her cub) is

a b a n d o n e d and she lets go the c h a n c e to
p u n i s h the thief — and los es her o f f s p r i n g . 286
The s ub je c t of tricking t i g e r s w it h m i r r o r s w as
ta k en up in the t w e l f t h c e n t u r y by H u g h of St. V ic t o r ,
162
who, following A m b ro s e, wrote (ca. 1130) tha t a glass ball j
is u s e f u l for this p ur po se , as it m a k e s a good r o un d j
m i r r o r . 287 Vincent of B e a u v a i s (ca. 1240), Brunetto j

Latini (ca. 1260), and Albertus Magnus in I)e a n i m a l i b u s j
! . s
1 (1270), all used the sa me elements in t e l l i n g this
i j
| s t o r y . 288 j
| For R i c h a r d of F o u r n i v a l , c h a n c e l l o r of A m i e n s in ;
! the m i d d l e of the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u ry , the s t ory of a t iger j
| and the m i r r o r too k a d i f f e r e n t twist, following in the |
| literary tradition of c o u r t l y l o v e . 289 j n his B e s t i a i r e j
d 'a m o u r , the tiger's fascination with the i m a ge in the
mirror s h if t s a wa y from a moralistic g lo s s on the m i r r o r
as d e c e i v e r and as the m e a n s of s e d u c i n g e v e n the most
faithful b east awa y f ro m duty, and towards seductiveness
of a n o t h e r kind. The tiger, or tigr es s, is not b e i n g
deceived into t h i n k i n g that the r e f l e c t i o n is its cub;
r a t he r, the t iger is c a p t i v a t e d by the b e a u t y of the i mage
in the mir ro r. The mirror of V enus, as a m e a n s of per
ceiving b eauty, replete with its a s s o c i a t i o n s w it h love
a nd lust, and w i t h the p r e o c c u p a t i o n w it h the w o r l d that
is c e n t r a l to the t h e m e of v a n i t a s , is s e e m i n g l y pres en t .
As F l o r e n c e M c C u l l o u g h has noted, the fascination felt by
the t ig er whe n admiring a beautiful reflection became
analogous to that of the sp ell that a lady c ast s on her
l o v e r .290
163
] T he mi rr o r as an i n s t r u m e n t that can t r i ck animals

|
is al so seen in a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the b as il i s k, a fabu-
j l ou s serpent-like b east w h o s e poisonous loo k ki ll s, as

i
i Medusa did in the m yt h of P e r s e u s and the g o r g o n s . 2 9 1
Pliny (23-79 A.D.). in his N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , B oo k VIII,

i
J referred to this f an t a s t i c an im a l and its terrible glance
I which k il ls all who see its e y e s . 292
In the e a rly thirteenth century bestiary of P i e r r e
le P i c a r d (Pi er r e de B ea u va i s) , the basilisk dies w h e n a
piece of cr y st al t hrows back — reflects — the a n i m a l ' s
death-look back at i t s e l f . 293 The crystal is r e p l a c e d
by a s h i e l d in the P s alter of the D u k e of R ut l an d, ca.
1260, n ow in B e l v o i r Castle, Leicestershire, E n g l a n d . 294
[ P L A TE 80] The basilisk, crown ed , and perched in a tree,
sends out its v e n o m o u s g l an c e t o w ar d the r e f l e c t i n g
surface of the s h i e l d . 295 Thus, while the m i r r o r serves
as a m e a n s of t ri ckery, it also is an a p o t r o p a i c object
for man in this p i c t o r i a l theme, recalling its a n c i e n t
role.
Mirrors of S ci e n c e
In a m a n u s c r i p t of A r i s t o t l e ' s De s ensu et sensato,
d at i ng fr o m the t hird q u a r t e r of the t h i r t e e n t h c e n
t u r y , 296 t h e five s enses are represented together in an
historiated initial, with each s ho wn as a man h o l d i n g an
164
object suggestive of Sight, Hearing, Touch, Tas te , and

I
Smell. Following Aristotle's text, a mirror is used as an j
; attribute for the sense of Sight. [ P L A T E 81] This illu- j
' m i n a t i o n is the e a rl i es t w or k I have l o c a t e d in w h i c h a !
i j
| m i r r o r is used as an a t t r i b u t e in this a l l e g o r y , 297 an(j j
!
it may be an a r c h e t y p e for later representations in w h i c h j
j l
| the looking glass is used as a standard attribute in j
allegories of S i g h t . 298 j
In the t r e atise, a part of the P a r v a n a t u r a l i a ,299 j

!
Aristotle r ef er s to r e f l e c t i o n when discussing the m e c h a n
ism of vision. T he m i r r o r p r o v id e s him with a metaphor
for the dual n a t ur e of v i s i o n w h i c h he p r op os es . Counter
ing a n o t h e r t h e o ry of v i s i o n (that of D e m o c r i t u s ) , he says
that sight, or the v i s i b i l i t y of a thing,
. . . as in a m i r r o r — o cc ur s in the case
of the eye b e c a u s e it is smooth, and e x i st s
not in it (the r e f l e c t i n g eye) but in the
s p ec ta to r ; for the p h e n o m e n o n is one of
r e f l e c t i o n .300
In the t w e l f t h and t h i r t e e n t h centuries, with the
translation into L at i n of A r i s t o t l e ' s De sen su et s e n s a t o,
and w i t h oth er scientific works f ro m a n t i q u i t y and f ro m
medieval Is la m newly a v a i l a b l e in Europe, the st u d y of
optics, as w el l as other s c i en ce s, is a c c e l e r a t e d in the

I
West. 301 The s ub je ct of m ir rors, a part of o p ti c a l
science si nc e a n ti q u it y, is i n c r e a s i n g l y analyzed and
165
d i s c u ss e d, for the laws of reflection were seen as c e n t r a l j
to an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of optics. The behavior of l i ght
c o ul d be s t u d i e d through m ir ro rs , and m a n y W e s t e r n scien
t ists w r o t e treatises on c o n c a v e and parabolic m ir r o r s ,
o f t e n as part of l arger works on optics.
Ma n y ancient works of science, some u n k n o w n in the
We s t s ince a nt i qu i ty , were r e co v e r e d and translated into
L atin. Numerous texts were transmitted through the w orks
of m e d i e v a l Ara b scientists, who a d d ed t h e ir own commen
taries. In a r ea s touching on optics, catoptrics, and
related fields, important treatises such as A r i s t o t l e ' s
P h y s i c s , De a n i m a , and the first t h r ee books of the
M e t e o r o l o g i c a , in a d d i t i o n to the P a r va naturalia men
t io n ed above, as w e l l as E u c l i d ' s O p t i c s and C a t o p t r i c s ,
and Ptolemy's O p t i c s , were n ewly a v a i l a b l e for s t u d y by
natural p h i l o s o p h e r s .302
In a d d i t i o n to r e c o r d i n g their responses to E uclid,
Aristotle, and o th er a n c i e n t Greek s c i e n t i st s, medieval
A ra b scientists such as A l k i n d i (d. ca. 873), Alhazen (ca.
965-ca. 1039), Avicenna ( 98 0 7- 1 0 3 7 ) , and A v e r r o e s (1126-
1198) m a de extensive studies of o p ti c s and c a t o p t r i c s .303
Their works, especially t h o s e of Alhaz en , were fundamental
resources in the d e v e l o p m e n t of W e s t e r n optical s c ie n ce .
Th e recovery of a n c i e n t scientific works and the
infusion of l e a r n in g f ro m m e d i e v a l Ar a b s c i e n t i s t s gave
166
i m p e t u s to o pt i c a l s t u d ie s w h i c h flowered in E u r o p e in the
thirteenth c entury. Robert Grosseteste (ca. 1 1 6 8 — 1253), j

I
b i s h o p of Lin co ln , was mo v ed to s tu dy optics because of j
h is c o n v i c t i o n t ha t light wa s a p r im al e le me n t, f ro m w h i c h |
!
all corporeal f orm e v o l v e d . 30/t His m e t a p h y s i c s of light, j
deriving
°
no doubt from the B i b l i c a l a c c o un t of cr ea ti on , j!
is c e r t a i n l y related to the N e o - P l a t o n i c notions of e ma na-j
tion, and closjely f o l l o w s A u g u s t i n e .303 For G r o s s e t e s t e
in p a rt ic u la r , the study of o p t i c s wa s c e n t r a l to scien
ti fi c investigation for t h e o l o g i c a l ends: it w a s the key j

to all of n a t u r e . 306 In De i r i d e , G r o s s e t e s t e t u r n ed to
the s u b j e c t of m ir r o r s , discussing the laws of r e f l e c t i o n
and propounding a rule of m i n i m u m p a t h . 3 0 ^
Grosseteste a ls o w r o t e a bo u t the p h e n o m e n o n of the
burning glass, a mirror designed to focus the s u n ’s rays
on a s i n gl e point, causing c o m b u s t i on . It had remained
a subject of c o n t i n u i n g interest si n ce a n t i q u i t y . 306
Albertus Magnus wrote about it in De c a el o et m u n d o ,300
and R o g e r B a c o n ( 1 2 1 4 ? - c a . 1292) in his P e r s p e c t i v a .310
B a c o n a ls o d i s c u s s e d principles of r e f l e c t i o n a nd re
fract i on , and the c o n s t r u c t i o n and properties of m i rr o rs ,
following the w or k of e a r l i e r A rab s c ie n ti s t s , notably
Alh az e n . He was interested in all manner of o p t i c a l
p h en om en a, i n cl u d i n g r a i n b o w s and the n e w l y - i n v e n t e d
e y e g l a s s e s ,3 ^ 1 and r e c it e d some of the a s t o u n d i n g visu al
167
1
l
illusions possible with the use of m i r r o r s and various
perspective d e v ic es , which
I
. . . ca n be so a r r a n g e d that one a p p e a r s I
many, one man an army, and the sun and
m oo n as m an y as we wish. So, m i s t s
and v a p o r s s o m e t i m e s o ccur in suc h m a n n e r
that two suns, or e v e n three, or two moons,
a pp e a r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y in the h eav en s. j
as P l i n y n a r r a t e s in 2 Nat. H i s t o r . 3 1 2
F ur th er , he n o te d that m i r r o r s could be p l a ce d in
s uc h a wa y that a m an w il l be c o n v i n c e d that he is s eeing
gold or p r e c i o u s s t on e s or o th er things, but w h e n he
approaches these o bj ec ts , he f i n ds nothing t h e r e . 313 of
all such m i r r o r phenomena, the b u r n i n g glass seemed espe
cially marvelous to h i m . 314 Here, Bacon regarded the
mirror as a p h e n o m e n o n th a t can be use d or m i s u s e d , and
as an o b j e c t w h o s e properties can be w o n d e r e d at but can
a ls o be a n a ly z ed .
J oh n Pecham (ca. 1 23 0- 12 92 ) , w h o w as a r c h b i s h o p of
Canterbury f ro m 12 7 9 u n t il his d e a t h in 1292, and W i t e l o
(fl. 1 2 50 - 1 27 5 ), a S i l e s i a n w ho may hav e had a c o n n e c t i o n
with the P a p a l C o u r t , 315 al s o w r o t e on m i r r o r s as part of
t h ei r o p t i c a l w or ks . Concave mirrors and burning g l a ss e s
were discussed by P e c h a m in the P e r s p e c t i v a communis. a
work perhaps written between 1277 and 1279.310
Witelo devoted fi v e b ooks (Nos. V-IX] in his
Perspectiva to the subject of m i r r o r s . 317 j n th i s wo rk he
168
. 1
described his e x p e r i m e n t s ~to d e t e r m i n e the c o n f i g u r a t i o n |
and c o n s t r u c t i o n of a b u r n i n g glass, and the parabolic
mirror that r e s u l t e d . 318
T he i n t e re s t of t h i r t e e n t h century scientists in !
!
the mirror, as o u t l i n e d above, is al s o seen in literature |
of the period, first in the R o ma n de la R o s e , the poem |
composed by G u i l l a u m e de L o r r i s and J ea n de M e u n o ve r the j

I
course of the t h i r t e e n t h century discussed e a r l i e r . 319
Th e l o ok i n g glass, as we saw, is used in the p oe m 's
allegorical f r a m e w o r k as s y m b o li c of l o ve ' s m a n y shifting
p e r s p ec t iv e s , of v a n i t a s , of d e lu si o n, and as a m i r r o r of
G o d . 320 jn the s e co nd part of the work, written by J e a n
de Meun, the m ir ro r as a s u b je c t of s c i e n t i f i c s tu dy is
a l so a d d r e s s e d . In one s peech, Lady Nature expounds on
the way m i r r o r s wor k in o r de r to e x p l a i n the m o o n ' s
spots:
T r a n s p a r e n t g la ss t h r o u g h w h i c h the l i g h t can s h i ne
W h e n n o t h i n g t h i ck on e i t h e r side is p l a c e d
To t h r ow it b ac k c an n ot r e f l e c t the face
B e c a u s e the ra ys of l i gh t that meet the eye
S t r i k e n o t h i n g that w i l l m a k e t h e m b a c k r eb o u n d ;
B ut coat the g l a ss w i t h lead or s o m e t h i n g else
As d ense as that, w h i c h i n t e r c e p t s t he rays,
And s t r a i g h t w a y in the g lass you r face a p p e a r s —
For if they are o p a q u e or can be backed,
All p o l i s he d s u r f a c e s r e f l e c t the l ig ht —
So the t r a n s p a r e n t s u r f a c e of the moon,
W h i c h may be l i k en ed to a c r y s t a l sphere,
D o e s not re ta rd the rays, w h i c h e nt e r it
And can, th er ef o r e, no br ig ht r e f l e c t i o n make;
But d en s er parts, w h i c h no rays p en e tr at e ,
S t r o n g l y r e fl ec t them b a c k and make that orb
169
! S e em r i g ht e r in those p o r t i o n s than it is j
j In o t he r p arts w hi ch see m the m o r e o b s c u r e . 321 j
I i
I
Later, she s p ea ks on the d i v e r s i t y of the n at ur a l
; world, c i ti n g A r i s t o t l e on his k n o w l ed g e, and r e c o m m e n d i n g
! the o p t i c s book of Alhazen, for |

i I
I I
j T h e r e i n h e'll find e x pl a i n e d the m i r r o r ' s p o w e r s j
j And why a g la s s can m a k e the s m a l l e s t t h i ng s — i
| G r a i n s of p o w d er e d sand, or l e t t e r s small — j
j S e e m great, and t o the o b s e r v e r b ring th e m close: !

E n a b l e h i m to ch o os e a mo ng th em all j
And c o u nt them, or to read the s m a l l e s t s cr ip t
F r o m so far off that one who h as not seen
W o u l d not b e l i e v e the tale of h i m who k n ows
The c a us e s and o b s e r v e s their g r ea t effects. ;
T h i s ne e d not be a c c e p t e d on belief,
For k n o w l e d g e of it suc h a one can g a i n . 322
Nature discourses on b u r ni n g g l a s s e s , 323 on the
properties of m i rr o rs , and the v al ue of t h e ir study:
S om e m i r r o r s of m a t e r i a l d i v e r s e
In v a r i o u s r e f l e c t i o n s t h in gs d i s p l a y —
S ome uprig ht , some reversed,
and some s t r e t c h e d out —
And he who g ai ns the m i r r o r ' s m a s t e r y
C a n m a k e it one to m a n y mu lt ip ly :
For i ns t a n c e, in one v i s a g e s h o w four eyes,
If he the r i g ht g lass r eady h a v e to han d —
Or m a k e p h a s t a s m i c f o r ms a p p e a r s to one
W ho l ooks t h e r e i n — or even m ak e a p p e a r
O u t s i de , in air or w ater, l i v i n g shapes.
A m an may see them p la y b ef o re the eye
And m i r r o r if the l at t e r is c o m p o s e d
Of d i v e r s a n g l e s w h i c h d epend upon
W h e t h e r the m e d i u m is a c o m p o s i t e
Or s i m p l e — of one n a t u r e or diverse.
S o m e t i m e s the f or m ' s r e v e r s e d or m u l t i p l i e d
By the r e s p o n s i v e glass, so that it c o me s
In v a r i o u s ph as es to the o b s e r v e r ' s eyes,
A c c o r d i n g as the rays are v a r i o u s l y
A b s o r b e d by the m at e r ia l , and thus
T h e s i gh t of the o b s e r v e r is d e c e i v e d . 325
170
B o t h m i r r o r s and l en se s can e n h a n c e the s e n s e of
I sight, and the m e a n s to a c q u i r e the scientific knowledge

|
j of these a id s to v i s i o n is a v a i l a b l e for m a n k i n d ' s use.
I
B ut there are m o r al implications to t h ei r use. J e a n ’s
Nature c it es the e xa m pl e , t ak en f r o m c l a s s i c a l mythology
of how the k n o w l e d g e and use of s u c h a p o w e r f u l mirror or
lens to m a g n i f y would have saved t he lovers Mars and V en us
from discovery by Vul ca n , Venus's h u s b a nd . Had the adul
t e r o us l o v e r s used such a magnifying d e vi c e, Vulcan's net
" finer than spiderweb," which captured them in t h ei r
embrace, would h a ve be en v i s i b l e . ^26
Dante's Divine C o m e d y , a work whose ver y structure
is b u ilt on the n o t i o n of r e f l e c t i o n ,327 also contains
a p a s s a g e in w h i c h a s c i e n t i f i c experiment with mirrors
is c o n d u ct ed . In C a n t o II of the P a r a d i s o , D a n t e as k s
Beatrice, w h o is h is guide at this j u n c t u r e, to e x p l a i n
the dark s p ot s on t he m oon. Dante ventures an e x p l a n a t i o n
that c o r r e s p o n d s to the one g i ven by N a t u r e in the R o m a n
de la R o s e . 328 a n d one th a t he h i m s e l f expressed in the
C o n v i v i o .329 jn the P a r a d i s o , he s ay s that
T hat w h i c h a p p e a r s to us d i v e r s e her e
a bove I s u pp o se to be p r o d uc e d by rare
and d ense m a t t e r . 330
Tha t is, that the rare (thin) parts, which are
r e c e d i n g a r e as on the moon, and the d e n s e ( thick) parts,
171
w h i c h are the b u l g i n g or mo re mountainous areas, would
reflect light differently. The rare parts, b e in g further
awa y f r o m our eyes, would give fainter reflections, thus,
making t ho se a r e as or s p o ts se e m d a rk e r tha n the d e ns e
(b ul ging, and thus closer to e a r th ) areas.
Beatrice refutes331 this a r g u m e n t by p r o p o s i n g an
experiment in w h i c h it w o u l d be seen that this is not the
case:
You s ha ll ta k e t hree m ir ro r s, and set two

of t h e m e q u a l l y r e m o t e fro m you, and let
the other, e v e n m o r e remote, m ee t y o u r eyes
b e t w e e n the f i r st two. T u r n i n g t o w a r d them,
c au se a l ig ht to be p l a c ed b eh i n d y o ur back
w h i c h may s h i n e in the t hree m i r r o r s and
r e t u r n to you r e f l e c t e d f r o m all three.
A l t h o u g h the m o r e d i s t a n t i m a g e ma y not
r e a c h you so g r ea t in q ua n t it y , you w il l
th ere see it m us t n e e d s be of equal b r i g h t n e s s
w i t h the o t h e r s . 3 3 2
Therefore, w h i le the b r i l l i a n c e of the l i gh t reaching the
onlooker will be the same for all three, the m i r r o r that
is f a r t h e s t away m a y seem to be smaller.
Th e reasons for the m o o n ' s s po ts can no t, h owe ve r,
be g i v e n scientifically. Beatrice e x pl a i ns :
D i v e r s v i r t u e s mak e d i ve r s a l l oy
w i t h the p r e c i o u s bo d y it qu ic ke ns ,
w h e r e in , eve n as life in you, it is bound.
B e c a u s e of the glad n a tu r e w h e n c e it flows,
the m i n g l e d v i r t u e s h i n e s t h r o u g h the body,
as g l a d n e s s d o e s t h r o u g h a l i v i n g pupil.
T h e n c e c o me s w ha t s e em s d i f f e r e n t b e t w e e n
l ight and light, not f ro m d e n s i t y and rarity,
T h i s is the f or m al p r i n c i p l e w h i c h pr od uc es ,
172
conformably w i t h its own e xc e l l e n c e , the dark

and the b r i g h t .333
I
!
[ T he e x p l a n a t i o n is that e ac h thing, whether the Moo n or

I
another created entity, has a d i f f e r e n t capacity for
illumination. That capacity for l ight — all of w h i c h

I
I
emanates fro m God — varies; and is g r e a t e r or lesser
depending on the a m o u n t of u n a d u l t e r a t e d virtue that God
has a l l o t t e d to an o b j e c t . 334 jn this e pi so d e, p h y s i ca l
s c i e n c e w i t h its n ew experimental methodology is s u b s u me d
by the m e t a p h y s i c a l .
Among the earliest illustrations for thi s text is
a manuscript illumination f r om H o l k h a m H al l 514, which
dates f r o m the t hi rd quarter of the fourteenth c e n t u r y . 335
[ P L A T E 82] Beatrice and D a n t e s t and b e n e a t h a s tarry
firmament, and between t h e m ar e t hr ee f l o a t i n g mirrors,
each presumably reflecting l ight w i t h like b r i l l i a n c e to
illustrate B e a t r i c e ’s e x p l a n a t i o n .
The Mirror in E v e r y d a y L i f e
W h i l e we m ay a s s u m e that m i r r o r s w e r e in use
throughout the m e d i e v a l period, they w e r e probably not
plentiful, especially during the e a r l i e r centuries of the
Christian era, and w e r e a v a i l a b l e primarily to those who
c ou ld afford their manufacture. Th e onl y m i r r o r s from
the e a r l y M i d d l e A g es that are e x t a n t are m a de of metal,
173
| as in a n t i qu it y , and, as we h av e seen, w er e often deco-

I
|
j ra te d w i t h s c e ne s of love a nd c o u r t s h i p as w e l l as oth er
j
j s oc i a l pur s ui ts , often depicted on b o x - m i r r o r t op s of

|
j ivory. Glass m i r r o r s w er e evidently known to Isidore of
j Seville ( 56 0 ? -6 36 ), who c o m m e n t e d on the superiority of

I
J that m a te r ia l , presumably o ve r m e t a l . 336 No a c t ua l
looking glasses f r o m the p e r i od appear to h a v e s u rv i ve d .
Alexander Neckam ( 1 15 7 7- 1 2 17 ) , in his De n a t u r i s rerum,
was the fi rs t to w r i t e of g la s s m i r r o r s w i th lead back
ing, 337 m a k xn g the o b s e r v a t i o n that w h en the lead w h i c h
backs the g la s s is remov ed , " t h e re w i l l be no i ma g e of the
one l o o k i n g i n." 33 8
By the t h i r t e e n t h c e nt ur y, mirrors were in w id e r
use, and g la s s m i rr or s, round and slightly c on ve x, are
seen al o ng w i t h m i r r o r s of m e t a l . 339 The fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries saw the m e t al m i r r o r increasingly
being replaced by l oo k i ng g la sses. The superior quality
of r e f l e c t i o n w i t h gl as s a s s u r e d its d o m i na nc e .
How good w er e the f i r s t m e d i e v a l mirrors? The
q u e s t i o n of r e f l e c t i v e quality of th es e e a r l y m i rr o rs ,
whether metal or glass, may be r a i s e d as a p o s s i b l e r e a so n
for the m i r r o r ’s n e g a t i v e associations. To m o d e r n eyes
accustomed to the clear and distortion-free images in
t o d a y ' s mi rr or s, the r e f l e c t i o n s ee n in e a r l i e r mirrors
would doubtless seem dim, cloudy, and distorted in com-
174
(— — — __
I
pari so n. W e know, too, f ro m I s i d o r e of S e v i l l e ' s remarks
in the s e v e n t h century, that the s u p e r i o r i t y of g l as s

!
; mirrors ov er m et al ones w a s a l r e a d y known, thus indicating

I j
j that c o m p a r i s o n s w er e made b e t w e e n the two m a t e r i a l s f r o m !

j i
that e a r ly date. I
I
Further, the quality of m i r r o r p r o d u c t i o n and j
c r a f t s m a n s h i p was a lm o st c e r t a i n l y e r r a t i c w h i c h m i g ht i
account for a m b i v a l e n c e t o w ar d the m i r r o r in gener al .
H ig h l y p o l i s he d and smoothly surfaced mirrors with good
reflective q u a l i t i e s may hav e encouraged positive inter
pr et at i o n s , l e a di n g to the m i r r o r ' s reputation as a m e a n s
to t r u t h and k n o w l ed g e . A tarnished or r o u g h l y - c r a f t e d
surface c ould not h a ve r e f l e c t e d w i t h m u c h a c cu r a cy , per
haps supporting negative associations. Mirrors in use
d u ri n g the M i d d l e Ag es w e r e usually slightly to m o d e r a t e l y
c onvex, producing a distorted i m a ge — compared to a flat
m irror, a comparison apparently unavilable during the
period.
In general, it s ee m s possible that the q u a l i t y of
m i r r o r s w o u l d hav e a b e a r i n g on t h e ir m e a ni n g. But,
p e r h a p s m o r e i m p or t a n t l y , the b e tt e r and no vel g l a ss
mirrors were probably in g re a t d em a nd and in g r e a t e r use
than ever before. Sc en e s of m i r r o r - g a z i n g and primping
became part of e v e r y d a y life.
175
N otes
ISee above, 45-48, for a d i s c u s s i o n of P l a t o n i s t

a nd other e arly v i e w s of c o s mi c r e f l e c ti o n,
2H er bert G rabes, T he M u t a b l e G l a s s , has s u r v e y e d

a vas t n u m b e r of m e d i e v a l and E n g l i s h R e n a i s s a n c e t exts
in w h i c h the m i r r o r is m e n t i o n e d , as wel l as b o ok titles,
w h i c h use the image. E x t e n s i v e b i b l i o g r a p h i e s and c i t a
t io ns m ak e this w o r k e s p e c i a l l y u seful.
3jfohn C h r y s o s t o m was a m o n g the f i r s t t h e o l o g i a n s

to a p p l y the m e t a p h o r of the m i r r o r to the B i b l e a nd to
G o d ' s laws. See J o h n C h r y s o s t o m C o m m e n t a r i u s in s.
M a t t h a e u m E v a n g e l i s t a m , H o m i l i a IV, in P a t r o l o g i a e c ur s u s
completus. S e r i e s G r a e c a , ed. J. P. M i g n e (Paris, 1856-
1866), vol. 57, 47-64; t r a n s l a t e d as H o m i l y I V . 16 in The
H o m i l i e s of St. J o h n C h r y s o s t o m . A r c h b i s h o p of
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , on the G o s p e l of St. M a t t h e w , ed. and
trans. Sir G e o r g e P r e v o st , L i b r a r y of F a t h e r s of the H o l y
C a t h o l i c C h u r c h (Oxford, 1 8 4 3 - 1 8 5 1 ) , vol. 1, 57-58.
Q u o t e d in G r abe s, T h e M u t a b l e G l a s s . 140-141. Augustine
a l so s a w S c r i p t u r e as a mir ro r, and l i nk e d the i de a of
b e a t i t u d e w i t h k n o w i n g S cr i p t u r e . See A u g u s t i n e
E n a r r a t i o in P s a l m u m 1 0 3 . S e r m o III, in P a t r o l o g i a e
c u r s u s c om p l e t u s . S er i es L a t i n a , ed. J. P. M i g n e (Paris,
1 8 4 5 - 1 8 5 5 ) , vol. 36, col. 248. Q u o t e d in S i s t e r R i t a m a r y
B r a d l e y , " B a c k g r o u n d s of the T i t l e S p e c u l u m ," Speculum
29 (1954): 103. See B r a d l e y and G r a b e s for n u m e r o u s
o t h e r e x am pl es .
^Se e below, 88, 103, and 115-120.
^1 C o r i n t h i a n s 13:12.
^Gra be s, T h e M u t a b l e G l a s s . 23. F e w b o o k s d ated

b e f o r e the e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y a p p e a r to h a v e s u r vi v ed .
T h e e a r l i e s t w h i c h G r a b e s has d i s c o v e r e d is by A u g u s ti n e ,
r e c o r d e d in a n i n t h c e n t u r y c a t a l o g u e at R e i c h e n a u .
See G r a be s, T he M u t a b l e G l a s s . 23 and 236, and for a
c a t a l o g u e of m e d i e v a l and E n g l i s h R e n a i s s a n c e m i r r o r
t itles, 235-329. T h e r e are r e f e r e n c e s to m i r r o r t it l es
in a n t i q u i t y , suc h as a w or k by E u d o x os , but the y are not
clearly documented. See Pau l L e h m a n n, " M i t t e l a l t e r l i c h e
B ii chertitel," S i t z u n g s b e r i c h t e der b a v e r i s c h e n A k a d e m i e
der W i s s e n s c h a f t e n . p h il . -h i s t . Kla s s e, H e l f III
( Munich, 1953), r e p r i n t in L eh m an n , E r f o r s c h u n g des
176
6(continued)
M i t t e l a l t e r s ( S tu t tg a r t, 1 95 9- 19 6 2) , vol. 5 (1962), 1-93.
C it ed by Grab es , The M u t a b l e G l a s s . 23 and 408. A l s o see
S c h w a r z , "T he M i r r o r in A r t, " 103.
Âll the t i t l e s m e n t i o n e d in my l i s t i n g are

recorded in Gra b e s, T h e M u t a b l e G l a s s , 235-3 29 .
8 I b i d ., 19.
Âlbertus Magnus Speculum a s t r o l a b i c u m ;

B o n a v e n t u r e ( a t t r i b u t e d to) S p e c u l u m a n i m a e (vel
i t i n e r a r i u m m e n t i s in D e u m ) ; J o h n P e c h a m S p e c u l u m a n i m e ;
W i l l i a m of A u v e r g n e S p e c u l u m b e a t o r u m ( s i v e l i be r de
v i t e e s et v i r t u t i b u s ) : J o h n G o w e r S p e c u l u m ( m e d i t a n t i s )
h o m i n i s ; and J o h n W y c l i f f e S p e c u l u m m i l i t a n t i s e c c l e s i e .
See G rabes, T h e M u t a b l e G l a s s . 235ff, for an e x h a u s t i v e
c a t a l o g u e of m i r r o r tit le s, e x t a n t m a n u s c r i p t s , and
m o d e r n p u b l i s h e d sour c e s.
l ^See T he L i t t l e F l o w e r s of St. F r a n c i s . T he
M i r r o r of P e r f e c t i o n , and T h e L i f e of St. F r a n c i s (New
York: E. P. D u t t o n & Co., 1951).
USee Gra b e s , T h e M u t a b l e G l a s s , 253.
^ G r e g o r y of N y s s a De B e a t i t u d i n i s . O r a t i o VI, in
P a t . G r . , vol. 44, col. 1270C. C it ed by B r a d l ey ,
" S p e c u l u m ." 107.
l ^ B as il of C a e s a r e a E p i s t . CCX, in P a t . G r . , vol.
32, col. 778AB, t r a n s l a t e d in B ra d le y , " S p e c u l u m ." 108.
l ^ See above, 11-12, on the i de a of the m a c r o c o s m

in a nt i qu it y .
l ^ The T i m a e u s ( f i rs t 53 c h ap t e r s ) w a s t r a n s l a t e d
f rom the o r i g i n a l G r e e k in to L a t i n in the f o u r t h c e n t u r y
by C h a l c i d i u s and w as a v a i l a b l e in the W e s t t h r o u g h o u t
the m e d i e v a l p e ri o d. See A. C. C ro m bi e , M e d i e v a l and
E a r l y M o d e r n S c i e n c e ( G ar de n City, N.Y.: Doubleday &
C o m p a ny , D o u b l e d a y A n c h o r B ooks, 1959), vol. 1, 18, 27ff,
and 37.
16T h i s i ma ge is d e r i v e d f r o m P l o t i n u s E n n e a d IV,
iii, II. On m i r r o r s in P l o t i n u s , see F r i t z H e in e m a n n ,
"Die S p i e g e l t h e o r i e der M a t e r i e als K o r r e l a t der L o g o s -
L i c h t - T h e o r i e bei P l o t i n , " in P h i l o l o g u s 81, 1 (1925):
1-17.
177
l ^ M a c r o b i u s C o m m e n t a r y on the D r e a m of S c i p i o I, !
14-15. A r t h u r 0. L o v e j o y has p o i nt e d out that this is j
j not r ea l ly H o m e r ' s g o l d e n chain. Homer, for one thing, j
' doe s not s peak of m i r r o r s ( I liad VIII, 19). See Lovejoy, j
! T h e G r e at C h a i n of B e i n g ( C a mb ri d g e : Harvard University I
I Press, 1936; reprint, N e w York: H a r p e r & B ro t h er s, ;
i H a r p e r T o r c h b o o k s , 1960) 63, and 339, n. 53. As for the '
J m i r r o r anal o gy , R u d o l f A l l e r s has d i s c u s s e d the l o gi ca l j
| d i f f i c u l t i e s that e x i s t in its use for m a c r o c o s m i c - i

|
m i c r o c o s m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s in g en e r a l . See Allers, |
" M i c r o c o s m o s , " 358. j
l ^ T e r t u l l i a n ( 1 6 0 - 2 4 0 A.D.), lik e other e arly \

t h e o l og i an s , t h o u g h t a s t r o l o g y w a s the w or k of f a l l e n |
a n g e l s and so s ho u l d be s h u n n e d by all C h r i s t i a n s . See j
De i d o l a t r i a IX, cols. 7 47 - 7 49 , in Pat. L a t . , vol. 1,
cols. 747-749, as c i te d in L y n n T h o r n d i k e , A H i s t o r y of j
M a g i c and E x p e r i m e n t a l S c i e n c e (New York: T he M a c m i l l a n '
C om p a n y , 1923), vol. 1, 464. L a c t a n t i u s (ca. 2 5 0- a f t e r
317) l u mp e d a s t r o l o g y w i t h n e c r o m a n c y , d i v i n a t io n, and
o t h e r m a g i c a l ar ts t o g e t h e r as all the i n v e n t i o n of
demons. See his D i v i n e I n s t i t u t e s II, 17, in Pat. Lat.
vol. 6, and T h o r n d i k e , H i s t o r y of M a g i c , vol. 1, 465-466.
A u g u s t i n e ' s a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t a s t r o l o g y m ay be read in
s e v e r a l of his works, e s p e c i a l l y in T he C i t y of God V. l -
7, and his C o n f e s s i o n s I V . 2-3. For a s um m a r y of
A u g u s t i n e ' s i n d i c t m e n t of a st r o l o g y , see T h o r n d i k e ,
H i s t o r y of M a g i c , vol. 1, chap. 22, 504ff.
19 Co rpus H e r m e t i c u m , 4 vols., ed. A. D. N oc k and

trans. A.-J. F e s t u g i e r e (Paris, 1945 and 1954). For an
e x h a u s t i v e wor k on the s o u r c e s and t exts of the H e r m e t i c
d i a l o g u e s , see A.-J. F e s t u g i e r e , La R e v e l a t i o n d ' H e r me s
T r i s m e g i s t e . 4 vols. (Paris, 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 5 4 ) . A s u c c i n c t but
t h o r o u g h t r e a t m e n t of the H e r m e t i c c or p u s in h i s t o r y
t h r o u g h the R e n a i s s a n c e is f ou nd in F r a n c e s A. Yates,
G i o r d a n o B r u no and the H e r m e t i c T r a d i t i o n (New York:
R a n d o m House, V i n t a g e B ooks, 1969).
2 0 a s F r a n c e s Y a t e s p oi n t s out, L a c t a n t i u s , in the
t h i r d centu ry , and A u g u s t i n e , in the fourth, k n e w some of
the t r ea ti se s, i n c l u d i n g the A s c l e p i u s . So, too, did
A l b e r t u s M a g n u s in the t h i r t e e n t h c e nt ur y . Although
the name of H e rm e s T r i s m e g i s t u s is i n v ok ed in v a r io u s
m e d i e v a l texts, the e x t e n t to w h i c h the H e r m e t i c w r i t i n g s
w e r e a c t u a l l y k n o w n or r ea d in the M i d d l e Age s is u n c e r
tain. See Yates, B r u n o , e s p e c i a l l y 6-12, and 48-49.
178
2 1 p i m a n d e r 1 . 12 .3 1 , and X I . 15, in C o r p u s
H e r m e t i c u m , vol. 1, 7-19. A l s o see G e o r g e Boas,
" M a c r o c o s m , " 128; and Yates, B r u n o , 22-28.
Z^ A s c l e p i u s 10, in C o r p u s H e r m e t i c u m , vol. 2,
296ff. Als o see Ya te s, B r u n o . 35-40.
2 3s ee C l e m e n t C o ho r t, ad G e n t e s I, in Pat. G r . ,
vol. 1, col. 60; G r e g o r y the G r e a t H omil. in Evang. II,
29, in Pat. L a t . . vol. 76, col. 1214; I s i d o r e of S e v i l l e
De n a t u r a r e r u m IX, 1-2, in P a t . L a t . , vol. 83, col. 878;
A l a n of L i l l e (Al an us de I n s u l is ) D e p l a n c t u n a t u r a e , in
P a t . L a t . . vol. 210, col. 443. For De p l a n c t u in
E n g l i sh , see Ala n of L i l le Th e C o m p l a i n t of N a t u r e ,
trans. D o u g l a s M. M o ff a t, Y a l e S t u d i e s in E n g l i s h 36
(New York: H e n ry H o lt and C om p a n y , 1908). For H o n o r i u s
of Autun, see De i m a g i n e m u n d i I, 82, in Pat. L a t . . vol.
172, col. 140. Al s o see C o nge r, T h e o r i e s of M a c r o c o s m s ,
29ff, for f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e se and o t h e r m e d i e v a l
m a c r o c o s m i c t h e o ries.
24-Alan of L i l l e A n t i c l a u d i a n u s . t rans. J a m e s J.
Sheridan (Toronto: P o n t i f i c a l I n s t i t u t e of M e d i a e v a l
S tudi es , 1973).
2 5 s a n c t i B o n a v e n t u r a e o p e r a o m n i a , ed. A. C.
P e l t i e r (Paris: L u d o v i c u s V ives, 1867), as q uo t e d in
J a m e s L. M i ll e r, " T h r e e M i r r o r s of D a n t e ’s P a r a d i s o , "
U n i v e r s i t y of T o r o n t o Q u a r t e r l y 46 ( 1 9 7 6- 1 9 77 ) : 267.
T r a n s l a t i o n by the aut h o r.
2 6 T h o m a s A q u i n as , Q u a e s t i o n e s d i s p u t a t a e de
v e r i t a t e . ed. P. Fr. R a y m u n d u s S p i a z z i (Turin: Marietti,
1953), q. 18, a. 1, ad. 1. As q u o t e d in t r a n s l a t i o n in
C h a r l e s S. S i n g le t on , J o u r n e y to B e a t r i c e [ o r i g i n a l l y
p u b l i s h e d as D a n t e S t u d i e s 2 1 ( B a l t i m o r e a nd L o ndo n: The
J o h n s H o p k i n s U n i v e r s i t y P r es s , 1958; r ep r in t , 1977),
18.
2 7 Q u a e s t i o n e s d i s p u t a t a e , q. 12, a. 6, ob. 8.
Cf. M iller, " Th re e M i r r o r s , " 266.
^ T r a n s l a t i o n s f r o m T h e D i v i n e C o m e d y used in
t hi s d i s s e r t a t i o n are by C h a r l e s S. S i n g l e t o n , u n l e s s
o t h e r w i s e noted. See D a n t e A l i g h i e r i , Th e D i v i n e C omedy:
P a r a d i s o . trans. C h a r l e s S. S i n g l e t o n ( P ri nc et o n, N. J.:
P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1975), vol. 3, pt. 1.
179
2 9 D a n t e e x p a n d e d on this point in a l e t t e r to Can

Grande (E p i s t . XIII, 64-65):
It is t h e r e f o r e we ll said w h e n it says that

the d i v i n e ray, or d i v i n e g l o r y p i er c e s and
r e g l o w s t h r o u gh the u n i v e r se . It p i e r c e s as
to essen ce ; it r e g l o w s as to being. And what
he a dd s as to m o r e and less is m a n i f e s t
truth; sin ce we see t ha t one t hi n g has its
bei ng in a mo re e x a l t e d grade, and a n o t h e r in
a lower, as is e v i d e n t w i th r e s p e c t to the
h e a v e n and the e l eme nt s, w h e r e o f that is
i n c o r r u p t i b l e and th e se c o r r u p t i b l e .
Q u o t e d and t r a n s l a t e d by S i n g l e t o n in Dante, P a r a d i s o ,
vol. 3, pt. 2, p. 5.
T h e poet r a is e s t h i s i de a a g a i n in C a n t o II of
the P a r a d i s o (lines 4 9- 14 8 ), as B e a t r i c e and D a n t e
d i s c u s s the q u e s t i o n of w hy some s p o t s on the m o o n a pp ea r
d a r k e r t ha n others. T he t r a d i t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c e x p l a n a
tion, w h i c h h el d that b r i g h t e r l i g h t w as r e f l e c t e d by
n e a r e r o b j e c t s (the m o o n ' s m o u n t a i n o u s r eg io n s , that w e re
c l o s e r to ear th ) and d i m m e r lig h t by t ho s e o b j e c t s (the
m o o n ' s c r a t e r s ) more d i s ta nt , is d i s p r o v e d by B e a t r i c e .
In an e x p e r i m e n t w i t h m i r r or s , she s ho w s that all r e f l e ct
l ig h t w i t h s i mi l a r i n t e n s i t y . T h e r e a s o n for the d a r k e r
and l i g h t e r sp ot s is b e y o nd s ci e n ce : the a m o u n t of li gh t
r e f l e c t e d by an o b j ec t is d e c i d e d by God, and b as e d on
t ha t that o b j e c t ' s g r ea t e r or l e s s e r v ir t ue . This ex
p l a n a t i o n r o u g h l y a c c o r ds w i t h t he s y s t e m of h i e r a r c h y
i m p l i c i t in the n o t i on of the G r e a t C h a i n of B ei n g . See
below, 170-172, for my d i s c u s s i o n of this m i r r o r e x p e r i
m e nt .
D a n t e m ak e s f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s in the P a r a d i s o
and in o t h e r w r i t i n g s to the m i r r o r of God, the n a t u r e of
H is r e f l e c t i o n in the c r e a t e d worl d . For i n s t a n c e in
C a n t o XXVI, God is " t h e t r u t h f u l M i r r o r w h i c h m a k e s of
I t s e l f r e f l e c t i o n of all else, w h i l e of It n o t h i n g m a k e s
i t s e l f the r e f l e c t i o n . " (lines 1 0 5 -1 0 8) And in C a n t o
XXIX, s p e a k i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y a bo u t the c r e a t i o n of a n g e l s
but a l so g e n e r a l l y a bo u t C r e a t i on , B e a t r i c e s p e a k s of God
c r e a t i n g m i r r o r s w ho s e r e f l e c t i o n s r e do u n d to Him:
. . . Not for gain of good u n to H i ms e lf ,

w h i c h c a n n ot be, but that His s pl e n d o r
mig ht , in r e s p l e n d e n c e , say " S u b s i s t o " —
in H is e t e r n i t y b e y on d time, b e y o n d every
o t h e r bound, as it p le a se d Him,
180
29(continued)
the E t e r n a l L o v e o p e n e d i nt o new loves.

Nor before, as if inert, did He lie,
for n e i t h e r b e f o r e nor a f t e r did t he m o v i n g
of God u p on t h e s e w a t e r s pr oc ee d. F o r m and
m a t t e r , c o n j o i n e d and s i mple, c am e into b ei n g
w h i c h had no d ef ect, as t h r e e a r r o w s f r om
a t h r e e - s t r i n g e d bow; and as in glass,
in amber, or in c ry s t al , a ray s h i n e s so that
the re is no i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n its c o m i n g and
its p e r v a d i n g all, so did the t r i f o r m e f f e c t
ray f or t h f ro m its L o r d into its being,
all at once, w i t h o u t d i s t i n c t i o n of b e g i n n i n g .
T h e r e w i t h or de r w as c r e a t e d and o r d a i n e d
for the s u b s t a n c e s ; and t h o s e in w h o m p ur e act
w a s p r o d u c e d w e r e the s u m mi t of the u n i v er s e.
(li ne s 13-32)
As S i n g l e t o n has p o i n t e d out, D a n t e w r o t e a b o u t
th is i m a g e r y in the C o n v i v i o III, xiv, 4, a nd in a l e t te r
to C a n G ra n de , Epi st . XIII, 56-61. For t h e s e q u o t a t i o n s
and f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n , see S i n g l et o n, in D an te ,
P a r a d i s o , vol. 3, pt. 2, 5ff.
^ O D a n t e ’s p a s s a g e t h r o u g h the r e g i o n s of the
a f t e r l i f e , f r om i n f e r n a l d a r k n e s s and d a m n a t i o n to the
r e s p l e n d e n c e of P a r a d i s e , f r o m c l o u d e d v i s i o n a nd l i m i t e d
k n o w l e d g e of the c o s m i c plan to full e n l i g h t e n m e n t in
the p r e s e n c e of D i v i n e I l l u m i n a t i o n , r e c a l l s P a u l ' s
1 C o r i n t h i a n text: "We see now t h r o u g h a g l a s s in a d ar k
m an n er ; but t he n f ac e to face. N o w Ik n o w in part; but
th en I sh al l k n o w e v en as I am k n o w n . " (13:12)
F ur t h e r , T h e D i v i n e C o m e d y may be s e e n as two
j o u r n e y s , one r e f l e c t i n g the other, as in a m ir ro r .
S i n g l e t o n has c a l l e d it a d o u b l e j ou r n e y , for e v e n w h i l e
the poet t r a v e l s t h r o u g h d e a d w o r l d s , he is s t i l l on the
"r oa d of our li f e " here. F or " t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h is dual
j o u r n e y, once it g et s u n d e r way, is the d i r e c t i o n in
w h i c h all s i g n s point. It is a t w o f o l d i t i n e r a r i u m to
God. C l e a r l y the l i t e r al j o u r n e y a t t a i n s to s u c h a goal.
So a l s o does the r e f l e c t e d j o u r n e y w h i c h f o l l o w s the
l i t e r a l as its very s h a d o w and m i r r o r e d i m a g e . " See
S i n g l e t o n , J o u r n e y to B e a t r i c e , 4.
D a n t e ' s m i r r o r i ma ge r y , w h i c h is only t o u c h e d
u p o n h e re as it r e v e a l s the i m p o r t a n c e and u n i v e r s a l i t y
of this m e t a p h o r , is a n a l y z e d by J a m e s L. M i l l e r , " T h re e
M i r r o r s of D a n t e ' s P a r a d i s o ,!i 2 63 -2 79 . A I 30 see H. D.
181
j "j
i Ô(continued) |
i A u st in , " Da n t e and M i r r o r s , " I t a l i c a 21, no. 1 ( M a r c h
j 1944): 13-17; A l l e n T ate, "Th e S y m b o l i c I m a g i n a t i o n :
j T h e M i r r o r s of D a n t e , " in T h e N e w O r p h e u s : E s s a y s t o w a r d j
i a C h r i s t i a n P o e t i c , ed. N a t h a n A. Scott, Jr. (Ne w York: j
i S h e ed and Ward, 1964), 9 4 -1 14 ; M a r c i a L. C o li sh , T h e j
| M i r r o r of L a n g u a g e (New H a v e n and L o n do n: Ya l e
{ U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1968); and J o a n F e r r a n t e , " W o r d s a nd
I m a g e s in D a n t e ' s P a ra d i s o : R e f l e c t i o n s of the D i v i n e ."
in Dante, P e t r a r c h . B o c c a c c i o : Studies, in the I t a l i a n
T r e c e n t o in H o n or of C h a r l e s S. S i n g l e t o n , ed. A l d o S.
B e r n a r d o and A n t h o n y L. P e l l e g r i n i ( B i n g h a m t o n , N. Y.: j
M e d i e v a l & R e n a i s s a n c e T e x t s & S tu d i e s , 1983), 1 1 5 - 1 33 . j
T h e n u m b e r of s t u d i e s on D a n t e ' s i m a g e r y in T h e D i v i n e |
C o m e d y is vast and no g e n e r a l b i b l i o g r a p h y can be I
a t t e m p t e d here. F or f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n and a d d i t i o n a l J
b i b l i o g r a p h y , see C h a r l e s S. S i n g l e t o n ’s c o m m e n t a r i e s in j
h is t r a n s l a t i o n of T h e D i v i n e C o m e d y ; C h a r l e s H. j
i G r a n d g e n t , C o m p a n i o n to the D i v i n e C o m e d y , ed. C h a r l e s S.
I S i n g l e t o n ( Ca mb r i d g e - M a s s . ; H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P r es s,
1975). S ee below, 170-172, for a d d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s to
D an te .
3 1 S e e S a n c t a e H i l d e g a r d i s l ib e r d i v i n o r u m o p e r u m
s i m p l i c i s h o m i n i s , in Pat. L a t . , vol. 197, cols. 7 3 9 -
1038. H i l d e g a r d w r o t e the L i b e r d i v i n o r u m o p e r u m . ca.
1 1 6 3 -1 1 73 . T he i l l u m i n a t i o n s h o w n in P L A T E 32 is fol.
9r fro m L u c c a m a n u s c r i p t 1942 of this work, w h i c h d a t e s
f r om the t h i r t e e n t h c en t ur y . See A n n a R o s a C a l d e r o n i
M a s e t t i and G i g e t t a D a l l i R e g ol i, S a n c t a e H i l d e g a r d i s
R e v e l a t i o n e s : M a n o s c r i t t o 1942 (Lucca: C a s s a di
R i s p a r m i o di L uc c a, 1973), 7-8.
3 2 L i b e r d i v i n o r u m o p e r u m , in Pat. L a t . , vol. 197,

col. 674 [ f o l l ow s col. 745]. T r a n s l a t e d by the a u t ho r .
A ls o jêe H. L e i s e g a n g , "La c o n n a i s s a n c e de D i e u au M i r o i r
de l ’Ame et de la N a t u r e , " R e v u e d ' H i s t o i r e et de
P h i l o s o p h i e r e l i g i e u s e s ( S t r a s b o u r g , 1937), 155.
3 3 s ee Saxl, "Macrocosm," 81, pi. 2.
^ D e s p i t e the a p p a r e n t a b s e n c e of a m i r r o r per se
in o t h e r d i a g r a m m a t i c r e n d e r i n g s of the c o sm o s, the
u n i v e r s e is c l e a r l y i m a g i n e d in t er m s of r e f l e c t i n g
e n t it i es , as the t e xt s a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d show. The ab
s e n ce of a m i r r o r in w o r k s tha t w e r e m e a n t to r e p r e s e n t a
r e l a t i o n s h i p of r e f l e c t i o n s may onl y i n d i c a t e tha t the
182
34(continued) j
m i r r o r a n a l o g y was i mp li ci t in the s y m b o l i z a t i o n of m a n ' s !
r e l a t i o n s h i p to the cosmos. Man is h i m s e l f u n d e r s t o o d as
| a mir ro r, as is the c osmos. Thus, bo th are a n a l o g u e s for
the c o n ce p t of " m i rr or ."
| j
j 35(3. K it t el has seen an a l l u s i o n to the p r a c t i c e i
| of d i v i n a t i o n in 1 C o r i n t h i a n s 13:12, b a s i ng his opinion j

| on H e b r e w sources. For a d i s c u s s i o n of K i t t e l ' s explica- i
tio n of this text and its d e r i v a t i on , as w el l as a
v a l u a b l e r e v i e w of the r a n g e of i n t e r p r e t i v e l i t e r a t u r e
and an e x h a u s t i v e d i s c u s s i o n of P a u l ' s m i r r o r m e t a p h o r s ,
see Hug ed e, La M e t a p h o r e , 42-44, and passim.
3 6 T h e Holy B i b l e , A u t h o r i s e d Kin g J a m e s V e r s i on . j
This t r a n s l a t i o n c o n v e y s the o r i g i n a l G r e ek verb i
Kt*mT t > ' r r r p L $ C & 0©*. *- * m e a n i n g to reflect, as in a |
m i rr or . Th e v erse is r e n d e r e d in the D o u a y - R h e i m s as:
But we all b e h o l d i n g the g lory of the Lord

w i t h o p e n face, are t r a n s f o r m e d into the sam e
i ma ge f r om g lo r y to glory, as by the S pi r it
of the Lord.
See Hugede, La M e t a p h o r e . 19-36, for a d i s c u s s i o n of the

s e n s e of the verb K & . r o ' ] T T p i 2 £ o ‘ an<* this P a u l i n e
text.
3 7 od e 13, in T he O d es and P s a l m s of Solo mo n , N o w

f i r s t p u b l i s h e d f r om the S y ri a c v e r s i o n , ed. and trans.
J a m e s R e nd e l H ar r is ( Ca mb ri dg e, 1909), 106-107.
3 8 s e e C l e m e n t ' s F i r s t E p i s t l e to the C o r i n t h i a n s ,
36, in E a r l y C h r i s t i a n W r i t i n g s , trans. M a x w e l l
S t a n i f o r t h ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h , Engla nd : P e n g u i n Bo ok s ,
1968), 42. C l em e nt of Rome, the p r e s u m e d a u th o r of t hese
words, was the f ou r t h b i s h o p of the R om an c hurch, f o l l o w
ing P eter, r e i g n in g f ro m 9 0 - 1 0 0 A.D. He s h o u l d not be
c o n f u s e d w i t h C l e m e n t of A l ex a n dr i a.
3 9 A u gu s ti n e , T he T r i n i t y ( Wa sh i n g t on : Catholic
U n i v e r s i t y of A m e ri ca Press, 1963), Bk. 11, chap. 24.
4 0 p or instance, see B e r n a r d u s S i l v e s t r i s
(fl. 1143) and his d e s c r i p t i o n of the M i r r o r of P r o v i
d e n c e as the e t er n al mind, in The C o s m o g r a p h i a . e d . and
trans. W i n t h r o p W e t h e r b e e (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1973), 114ff. In the A n t i c l a u d i a n u s A la n of L i ll e
said that " every fool l e a rn s from the book of the d i vi n e
183
Ô(continued)
m in d w h a t mu st be done, r e a d s t here w h a t is to come,
c o n s u l t s God, s e ei ng ea c h and e v e r y t h i n g in the m i r r o r of
the d e i t y . " Se e A l a n ' s A n t i c l a u d i a n u s Bk. V, 151-152.
B o n a v e n t u r e r e f e r r e d to the " c o s m i c m i r r o r of God or
C h r i s t r e f l e c t i n g C r e a t i o n , " in A p o l o g i a p a u p e r u m II, n.
12, in O p e r a o m n ia ( Q u a r a c c h i e dit io n, 1 8 8 2 - 1 9 0 2) , vol.
8, 242. In the P a r a d i s o , D a n t e a l l u d e d to the m i r r o r of
God in a n u m b e r of i n st an ce s , i n c l u d i n g C a n t o XV, 61-63;
C a n t o X VI II , 1-2; C a n to XIX, 28-30; and C a n t o XXVI, 106-
108. F or a d d i t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e s and f u r t h e r d i s cu s si o n ,
see H. L e i s e g a n g , "La c o n n a i s s a n c e de D i eu , " passim;
G ra be s, T h e M u t a b l e G l a s s , e s p e c i a l l y 75, 139-140, and
3 3 1 - 3 3 2 ns. 28-33; Gibson, " H i e r o n y m u s B o s c h , " e s p e c i a l
ly 9ff; and B a l dw in , " M a r r i a g e as a S a c r a m e n t a l
R e f l e c t i o n , " 63ff.
4 *S c i v i a s . v i s i o n 6, pt. 2, in [ H il d e g a r d of
Bi n ge n ] , H i l d e g a r d of B i n g e n ' s S c i v i a s . t rans. B r u c e
H o z e s k i ( S a n t a Fe, N. M . : B ea r & C o m p a ny , 1986), 128.
H i l d e g a r d ' s L i b e r s c i v i a s is in P a t . L a t . . vol. 197,
cols. 3 8 3- 73 8 .
^ H i l d e g a r d of Bingen, S c i v i a s , v i s i o n 6, pt. 2,
p. 128. L o u i s B a i l l e t p l a c e d W i e s b a d e n m a n u s c r i p t 1 of
S c i v i a s in the p er i od f ro m 1151 to 1179; H i l t g a r t K e l l e r
d at ed it in the 1170's; M a r i a n n a S c h r a d e r and A d e l g u n d i s
F u h r k o t t e r h av e a s s i g n e d a da t e of 1165; and A d o l p h
K a t z e n e l l e n b o g e n , ca. 1175. See L o u i s B a i l l et , L e s
M i n i a t u r e s du " S c i v i a s " de Ste. H i l d e g a r d e (Paris:
A c a d e m i e d es I n s c r i p t i o n s et B e l l e s L e t t r e s , 1912), 96;
H i l t g a r t Ke ll e r, M i t t e l r h e i n i s c h e B u c h m a l e r e i e n in
H a n d s c h r i f t e n aus dem K r e i s e der H i l t g a r t von B i n g e n
( S t u t t ga r t, 1933), 145; M a r i a n n a S c h r a d e r and A d e l g u n d i s
F u h r k o t t e r , Die E c h t h e i t d es S c h r i f t t u m s der hi.
H i l d e g a r d von B i n g e n ( C o l o g n e - G r a z , 1956), 44; and A d o l p h
K a t z e n e l l e n b o g e n , in A l l e g o r i e s of the V i r t u e s and V i ce s
in M e d i a e v a l Art (New York: W. W. N o r t o n & Co., 1964),
42.
4 3 Ibid.
4 4 See H e i n r i c h S c h i p p e r g e s , H i l d e g a r d von Bingen:

W e l t und M e n sc h . das B uc h "De o p e r a t i o n e Dei " (S al zburg:
O tt o M u l l e r , 1965), 245. Cf. C a l d e r o n i M a s e t t i and
D a l l i R e g o l i , S a n c t a e H i l d e g a r d i s R e v e l a t i o n e s . 38.
4 3 See C a l d e r o n i M a s s e t t i and D a l l i Regoli,

S a n c t a e H i l d e g a r d i s R e v e l a t i o n e s , 44, for L ucc a
184
^(continued)
m a n u s c r i p t 1942.
4 6 s c h i pp e rges, W el t und M e n s c h , 268. Hildegard

als o m e n t i o n s t h e se figures, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n of Abel,
in S c i v i a s , as e x e m p l a r s of " s p e c u l a t i v e k n o w l e d g e . " See
H i l d e g a r d of Bingen, S c i v i a s , vi s io n 2, pt. 3, pp. 189-
199. For s p e c u l a t i v e k no w le dg e , she r e f e r s to the
s p e c u l u m , the mir ro r, and to the c a p a c i t y to r e f l e c t
c r i t i c a l l y upon o n e s e l f and to a s se s s o n e 's own good or
evil. Thi s idea is c e nt r al to H i l d e g a r d ' s t h e o lo gy . See
H i l d e g a r d of Bingen, S c i v i a s . vi s io n 2, pt. 3, pp. 194-
195.
^ ^ R o t h s c h i l d C a n t i c l es, M a n u s c r i p t 404, fol. 40,

B e i n e c k e L ib r a r y , Ya l e U n i v e r si t y. See Luc y F r e e m a n
S a nd le r, " J ea n P u c e l l e and the Los t M i n i a t u r e s of the
Belleville Breviary," The Art B u l l e t i n 66, no. 1 ( March
1984): 73-95, and fig. 26.
4 8 T h e r e l a t e d text (fol. 97v): "Ego qui non

m u t o r (Mai. 3:6) sed m o v e n s omnia. C a n d o r e t e r n e l u c is &
s p e c u l u m sin e m a c u l a ( W i s d o m 7:26) apud q u em non est
t r a n s m u t a t i o n e c q u e v i c i s s i t u d i n i s o b u m b r a t i o ( Ja me s
1:17). In v i s i o n e dei vidi & ecce v e n t u s t u r b i n i s
v e n i e b a t ab a q u i l o n e n u b c s q u c m a g n a & i gnis i n v o l v e n s
s p l e n d o r q u e in c i r c u i t u eius (Ezek. 1:4)." As q u o t e d by
Sandl e r, " J e an P u c e l l e , " 92 n. 74.
York, M o r g a n Libra r y, M a n u s c r i p t 132, fol.

130v. Le R o m a n de la R o s e , and the T e s t a m e n t of J e a n de
Meun, ca. 1380. M o r g a n C a t a l o g u e 1906, no. 112.
^ G u i l l a u m e de L o r r i s and J e a n de Meun, T he
R o m a n c e of the R o s e , trans. H. W. R o b b i n s (New York:
E. P. D u t t o n & Co., 1962), 372-3 7 3 . See below, 149-153,
for a d i s c u s s i o n of o t he r i l l u m i n a t i o n s for the R o m a n de
la R o s e .
S ^ The R o m a n c e of the R o s e , chap. 91, p. 423.

For a d i s c u s s i o n of this image, the R o m a n de la R o s e
passage, and the r e l a t e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , in c o n n e c t i o n
w i t h a lost m i n i a t u r e fro m the B e l l e v i l l e B r e vi a r y , see
Sandler, " Jea n P u c e l l e , " 88-94.
5 2T he d i re c t t r a n s l a t i o n in p i c t o r i a l t er ms of
the c o nc ep t of the m i rr o r of God was by no m e a n s a
f o rm u la for the a rt i st of t he se c e n t ur i es . In m e d i e v a l
art, the a n a l o g y was u n d e r s to o d: God w as a mir ro r.
185
^(continued)
W i t h o u t t hi s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and w i t h o u t a text that
e x p l i c a t e s the p ic ture, it w o u l d not be c l e a r that we
w e r e a c t u a l l y l o o k i n g at a " m i r r o r . " A l os t m i n i a t u r e ,
p e r h a p s by J e a n P uc el l e, that may ha ve i l l u m i n a t e d the
B e l l e v i l l e B r ev i ar y , p r e s e n t s us w i t h a c a s e in point.
T h i s D o m i n i c a n b r e v ia r y, a t w o - v o l u m e p r a y e r book, was
m a d e in Paris, and may h a v e been p r o d u c e d b e t w e e n 1323
and 1326. T he text, w h i c h the m i s s i n g m i n i a t u r e is p r e
s u m e d to h a v e i l l u s t r a t e d , d e s c r i b e s a s c e n e in w h i c h one
s ee s "in a g r e e n field . . . the t r e a s u r e of H o l y Church,
the p r e c i o u s blood of J e s u s C h r i s t . . ." On one side of
C h r i s t is the V i r g i n M a r y and on t h e o th e r is Pet er , "who
w as the fi rs t t re as ur e r, w h o hol ds the key . . . And so
that e ac h p e r s o n can r e a d i l y see w ha t is there, the
m i r r o r is in the m i d d l e of the t r e a s u r e w h e r e o ne can
u n d e r s t a n d it r e a d i l y . " L u c y F r e e m a n S a n d l e r has sta te d
the p r o b l e m of the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the m i r r o r in this
missing miniature. M a t c h i n g the te xt to the p o s s i b l e
image, S a n d l e r has w o n d e r e d if the m i r r o r in the i l l u m i
n a t i o n w a s "the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of an a c t u a l m i r r o r in
w h i c h the v i e w e r of the i m a g e m i g h t see h i m s e l f or
herself reflected fictively? Or is the p h r a s e m e t a p h o r i
cal only, the ima ge of t he M a n of S o r r o w s i t s e l f be in g
u n d e r s t o o d as the m i r r o r ? " T he q u e s t i o n r e m a i n s
u n a n s w e r e d , a l t h o u g h t h e r e is a p a r a l l e l for the r e p r e
s e n t a t i o n of an a c tu a l m i rr o r , e.g., the i l l u m i n a t i o n of
C h r i s t in the m i r r o r for the text of the R o m a n de la
R o s e . as n o t e d above, 9 5 - 96 . For S a n d l e r ' s f u l l d i s
c u s s i o n of this f a s c i n a t i n g p r o bl em , see her e x c e l l e n t
a r t i cl e , " Je a n P u c e l l e . "
53Arabrogio L o r e n z e t t i , in his M a s s a M a r i t t i m a
M a e s t a . has giv en the a l l e g o r i c a l f i gu r e of F i d e s a
m i r r o r in w h i c h the i m a g e of the T r i n i t y a p p e a r s . See
below, 120-127, for my d i s c u s s i o n of this f o u r t e e n t h
c e n t u r y image.
5 4 ( P s e u d o - ) D i o n y s i u s the A r e o p a g i t e , T h e W o r k s
of D i o n y s i u s the A r e o p a g i t e . trans. Rev. J o h n P a r k e r
(London: J a m e s P a r k e r and Co., 1 89 7- 1 8 9 9 ; r e print,
M e r r i c k , N e w York: R i c h w o o d P u b l i s h i n g C o m pa n y , 1976),
pt. 2, "The H e a v e n l y H i e r a r c h y , " III, ii, p. 14.
5 5 H il d egard of B i n g e n , S c i v i a s . vision 6, pt. 1,

p . 67,
5 6 p s e u d o - D i o n y s i u s ' h i e r a r c h y c o n s i s t s of angels,
a r c h a n g e l s , virtues, powe r s , p r i n c i p a l i t i e s , d o m i n a t i o n s ,
186
56(continued)
thron es , c he ru bi m , and s e r a p h im . See ( P s eu do -)
Dionysius, W o r k s , "The H e a v e n l y H i e r a r c h y , " pt. 2, 1-66.
5?Hildegard of B i n ge n, S c i v i a s , vision 6, p t . 1,
p . 67.
58ibid.
5 9 Ibid., 72. Hil d e g a r d has m o r e to say a b o u t
k n o w l e d g e and the m i r r o r e l s e w h e r e in S c i v i a s . for
examp le , wliexe slit s t a t e s that k n o w l e d g e e x i s t s in
h u m a n s as if it w e r e in a m i rr or , for the d e s i g n to wi l l
good or evil is c o n c e a l e d w i t h i n t h em . " See ibid.,
v i s i o n 5, pt. 3, p. 237.
60lbi d ., v i s i o n 6, pt. 1, p. 67.
6 1 T he p r e s e n c e of m i r r o r s m u s t h a ve been
cnderstood. C e r t a i n l y , H i l d e g a r d ' s text r e f e r s to t h e m
m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , and so ev en the m o s t l i t e r a l i l l u m i n a t o r
M e t h as the a r ti s t of the W i e s b a d e n m a n u s c r i p t c o u l d h av e
e a s i l y o m i t t e d them. D e s p i t e the l i t e r a l n e s s w i t h w h i c h
the i l l u m i n a t o r has i n t e r p r e t e d H i l d e g a r d ' s te xt in thi s
m i n i a t u r e , the o m i s s i o n of t he " m i r r o r s " may h a v e b e e n
the onl y c ourse, g i ve n the f or m a t and size of the w ork.
Th e d i l e m m a of how to d e p i c t the m i r r o r s tha t H i l d e g a r d
d e s c r i b e d in the s er a p h i m s ' eye s w o u l d h a v e been i n
s o lu bl e. H owe ve r, e y e s a r e t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r s t o o d
m e t a p h o r i c a l l y as m ir r or s , and so w o u l d h av e bee n c a p a b l e
of r e f l e c t i n g images.
^Katzenellenbogen, A l l e g o r i e s , 51.
6 3 I b i d . , 1. T h e V i r t u e s w e r e d e p i c t e d in the
m e d i e v a l p er i o d in s e v e r a l p r i n c i p a l ways: in c o m b a t
w i t h the Vices, as f i rs t d e s c r i b e d by P r u d e n t i u s ( 348-
a f t er 405) in his P s y c h o m a c h i a ; s t a n d i n g in t r i u m p h ov er
v a n q u i s h e d Vices; in s o - c a l l e d " t r e e s " and " l a d d e r s " of
virtue; in m e d a l l i o n s e i t h e r a r r a n g e d a r o u n d a c e n t r a l
figure, o ft en a k in g or an e c c l e s i a s t i c a l p e r s on a g e; or
as p a r ts of s ce n es w i t h h u m a n e x e m p l a r s , su c h as T r a j a n
w i t h S a p i e n t i a . etc. The Virtues usually appeared
w e a r i n g crowns. See the P s y c h o m a c h i a , in P r u d e n t i u s ,
Wo rk s, trans. H. J. T h o m s o n ( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : Harvard
U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1949), vol. 1, 2 74 -3 43 . F o r a full
d i s c u s s i o n of the V i r t u e s and V i c e s in the v i s u a l a r t s
d u r i n g the M i d d l e Ages, see K a t z e n e l l e n b o g e n ,
Allegories.
187
6 ^ S ee above, Chapter III, n. 41.
6 5 Kat z e n e l l e n b o g e n , A l l e g o r i e s . 19.
6 6 Ibid., 63, 68.
6 7At N o t r e Dame, Paris, at C h ar t re s , and at

Auxer re , in the c h o ir w indow, ca. 1230. See
K a t z e n e l l e n b o g e n , A l l e g o r i e s , 76, 80, and 83.
6 8S ee ibid., 44, on this a t t r i b u t e for the

a l l e g o r i c a l f ig u r e of F i d e s .
6 9s ci v i a s , v i s io n 8, pt. 3, p. 294.
7 0 Ibid., 279.
7 llbid., pp. 293-4.
^ A n o t h e r m i n i a t u r e in w h i c h H u m i l i t a s a p p e a r s
m ay be c i te d here: In a late t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a n u
sc r ip t of the S o m m e le Roi ( c o l l e c t i o n of Dr. E. G.
Millar, L on d o n) , w i t h i l l u m i n a t i o n s a t t r i b u t e d to M a st e r
Hon or e, H u m i l i t a s , t r e a d in g on a u n i c o r n a nd w i t h a w hi t e
w a n d in her hand, h o l d s w h a t has be en i n t e r p r e t e d as a
" m i r ro r " (fol. 97vo). [PLATE 41] See E. G. M i l la r, The
P a r i s i a n M i n i a t u r i s t H o n o r £ (London: F a b e r and Faber,
1959), pi. 6, and 26. In the m i r r o r or disc is seen
the fi g ur e of a woman, als o w it h a w an d and s i m i l a r l y
dressed, who m a y be i n t e n de d as a r e f l e c t i o n of the
Virtue. B e ry l S m a l l e y has r e f e r r ed to thi s di sc as a
mirror, and has r e c a l l e d that the " f ir st d e g r e e of
h u m i l i t y is to k n o w o n es e l f . " See B ery l Smal l e y, E n g l i s h
F r i a r s and A n t i q u i t y in the E a r ly F o u r t e e n t h C e n t u r y
(Oxford: Ba sil B l ac k w e l l , 1960), 181. T h e r e l a t e d text
of the S o m m e le R oi does not d e s c r i b e the f ig u re of
H u m i l i t a s w it h a mir r o r. D i s cs or m e d a l l i o n s such as the
one held by H u m i l i t a s a b o u n d in m e d i e v a l art. In this
m a n u s c ri p t, for i n s tance, other V i r t u e s n ot n e c e s s a r i l y
a s s o c i a t e d w it h a m i r r o r a t t r i b u t e are a l s o r e p r e s e n t e d
w i t h a s i mi l ar disc in w h i c h an i mage a p p e a r s (e.g., see
the i l l u m i n a t i o n of A m i s t i e (Fr ie n d sh ip ), fol. 107,
h o l d i n g a disc w i t h a dove d e p i c te d on it; i l l u s t r a t e d in
M illar, P a r i s i a n M i n i a t u r i s t H o n o r e , pi. 7). W h e t h e r or
not these d i sc s and others, u n s u p p o r t e d by c l a r i f y i n g
texts, w er e i n t e n d e d or u n d e r s t o o d as m i r r o r s is not
clear.
A r e l a t e d m a n u s c r i p t of the S omme le R o i , also
a t t r i b u t e d to M a s t e r H on o re ( Br i t i s h Mus eu m , Add. 28162),
188
^(continued)
is d i s c u s s e d by F. N o r d st r o m , in V i r tu e s and V i c e s on the
14th C e n t u r y C o r b e l s of U p p s a l a C a t h e d r a l ( S to ck h ol m:
A l m q u i s t & W ik s el l , 1956), 49ff, and r e p r o d u c e d in fig.
16. [ PL AT E 42] In thi s i l lu m i n a t i o n , fol. 5vo, H u m i l i t a s ,
clad in a dar k g a r m e n t w it h a l ig h te r m antle, s t a nd s on a
a stag. She h o lds f leur de lis in her r i ght ha n d and
lo oks i n t e n t l y at the " m i r r o r" disc in her left. In it
we see a " d i f f e r e n t " f em a l e figure, all in w hite, h o l d i n g
a p a lm and w ha t a p p e a r s to be a book. W h i l e the i ma ge in
the disc or m i r r o r m ay h av e been i n t e n d e d to be a r e f l e c
tion of the Virtue, and its d i s s i m i l a r i t y to the V i r t u e
s im pl y an error, it is m or e l i kely that it was m e a n t to
be a v i s i o n of the V i r g i n Mary, who w as the e m b o d i m e n t of
this Virtue. See below, 115-120, for my d i s c u s s i o n of the
V i r g i n w i t h a u n i c o r n and a mirror.
7 8 S ee R o s e m o n d Tuve, A l l e g o r i c a l Image ry : Some

M e d i a e v a l B o o k s and T h e i r P o s t e r i t y ( Pr i n ce to n, N. J.:
P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1966), e s p e c i a l l y 125.
7 ^ Se e K a t z e n e l l e n b o g e n , A l l e g o r i e s , especially
19, 20.
7 5 w i e s b a d e n m a n u s c r i p t 1. A l s o see S c i v i a s ,
vision 8, pt. 3, p. 281. T he i l l u m i n a t i o n f o l l o w s the
text.
7 8 Ibid. Also see S c i v i a s , v i s i o n 8, pt. 3, pp.

298ff.
7 7 " B l e s s e d a r e the c l e a n of heart: for they

s hall see G o d ." T h i s B e a t i t u d e in M a t t h e w 5:8 is
c o m m o n l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the V i r t u e of C a s t i t a s .
7 8 See below, 115-120.
7 9 s ee below, 103, 115-120, for a d i s c u s s i o n of

the m i r r o r as an a t t r i b u t e of the V i r g i n Mary.
88Aristotle N i c h o m a c h e a n E t h i c s V I .x ii .3 .
8 1 Ci cero De o f f i c i i s I . x l ii i .1 5 3 .
8 2 A s in P r o v e r b s 1:2 and 2 passim, for exam pl e .
8 3 s i m i l a r l y , in E c c l e s i a s t e s 8:16-1 7, we hear
a g ai n that man c an no t d i s c o ve r wisdom.
189
8 4 p r 0 v e r b s 10:23. This c h ap t er is par t of the

parables of Solomon.
8 5 i n the Old T e s t a m e n t , see e s p e c i a l l y P r o v er bs ,

E c c l e s i a s t e s , and W i s d o m passim.
® ^S ee a m i d - t h i r t e e n t h m i n i at ur e , p o s s i b l y from
S al z bu r g , n ow in the m o n a s t e r y l i b ra r y of Adraont, M a n u
s cr i pt 128, fol. 13. R i c h a r d O f f n e r and K l a r a S te in w eg ,
who cite thi s e x a m p l e in A C r i t i c a l and H i s t o r i c a l C o r p u s
of F l o r e n t i n e P a i n t i n g (New York: C o l l e g e of F i n e Arts,
N e w Y or k U n i v e r s i t y , 1967), vol. 7, sec. 3, 18, n o t e that
t his w o r k is r e p r o d u c e d in B e s c h r e i b e n d e s V e r z e i c h n i s der
I l l u m i n i e r t e n H a n d s c h r i f t e n in O s t e r r e i c h ( Le i pz ig , 1911)
IV, I, 89, fig. 92.
® ^ Se e K a t z e n e l l e n b o g e n , A l l e g o r i e s . e s p e c i a l l y
35ff. In the R e n a i s s a n c e , the c o n c e p t of W i s d o m or
P r u d e n c e w as f r e q u e n t l y p e r s o n i f i e d as M i n e r v a , the
R o m a n g o dd es s of w i sd om , w i t h a shield, h elmet, and
spear. See R u d ol f W i t t k o w e r , " T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in M i n e r v a
in R e n a i s s a n c e I m a g e r y , " J o u r n a l of the W a r b u r g and
C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s 2 ( 1 9 38 - 19 3 9 ) : 194-205. In a n c i e n t
m y th o l o g y , this g o d d e s s w a s als o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the
m ir ro r , b e c a u s e of the s h i ny s h i e l d she lent to P e r s e u s
in his b a t t l e w i t h M e d u s a . See above, 3 3-34. Also, in
at l east one late t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y examp le , the V i r g i n
M a r y is r e p r e s e n t e d as M i n e r v a . See W i t t k o w e r , " T r a n s
formations," 199.
S ^ S e e S e l m a P f e i f f e n b e r g e r on P r u d e n t i a * s n ew
m i r r o r in the A r e n a C h a p e l in T h e I c o n o l o g y of G i o t t o ’s
V i r t u e s and V i c e s in P a d u a , d i s s e r t a t i o n , B r y n M a w r
Co l le g e , P e n n s y l v a n i a , 1966 (Ann Arbor, M i c h i g a n :
U n i v e r s i t y M i c r o f i l m s , Inc., n.d.), chap. 5, 2ff. Also
see H a rt l a u b , Z a u b e r de s S p i e g e l s , 159- 16 0. Precise
d a t i n g of the f r e s c o e s h a s not b e en e s t a b l i s h e d . Some
m a y hav e been f i n i s h e d at the tim e of the C h a p e l ' s
c o n s e c r a t i o n in 1305, w i t h t he r e m a i n i n g s c e n e s c o m p l e t e d
by ca. 1309. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n of the q u e s t i o n of d at i ng
G i o t t o ' s f r e s c o e s in P ad u a, see J a m e s H. S t u b b l e b i n e ,
" G i o t t o and the A r e n a C h a p e l F r e s c o e s , " 71 -1 0 0 , and
U r s u l a S c h l eg el , "On the P i c t u r e P r o g r a m of the A r e n a
C h a p e l , " 182-202, in J a m e s H. S t ub b l e b i n e , ed., G i o t t o :
t he A r e n a C h ap e l F r e s c o e s (New York: W. W. Norton &
C o m p a ny , 1969).
^ I s i d o r e D f S e v i l l e L ib ri d i f f e r e n t i a r u m
1 1 . 3 9 . 1 5 4 , in P a t . L a t . . vol. 83, col. 94. Wisdom is a
te'acher in the boo k of W i s d o m 7:21.
190
9 0 S ee below, Chapter III, n. 99.
9lA c o m p a s s is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h S a p i e n t i a (Wisdom)
in the Bible. S a p i e n t i a is s p e a k i n g in P r o v e r b s 8:27:
Whe n he p r e p ar e d the h e a ve ns , I was present:

wh e n w i t h a c e r t a i n l aw and c o m p a s s he
e n c l o s e d the d ep th s . . .
H er e S a p i e n t i a a s s i s t s the God of C r e a t i o n who, w i t h his

co mp a s s, m e a s u r e s and c i r c u m s c r i b e s the un iv er se . T hu s
the c o mp as s , used by God, the s o u r c e of all wi sd o m, is
l in k ed w i t h the a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e of S a p i e n t i a , and, as
H a r t l a u b has p o i nt ed out, the i n s t r u m e n t is h e r e t r a n s
f e r r e d to P r u d e n t i a . See H a r t l a u b , Z a u b e r des S p i e g e l s .
160. G i o v a n n i P i s a n o ' s p u l p i t in the P i s a Duomo, w h i c h
is a l m o s t c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s w i t h the A r e n a C hapel, al so
s h o w s P r u d e n t i a w i t h a c o m p as s . See P f e i f f e n b e r g e r ,
I c o n o l o g y , chap. 5, 5. T h e r e is, h ow e ve r , some d i s a g r e e
m e n t a b ou t the i d e n t i t y of P r u d e n t i a on G i o v a n n i ' s
pu lp it . J o h n P o p e - H e n n e s s y , in I t a l i a n G o th i c S c u l p t u r e ,
s e c o n d e d i t i o n (L on d on and N e w York: P ha i do n , 1972),
pi. 21, i d e n t i f i e s a h a l f - n u d e f i gu r e of a p u d i c i t i a -
ty pe as P r u d e n t i a , not the f i g u r e w i th the comp a s s.
P f e i f f e n b e r g e r 's i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the c o m p a s s - b e a r i n g
f i g u r e as P r u d e n t i a a g r e e s w i t h that of H a r a l d Kel l er , in
his G i o v a n n i P i s a n o (Vienna: A n t o n S ch r ol l, 1942), pi.
107, Abb. 105. K el l e r c a l l s the p u d i c i t i a f ig u r e an
a l l e g o r y of T e m p e r a n t i a ( T e m p e r a n c e ) . We s ho u ld not e
th a t m o d e s t y or c h a s t i t y (p u d i c i t i a ) is g i v en as a part
of the V i r t u e of T e m p e r a n t i a by som e of the p r i n c i p a l
a u t h o r i t i e s on e t h i c s for t he M i d d l e Ages. T h e list
i n c l u d e s C i c e r o in De i n v e n t i o n e (ii.53-4), M a cr o b i u s , in
In s o m n i u m S c i p i o n i s (i.8), and G u i l l a u m e de C on c he s, the
p r o b a b l e m i d - t w e l f t h c e n t u r y a u t h o r of the i n f l u e n t i a l
t r ea t is e , the M o r a l i u m d o g m a p h i l o s o p h o r u m . F or a
d i s c u s s i o n of the v a r i ou s s y s t e m s of V i r t u e s and V ic e s
and t h e i r c o m p o n e n t parts, see R o s a m o n d Tuve, A l l e g o r i c a l
I m a g e r y . e s p e c i a l l y 57ff, and 443.
9 2s ee K a t z e n e l l e n b o g e n , A l l e g o r i e s , 56.
9 3 s ee above, Chapter III, n. 88.
9 4 D i o g e n e s L a e r t i u s , L i v e s of the P h i l o s o p h e r s
(London: W i l l i a m H e in e m a n n ; and N ew York: G. P.
Putnam's Sons, 1925), II, 33.
1 91
9 5 T h e V i r g i n M a r y is t r a d i t i o n a l l y k n o w n by
Wisdom's a p p e l l a t i o n , s p e c u l u m si ne m a c u l a , the u n s p o t t e d
mirror.
96See a ls o H a r t l a u b , Zauber d e s S p i e g e l s , 161.
9 7 C i c e ro De i n v e n t i o n e I I . l i i i . 1 6 0 ; De o f f i c i i s
I; De n a t u r a d e o r u m III; a nd De f i n i b u s b o n o r u m et
m a l o r u m Il. xi v .
9 8 C i c e ro De i n v e n t i o n e I I . l i i i . 1 6 0 . E d g ar W i n d
n o t ed th i s p a s s a g e as the c l a s s i c a l s o u r c e for the
d e f i n i t i o n of P r u d e n c e as u se d in the M i d d l e Ag es and
Renaissance. He a ls o c i t e d s e v e r a l m e d i e v a l use s of the
C i c e r o n i a n t r i p a r t i t e P r u d e n c e in A l b e r t u s M a g n u s
De p r u d e n t i a II, i-iv, 4 6 8- 8 6 ; T h o m a s A q u i n a s , S u m m a
t h e o l o g i c a I, ii, q. 57, art. 6, no. 4; and D ante,
C o n v i v i o IV, xxvii. Se e E d g a r W ind, P a g a n M y s t e r i e s in
the R e n a i s s a n c e (New York: W. W. N o r to n, 1968), 260.
" P f e i f f e n b e r ge r h as s u g g e s t e d tha t s i n ce the

a ps e end, or e a st w all, m ay be u n d e r s t o o d as a k in d of
t r i u m p h a l arch, p e r h a p s t h e r e is an a l l u s i o n to the
a r c h e s of a n c i e n t R o m e w h e r e the t w o - f a c e d god J a n u s was
o f t e n f ound. S ee P f e i f f e n b e r g e r , I c o n o l o g y . chap. 2,
pt. 3, 10. F r o m e a r l y C h r i s t i a n t im e s, J a n u s was
a s s o c i a t e d in c a l e n d a r s w i t h the f i r s t m o n t h of J a n u a r y .
Ovid, at the b e g i n n i n g of the F a s t i . d e s c r i b e s J a n u s as
p r e s i d i n g o v e r h e a v e n ' s g ates. In the f o u r t h c en tu ry ,
M a c r o b i u s p o i n t e d out that t he a n c i e n t s h e l d that J a n u s
w a s th e god of the v a u l t of h e ave n, and so it w a s c o r r e c t
th a t he s h o u l d be d e p i c t e d on g a t e w a y s and arc he s. J an us
was t he god of b e g i n n i n g s , and P r u d e n t i a . as a l r e a d y
n ot e d, b e g i n s t he s e r i e s of V i r t u e s in the A r e n a C h ape l.
As the g u a r d i a n of g a t e w a y s , J a n u s h ad two faces,
a l l o w i n g h i m to see b o t h b e h i n d and a h ea d. T h e i d e a of
r e p r e s e n t - i n g P r u d e n t i a as b i f r o n s m a y be r e l a t e d to her
f u n c t i o n as a J a n u s - l i k e f i g u r e in t h i s l o c at i o n . F or
P f e i f f e n b e r g e r 's d i s c u s s i o n of thi s idea, see her
I c o n o l o g y . chap. 5, 4. A l s o see O v i d F a s t i I, 125;
M a c r o b i u s L e s S a t u r n a l e s , trad. H e n r i B o r n e c q u e (Paris;
L i b r a i r i e G a r n i e r , n .d .) , I, 15-19.
1 0° P f e i f f e n b e rger, I c o n o l o g y . chap. 5, 60, c o n

c l u d e s tha t C i c e r o w a s the p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e for all of
G i o t t o ' s C a r d i n a l V i r t u e s in the A r e n a Cha pe l , but her
o p i n i o n s e em s ba sed on De o f f i c i i s 1 . 7. 20 , w h i c h c al ls
J u s t i c e "t he c r o w n i n g g l or y of the v i r t u e s . ”
P f e i f f e n b e r g e r al so sees De o f f i c i i s as the s o u r c e of
192
l O O ( c o n t in u ed )
P r u d e n t i a as a scholar, c it i n g p a s s a g e s that r e l a t e
P r u d e n c e to W isdom. See De o f f i c i i s 1.5; 1.6; a n d 1.43;
a nd P f e i f f e n b e r g e r , I c o n o l o g y , chap. 5, 1, and chap. 5,
3. P f e i f f e n b e r g e r does not s u g ge s t C i c e r o ' s De
i n v e n t i o n e as a s o u r c e for G i o t t o ' s new i c o n o g r a p h y for
P r u d e n t i a . For a d i s c u s s i o n of C i c e r o ' s d e f i n i t i o n of
P r u d e n c e in De i n v e n t i o n e and the m e d i e v a l art of memory,
see F r a n c e s A. Yates, The Art of M e m o r y (London:
R o u t l e d g e and K e g a n Paul; and Chic ag o: U n i v e r s i t y of
C h i c a g o Press, 1966), 20-21.
l O l C ic e ro De o f f i c i i s I.v.15.
1 0 2 0 r igen De p r i n c i p i i s I.ii., in The A n t e - N i c e n e

F a t h e rs . T r a n s l a t i o n s of the W r i t i n g s of the F a t h e r s dow n
to A.D. 3 2 5 , ed. Rev. A l e x a n d e r R o b e r t s and J a m e s
D o n a l d s o n (Buffalo: C h r i s t i a n L i t e r a t u r e P u b l i s h i n g Co.,
1 85 0- 18 8 7 ), vol. 4, 122-123.
l O ^ A ia n of L i l l e A n t i c l a u d i a n u s . passim.
104^1.311 of L i l l e also c a ll s P r u d e n t i a by the G r e ek

e q u i v a l e n t P h r o n e s i s and s o m e t i m e s S o p h i a , the G r e e k for
W i s do m. He uses t h es e d e s i g n a t i o n s i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y .
1 0 5 Ibid>> Bk. VI, 160.
106 jbid.
1 0 7 g ee above, Chapter III, n. 104.
lOîan of L i l l e A n t i c l a u d i a n u s . Bk. VI, 163.
1 0 9 Ibid.
1 1 0 Ibid., 171.
m Ibid., Bk. VII, 173ff.
1 1 2 Ibid., Bk. IX, 203ff.
H3Curtius, E u r o p e a n L i t e r a t u r e . 117ff.
1 1 4 Ibid.
H S l b i d . , 360. Cur tius p oi n ts out c e r t a i n

s i m i l a r i t i e s in i m a g e r y in Al an ' s and D a n t e ' s w orks.
D a n t e ma d e f r eq u en t use of m i rr o r a n a l o g i e s and i m a g er y
193
115(continued)
in the C o n v i v i o and the D i v i n e C o m e d y . For a d i s c u s s i o n
of this subject, see Austin, " D an t e and M i r r o r s , " 13-17.
1 1 6 p f e i f f e n b e r g e r , I c o n o l o g y , s u m m a r i z e s A la n ' s
A n t i c l a u d i a n u s in her d i s c u s s i o n of l i t e r a t u r e on the
V i r t u e s and Vices, but does not c o n c l u d e thet the
A n t i c l a u d i a n u s is a p o s s i b l e s o u r c e for G i o t t o ' s
program.
H ^ T h e T r e a t i s e on P r u d e n c e is in the S umma
t h e o l o g i c a , II, ii, qs. 47-56.
^ ^ S u m m a , II, ii, q. 47, art. 2, obj. 2.
1 l ^ I b i d ., A r t . 1.
#j A r t . 14.
l 2 1 Ibid., Q. 49, Art. 6.
l 2 2 Ibid., Art. 1. F r a n c e s Yates, in T he Art of

M e m o r y , 92, s u g g e s t s that G i o t t o ' s V i r t u e s and V i c e s may
h a v e bee n i n t e n de d as i m a g i n e s a g e n t e s , that is, u n u s u a l
and v i v id i ma g es that m ak e an i m p r e s s i o n on the m e m o r y
a c c o r d i n g to the p r e c e p t s of a r t i c i f i c a l m e m o r y that
m e d i e v a l s c h o l a r s we r e t r yi n g to r e c o v e r fro m the
c l a s s i c a l world.
1 2 3 Th o ma s A q u i n a s S u m m a , II, ii, q. 49, art. 6.
1 24see above, 108-109.
1 2 5 p f e i f f e n b erger, who s t u di e d the i c o n o g r a p h y of

the A r e na C h ap el V ir t u e s and V i c es in depth, c o n c l u d e d
that the c a r d i na l V ir t ue s , and, thus, P r u d e n t i a . w e r e
" l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t " on Cic er o. H e r p r i nc i p a l text, as
n o te d above, was De o f f i c i i s . See P f e i f f e n b e r g e r ,
I c o n o l o g y , chap. 5, 60.
1 2 6 F u r ther, the J a n u s head s poke of a d e m o n s t r a

ti on of wisdom, for the old m a n 's head, f ac i ng b a ck wa rd s,
c i r c u m s p e c t l y r e c al ls and sees the past and a s s e s s e s wha t
is behind, w h i le the f o r w a r d - l o o k i n g fe ma le head, l o oks
to the future. The J a n us head a l s o r e c al l s the m i r r o r ' s
c a p a c i t y to d ouble what is p la c ed b e fo re it. The c o m p a s s
was als o a s s o c i a t e d wit h W i s d o m and r e f e r r e d to i n t e l l e c -
194
126(continued)
tual p ur suits.
127tyiS(iom 7:26. See above, 103.
1 2 8 0 quara m a g n u m est in v i r i b u s sui s latus viri,

de quo D e u s forraam m u l i e r i s p ro du x i t,
q ua m f ec it s p e c u l u m o mn is o r n a m e n t i sui
et amplexionera o m n is c r e a t u r a e suae.
— De s an c t a M a r i a (13).
In H i l d e g a r d von Bin g e n, L i e d e r , ed. P u d e n t i a n a B a r t h

O.S .B . , M. I m m a c u l a t a R i t s c h e r O . S .B ., and J o s e p h
S c h m i d t - G o r g ( S al z bu rg : O tt o M ul le r , 1969), 224-226.
1 29 s ee Gra be s, T h e M u t a b l e G l a s s . 79 and 162, and

H ar t l a u b , Z a ub e r des S p i e g e l s , 1 4 7 - 14 8, for f u r t h e r
r e f e r e n c e s to this w i d e s p r e a d d e s i g n a t i o n of the V ir g i n
as the s p e c u l u m sine m a c u l a . For i n s ta nc e , C o n r a d of
S ax o n y ( C on ra d H o l z i n g e r or H o l t n i c k e r ) w r o t e a w o rk
e n t i t l e d S p e c u l u m b e a t a e M a r i a e v i r g i n i s t h a t is dated
b e t w e e n 1245 and 1279. T h i s d e v o t i o n a l tex t had w id e
d i s t r i b u t i o n in the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y and later, wit h
m o r e tha n 150 m a n u s c r i p t s e xtant. T h e w o r k has been
m i s a t t r i b u t e d to B o n a v e n t u r e . See G r a b e s , Th e M u t a b l e
G l a s s , 240.
l ^ O Q u o t e d in E r n e s t C u s h i n g R i c h a r d s o n , M a t e r i a l s
for a L i f e of J a c o p o da V a r a g i n e (New York: H. W.
W i l s o n , 1935), vol. 2, 66.
l ^ l s e e S ch wa rz , " T h e M i r r o r in A r t , " 100. Schwarz

says that w h i le this n o m e n c l a t u r e for the V i r g i n b e gi n s
in l i t e r a t u r e in the t h i r t e e n t h c en t u r y , the s u b j e c t of
the m i r r o r and the V i r g i n is not see n b e f o r e the end of
the f i f t e e n t h c e nt ur y . E v i d e n t l y , S c h w a r z did not k n ow
of H i l d e g a r d of B i n g e n ’s r e f e r e n c e in the t w e l f t h
c e n t u ry . Gra be s, in T h e M u t a b l e G l a s s , ha s s u g g e s t e d
e ve n e a r l i e r u s ag e in texts. See G ra be s , 79 and 162.
S e v e r a l w o r k s of art d e p i c t i n g the s u b j e c t of the V i r g i n
w i t h a u n i c o r n and a m i r r o r are d at ed f o u r t e e n t h c e n t ur y,
and wi ll be d i s c u s s e d below, 115-120.
132b j M useum Manuscript R o ya l 1 0 . E . 4, fol.

53.
1 3 3 i n the B a y e r i s c h e s Nationalmuseum,^ Mun ic h ,

M. A. 2202. See M a r i e - M a d e l e i n e G a u t h i e r , E m au x du M o y e n
A ge O c c i d e n t a l ( F ribourg, 1972), 260, fig. 208.
195
l ^ T h e r e f l e c t i o n of the m a i d e n ' s h e a d is a p p r e c i
ably s m a l l e r than the m a i d e n ' s head its e l f. G i v e n the
a ngle and s p a t i al r e l a t i o n s h i p of f i g u r e to m i r r o r disc,
it w oul d hav e be en i m p o s s i b l e for the m a i d e n to hav e been
r e f l e c t e d in a real mirror. No a l l o w a n c e has been mad e
for i m ag e r ev er s a l.
l ^S T he P h y s i o l o g u s , a t r e a t i s e th at p r o v i d e d a
f o u n d a t i o n for the m e d i e v a l b es t i ar y, w a s k n o w n in the
M i d d l e Ag e s in a G r e e k and l ater L a t i n ve rs i o n . Its
d at in g and o r i g i n are obscure. T he L a t i n text was p r o b
ably a v a i l a b l e in the We s t b e fo r e the end of the f o u r t h
c e n t u r y A.D., s i nc e A m b r o s e ' s H e x a m e r o n , c o m p o s e d
ca. 3 86 -3 88 , us es so me m a t e r i a l f r o m it. The medieval
be st ia r y , a text of p s e u d o - s c i e n t i f i c and o f t e n f a n t a s t i c
d e s c r i p t i o n s of re al and m y t h i c a l b i r d s a nd a ni ma l s , was
a C h r i s t i a n i z e d and e x p a n d ed P h y s i o l o g u s . For the L at i n
e dition, see F r a n c i s J. C a rm od y, P h y s i o l o g u s L a t i n u s
(Paris: L i b r a i r i e E. Droz, 1939). For a d i s c u s s i o n
of the b e s t i a r y t r a d i ti o n , see F l o r e n c e M c C u l l o u g h ,
M e d i a e v a l L a t i n and F r e n c h B e s t i a r i e s ( C h a p e l Hill, N.C.:
U n i v e r s i t y of N o r t h C a r o l i n a Press, r e v i s e d edit io n ,
1962). F o r a t h o r o u g h c o m p a r i s o n of all e x t a n t v e r s i o n s
of the P h y s i o l o g u s , see F r i e d r i c h L a u c h e r t , G e s c h i c h t e
des P h y s i o l o g u s ( S t ra s sb u r g : 1889).
1 3 6 c a r mo d y, P h y s i o l o g u s L a t i n u s , XVI, 31.
1 3 7 x r a n s l a t e d by T. H. W hi t e, in T h e B e s t i a r y : A
B oo k of B e a s t s (New York: G. P. P u t n a m ' s Sons, C a p r i c o r n
Books, 1960), 21.
1 3 8 x hi s a s p e c t of the u n i c o r n legend, k no w n as the

" wa t er c o n n i n g , " is found in the G r e e k v e r s i o n in the
P h y s i o l o g u s . See O d e l l Shepard, T he L o r e of the U n i c o r n
(New York: H a r p e r & Row, H a r p e r C o l o p h o n B oo ks , 1979),
r r\
UU •
1 3 9 A u n i c o r n (m o n o c e r o s . o in
the S e p t u a g i n t , f ro m the H e b r e w R e 'e m ) is a l s o m e n t i o n e d
in P s a l m s 2 1:22 and 28:6 ( D o u a y - R h e i m s ) . In o ther B i b
lical v e r s e s in D o u a y - R h e i m s (from the V u l g a t e ) , e.g, Job
39:9 -1 1 , N u m b e r s 2 3 : 22 and 24:8, and D e u t e r o n o m y 33:17,
m o n o c e r o s is g iv en as r hi n oc e r os . See S h e p a rd , The Lore
of the U n i c o r n . 42ff, for a d i s c u s s i o n of this u s a g e and
confusion.
l ^ Oc a rm o d y, P h y s i o l o g u s L a t i n u s . XVI, 31-32.
196
l ^ l A m b r o s e C o m m e n t a r y on P s a l m x l i i i , as q u ot e d in
S h e p ar d , T h e L o r e of the U n i c o r n . 81.
C o m m e n t a r y on P s a l m x x v i i i , and a l s o see
G r e g o r y the G r e a t M o r a l e s xxxii, 15, as c i t e d by Shepa r d,
T h e L o r e of the U n i c o r n . 81.
l^White, T h e B e s t i a r y . 21.
1 4 4 T h i s p o e m is f o u nd in R. T. D a v ie s , ed.,
M e d i e v a l E n g l i s h L y r i cs . A C r i t i c a l A n t h o l o g y (London,
1963), 105. Cf. M a r i n a W a rn e r, A l o n e of All H er Sex (New
York: A l f r e d A. K nopf, 1976), 381 and 201.
l^shepard, The Lore of the U n i c o r n , 55.
l^Richard F o u r n i v a l , B e s t i a i r e d ’A m o ur (Paris,
1860), as c i t ed by Sh ep a r d , T h e L o r e of the U n i c o r n . 281
n. 24.
1 4 7 f oi. a d i s c u s s i o n of t he love t h e m e s on m i rr o r
boxes in the M i d d l e Ages, see below, 133-134.
l ^ I n an a r r e s t i n g c o n f l u e n c e of s y mb ol s , the
s u b j e c t of u n i c o r n a n d v i r g i n w i t h a m i r r o r is u s e d as
an a l l e g o r y of Sight, ca. 1500, in one of a set of
t a p e s t r i e s , n o w in th e C l u n y M u se u m, P ar is . See J oh n
W i l l i a m s o n , T h e O a k King. T h e H o l l y King, and The
Unicorn: the M y t h s and S y m b o l i s m of the U n i c o r n
T a p e s t r i e s (N ew York: H a r p e r & Row, 1986), 77, fig. 12.
149-rhere a r e m a n y d e p i c t i o n s of t he l u r i n g of the
u n i c o r n in w h i c h the m i r r o r is not p r e se nt . Other
s y m b o l s of the V i r g i n M a r y , s uc h as l i l i e s and o t he r
pla nt s, c o n f i r m h e r i d e n t i t y or the r e f e r e n c e to her that
t h e a r t i s t w i s h e d to m a ke. See ibid., pa ss im .
l S O ^ h e r e f l e c t e d i m a g e f o o l s the t i g e r int o t h i n k
in g that t h at r e f l e c t i o n is a re a l beast, p er h a p s its own
cub, and so a l l o w s the h u n t e r to c a p t u r e an u n p r o t e c t e d
b a b y f ro m its d i s t r a c t e d mot he r. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , the
t h e m e of a n i m a l s a nd m i r r o r m i g h t als o r e f e r to vanity,
w i t h the b e a s t r e c o g n i z i n g i t se l f in the glass, and
b e c o m i n g f a s c i n a t e d and n e g l e c t f u l of duty. S ee below,
1 58-1 63 .
1 5 1 T he un ic o r n , r e s u r r e c t e d and c h a i n e d w i t h i n a
v e r d a n t e n c l o s u r e (h o r t u s c o n c l u s u s ). is the f inal s cene
in the U n i c o r n T a p e s t r i e s at The C l o i s t e r s , M e t r o p o l i t a n
197
1 ^ 1 (continued) !
M u s e u m of Art, in New York, and in other s e q u e n t i a l |
r ep r e s e n t a t i o n s . See M a r g a r e t B. Freeman, T he U n i c o r n i
T a p e s t r i e s (New York: The M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of Art, j

1976); Shepard, The L or e of the U n i c o r n ; S t a n le y j
S tewart, The E n c lo s e d G a r d e n (Madison: U n i v e r s i t y of
W i s c o n s i n Press, 1966); and, for f ur th er b i b l i o g r a p h y , i
W il l ia ms on , The Oak K i n g .
I i
j 1 52 ^ n i l l u m i n a t i o n in a m a n u s c r i p t ( P o m m e r s f e l d e n j
I Codex 215, fol. 162v) of A lan of L i l le ' s A n t i c l a u d i a n u s , j
! dat in g from the first h alf of tne f o u r t e e n t h cen tu ry , \
also shows Fides with a m irror. T his i l l u s t r a t i o n ■
f ol l ow s Alan 's text, in w h i c h F id e s gi ve s P h r o n e s i s a !
! mirror. [PLATE 50] See F l o r e n t i n e M u t h e r i c h , "Ein
I I l u s t r a t i o n s z y k l u s zum A n t i c l a u d i a n u s des A l a n u s ab
I n s u l is ," Miinchner J a h r b u c h der B i l d e n d e n K un s t 2
(Munich: Pr es te l Verlag, 1951), 73-88. j
1 5 3 g ee E rl in g Skaug, in "Not es on the C h r o n o l o g y

of A m b r o g i o L o r e n z e t t i and a Ne w P a i n t i n g f rom His Shop ,"
M i t t e i l u n g e n des K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e n I n s t i t u t e s in F l o r e n z
20, no. 3 (1976): 301 -3 32 , for a s um m ar y of o p i n i o n s on
the d a ti ng of the M a s s a M a r i t t i m a M a e s t a . w h i c h r an g e
f rom the early 1330s to ca. 1340, and his r e c en t r e s e a r c h j
to e s t a b l i s h a c h r o n o l o g y based on a study of the in ci - |
d ence of A m b r o g i o ' s p u n c h marks. Ba se d on his study, j
S ka ug thinks the da te s of 1 335-37 likely, w h i c h c o i n c i d e
w i t h those p ro p o se d by Eve Bors oo k. (The w e i g h t of
o p i n i o n has a lso been that the M a s s a M a r i t t i m a a l t a r p i e c e
was p ai nted befo r e A m b r o g i o did the Si en a G ood and Bad
G o v e r n m e n t f r es c o e s in 1337-39, and t he se d a te s w o u l d not
c hang e that a s pe c t of A m b r o g i o ' s c h r o n o l o g y . ) See Eve
B orsook, A m b r o g i o L o r e n z e t t i (Florence: Sadea/Sansoni,
1966), 32. For S k a u g ' s d i s c u s s i o n of the d a ti n g of the
M a e s t d , and for a d d i t i o n a l b i b l i o g r a p h y on this q ue s t i on ,
see Skaug, " No t es , " e s p e c i a l l y 306, 3 12-315, and 328 -3 2 9.
154por a fun di s c u s s i o n
of this p a i n t i n g ' s s a i n t
ly c o m p l e m e n t and s t y l i s t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , see G e o r g e
Rowley, A m b r o g i o L o r e n z e t t i (Prin ce t o n, N. J.: Princeton
U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1958), vol. 1, e s p e c i a l l y 57-61.
1 5 5 T h e rep r e s e n t a t i o n of an e n t h r o n e d M a d o n n a and
C h i l d a c c o m p a n ie d by the t hr ee T h e o l o g i c a l V i r t u e s is
u nusual. A m b r o g i o ' s M a e s t a is an early e xample, a l t h o u g h
a panel by the M a s t e r of the S t e f a n e s c h i A l t a r p i e c e , with
these V i r t u e s in a t te n d an c e, p r e- d a t e s the M a ^ s a
M a r i t t i m a a l t a r pi e ce . See M i l l a r d Meiss, P a i n t i n g in
198
155(continued)
F l o r e n c e and S i e n a a f ter the B l a c k D e a t h . 43, 114, and
fig. 169; and H o w a r d Hibb ar d , "A R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of F id es
by A m b r o g i o L o r e n z e t t i , " Art B u l l e t i n 39 (J une 1957):
137.
1 5 6 A m b r o g i o ' s C a r i t a s is d i s c u s s e d by R. F re y h an ,
in "The E v o l u t i o n of the C a r i t a s F i g u r e in the T h i r t e e n t h
and F o u r t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s , " J o u r n a l of the W a r b u r g and
C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s 11 (1948): 68-86.
1 57 T he p r e s e n c e of a bird, c e r t a i n l y a dove, a b ove

the J a n u s - h e a d , in F i de s * mir ro r, was only d i s c e r n e d
a f t e r r e ce n t r e s t o r a t i o n of the p ai nt i ng . Important
d e t a i l s of the J a n u s - h e a d , p r e v i o u s l y u n kn ow n, w e r e also
revealed: the r i g ht head, t h o u g h t to be s i m i l a r to the
u n b e a r d e d m a l e h e a d at the left, is not. T he r i g h t head
is, in fact, bearde d. See N o r m a n M u l l e r ' s d i s c u s s i o n of
t h e s e (his) f i n d i ng s f o l l o w i n g the p a i n t i n g ' s c l e a n i n g
and c o n s e r v a t i o n , in " R e f l e c t i o n s in a M i rr or : Ambrogio
L o r e n z e t t i ' s D e p i c t i o n of the T r i n i t y , " A r t B u l l e t i n 61
( M a r c h 1979): 101-102. A l s o see H i b b a rd , "A R e p r e s e n t a
tion of F i d e s , " 137-138.
1 5 8 x h i s V i r t u e has no m i r r o r in the Good and Bad

G o v e r n m e n t f r e s c o e s in S i e n a ' s P a l a z z o P u bb l i c o , w h i c h
are g e n e r a l l y d at ed ca. 1337-39, and thus, in the
a r t i s t ' s p r e s u m e d c h r o n o l o g y , f o l l o w i n g the M a s s a
Marittima altarpiece. I nst ea d, A m b r o g i o r e t u r n s to a
m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of F i d e s . p r o v i d i n g her
w i t h a l a rg e cross. In the S i e na f re sc o e s , it is
V a n a G l o r i a ( Va i ng l or y ) w ho is g i v e n a m i r r o r as an
attribute. See below, 1 55 - 15 8. As for r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
Spe s in the S i e n a f r es co e s, A m b r o g i o h as a ls o r e t u r ne d to
a m or e s t a n d a r d d e p i ct i o n . T h e c r o w n e d V i r t u e looks
heavenward. A b o v e her, the hea d of C h r i s t is v i s i b l e in
the sky. T h e a l l e g o r i c a l f i gu r e of C a r i t a s at S i en a
h o l d s a h e a r t and w a n d - l i k e staff, as she doe s in the
M a s s a M a r i t t i m a M a e s t £ . F o r a d i s c u s s i o n of the r e p r e
s e n t a t i o n of the T h e o l c g i c a l V i r t u e s in m e d i e v a l art, see
K a t z e n e l l e n b o g e n , A l l e g o r i e s . passim.
159flibbard, "A R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of F i d e s ." 137.
1 6 0 g ee ibid. on P a u l ' s C o r i n t h i a n m i r r o r t ex ts and

on H e b r e w s 11:6 as s o u rc es for A m b r o g i o ' s imagery.
l^King J a m e s Versi on .
1 62 s ee above, 116-118, for Old T e s t a m e n t t e xts
199
162(continued)
referring to d i v i n a t i o n .
1 6 3 ^ u g u s t i n e T h e C it y of G od XXII, 29.
1 6*Ibid.
1 6 5 Ibid.
1 6 8 Ibid.
1 67 S u m m a t h e o l o g i c a II, ii, 1.5 ad 1.
1 6 8 Ibid., II, ii, q. 1, art. 4, r ep l y .
lÂian of L i l l e A n t i c l a u d i a n u s , Bk. 6, 160.
1 7 0 Ibid., 160-1 61 .
1 71 S e e M u t h e r i c h , "Ei n Illustrationszyklus zum

A n t i c l a u d i a n u s , " 73-88.
1 7 2 g ee "Th e S o u l ' s J o u r n e y into G o d , " chap. 1,

sec. 1-2, 59-60, in B o n a v e n t u r e , T he S o u l ' s J o u r n e y into
God; T h e T r e e of Life; a n d the L i f e of St. F r a n c i s ,
trans. E w e r t C o u s i n s (New York; P a u l i s t P re ss , 1978).
1 7 3 Ibid.
17 *Ib id ., chap. 1, sec. 5, 61
1 7 5 I b i d . , chap. 3, sec. 1, 79
1 7 6 I b i d . , chap. 3, sec. 5, 84
1 7 7 I b i d . , chap. 4, sec. 3, 89
l7 8 H i b b a r d r e m i n d s us of the P a u l i n e s o ur c e for
th e r a n k i n g of t he T h e o l o g i c a l V i r t u es , and its
m a n i f e s t a t i o n in A m b r o g i o ' s M a e s t a : "An d n o w a b i d e t h
faith, hope, c h a r i ty , t h e se three; but the g r e a t e s t of
t he s e is c h a r i t y . " 1 C o r i n t h i a n s 13:13. ( H ib b ar d uses
the K i n g J a m e s v e r s i o n h e r e and t h r o u g h o u t h i s a r t ic l e . )
See H i bb ar d , "A R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of F i d e s ." 137.
200
1 79 s ee above, 44-46.
180AU gustine Soliloquia II, vi, 10-]2, in P a t .

L a t .. vol. 32, cols. 8 8 9 - 8 9 1 . Als o see F r i e d m a n ,
" V e n u s ," 73.
IS ls ee above, 42.
1 82 E a r l y a t t a c k s on m a g i c by C h r i s t i a n s w e r e o ft en
m a d e to c o u n t e r c h a r g e s t h a t J e s u s and his f o l l o w e r s w e re
t h e m s e l v e s i n v o l v e d in s or c er y, and th a t J es us ' m i r a c l e s
w er e magic.
1 8 3 0r igen A g a i n s t C e l s u s V, 42, in Pat. L a t . . vol.

11. See T h o r n d i k e , A H i s t o r y of M a g i c , vol. 1, 4 36ff.
1 8 4 x e r t u l l i a n A p o l o g e t i c u s ad. g e n t e s XXII, in
Pat. L a t . . vol. 1, cols. 4 6 3 - 4 6 9 . For the E n g l i s h
t r a n s l a t i o n , see T h e A n t e - N i c e n e F a t h e r s , vol. 3, 1 7-60
( e s p e c i a l l y 36-37). A l s o see T h o r n d i k e , A H i s t o r y of
M a g i c , vol. 1, 463- 46 4.
1 8 5 Hi p p o l y t u s P h i l o s o p h u m e n a . in Pat. G r . , vol.
16, pt. 3. E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n in T h e A n t e - N i c e n e
F a t h e r s , vol. 5, 9 -153. H i p p o l y t u s ' w o r k is r i c h in
d e t a i l and it p u r p o r t s to r e v e a l m a n y s e c r e t s of s o r c er y,
d e s c r i b i n g h o w by the use of s uc h d e v i c e s as t ra p d o o r s
a nd m i r r o r s they s ee m to r e v e a l d e m o n s in a c a u l d r o n .
See T h o r n d i k e , A H i s t o r y of M a g i c , vol. 1, 466ff;
L a c t a n t i u s D i v i n o r u m i n s t i t u t i o n u m . in Pat. L a t . , vol. 6.
E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n in T h e A n t e - N i c e n e F a t h e r s , vol. 7.
S e e T h o r n d i k e , A H i s t o r y of M a g i c , vol. 1, 4 6 5 - 4 66 .
A u g u s t i n e d i s c u s s e d m a g i c in m an y of h is w r i t i n g s , and
d e v o t e d a t r e a ti s e to the s u b je ct . S ee De d i v i n a t i o n e
d a e m o n u m . in Pat. L a t . , vol. 40, cols. 5 8 1 - 5 92 ; and also
h i s C o n f e s s i o n u m X, 42, in Pat. L a t . . vol. 32, cols. 807 -
808. Als o see T h o r n d i k e , A H i s t o r y of M a g i c , vol. 1,
508-509.
1 8 6 g e e T h o r n d i k e , A H i s t o r y of M a g i c , vols. 1 and
2; S e l i g ma n n , M a g i c . e s p e c i a l l y 1 3 0- 1 4 9 ; a n d Y at es ,
B r u n o, e s p e c i a l l y 1-60.
18"7Seneca N a t u r a l e s Quaestiones 1.15.16 and 17.
188on the s u b j e c t of V e n u s in m e d i e v a l art, see
201
188(continued)
F r i e d m a n , " V e n u s , " 52-82. Als o see M e g T w y cr o s s , T he
M e d i e v a l A n a d y o m e n e (Oxford: B a s il B l a c k w e l l , 1972).
1 8 9 p or L u cr e t i u s , see above, 29-30. Plotinus

w r o t e of V e n u s in the E n n e a d s . See E n n e a d I I I . 5.2-3.
S ee F u l g e n t i u s , F u l g e n t i u s the M y t h o g r a p h e r . trans.
L e s l i e G e o r g e W h i t b r e a d (Co lu m b us : O h i o S tate U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s , 1971), 66-67. F or a d i s c u s s i o n of t hese s o u rc e s
and o th er s , c o n s u l t F ri e d m a n , " V e n u s. "
1 9 0 T h e E s q u i l i n e h o r d e lay b ur i e d in R om e fro m
the f o u r t h c e n t u r y u ntil the e i g h t e e n t h . M os t of this
t r ea s u r e , i n c l u d i n g the P r o j e c t a ca s k et , is n ow in the
B r i t i s h M u s eu m . A dish d e c o r a t e d w i t h a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of the t o i l e t of V enus, w i t h a m i r r or , is al so pa rt of
it. S ee O r m o n d e M ad d oc k, C a t a l o g u e of E a r l y C h r i s t i a n
A n t i q u i t i e s and O b j e c t s f r o m the C h r i s t i a n Ea st in the
D e p a r t m e n t of B r i t i s h and M e d i a e v a l and E t h n o g r a p h y of
the B r i t i s h M u s e u m (London: B r i t i s h M u s eu m , 1901), no.
304; and E r n s t K i t z i ng e r , E a r l y M e d i e v a l Art in the
B r i t i s h M u s e u m (London, 1963), 101-10 2, pi. 10.
! 91 p h i l o s t r a t u s p r o v i d e s the o nl y late c l a s s i c a l
r e f e r e n c e to the s il v er m i r r o r of A p h r o d i t e . See
P h i l o s t r a t u s I m a g i n e s . t rans. A r t h u r F a i r b a n k s (London:
W i l l i a m H e i n e m a n n , 1931), 6 and 29.
1 9 2 p or a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of the use of C h r i s t i a n and

p a g a n t h e m e s t o g e t h e r on a s a r c o p h a g u s at Arles, see
M a r i o n L aw r e n c e , " C o l u m n a r S a r c o p h a g i in the L a t i n W e s t , "
A r t B u l l e t i n 14 (1932): 149-15 0, 182, figs. 59-61.
193]jernar(ius S i l v e s t r i s (fl. 1136) and A l a n of

L i l l e (ca. 1 1 1 6 - 1 2 0 2 / 3 ) w e r e a m o n g the l at er t h e o l o g i a n s
w h o w r o t e a b o u t the two V e n u s e s. See B e r n a r d u s
S i l v e s t r i s C o s m o g r a p h i a . e s p e c i a l l y 78, 103, 109; and
a l s o B e r n a r d u s ' s C o m m e n t u m s u per sex l i b r o s E n e i d o s
V i r g i l i i , ed. W i l h e l m R i e d e l ( G r e i fs w a ld , 1924). For
A l a n ' s r e f e r e n c e s to V en us , see A l a n of L i l l e T he
C o m p l a i n t of N a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y 45, and 50-55.
1 9 4 g ee P i e r r e C o u r c e l l e , " L 1i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
e u h e m e r i s t e des S i r e n e s - c o u r t i s a n e s j u s q u ' a u X I I e
s i £ c l e , " in G e s e l l s c h a f t . K u lt u r. L i t e r a t u r : Rezeption
und O r i g i n a l i t a t im W a c h s e n e i ne r E u r o p a i s c h e n L i t e r a t u r
und G e i s t i g k e i t ; B e i t r a g e L u i t p o l d W a l l a c h G e w i d m e t , e d .
K a r l B o s l ( St ut tg ar t : A n t o n H i e r s e m a n n , 1975), 33-48.
C o u r c e l l e c i t es C l e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a P r o t r e p t . . II, 13,
202
1 9 4 ( c o n tinued)
| 3, in Die G r i e c h i s c h e C h r i s t l i c h e S c h r i f t s t e l l e r der
I e r s t e n dre i J a h r h u n d e r t e (G. C. S . ), vol. 12, 12, 10 (the
j G r e e k text is g i ve n in C o u r c e l l e , 33-4); Lactantius j
i I n s t . I, 17, 10, in C o r p u s s c r i p t o r u m e c c l e s i a s t i c o r u m
| l a t i n o r u m (C. S. E. L . ) , vol. 19, 65, 20: " Q u ae prima,
I ut in H i s t o r i a sacra c o nt i n et u r, a r t e m m e r e t r i c i a m
; i n s t i t u i t a u c t o r q u e m u l i e r i b u s in C y p r o fuit, uti u u l g a t o
I c o r p o r e q u a e s t u m fac er en t" ; E p i t o m e IX, 682: " V e n us
■ d e o r u m et h o m i n u m l i b i d i n i b u s e x p o s i t a , cum r e g n a r e t in |
j Cypro, a r t e m m e r e t r i c i a m r e p p e r i t ac m u l i e r i - b u s !
: i m pe r a u i t ut q u a e s t u m f a ce re n t, ne sol a e sse t i nf am is " ;
! F i r m i c u s M a t e r n u s De e r r o re p r o f a n a r u m r e l i g i o n u m , ed. A.
I P a s t o r i n o ( F l o r e n c e , 1956) , X, 1, 120: " Au d i o C i n y r a m
i Cyprium templum amicae meretrici donasse — ei erat V e n u s i
j n om en ." C o u r c el l e , " L ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e u h e m e r i s t e ," 34
j n. 4, c i tes o th er p a s s a g e s on the s a m e subject. On
! E u h e m e r u s ( third c e n t u r y B.C.) and th e idea tha t the gods
! were o r i g i n a l l y mort a l s, and this t r a d i t i o n in the e arly
I C h r i s t i a n era, see J e an S eznec, T h e S u r v i v a l of the P a e a n j
Gods (London, 1940; repr in t, N e w York: H a r p e r & Row, j
H ar p e r T o r c h b o o k s , 1961), e s p e c i a l l y 11-36. j
19 5 Th e i d e n t i t y of F u l g e n t i u s , w h o p r o b a b l y l ived j
in N o r t h A f r ic a , is u n ce r t a i n , a l t h o u g h it is p r o b a b l e j
that he was a t e a c h e r of g r a m m a r and r he to r i c . See j
[ Fu lg en ti us ], F u l g e n t i u s the M y t h o g r a p h e r . 3ff. i
I
196such, says the m y t h o g r a p h e r , w a s the v i e w of j
both the E p i c u r e an s , who e m b r a c e d the e n j o y m e n t of the j
"good t h i n g s in life" that the g o d d e s s e p i t o m i z e d , and j
the Stoics, w h o r e j e c t e d the p r i n c i p l e s of p l e a s u r e she
e xp re ss ed . A l t h o u g h F u l g e n t i u s r e f e r s to two v i e w s of
Venus, h i s m o r a l i z a t i o n of the g o d d e s s is in the t r a d i
tion of S t oi c i sm . He t e ll s of her b i r t h in the sea, fr om
the s e v er ed g e n i ta l s of S a t u r n (Uranus, or C h r o n o s ) , e x
p l a i n i n g the d e r i v a t i o n of her G r e e k name, A p h r o d i t e , in
this manner:
i
I
. . . she is ca ll ed A p h r o d i t e , for in G r e e k
a f ro s is the wor d for foam, e i t h e r b e c a u s e
lust r i s es m o m e n t a r i l y li ke f o a m and
turns to nothing, or b e c a u s e the !
the e j a c u l a t i o n of seed is f o am y . . . .
See i b i d ., 66.
203
i 1 9 7 Ibid.
! 1 9 8 Ibid.
I :
1 9 9 Ibid.
2 0 0 y e nus is a b s o r b e d in to s e v e r a l f i g u r e s w h o fit >

j m o r e r e a d i l y the n ew C h r i s t i a n i c o n o g r a p h y of a l l e g o r i c a l i
i f i g ur es and B i b l i c a l p e r s o n a g e s : L u x u r i a , V a n i t a s , and
i the G re at W h o r e of the A p o c a l y p s e . Th e m i r r o r of the
i g o d d e s s b e c o m e s an a t t r i b u t e for all t he se f i g u r e s by the ;
' t h i r t e e n t h cent ur y. Se e below, 138-141 ( L u x u r i a ) , 147-
i 149 ( V a n i t a s ) , and 1 4 1 - 1 4 6 (Great Who re ). !
i
I Ô l fh e " c h i l d r e n " of V en us — t ho se born u n d er her
| s ign — p o s s e s s e d h er c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . As d e s c r i b e d by |
i P s e u d o - A l b e r t u s M a g n u s in the L i b e r a g g r e g a t i o n i s (T h e
' B o ok of S e c r e t s ) at the end of the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u ry , i
i they were
i !
i i
j . . . bo rn p le a s an t , merry, g iv e n to !
p le as ur es , lov el y, l e c h e ro u s, just, j
i n v i o l a b l e k e e p e r s of f aith and ;
f r ie n d l i n e s s ; of s t a t u r e tall, c om e l y
. . . h a v i n g w a n t o n and a m i a b l e e ye s j
. . . d a n c e r s and d e l i g h t e d in m usic. j
Se e (Pseudo-) A l b e r t u s M a g n u s , T h e B o o k of S e c r e t s , ed. j
M i c h a e l R. Be s t and F r a n k H. B r i g h t m a n (Oxford: j
C l a r e n d o n Press, 1973), 71. I
i
i
202fjO rton B l o o m f i e l d , T h e S e v en D e a d l y S i n s (East

La n si n g : M i c h i g a n S t a t e C o l l e g e Press, 1952), 347.
B l o o m f i e l d n o te s that M a r t i n of B r a c a r a s t a t e d t h a t the
god s who i n h a b i t e d the p l a n e t s w e r e c r i m i n a l s " w h o r e a l l y
l iv e d and w h o s e n a m es w e r e t aken ov er l a te r by d e m o n s so i
t h a t m en w o u l d h o n or t h e m . " Al s o see E m i l S c h u r e r , "D ie |
s i e b e n t a g i g e W o c h e im G e b r a u c h e der c h r i s t l i c h e n K i r c h e !
der e rs t en J a h r h u n d e r t e , " Z e i t s c h r i f t fur die n e u t e s t a -
m e n t l i c h e W i s s e n s c h a f t 6 (1905): 52. S ee a bo v e, 28-32,
for my d i s c u s s i o n of A p h r o d i t e - V e n u s in a n t i q u i t y . In
the a n c ie n t world, the g o d d e s s w as h o n o r e d by c o u r t e s a n s ,
o f t en as they r e t i r e d f r o m th eir p r o f e s s i o n . A u s on i u s,
in his E p i g r a m s LXV, tol d of the a g e i n g p r o s t i t u t e L a i s j
d e d i c a t i n g her m i r r o r to A ph r o d i t e . Th e c o u r t e s a n j
C a l l i c l e a s i m i l a r l y d e d i c a t e d her comb, gir dl e, and her J
m i r r o r to the g o d d e s s (G r e e k A n t h o l o g y VI, 211). See
above, 30. Cf. T w y c r o s s , T he M e d i e v a l A n a d y o m e n e . 80.
204
i 2 0 3 p o r the m e d i e v a l V e n u s in art, see M a r i o n

j L a w r e n c e , in "The B i r t h of V e n u s in R o m a n Art," in E s s a y s I
in the H i s t o r y of Art P r e s e n t e d to R u d o l f W i t t k o w e r , ed.
D o u g l a s Fras er , H o w a r d H i bb a rd , and M i l t o n J. L e w i n e
(London: P h a i do n, 1967), 11, and r e f e r e n c e to two
e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y w o r k s s h ow i n g Venu s. T h e s e work s, w h i c h
; may d e p e n d on a lost R o m a n fresco, are in two B y z a n t i n e
i m a n u s c r i p t s , c o m m e n t a r i e s by P s e u d o - N o n n u s on G r e g o r y of
Nazianzus. See Vat. gr. M a n u s c r i p t , 1947, fol. 147v, and
| Bib. Nat. C o i s l i n M a n u s c r i p t 239, fol. 121v. A l s o see K.
i W e i t z m a n n , G r e e k M y t h o l o g y in B y z a n t i n e Ar t ( Pr i nc e t o n ,
| N. J.: P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Pre s s, 1951), 52-53, figs.
| 63, 64. Venus, who p l a y e d a m a j o r role in the s t o r y of
| the T r o j a n War, a p p e a r s in m a n u s c r i p t s r e c o u n t i n g
e p i s o d e s f ro m D ic tys, Dares, Homer, and Virg il . T h e
l e g e n d s of T r o y w e r e r e c a l l e d s p o r a d i c a l l y in t he e a r l y j
M i d d l e Ages, w i t h m a n u s c r i p t s and r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s in the |
j v i s u a l a r t s b e c o m i n g m o re c o m m o n on ly in the t h i r t e e n t h
c e n t ur y. For a p a r t i a l l is t i n g of w o r k s of art, l i t e r a - I
ture, and music, on the t he m e of the T r o j a n r o m a n c e , see
M a r g a r e t S ch er er , Th e L e g e n d s of T r o y in Art and
L i t e r a t u r e (New Y o r k and Lond on : P h a i d o n Press, 1964),
2 19 - 25 3. F r i t z Saxl d i s c u s s e s the m e d i e v a l h i s t o r y of
the T r o j a n l e g e n d s in " Th e T r o y R o m a n c e , " in L e c t u r e s , |
(Lond on , 1957), vol. 1, 125-138, and vol. 2, pis. 72-81.
T h e F r e n c h R o m a n de T r o i e . a p o e m by B e n o i t de St.
M a u re , ca. 1165, but not i l l u s t r a t e d un t il 1264, is in a
m a n u s c r i p t f r o m B u r g u n d y or L o t h a r i n g i a , now in the
B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e , M a n u s c r i p t fr. 1610. Several
p a g e s m i s s i n g f ro m t hi s m a n u s c r i p t w e re d i s c o v e r e d by E.
v on S c h e r l i n g , and p u b l i s h e d by h i m in R o t u l u s 4 (Winter,
1937): 20-21; and, in part, by Saxl, L e c t u r e s . vol. 1,
pis. 74a, b, and 79a.
2 0 4 I h av e not b ee n a bl e to l o c a t e any i m a g e s of
V en u s w i t h a m i r r o r b e t w e e n the s e v e n t h and the end of
the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . I m a g e s of the p l a n e t a r y V e n u s
w i t h a m i r r o r are s ee n a ga i n by the t h i r d q u a r t e r of the
f o u r t e e n t h c en tu ry , w i t h the m o s t n o t a b l e e x a m p l e b ei n g
the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the g o d d e s s in A n d r e a di F i r e n z e ' s
f r e s c o k n o w n as T he T r i u m p h of St. T h o m a s A q u i n a s , in the
S p a n i s h C ha pe l , St. M a r i a N o v el la , F l o r e n c e , ca. 1 36 5- 6 6 .
T h i s la rg e p a i nt in g, w h i c h ta k es up one w al l of the
C h a p e l , d e p i c t s A q u i n a s on a throne, w h i c h is s u r m o u n t e d
by a m i r r o r - b e a r i n g bust of S a p i e n t i a . S e a t ed on e i t h e r
s i d e of A q u i n a s are s a i n t l y f i g u r e s f r o m the Old and New
T e s t a m e n t s , and f l yi ng a r o u nd the s a i n t ' s head a re the
V i r t u e s , both T h e o l o g i c a l and C a r d i n a l . Three heretics
205
j 204(continued)
! sit at his feet. In the zo ne b e l o w A q u i n a s ' s t h r o n e are
p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s of the S e v e n G i f ts of the H o l y Spirit,
w ho a re d e p i c t e d a b o v e f i g ur e s r e p r e s e n t i n g the Law, both
t e m p o r a l and t h e o l o g i c a l , and the T h e o l o g i c a l D i s c i
p l i n es , and w i t h t h e ir h uman e x e m p l a r s . To the r i gh t are
i r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the Seven P l a n e t s in m e d a l l i o n s , eac h
l i n k e d w i t h a p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of the Q u a d r i v i u m and the
1 T r i v i u m , and t h e i r e a r t h l y e x em p l a r s . V e n u s is s h o w n as
| a l o v e l y f i gu r e w i t h f l o wi ng hair, h e r left ar m akimbo,
and her hip s s w un g out in a s l i g h t l y s u g g e s t i v e manner.
He r a t t e n t i o n is d i r e c t e d to the m i r r o r w h i c h she h o l d s
! in her r ig ht hand. T he g o d d e s s ' s a k i m b o s t a n c e is e c h o e d -
j by the p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n of R h e t o r i c , t h o u g h w i t h o u t the |
! s en s u a l o v e r to n e s . On A n d r e a ' s f r e s c o e s in the S p a n i s h j
| C h ap el , see O f f n e r and Steinweg, C o r p u s of F l o r e n t i n e j

| P a i n t i n g . vol. 6, sec. 4, 15-31.
Another fourteenth century planetary Venus with a j
m i r r o r is in B r i t i s h M u s e u m M a n u s c r i p t Add. 16578 (Bl.
53r) d a t e d 1378. T h i s wor k is r e p r o d u c e d in F ri tz Saxl
and Hau s M eier, C a t a l o g u e of A s t r o l o g i c a l a nd M y t h o l o g i
cal I l l u m i n a t e d M a n u s c r i p t s of the L a t i n M i d d l e Age s
(London: W a r b u r g I n s ti tu t e , U n i v e r s i t y of London, 1953),
vol. 3, pt. 2, Taf. 77, Abb. 197. T h e m i r r o r is l in ke d
to this a s t r a l d ei ty in the A ra b i c m a n u a l of a s t r o l o g y ,
t a l i s m a n i c m agic, and p h i l o s o p h y k n o w n as P i c a t r i x .
A l f o n s o el S a b io ( 12 5 2 - 12 8 4) had t h i s w o r k t r an s la t e d ,
and it w as s u b s e q u e n t l y w i d e l y c i r c u l a t e d in the West.
In P i c a t r i x . w h o e v e r w a nt e d to be f a v o r e d by the p la n e t
V e n u s is a d v i s e d to c arry a m i r r o r in his or her r i g h t
hand, and a com b or an a p ple in his left. See P i c a t r i x :
das Z ie l des W e i s e n von P s e u d o - M a g r i t i , t rans. Hellmut
R i t t e r and M a r t i n P l es sn e r, S t u d i e s of the W a r b u r g
I n s t i t u t e (London: T h e W a r b u r g I n s t i t u t e , U n i v e r s i t y of
L on do n, 1962), vol. 27, 231. For a d i s c u s s i o n of
P i c a t r i x . see T h o r n d i k e , A H i s t o r y of M a g i c , vol. 2,
e s p e c i a l l y chap. 66.
2 0 5 T h e God of Lo ve als o a p p e a r s in a p oe m e n t i t l e d
Venus, la D e e s s e d ' A m o u r s . Le Pit du V e r g e r of G u i l l a u m e
de M a c h a u t , and in C h r i s t i n e de P i s a n ' s poe tr y , such
as L ' E p i t r e au D i e u d ' A m o u r . See R a y m o n d K oe c h l i n,
" Q u e l q u e s g r o u p e s d i v oi re s f r a n ja i s: Le D i e u d ' A m o u r et j
le C h a t e a u d ' A m o u r , " in G a z e t t e des B e a u x A r t s 2 (1921): ;
278-279; idem, Les I v o ir e s G o t h i q u e s F r a n g a i s (Paris: j
A u g u s t e Pi ca rd , 1924), vol. 1, 3 9 8 - 40 4, and vol. 2, 3 88 - j
392; and M. S k o g s t e d and J. S t a n n a r d , G a r d e n s of the i
206
2 0 5 ( c o n tin ue d)
Middle A g e s , exhibition catalogue ( La wrence, Kansas:
S p e n c e r M u s e u m of Art, U n i v e r s i t y of Kansas, 1983), 206,
pi. 58.
2 0 6 g ee ibid.
| 2 0 7 Se veral p r o p o s a l s for this m i r r o r ’s i c o n o g r a p h y

h a v e been made. For i ns t ance, H a n n s S w a r z e n s k i suggested;
t h at the c o u p l e r e p r e s e n t e d here are T r i s t a n and Iseult, |
a l t h o u g h the s p e c i f i c d e ta i ls do not se em to p o i nt to
t h at story m o r e th a n a not he r. Th e use of a tree m otif
j and an e m b r a c i n g c o u p l e on the m e d a l l i o n is also seen on
| a c a p i t a l fr o m E s c h a u and in a m i n i a t u r e d e p i c t i n g Di do ,
i and A e n e a s f ro m the e a r ly t h i r t e e n t h centu ry . For a j
j b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n of this m i r r o r case, n o w in the M u s e u m j
| fur K u n s t h a n d w e r k , F r a n k f u r t am Main, and its d ating, !
i see T h e Y ea r 1200: A C e n t e n n i a l E x h i b i t i o n at the j
M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of A r t , ed. K o n r a d H o f f m a n n (New
York: Th e M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of Art and the N e w Yo r k
G r a p h i c S oc ie t y, 1970), vol. 1, 105-106, no. 111. Also
see H a n n s S w a r z e n s k i , M o n u m e n t s of R o m a n e s q u e Art
( Ch ic a go : U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o Press, 1967), fig. 469
a, b; and W. S t am m l er , W or t und B i l d , S t u d i e n zu den
W e c h s e l b e z i e h u n g e n z w i s c h e n S c h r i f t e n und B i l d k u n s t im
M i t t e l a l t e r (Berlin, 1962), 84 n. 13.
2 0 8 s ee K o e c h l i n , Les I v oi re s Gothiques Francais,

vol. 2, 3 6 5 f f . *
2 0 9 s e e above, 31, and 39-41, for my d i s c u s s i o n of

s i r e n s in a n t i q u i t y and m i rr or s. On the s i r e n s of the
M i d d l e Ages, see T w y c r o s s , T he M e d i e v a l A n a d y o m e n e ; Gw en
B e n w e l l and A r t h u r W augh, Sea E n c h a n t r e s s (London:
H u t c h i n s o n , 1961); J u r g i s Baltrusa'itis, La S t y l i s t i q u e
O r n e m e n t a l e dans la S c u l p t u r e R o m a n e (Paris, 1931),
e s p e c i a l l y 109ff; idem, R e v e i l s et P r o d i g e s (Paris: A.
C o l i n , 1960), figs. 17, 21, 23, 29.
2 10Bk. XII, l i n es 189-191. See a bove, 40, for the

p a s s a g e in Homer. See R ahner, G r e e k M y t h s , 328- 3 86 , for
a d i s c u s s i o n of the t e m p t a t i o n of O d y s s e u s and c o m p a r i
s on s mad e to C h r is t. As p r e v i o u s l y noted, H o m er did
not s up pl y the s i r e n s w it h mirrors. The M i d d l e Ages
h ad k n o w l e d g e of the O d y s s e y . p e r h a p s m a i n l y t h r o u g h I
Virgil. A n o t a b l e e x a m p l e of the use of the e p i s o d e of
O d y s s e u s ’ e n c o u n t e r wit h the s irens is se en in H e r r a d of
! L a n d s b e r g ’s H o r t u s d e l i c i a r u m , a wor k of the t w e l f t h cen-i
1
--------------------------------------- -------------------------- ------j
207
2 1 0 ( c o n t inued)
tury. T wo m i n i a t u r e s i l l u s t r a t i n g H e r r a d ' s text d e p i c t
the event. T h e s e s i r e ns do not h a v e m ir ro r s. S ee H o r t u s
d e l i c i a r u m . ed. and trans. A r i s t i d e D. C a r a t z a s (New
R o c h e l l e , N. Y., 1977), fol. 221r and v. C o u r c e l l e has
p o i n t e d out that the text that t h e s e m i n i a t u r e s
i l l u s t r a t e is a p a s s a g e f r o m the e a r l y t w e l f t h c e n t u r y
work, S p e c u l u m E cc l e s i a e , D o m i n i c a in S e p t u a g e s i m a . by
H o n o r i u s of A u g u s t o d u n u m ( A u tu n) , in w h i c h the s i r en s
r e p r e s e n t lust. See C o ur c e l l e , " L 1i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
e u h e m e r i s t e , " 33-48. In Q u e e n M a r y ' s P sa lter, ca. 1308,
we see a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of O d y s s e u s ' tr i a l w i t h the
s i r ens, one of w h o m h ol ds a m i r r or . See Grabes,
S p e c u l u m . Abb. 44, and 174ff.
2 H S e n e c a De c o n s t a n t i a s a p i e n t is , van
a a n t e k e n i n g e n v o o r z i e n d o or N. S c h e p s (Leiden: E. J.
B ri ll , 1964), II, 2. A c c o r d i n g to e u h e m e r i s t t r a d it i on ,
s i r e n s were, like the p a g a n d e it i es , b e l i e v e d to h a v e at
f ir s t been h u m ans. In the c a s e of the sirens, t h e y were
t h o u g h t to h av e b e e n real life p r o s t i t u t e s . See
C o u r c e l l e , " L 'i n t e r p r e t a t i o n E u h e m e r i s t e , " 33ff.
2 1 2 H u go R a h n e r has d i s c u s s e d a d d i t i o n a l B i b l i c a l
r e f e r e n c e s to s ir ens. In e ac h of the f o l l o w i n g i n
s ta nc es , the w o rd u s ed in the D o u a y - R h e i m s e d i t i o n is
" d r a g o ns " : J ob 30: 29 -3 0; I s a i a h 3 4 : 1 3 and 43:20; J e r e m i a h
50:39; M i c a h 1:8. S ee R a h n e r , G r e e k M y t h s . 328ff, for
his e t y m o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a nd for an e x t e n s i v e
d i s c u s s i o n of the s i re n s and O d y s s e u s in C h r i s t i a n
thought.
2 1 3 c i e m e n t of A l e x a n d r i a S t r o m a t a I - V I , I, 10, 48,
6, as c i t e d in C o u r c e l l e , " L ' i n t e r p r ^ t a t i o n e u h e m e r i s t e , "
36. T he i m a ge of the s i r e n as c o u r t e s a n is e x p l o r e d by
C o u r c e l l e , w ho c i t e s its p r o p a g a t i o n by Cl em en t, J e ro me ,
A m b r os e, A u g u s t i n e , and o th er s. S ee C o ur c e l l e , 33-48.
2 1 4 p e p l a n c t u N a t u r a e , in Pat. L a t . . vol. 210,

col. 440. Cf. C o u r c e l l e , " L 'i n t e r p r e t a t i o n e u h e m e r i s t e , "
47-48, for f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of A l a n and sirens. In
A l a n ' s A n t i c l a u d i a n u s . h o w e v e r , t h e r e are a ls o p l a n e t a r y
s i r e n s w ho m a ke the m u s ic of the sp he r es . See A l a n of
L i l l e A n t i c l a u d i a n u s . Bk. IV, 130 and 132. A l s o see
T w y c r o s s , T he M e d i e v a l A n a d y o m e n e . 64.
215i,W y c r o s s , The M e d i e v a l A n a d y o m e n e . 36-37,

c it e s B e r s u i r e ’s R e p e r t o r i u m m o r a l e and d i s c u s s e s his
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of the sire ns . F or B r u n e t t o L at i ni , see
208
! 2 1 5 (con t i nu ed )
Li L i v r e s dou T r e s o r , ed. F r a n c i s J. C a r m o d y ( B e r k e l e y and;
L os A ng el es : U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a Press, 1948), I,
136, 7, p. 132, Also see C o u r c e l l e , " L 1i n t e r p r e t a
tion E u h e m e r i s t e , 48.
2 1 6 g ee below, 141-146, for my d i s c u s s i o n of the

m i r r o r a t t r i b u t e used for the f i rs t time in the t h ir -
| te e nt h c e n t u r y in r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the G re a t W h o r e of
j the A p o c a l y p s e .
j i
2 1 7 j have found no r e f e r e n c e to the a t t r i b u t e of
j the m i rr o r in the p r in c i p a l t ex ts r e v i e w e d for this
' dissertation.
j
2 1 8 o n e of the N e r e i d s wa s The ti s, the m o t h e r of
A c h i l le s , who was a seeress. See above, C h a p t e r II, 49, !
and n. 178. On the q u e s t i o n of the N e r e i d s as the so u rc e
of the m e d i e v a l mermaid, see T w y cr o s s , T he M e d i e v a l
A n a d y o m e n e , 90.
2 1 9 s e e W e a l t h of the R o m a n Wo rl d, A.D. 3 0 0 - 7 0 0 .
ed. J. P. C. Ken t and K. S. P a i n te r , e x h i b i t i o n c a t a l o g u e
(London: B r i t i s h M u s e u m P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1977), 97, no, 161.
220 fo i . 295v.
2 2 1 w e sh ou l d not e her e that the m i r r o r is an

a t t r i b u t e of the r e f o r m e d p r o s t i t u t e M a r y M a g d a l e n ,
a c c o r d i n g to the d r a m a t i c l i t u r g y of E rlau. See F. 0.
Knoll, D ie R o ll e der M a r i a M a g d a l e n a im g e i s t l i c h e n S piel
des M i t t e l a l t e r s (Berlin and L e i p z i g: W a l t e r de G ru nt er ,
1934), 96. Cf. F r ie dm a n, ”V e n u s , " 69. Magdalen's mirror
w o ul d s e e m to r e fe r both to her f o r m e r p r o f e s si on , and to
her new life. It is an e m b l e m of p r o s t i t u t i o n , of the
p u r su i t of w o r l d l y p l e a s u r e s and u n w o r t h y p r e o c c u p a t i o n s ,
as seen in I saiah, and it is, at the sa me time, a m e a n s of
s ee i ng truth, of a c q u i r i n g k n o w l e d g e of self and k n o w l e d g e
of the d ivine. W i t h its f l e e t i n g and i n s u b s t a n t i a l r e
f le c ti on , it r e m i n d s the e n l i g h t e n e d M a g d a l e n of the
t r a n s i e n c e of life, and the f o l l y of e a r t h l y v a ni ti e s.
R e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of Mar y M a g d a l e n w i t h a m i r r o r and o ther
o bj ec ts b e s p e a k i n g the t he me of v a n i t a s do not a p p e a r to
have found f avor before the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y and the
w o r k s of G e o r g e s de la Tour.
2 2 2 s ee K a t z e n e l l e n b o g e n , A l l e g o r i e s . for d i s c u s
s ions of the p s y c h o m a c h i a , e s p e c i a l l y 1-13. On the
209
2 2 2 ( c o n t i nu ed )
d e p i c t i o n of L u x u r i a as a c o u p l e in bed (at A m i e n s and
C h a r t r es , the f e m a l e a l s o has a m i rr or ), see
K a t z e n e l l e n b o g e n , 58, and 76; and as a w o m a n b e s e t by
v o r a c i o u s c r e a t u r e s (as at V e z e l a y and M o i s s a c ) , a l s o see
H. W. J an s o n, "A ’M e m e n t o M o r i ’ A mo n g E a r l y I t a l i a n
P r i n t s , ” in J o u r n a l of the W a r b u r g and C o u r t a u l d I n s t i
tu t es 3 ( 19 39 - 40 ): 245. See above, 98-99, for my
a b b r e v i a t e d o u t l i n e of the ra n ge of d e p i c t i o n s of the
V i r t u e s and V i c e s in m e d i e v a l art. Katzenellenbogen,
A l l e g o r i e s , s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d for a t h o r o u g h d i s c u s s i o n
of the subje ct .
2 2 3 g ee c. Por ee , La c a t h e d r a l e d ' A u x e r r e (Paris,

1926), 80; L. B eg ul e, M o n o g r a p h i e de la c a t h e d r a l e de
L yo n (Lyon, 1880), 135 -6 and fig. 38.
2 2 4 g ee E m i l e M al e , T he G o t h i c I m a ge ( N e w York:
H a rp e r B r o t h e r s , 1958), 117, and fig. 59; and M. A ub ert,
Les v i t r a u x de N o t r e - D a m e et de la S a i n t e - C h a p e l l e de
P ar i s [ C o r p u s v i r t r e a r u m M e d i i Aevi, F r a n c e H (Paris,
1959), 34 a nd pi. 2.
2 2 5 A i t h o u g h the m i r r o r is the most u s u a l a t t r i b u t e

for L u x u r i a f r o m the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y on, the V i c e was
d e p i c t e d w i t h o t h e r s y m b ol s , too. F or i n s t a n c e , Male, in
The G o t h i c I m a g e . 119, r e f e r s to r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of
L u x u r i a in w h i c h she is s h o w n h o l d i n g out or o f f e r i n g
f e t t e rs in B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e M a n u s c r i p t fr. 938, fol.
120v, and M a z a r i n e M a n u s c r i p t 870, fol. 147.
2 2 6 x h i s T r e e of Vice s , n o w in a p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n
in L on d on , is an i l l u m i n a t i o n f r om the B u r c k h a r d t - W i l d t
A p o c a l y p s e , a nd is fol. 6r of the m a n u s c r i p t ( B u r c k h a r d t -
W i l d t alb u m, fol. 7). It is one of 77 m i n i a t u r e s (41
c u t t i ng s ) f ro m an a l b u m a s s e m b l e d by P a t e r B i r m a n n ( 17 58 -
1844) for D a n i e l B u r c k h a r d t - W i l d t ( 1 7 5 2 - 1 8 1 9 ) of Bas el ,
and p l a c e d for sale by his d e s c e n d a n t s at S o t h e b y ' s ,
Lo ndon, 25 A p r i l 1983. See S o t h e b y ' s sa le s c a t a l o g u e , The
A p o c a l y p s e (London: S o t h e b y P a r k e B e r n e t & Co., 1983), 8,
and i l l u s t r a t i o n for L o t 32(b). W h en th e se m a n u s c r i p t
c u t t i n g s w e r e s ol d in 1983, they we re t h o u g h t to be A n g l o -
N or m an , o r i g i n a t i n g in the v i c i n i t y of York, ca. 1270.
M o r e r e c e n t l y , P a t r i c k de W i n t e r has p r o p o s e d E a s t e r n
F r a n c e ( L or r ai n e ), ca. 1300, as th ei r point of orig in ; and
Nig el M o r g a n has a l s o s u g g e s t e d a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h F ra n c e.
See P a t r i c k de W i n t e r, " V i s i o n s of the A p o c a l y p s e in
M e d i e v a l E n g l a n d and F r a n c e , " C l e v e l a n d M u s e u m B u l l e t i n 70
210
( D e c e m b e r 1SS3): e s p e c i a l l y 4 1 1 - 4 16 ; and N i g e l M o rg a n,
"T he B u r c k h a r d t - W i l d t A p o c a l y p s e , " in Art at A u c t i on , The
Y e a r at S o t h e b y ' s 1 9 8 2- 8 3 (London: Sotheby Parke Bernet &
co., 1983), 162-169.
A T r e e of V i c e s in a m a n u s c r i p t of the M i r o i r de
vie et de m o rt in the B i b l i o t h e q u e S a i n t e - G e n e v i e v e ,
M a n u s c r i p t 2200, has a s i m i l a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the
f i g u r e of L u x u r i a w i t h a m i rr or . In thi s m i n i a t u r e , fol.
164, h ow e ve r, the V i c e s are d e p i c t e d as the r o o ts of a
l a r g e tree. Eac h s e r p e n t - l i k e root end s w i t h the h e a d of
a w om an , p e r s o n i f y i n g a Vice. See Male, Th e G o t h i c I m a g e .
107; and J u r g i s B a l t r u s a i t i s , Le M o y e n See F a n t a s t i q u e
(Paris: A. Colin, 1955), 126, fig. 91.
2 2 7 p a r i S B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e , lat. 11560, fol.

46. See La B i bl e m o r a l i s e e , i l l u s t r e e , c o n s e r v ^ e a
O x fo r d. P aris, et L o n d r e s . ed. A. de L a b o r d e (Paris,
1912), vol. 2, pi. 270.
2 2 8 F ro m the tim e of the B l a c k D e a t h of 1348 and its

a f t e r m a t h , we see the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of L u x u r i a (ca. 1350)
fr o m the D u c al P a la c e in V e ni c e, in w h i c h the V i c e is
p r e s e n t e d in a mo r e o v e r t l y s ex u a l m a n n e r th an e a r l i e r
d e p i c t i o n s . [ PLATE 63] See A l v i s e Z orzi, E l e n a Bassi,
T e r i s i o P i g na t ti , and C a m i l l o S e m e n z a t o , II P a l a z z o
d u c a l e di V e n e z i a (Torino, 1971), 1 8 0 f f and fig. 154; '
B l o o m f i e l d , The S e v en D e a d l y S i n s , 104; and J o h n R u sk in ,
S t o n e s of V e n i c e ( C h ic a go and New York: Belford, Clarke
& C o m p a ny , 1851), vol. 2, 330ff. T h e work, on e of a
s e r i e s of s to n e s c u l p t u r e s c a r v e d for the c a p i t a l s of
the P a l a c e ' s l ower s to r y p il la r s, s h o w s the a l l e g o r i c a l
f igure, w i t h a j e w e l l e d h e a d b a n d , p u l l i n g the b o d i c e of
her d r e s s d ow n to s h o w h er breast, w h i l e l o o k i n g int o the
r o un d m i rr o r, w h i c h she h o l d s in her left hand. At f irst
gla nc e, t h ere a p p e a r s to be a s u g g e s t i o n of a g r i n n i n g
skull. B e c a u s e of c u r r e n t r e n o v a t i o n s at the D u c al
P al a c e , I w a s u n a b l e to see t hi s c a p i t a l and to d e t e r m i n e
w h e t h e r or n ot the s k u l l - l i k e p a t t e r n that a p p e a r s in the
p h o t o g r a p h w a s a c t u a l l y p re se nt . In c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h the
aut ho r , J u l y 1987, M i c h e l e K u z e n i c h , D i r e c t o r of the D u ca l
P a l a c e (Museum), said that, d e s p i t e the a p p e a r a n c e of the
p ho t o g r a p h , t he re is not a r e l i e f of a skull r e p r e s e n t e d
in the mirror.
T he r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a s ku ll in a m i r r o r b e c o m e s
a f a m i l i a r V a n i t a s i m a g e - t y p e in l a te r art, as in su ch
w o r k s as Lau x F u r t e n a g e l ' s P o r t r a i t of H a n s B u r g k m a i r
and hi s W i f e (1529). [P L AT E 64] See J a m e s H. M ar ro w ,
"' I n di e se n S p ie ge ll ': A N e w F o r m of ' Me me nt o Mori* in
211
2 2 8 ( C O ntin ue d)
F i f t e e n t h - C e n t u r y N e t h e r l a n d i s h A r t , " in E s s a y s in
N o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n Art P r e s e n t e d to E g b e r t H a v e r k a m p -
B e g e m a n n , e d . A n n e - M a r i e L o g a n ( D oo rn sp i j k, The
Netherlands: Davaco, 1983), 154-163.
Th e m i r r o r as an i n s t r u m e n t s i g n i f y i n g sin and
d e n o t i n g the f o lly of e a r t hl y p l e a s u r e s t a ke s on a new
r e s o n a n c e in the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a skull as the r e
f l e c t e d image. W i t h it, d ea th and the w a g e s of sin are
m a d e g ra ph ic , and the w a r n i n g to the b e h o ld e r is g ri m ly
e xp l ic i t . W h i le the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of v i s i o n s in the
m i r r o r is not new, its d i m e n s i o n as a ma nt ic i n s t r u m e n t
in C h r i s t i a n art w il l be e x t e n d e d w it h the p r e s e n ce of a
s k ul l in the mir ro r. T h r o u g h o u t the p eriod u nd er d i s
c u s s i o n in this the s i s, it w o u l d se em that v i s io ns se en in
the l o o k i n g g lass we re e it he r of ex t er na l, and u s u a l l y
holy, s u b j e c t s — h e a v e n l y s ig h t s b eyond the p r e s e n c e of
the f i g ur e wit h the m i r r o r — or of mor e or less f a i t h f u l
r e n d e r i n g s of the r e f l e c t e d f ig ur e itself. The glass
r e n d e r s truth, e i t h e r m o r e or les s d i s t i n c t fro m r ea l it y,
in ea c h type. In l ate r works, w h e r e a s k ull is r e v ea le d,
the m i r r o r is als o an i n s t r u m e n t of truth, u n v e i l i n g a
v i e w of the i n e v i t a b l e future.
2 2 9 ^ p 0 c a i yp t i c v i s i o n s are, of course, found

e l s e w h e r e in the B ible, p a r t i c u l a r l y in the book of
D an ie l, and in the g ospel of John. For a gen er al
d i s c u s s i o n and a d d i t i o n a l b i bl i o g r a p h y , see N o r m a n Cohn,
T h e P u r s u i t of the M i l l e n i u m (New York: Oxford Un iversity
P ress, 1970), e s p e c i a l l y 19-36; and B e r n a r d McG in n, " E a r ly
Apocalypticism: T h e O n g o i n g D e b a t e , " in T h e A p o c a l y p s e in
E n g l i s h R e n a i s s a n c e T h o u g h t and L i t e r a t u r e : P at te rn s .
A n t e c e d e n t s and R e p e r c u s s i o n s , e d . C. A. P a t r i d e s and
J o s e p h W i t t r e i c h (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University
Press, 1984), 2-39.
230fjarjorie R eeves, "The D e v e l o p m e n t of A p o c a l y p t i c

T h o u g ht : M e d i e v a l A t t i t u d e s , " in T h e A p o c a l y p s e in
E n g l i s h R e n a i s s a n c e T h o u g h t and L i t e r a t u r e , ed. C. A.
P a t r i d e s and J o s e p h W i t t r e i c h (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell
U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1984), 41ff; Cohn, The P u r su i t of the
M i l l e n i u m . passim: and F s S a x l ; "A S p i r i t u a l E n c y c l o p a e d i a
of the L a t e r M i d d l e A ges," in J o u r n a l of the W a r b u r g and
C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s 5 (1942): 83.
23 1 Se e Cohn, T he P u r s u i t of the M i l l e n i u m . 110.
232jtfar jorie R e e v e s p oi n ts out that J o a c h i m s t r e s se d

uncertainty a bout the a c t u a l date in his wr it in gs , but he
212
232(cont;inued)
did d e c l a r e that the two g e n e r a t i o n s (of t hi r ty y ears
each) a f t er 1200 w e r e c r it i c a l . See J o a c h i m ' s L i b e r
C o n c o r d i e No v i et V e t e r i s T e s t a m e n t i . fol. 41v, q u ot e d in
R eeves, T h e I n f l u e n c e of P r o p h e c y in the L a t er M i d d l e
Ages: A S t u dy in J o a c h i m i s m (Oxford: C l a r e n d o n Press,
1969), 48. R e ev e s a ls o n o t e s that J o a c h i m had p r e p a re d
T a b l e s of C o n c o r d s , l in e a l d i a g r a m s c h a r t i n g the c h r o n o l
ogy of A p o c a l y p s e , w h i c h g r a p h i c a l l y i n d i c a t e d the p eriod
b e g i n n i n g w i t h 1260 as a t i m e of u l t i m a t e t um u lt (L i b er
f i g u r a r u m . II, pis. 3, 4). See R eeves, T h e I n f l u e n c e of
P r o p h e c y , 48; and M a r j o r i e R e e v e s and B e a t r i c e H i r s c h -
Reich, T he " F i g u r a e " of J o a c h i m of F i o r e (Oxford:
C l a r e n d o n Press, 1972).
2 3 3 g ee Saxl, "A S p i r i t u a l Encyclopedia," 85.
2 3 4 R ee ves, "Th e D e v e l o p m e n t of A p o c a l y p t i c
T h o u g h t , " 52.
2 3 5 T he text of the po e m k n o w n as D i e s ir ae w a s
c o m p o s e d ca. 1250 r e p u t e d l y by T h o m a s of C e l a no . See
Reeves, "The D e v e l o p m e n t of A p o c a l y p t i c T h o u g h t , " 68.
2 3 6 A C c o r d i n g to R. F re y h an , the a n o n y m o u s c o m m e n
tary f o und in P a r i s B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e fr. 403 d e ri ve s
f r o m the B i b l e m o r a l i s e e texts. See F r e y h a n , " J o a c h i s m
and the E n g l i s h A p o c a l y p s e , " in J o u r n a l of the W a r b u r g and
the C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s 18 (1955): 223.
2 3 7 p a r i s B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e fr. 403 w a s l isted

as o r i g i n a t i n g at the b e g i n n i n g of the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y
in the e a r l y i m p o r t a n t s t u dy of this m a n u s c r i p t by L.
D e l i s l e and P. M e y e r in L ' A p o c a l y p s e en f r a n c a i s au X I I I e
s i e c l e (Paris: L i b r a i r i e de F i r m i n Didot, 1901), l x - l x x i .
S i n c e t heir p i o n e e r i n g work, and as a r e s u l t of f u r t h e r
s t ud y of b o t h e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l f a ct o r s, s c h o l a r s such
as G e o r g e H e n d e r s o n h av e t e n d e d to p l a ce thi s m a n u s c r i p t
ne a re r to m i d - c e n t u r y , p r o b a b l y b ef o r e 1245. F or a
d i s c u s s i o n of the d a t i n g of B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e fr. 403
and its c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p in p a r t i c u l a r to B o d l e i a n Auct.
D . 4 . 1 7 and M o r g a n L i b r a r y 524, see H e n d e r s o n , " S t u d i e s in
E n g l i s h M a n u s c r i p t I l l u m i n a t i o n , P ar t I," in the J o u r n a l
of the W a r b u r g a nd the C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s 30 (1967):
e s p e c i a l l y 104-114. A ls o see R. F r ey ha n, " J o a c h i s m , "
223.
238compare the same sc ene as r e p r e s e n t e d in M o r g a n
I
213
L i b r a r y 524 [PLATE 66]. T h e s i m i l a r i t y of t h e s e two
m a n u s c r i p t s (and B o d l e i a n Auct. B . 4. 17 ) w as n o t e d a b o v e
(n. 237). Since D e l i s l e and M e y e r w r o t e at the b e g i n n i n g
of the t w e n t i e t h c e nt u ry , m uc h s c h o l a r l y a t t e n t i o n has
bee n t u rn e d to the q u e s t i o n of w h i c h m i g h t be the p ro t o -
1 type, or if all are b a se d on an earlier, n ow lost, work.
; For d i s c u s s i o n of this u n r e s o l v e d q ue s t io n , see F re y ha n ,
I " J o a c h i s m , " e s p e c i a l l y 2 3 4- 2 3 5, 241; H e n d e r s o n , " S tu d i e s ,
! P a rt I," 104-114; and B a r b a r a Nolan, T h e G o t h i c V i s i o n a r y :
| P e r s p e c t i v e (Prin ce t on , N. J . : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y
I Press, 1977), e s p e c i a l l y 69 n. 69.
I :
| 2 3 9 M o rgan L i b r a r y 524 c o n t a i n s e x c e r p t s of a
j c o m m e n t a r y by B e r e n g a u d u s , a t h e o l o g i a n w ho l ived in the j
| e l e v e n t h or t we l ft h cent ur y.
24C>Dating and l i n e a g e of this T r i n i t y C o l l e g e

( C a m b r i d g e) A p oc a ly p s e , R. 16 .2 , hav e been the s u b j e c t s |
of m u c h d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h can onl y be s u g g e s t e d here.
F r e y h a n t h o ug h t that the T r i n i t y A p o c a l y p s e was a r e v i s i o n
of an a r c h t y p i c a l m a n u s c r i p t , n o w lost, and in the sam e
l in e as M o r g a n L i b r a r y 524, t h o u g h l at er than the M o r ga n .
See F r e y h an , " J o a c h i s m , " 219, 226-232, and passim.
H e n d e r s o n c o n j e c t u r e d that the T r i n i t y A p o c a l y p s e w a s
p r o b a b l y p r o d u ce d over a p e ri o d of years, p o s s i b l y f r om
a b o u t 1235 to 1265, thus e x p l a i n i n g the s e v e r a l s t y l e s it
incorporates. He " g u e s s e s " a d a ti n g of ca. 1255, and
c o n s i d e r s it to be a p r o t o t y p i c a l work, s e p a r a t e in
d e v e l o p m e n t from the P a r i s and M o r g a n m a n u s c r i p t s c it ed
a bove. See H en d er s on , " S t ud i es , P ar t I," 117-127. Peter
H. B ri e ge r , who d at es this m a n u s c r i p t ca. 1 2 42 -1 25 0,
c o n t e n d s that T r i n i t y p r e d a t e s its m a n y E n g l i s h c o u n t e r
parts, suc h as B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e fr. 403, a nd M o r g a n
L i b r a r y 524, and is a p r o t o t y p i c a l work. See B r i e g e r , The
T r i n i t y C o l l e g e A p o c a l y p s e (London: E u g r a m m i a P ress,
1967), 5ff.
2 4 1 T h ese g e s t u r e s are se en r e p e a t e d l y in l a te r I
w o r k s s u c h as the A n g e r s ( A p o c a l y p s e ) t ap e st ry , w o v e n from
J e a n B o n d o l ’s c ar to on s, and d a t i n g f ro m the l a t e r 1 3 7 0 ’s,
and in v a r i o u s m a n u s c r i p t s . Fo r a p r o p o s a l of the t h i r
t e e n t h c e n t u r y s t y l i s t i c o r i g i n s of the A n g e r s t a p e s t r i e s
(not T ri n i t y ) , see G e o r g e H e n d e r s o n , "The M a n u s c r i p t M o de l
of the A n g e r s ’A p o c a l y p s e ’ T a p e s t r i e s , " in The B u r l i n g t o n
M a g a z i n e 127 (April 1985): 209-219.
j
2 4 2 g ee a b 0 ve, C h a p t e r II, n. 37, for I s ai a h 3:23. j
- - -
214
| ^ ^ C o n n e c t i o n s were n o t e d in the M i d d l e Ages

| b e t w e e n A p h r o d i t e - V e n u s , the r e f o r m e d p r o s t i t u t e St.
i P e l a g ia , and the G r e at W h or e of the A p o c a l y p s e . See W. S.!
H e c k s c h e r , "Th e A n a d y o m e n e in the M e d i e v a l T r a d i t i o n , " in|
] N e d e r l a n d s K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h J a a r b o e k 7 (1956): 1-38. See
| e s p e c i a l l y 8ff for a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e s e p a r a l l e l s and
connections. See above, n. 221, for a r e f e r e n c e to
i a n o t h e r r e f o r m e d p r o s t i t ut e , M ar y M a g d a l e n , and her own
m i r r o r a t t r i b u t e , w h i c h a p p e a r s in r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s fro m
the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y forward.
i
j 2 4 4 T h e B i b l e m o r a l i s e e , ca. 1250+, w i t h c o n f l a t e d
I L u x u r i a - V a n i t a s f i g u r e s d i s c u s s e d below, 140-141, are
j e i t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y with or s l i g h t l y l a t e r tha n the e a r l i
est m a n u s c r i p t s c i t e d here in w h i c h t h i s n e w a t t r i b u t e j
appears. !
i
I I
2 ^ ^ T e r t u l l i a n De c u l t u f e m i n a r u m I I . 8, in O p e r a II.
2, in C o r p u s s c r i p t o r u m e c c l e s i a s t i c o r u m l a t i n o r u m . ed.
E m i l K r o y m a n n (Leipzig, 1942), vol. 70, p. 84, lines 10- i
11. Cf. G ra be s , T h e M u t a b l e G l a s s . 136. J
2 4 6 s e e I s i d o r e of S e v i l l e E t y m o l o g i a r u m libri XIX. j
3 1.18. A u t h o r ’s t r a n s l a t i o n . i
]
2 ^ 2F o r a d i s c u s s i o n of the g l o s s a r i e s of Papias,
H u g u c c i o of Pisa, and Je a n de G enes, and t hi s c o n n e c ti on ,
see F r i e d m a n , " V e n u s , " 69.
2^ ® H u g h of St. Che r O p e r a o m n i a in u n i v e r s u m v et us
et n o v u m t e s t i m e n t i (Venice, 1732), IV, f. 12. See
F r i e d m a n , " V e n u s , " 67.
2^ 9 s e e H. W. Janson, "A ' Me m en t o M o r i , ' " 245 n. 7,

and pi. 37b. A v a n i t a s image, ca. 1250, of a girl w i t h a
mirror, labell ed mu nd um , c a r n e , and a c c o m p a n i e d by a
d evil, in a B i b l e m o r a l i s e e (fol. 41r) in T o l e d o
C a t h e d r a l , w a s i d e n t i f i e d by J a n s o n in h is A pe s and A pe
L o r e (London: T he W a r b u r g I n s t i t u t e and the U n i v e r s i t y of
L o n d o n , 1952), 231 n. 71. T h e v a n i t a s t h e m e and the
m i r r o r are p r e s e n t in t al es of a n i m a l s , as well. For
i n s t a n c e , a tiger, a t t r a c t e d by h e r r e f l e c t i o n in a
c r y s t a l sph er e, f o r e g o e s v i g i l a n c e o v e r h e r cub, and the
h u n t e r is a b l e to s teal it. See b elow, 159-163, for a j
d i s c u s s i o n of this m otif. A p e s and m o n k e y s al so f i g u r e i n 1
m i r r o r - v a n i t a s s t o r i e s and poems. F o r i ns ta n c e , B u r k h a r t |
v on H o h e n f e l s , a m i n n e s i n g e r of the t h i r t e e n t h cent u ry , !
w r o t e that, "as the ape, be he ever so w ild, is is c a u g h t !
by his m i r r o r - i m a g e , so am I t r a p p e d by my l a d y - l o v e . " I j
215
249(continue(i)
have fo un d no i m a g e s of a p e s i l l u s t r a t i n g s u c h s e n t i m e n t s
b e f o r e the f i f t e e n t h c en t u r y . See J an s o n , A p e s , 212, and
passim.
250{jartlaub n o t e d that in Padu a, p r e s u m a b l y in

G i o t t o ' s L a s t J u d g e m e n t f r e s c o in the A r e n a C ha p e l ,
" S a t u r n h i m s e l f e v e n a p p e a r s o n c e w i t h a m i r r o r in his
hand." I h a v e b ee n u n a b l e to l o c a t e it. See H a r t l a u b ,
Z a u b e r des S p i e g e l s , 168.
2 5 l T h e a u t h o r s h i p and d a t i n g of the C a m p o S a n t o
f r e s c o e s in P i s a h a v e b e en the s u b j e c t of m u c h s c r u t i n y
and c o n t i n u i n g d eb a te . B e f o r e the 1960s, s c h o l a r s s uc h as
M i l l a r d M e i s s and R o b e r t O e r t e l g e n e r a l l y h e l d t h a t t he
C a m p o S a n t o f r e sc o c y c l e w hi c h i n c l u d e s t he T r i u m p h of
D e a t h . L a s t J u d g m e n t , and H el l f r es c o e s , w e r e r e f l e c t i v e
of the B l a c k D e a t h of 1348. M o r e r e c e n t l y , J o s e p h P o l z er ,
L u c i a n o B e l l o s i , and o th ers, h a ve d a t e d t h e s e f r e s c o e s
to the d e c a d e s p r e c e d i n g the 1348 p a n d e m i c . F o r the
p r i n c i p a l a r g u m e n t s on d a t i n g a nd a t t r i b u t i o n , see M i l l a r d
Mei ss , " T h e P r o b l e m of F r a n c e s c o T r a i n i , " A r t B u l l e t i n 15
(1933): 9 7- 1 3 3, and M e i s s ' s P a i n t i n g in F l o r e n c e and S i e n a
a f t e r the B l a c k D e a t h : R o b e r t O e r t e l , E a r l y I t a l i a n
P a i n t i n g to 1400 (New York: P r a e g e r , 1968), 3 05 ff.;
J o s e p h P o l z e r , " A r i s t o t l e , M o h a m m e d and N i c h o l a s V in
H e l l , " A rt B u l l e t i n 46 (1964): 4 5 7 - 46 9 ; Hanns
S w a r z e n s k i , " B e f o r e and A f t e r P i s a n o , " Boston Museum
B u l l e t i n 68 (1970): 178-1 96 ; M e is s , " N o t a b l e D i s t u r b
a n c e s in the C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of T u s c a n T r e c e n t o P a i n t i n g s , "
T h e B u r l i n g t o n M a g a z i n e 113 (1971): 2 6 7- 2 78 ; F l o r e n s
D e u c h l e r , " L o o k i n g at B o n n e of L u x e m b o u r g ' s P r a y e r B o o k , "
M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m of Art B u l l e t i n 29 (1971): 1 71 -186;
L u c i a n o B e l l o s i , B u f f a l m a c o e il T r i o n f o d e l l a M o r t e
(Turin, 1974); and P o l z e r , " A s p e c t s of the F o u r t e e n t h -
C e n t u r y I c o n o g r a p h y of D e a t h a nd t h e P l a g u e , " in T he B l a c k
Death: the I m p a c t of the F o u r t e e n t h - C e n t u r y P l a g u e ,
P a p e r s of t he E l e v e n t h A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e of the C e n t e r for
M e d i e v a l & E a r l y R e n a i s s a n c e S t u d i e s , O c t o b e r 1977, ed.
D a n i e l W i l l i m a n ( B i n g h a m t o n , N e w York: Medieval &
R e n a i s s a n c e T e x t s & S t u d i e s , 1982), 1 0 7-130.
2 5 2 T he m i r r o r of C hr i s t, as e n v i s i o n e d in a
m a n u s c r i p t i l l u m i n a t i o n for the R o m a n , h as a l r e a d y been
m e n t i o n e d below, 95-95. See P L A T E 38. In a d d i t i o n to
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of O i s e u s e w i t h her m i r r o r a nd N a r c i s s u s
and the r e f l e c t i n g pool d i s c u s s e d in this and the next
s ec ti on , the o p t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of m i r r o r s a re t r e a t e d in
a l e n g t h y d i s c o u r s e by the a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e of N a t u r e
216
in the se c o nd part of the poe m w r i t t e n by J e a n de Meun.
T h i s s c ie n t i f i c p a s s a g e w as not, to my k n o w l e d g e , a usual
s u b j e c t for i l l u m i n a t i o n s . See below, 168-1 70 , for my
d i s c u s s i o n of this d i s c o u r s e as it r e l a t e s to the study of
c a t o p t r i c s du ri n g th is period.
The l i t e r a t u r e on the m o n u m e n t a l R o m a n de la Rose
is large, and only a s e l e c t i o n of the m aj or w o r k s are
c i t e d here. E rn e s t L a n g l o i s e d i t ed the d e f i n i t i v e text of
the R o m an in five v o l u m e s (Paris: S oc i et e des a n c i e n s
t e x t e s franjais, F i r m i n - D i d o t , 1 91 4-1924), and m ad e e a rl y
and s t ill r e l e v a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s to its study, e s p e c i a l l y
O r i g i n e s et s o u r ce s du R o m a n de la R os e (Paris, 1891), and
Les m a n u s c r i t s du R o m a n de la R os e (Lille: Tallandier,
1910). A m o n g o t her e a r l i e r works, see A l f r e d Kuhn, Die
I l l u s t r a t i o n des R o s e n r o m a n s (Freiburg, 1911). M or e
r e c e n t s t u d i e s i n c l u d e C. S. Lewis, T he A l l e g o r y of Love
(Oxford, 1936; repri nt , N e w York: Oxford Uni ve rsity
P ress, 1958); Alan M. F. Gunn, T h e M i r r o r of Love: a
R e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of "The R o m a n c e of the R o s e ” (Lubbock,
T exas: T e x a s T ec h Press, 1952); and J oh n V. F le m in g , The
“R o m a n de la R o s e ” : a S t u d y in A l l e g o r y and I c o n o g r a p h y
( P ri nc et o n , N. J.: P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P ress, 1969).
A l s o see D. W. R o b e r t s o n , A P r e f a c e to C h a u c e r
( P r inceton, N. J.: P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1963),
e s p e c i a l l y 91-104, and 196-207; and Tuve, A l l e g o r i c a l
Imagery. 233-284. An a n n o t a t e d b i b l i o g r a p h y on the R o m an
is found in M a r c - R e n e Jung, "Der R o s e n r o m a n in der K r i t i k
s eit dem 18. J a h r h u n d e r t s ." R o m a n i s c h e F o r s c h u n g e n 78
(1966): 203-257.
2 5 3 s ee G u i l l a u m e de L o r r i s and J e a n de Meun, The

R o m a n c e of the R o s e , pp. x ii i -x vi i .
2 5 4 T h e c h a r a c t e r of A mo r says that the p o e m m ig ht

as wel l be c al le d "The M i r r o r of L ov e. " See ibid., 215;
a nd Gunn, T h e M i r r o r of L o v e . 28.
2 5 5 a s p o i nt ed out by E r ne s t L an gl o i s , G u i l l a u m e ' s
O i s e u s e r e c a ll s O v i d ' s R e m e d i a A m o r i s . w h e r e b eing idle is
r e l a t e d to the life of l u x u r i a : " O tia si t ollas, p e ri e re
C u p i d i n i s a r cu s. " (R e m e d i a 139). See F l e m i n g , The
" R o m a n " . 74, and R o b e r t s o n , A P r e f a c e to C h a u c e r . 92.
256(;u i i i aum e de L o r r i s and J ea n de M eun, The

R o m a n c e of the R o s e . 13.
217
2 5 7 Ibid.
2 ^ ® A s B a r to l omeo da San C o n c o r d i o (d. 1347) re

c a l l e d fro m O v i d ' s R e m e d i a A m or i s (141-43): " Just as the
p l an e tre e r e j o i c e s in w i n e and the po pl ar in water, and
| the reed of the mer e in m a r s h y ground, so does l u x u r y lovei
idleness." See Paul F. Wat so n , T h e G a r d e n of L ov e in
i T u s c a n Art of the E a r l y R e n a i s s a n c e ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : The
Art A l l i a n c e Press, 1979), 59.
jI 25 9s ee below, 151-153.
260venus herself appears in the R o m a n , but w i t h o u t ;

j h er m irror.
^ ^ T he R o m a n c e of the R o s e , 15. !
- 6 2 N a r c i s u s ( p o em e du X I I e s i e c l e ) , ed. M. M. P e l a m
a nd N. C. W. S pe n c e (Paris: P u b l i c a t i o n s de la F a c u l t e j
des L e t t r e s de l ' U n i v e r s i t e de S t r a s b ou r g, Fasc. 147,
1964). See F r e d e r i c k Goldin, The M i r r o r of N a r c i s s u s in
t he C o u r t l y L ov e L y r ic (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University
P r ess, 1967), 2 2 -52 and passim, for a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of
t his t w e l f t h c en t u r y poem.
2 6 3 g r i t is h M u s e u m R o y a l 20 A. XVII, fol. 14v. See

S a x l and Meier, C a t a l o g u e , vol. 3, pt. 1, p. 220, Taf.
52, A b b . 135.
2 6 4 p h i l a u t i a , a c o n c o m i t a n t of S u p e r b i a and
V a n i t a s . w as not c l e a r l y d e f i n e d in the M i d d l e Ages, and
is not n a m ed s p e c i f i c a l l y by the p e r i o d ' s m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l
c a t a l o g u e r s of the c a p i t a l or ca rd i n a l sins, e.g., J oh n
C a s s i a n (d. ca. 435) a nd G r e g o r y the G re at (d. 604). See
B l o o m f i e l d , T he S e ve n D e a d l y S i n s , e s p e c i a l l y 69ff, for a
d i s c u s s i o n of the p r i n c i p a l m e d i e v a l l i st s of sins. A ls o
see Gr a b es , Th e M u t a b l e G l a s s . 153ff., on P h i l a u t i a ,
S u p e r b i a . and V a n i t a s as e x e m p l i f i e d in the N a r c i s s u s
i myth, the l ater d e f i n i t i o n of P h i l a u t i a in A n d r e a
A l c i a t i ' s E m b l e m a t a (1551), and A l c i a t i ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of N a r c i s s u s and P h i l a u t i a .
2 6 5 T he R o m a n c e of the R o s e , 32. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
the c r y s t a l s and w h a t is a c t u a l l y r e f l e c t e d in th e m
r e m a i n s d i ff i c u l t . C e r t a i n l y , the e f fe ct of t he c r y s t a l s
on the D r e a m e r s ee ms to i mply some m a g i c a l d i m e n s i o n , j
w h i c h w ou l d be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the m i r r o r ' s long h i s t or y . j
F or f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of the D r e am e r and the w e l l of j
N a r c i s s u s , see E. K ohler, " N ar ci ss e, la f o n t a i n e d ' A mo ur , j
218
et G u i l l a u m e de L o r r i s , " in J o u r n a l des S a v a n t s ( A pr il -
j June 1963): 86-103; and F le mi n g, T h e " R o m a n " , e s p e c i a l l y
92ff; R o b e r t s o n , P r e f a c e to C h a u c e r . 95; G u i d o F av at i,
j "II t em a d e g l i o cc h i come s p e c c h i o , " St ud i in o no r e di
: C a r l o P e l l e g r i n i (Turin, 1963), 3-13; and C. S. Lew is , T h e
I A l l e g o r y of L o v e , 128ff. A l s o see J e a n F r a p p i er ,
| " V a r i a t i o n s sur le theme du m ir o ir , de B e r n a r d de
• V e n t a d o u r a M a u r i c e S c ev e , " C a h i e r s de 1 *A s s o c i a t i o n
! i n t e r n a t i o n a l e des e t u d e s f r a n c a i s e s 11 (1959): 151.
j G o l d i n ' s T h e M i r r o r of N a r c i s s u s s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d for
I its e x t e n s i v e t r e a t m e n t of the s u b j e c t in the t w e l f t h
i c e n t u r y a n o n y m o u s poem, N a r c i s u s . and in the R o m a n de la
j Rose.
i
2 6 6 T h e R o m a n c e of the R o s e , 33.
! 267j]Ji (j> j n this " w e l l of l o v e ," the d a n g e r o u s and

j d e c e p t i v e p oo l of N a rc i s s u s , the D r e a m e r a l so sees the
j r o s e b u d th at b e c o m e s the s u b j e c t of the poem. F l e m in g ,
T he " R o m a n " . 96, h as noted t ha t o ne m i n i a t u r i s t p l a c e d a
s ku l l at t he p e r i l o u s pool of N a r c i s s u s , t h u s w a r n i n g that
it w a s p o i s o n e d w at er . T h i s w o r k is i l l u s t r a t e d in
A l e x a n d r e de L a b or d e , Les p r i n c i p a u x m a n u s c r i t s a
p e i n t u r e s c o n s e r v e s dans l ' a n c i e n n e B i b l i o t h e q u e I m p e r i a l e
P u b l i q u e de Sa i nt P e t e r s b o u r g (Paris, 1938), vol. 2, pi.
83.
268]riorence> B i b l i o t e c a N a z i o n a l e , M a n u s c r i p t
Palat. 600, fol. 6v. See O ffn er , C o r p u s of F l o r e n t i n e
P a i n t i n g . vol. 2, sec. 3, pt. 2, p. 256, and Add. pi.
17. A l so see W at s o n , The G a r d e n of L o v e , 56-57.
2 6 9 T h e A m m a e s t r a m e n t i d eg l i a n t i c h i w a s w r i t t e n
f ir s t in Latin, and was t r a n s l a t e d into T u s c a n in the
ea rl y f o u r t e e n t h c en tu r y. S ee W a t s o n , T h e G a r d e n of
L o v e , 56-57.
2 7 0 T h e dog, in this c on t e xt , is p r o b a b l y a s e x
ual r e fe r e n c e . In m e d i e v a l t r a d i t i o n , a dog o f t e n
r e f e r s to w o m e n ' s g e n i ta l s. See W at s o n , T h e G a r d e n of
L o v e . 38, 58; and R ob e r t s o n , A P r e f a c e to C h a u c e r . 112-
113, 195, 264.
2 7 l T e s e i d a VII, 56, as c i t ed by T w y c r o s s , The

M e d i e v a l A n a d y o m e n e . 85.
219
272];n his M a s s a M a r i t t i m a M a e s t d , p a i n t e d ca.

1335, A m b r o g i o a l s o s u p p l i e d F i d e s . the T h e o l o g i c a l
V i r tu e , w i t h a m i r r o r a tt r i b u t e . See a bo v e, 120-127.
273()n the d a t i n g of the G o o d and B a d G o v e r n m e n t

f r es c oe s , s ee Ed n a C a rt e r S ou t ha rd , T h e F r e s c o e s in
S i e n a ' s P a l a z z o P u b b l i c o , 1 2 8 9 - 1 5 3 9 . d i s s e r t a t i o n , I nd i an a
U n i v e r s i t y , 1978 ( N e w York: G a r l a n d P u b l i s h i n g , 1979),
29; C. B ra n d i , " C h i a r i m e n t i sul 'Buon G o v e r n o ' di A m b r o g i o
L o r e n z e t t i , " B o l l e t t i n o d ' A r t e 40 (1955): 119-123; and G.
M i l a n e s i , D o c u m e n t i per la s t o r i a d e l l ' a r t e s e n e s e (Siena,
1854; r e p r i n t , Soest, T he N e t h e r l a n d s , 1 969), vol. 1, 195-
197.
2 7 4 p or t he p r i n c i p a l m o d e r n s o u r c e s of s c h o l a r s h i p
on t he se f r es c o e s , see B or s o o k , A m b r o g i o L o r e n z e t t i . and
T h e M u r a l P a i n t e r s of T u s c a n y . 2nd e d i t i o n (Oxford:
C l a r e n d o n P re s s, 1980); U t a F e l d g e s - H e n n i n g , "The
P i c t o r i a l P r o g r a m m e of the Sala d e l l a P ac e : A New
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , " J o u r n a l of the W a r b u r g a nd C o u r t a u l d
I n s t i t u t e s 35 (1972): 145-162; C h i a r a F r u g o n i , "T h e B oo k
of W i s d o m a n d L o r e n z e t t i 's F r e s c o in the P a l a z z o P u b b l i c o
at S i e n a , " J o u r n a l of the W a r b u r g a nd C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s
42 (1980): 2 39 - 2 41 ; R ow l ey , A m b r o g i o L o r e n z e t t i ; N i c o l a s
R u b i n s t e i n , " P o l i t i c a l I d e a s in S i e n e s e Art: The Frescoes
of A m b r o g i o L o r e n z e t t i a nd T a d d e o di B a r t o l o in the
P a l a z z o P u b b l i c o , " J o u r n a l of the W a r b u r g a nd C o u r t a u l d
I n s t i t u t e s 21 (1958): 179-207; S ou t h a r d , T h e F r e s c o e s in
S i e n a ' s P a l a z z o P u b b l i c o ; and H e l e n e W i e r u s z o w s k i , "Art
a nd the C o m m u n e in the T i m e of D a n t e , " S p e c u l u m 19
( J a n u a r y 1944): 14-33.
2 7 5 R u b i ns t e i n , " P o l i t i c a l I d e a s , " 188. Ambrogio's

c h o i c e of V i c e s do not m a t c h the u s u a l s ch e me s , w h i c h wer e
g e n e r a l l y e m p l o y e d in r e l i g i o u s s e t t i n g. S ee B l o o m f i e l d ,
T h e S e v e n D e a d l y S i n s , for e x t e n d e d d i s c u s s i o n of the
m e d i e v a l c a t a l o g u e of sins.
2 7 6 p r u g 0 n j[f "Th e B o o k of W i s d o m , " 2 3 9 - 2 4 1 . Frugoni

h a s als o a s s o c i a t e d D a n t e ' s use of W i s d o m v e r s e s in the
P a ra d i s o , C a n t o X VIII, l i n e s 91-93, w i t h A m b r o g i o ’s theme.
S ee F r u g o n i , 239.
2 7 7 g ee R u b i n s t ein, "Political Ideas," especially

182.
2 7 8 y a na G l o r i a , a l t e r n a t i v e l y c a l l e d Inanis G l o r i a ,
was the f i r s t of the s e v e n v i c e s in G r e g o r y the G r e a t ' s
220
| 2 7 8 ( c o n tinued)
list of sins, w h i c h s e r v e d as a p r i n c i p a l r e f e r e n c e for
the M i d d l e Ages. I n a n i s G l o r i a , f o l l o w e d by I n v i d i a
(Envy), Ira ( An ger), T r i s t i t i a ( S ad n es s) , A v a r i t i a
(Greed), V e n t r i s I n g l u v i e s ( Gl u t t o n y ) and L u x u r i a (Lust),
all s t e m m e d from S u p e r b i a (Pride), the root of all sin.
| In the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t ur y , M o r t o n B l o o m f i e l d has no te d
I that I n a n i s G l o r i a and S u p e r b i a m e rg ed , thus f o r m i n g a
h ep tad. T h o m a s A q u i n a s (S u m m a t h e o l o g i c a I, ii, q. 84),
| w ho f o l l ow e d the G r e g o r i a n list, used S u p e r b i a and I n a n i s ■
I G l o r i a i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y u p o n o c c a s i o n , r e f l e c t i n g the fact i
| that the d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n the two vi ce s w e r e not well
i d r a w n . We s h ou l d n ot e h e r e that by the f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y
some r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of S u p e r b i a a ls o h av e a m i r r o r . For
a d i s c u s s i o n of V a n a ( I n a n i s ) G l o r i a and S u p e r b i a , see !
B l o o m f i e l d , T he S e v e n D e a d l y S i n s , 54, 59, 71-73, 86-88, i
105-106, and 126. j
2 7 9 T h e b e s t i a r y of the M i d d l e Ag es w a s b as e d j
l a r g e l y on the P h y s i o l o g u s , a G r e e k w o r k and l a t e r L a t i n
v e r s i o n of o b s c u r e o r i g i n and u n c e r t a i n date. The Latin
text w a s p r o b a b l y a v a i l a b l e in the W e s t b e f o r e the end of
the f o u r th c e n t u r y A.D., s i n c e A m b r o s e ’s H e x a s e r o n ,
c o m p o s e d ca. 3 8 6- 3 88 , u s e s s o me m a t e r i a l f r o m it. T he
m e d i e v a l b e s t i a ry , a t ex t of p s e u d o - s c i e n t i f i c and o f t e n
f a n t a s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s of r ea l and m y t h i c a l b ir d s and
a ni mals, was a C h r i s t i a n i z e d and e x p a n d e d P h y s i o l o g u s .
See above, 115-120, for my d i s c u s s i o n of the u n i c o r n and
the Virgi n.
^ SO ^ e l i an , On the C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of A n i m a l s ,
trans. A. F. S c h o l f i e l d ( C a m b r i d g e , Mas s. : Harvard
U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1958), vol. 3, Bk. X V I I . 25, p. 355. The
text is t r a n s l a t e d as f o ll ow s:
And an I n d i an a f t e r u s i n g a m i r r o r in s ig h t
of the M o n k e y s . . . /lacuna*/ displaying
not g e n u i n e m i r r o r s but ones of a d i f f e r e n t
kind, on to w h i c h they lace s t r o n g n oo se s.
Such then is the a p p a r a t u s w h i c h they e mp lo y.
And so the M o n k e y s c o m e and gaze s t e ad il y ,
i m i t a t i n g w h a t t he y h a v e seen. And f r o m the
r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e o p p o s i t e th ei r s ig ht t h e r e
is a s ur g e of s t r o n g l y glu e y s u b s t a n c e that
gums up th ei r e ye li d s, w h e n they gaze i n t e n t l y
into it. T he n b ei n g u n a b l e to see, they are
c a u gh t w i t h o u t any d i f f i c u l t y , for they are
no l o ng e r a bl e to e sc ap e .
__________ * S c h o l field has conjectured that the missing
221
_ (
280(continued) I
text m i gh t read: . . w i th d r a w s , l ea vi n g Dehind h i m
an o bj ec t r e s e m b l i n g it. By such m e a n s the I n d ia n s a t
t r ac t the cr ea tu r e s, t h ou g h w ha t they d i s pl a y are not
genuine . .
2 8 1 H . W. Ja n so n ' s Ape s and Ape Lore r e m a i n s the j

d e f i n i t i v e s ou r ce for the h i s t o r y of m e d i e v a l and R e n a i s
s an c e v i ew s of s i mi a ns in art and thought.
282j h av e found no o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of apes

w it h m i r r o r s in art b efore the f i f t e e n t h century, a l t h o u g h
J a n s o n has n o t e d the e x i s t e n c e of a f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y
m a n u s c r i p t now in the B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e in w h i c h an
a p e - l i k e f i g u r e w it h a m i r r o r is seen a c c o m p a n y i n g a lady
and s ev er a l s m all devils. See Jan so n, A pe s and Ape L o r e .
231 n. 71, and C h a m p f l e u r y , H i s t o i r e de la c a r i c a t u r e
(Paris, 1875), 209. Th i s m i d - f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y i l l u s t r a
tion of the P e d l a r and the Ap es theme, the e a r l i e s t
r e n d e r i n g of a m o t i f that a t t a i n e d c o n s i d e r a b l e
p o p u l a r i t y, w as i d e n t i f i e d by F r i tz Saxl in " H o l b e i n ’s
I l l u s t r a t i o n s to the ’P r ai s e of Folly' of E r a s m u s , " The
B u r l i n g t o n M a g a z i n e 83 (1943): 275ff, and pi. 2, F. The
i l l u s t r a t i o n a p p e a r s in B r i t i s h M u s e u m R o y al M a n u s c r i p t
1 0.E.IV, of Greg. IX, P a p a e D e c r e t a l i u m l ib r i V , w hich,
t h o u g h p r o b a b l y w r i t t e n in Italy, w a s i l l u s t r a t e d in
E n g l a nd . See Janson, Ape s and A pe L o r e . 216ff, and 233
n. 88.
283jfew York, M o r g a n L i b r ar y, P. 81, B e s t i a r y, fol.

35ro. See M a r g a r e t Ricke rt , P a i n t i n g in B r i t a i n (London
and B a l t i m o r e: P e n g u i n Books, 1965), 88, and pi. 90 (b).
284])oU a y # L i b r a i r i e B i b l i o t h e q u e M u n i c i p a l e , M a n u
s c r i p t 711, B e st ia r y, fol. 2ro. See also B a l t r u s a i t i s , Le
M i r o i r . 248-249, and fig. 10. A v a r i a t i o n of this s cene
is f o und in a late t w e l f t h c e n t u r y i l l u m i n a t i o n in the
U n i v e r s i t y of A b e r d e e n L i b r a r y , in w h i c h the h u n t e r t hr o ws
a g la s s ball i n ste ad of a m i r r o r to the tigress, who, s e e
ing her i m age in it, i m a g i n e s she has f ound her cub. See
U n i v e r s i t y of A b e r d e e n L i b r a r y M a n u s c r i p t 24, fol. 8ro.
T h i s i mage is r e p r o d u c e d in T. B o a s e , E n g l i s h Art 1 1 00-
1216 (Oxford: C l a r e n d o n Press, 1953), pi. 89 (b), and
a ls o see pp. xx, 293, 295; M. R. James, A b e r d e e n U n i v e r
sity L i b r a r y B u l l e t i n 6 (1925-28): 529ff., and figs. 1-5.
For a d i s c u s s i o n of the t i g e r - m i r r o r i m a g e r y see F l o r e n c e
M cC u l l o c h , "Le T i g re au M i ro i r: La Vie d ’une I mage de
P l in e a P i e rr e G r i n g o r e , " R e v u e des S c i e n c e s H u m a i n e s 130
( A p r i l -J u ne 1968): 149-1601 and the same a u t h o r ' s
222
j 28^(continued)
i M e d i e v a l L a t i n and F r e n c h B e s t i a r i e s ( Ch apel Hill, N.C.:
| U n i v e r s i t y of N o r t h C a r o l i n a Press, S t u d i e s in the R om an c e:
! L a n g u a g e s and L i t e r a t u r e s , No. 33; r e v i s e d ed ition, 1962), i
| 176-177.
i
I 2 8 5 p i i n y had also w r i t t e n the st or y of c a p t u r i n g a
j ti ge r cub, but th er e is no m e n t i o n of a m ir ro r. See
| P l i n y N at u ra l H i s t o r y V I I I . 18.25. Cf. M c C u l l o u g h ,
| M e d i e v a l L a t i n and F r e nc h B e s t i a r i e s . 176-177.
2 8 6 Sic p i e t a t i s suae stud i o d e ce pt a, er v i n d i c t a m

amittit et sobolera. See P a t . L a t . , vol. 14, cols. 264,
265.
i
2 8 2 H u g h of St. V i c t o r De B e s t i i s , in Pat. Lat. j

j vol. 177, col. 83. Cf. B a l t r u S a i t i s , Le M i r o i r . 248.
V a r i a t i o n s on this theme are a ls o f ou n d in l i t e r a t u r e of
the period. For example, in the e l e v e n t h c en tury, P et e r
D a m i e n w r o t e of the story of the t ig e r and the m i r r o r
in De Bono r e l i g i o s i s t at us et v a r i a r u m a n i m a n t i u m
t r o p o l o g i a , and a l t h o u g h he e s s e n t i a l l y t el ls the same
story as Ambrose, F l o r e n c e M c C u l l o u g h has r e c o r d e d a
twist: For D a m i e n it is no long er a q u e s t i o n of m a t e r n a l
love. Instead, the tiger cub is seen as b e i n g sa ve d from
the lair and his mother, and is c o m p a r e d w i th a m an who is
sa ve d from the s n a re s and tr a p s of the w or l d and c o n v e r t e d
to a r e l i g i o u s life. To Damien, the t i g e r is a devil.
See M c C u l l o u g h , "Le T i g r e , " 151ff. For the r e l e v a n t text
of D a m i e n ' s De b o n o . see P a t . L a t . , vol. 145, col. 775.
2 8 8 v i n c e n t of B e a u v a i s S p e c u l u m n a t u r a l e lib. XIX
(Douay, 1624), cxii, p. 1443. For B r u n e t t o Lati n i , see
Li L i v r e s dou T r e s o r . 19; and A l b e r t u s M a g n u s De
a n i m a l i b u s (Venice, 1493), XXIV, p. 224. See
B a l t r u s a i t i s , Le Miro ir , 249.
2 8 9 T r o u b a d o u r s and t r o u v e r e s u s ed the story, too.

See M c C u l l o u g h , "Le T i g r e , " 154. A l s o see C e s a r e Segre,
Li B e s t i a r e s d ' A m o u r s di M a i s t r e R i c h a r t de F o r n i v a l e li
R e s p o n s e da B e s t i a r e (Milan, 1957).
2 90 M c C u l l o u g h , "Le T i g r e , " 1 54 -155. McCullough

d i s c u s s e s this t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of m e a ni n g , seen b e f o r e
R i c h a r d of F o u r n i v a l in P i e r r e of B e a u v a i s — se ed s of
w h i c h are e v id e n t in P i e r r e ' s B es ti a ry , w r i t t e n b e f o r e
1218. In this w o r k he r ef e r s to b e a u t y of the i m a ge in
the mirr or . T he t i g e r - m i r r o r r e f e r e n c e appea rs , too, in
so n gs of p ra is e to the V i r gi n Mary, a l l u d i n g to her in-
223
290(continued)
d e s c r i b a b l e beauty. See M c C u l l o u g h , "Le T i g r e , " 155-156.
For the t e x t s of the songs, see R e c u e i l de c h a n s o n s
p i e u s e s , ed. Edw. J a r n s t r o m ( He lsinki, 1910), e s p e c i a l l y
C h a n s o n XIII, 44-45, and C h a n s o n XXI, 60-61. See above,
115-120, for my d i s c u s s i o n of the m i r r o r as an a t t r i b u t e
of the Virgin.
2 9 1 T h e m i r r o r as an o bj ec t of p r o t e c t io n , k n o w n in
a n c i e n t E g yp t and in o th er e arly M e d i t e r r a n e a n c i v i l i z a
tions, is m os t f a m i l i a r in the m y t h of the hero P e r s e u s
and go rg o n Med us a, who had the p ow er to tur n all who
l o ok e d at her into stone. As n oted above, the s hi ny
sh ie l d of Pers eu s, the gift of Athena, s er v e d as his p r o
tecti o n, a l l o w i n g hi m to see M e d us a, not f a c e - t o - f a c e , but
t h r o u g h her r e f l e c t e d i m a g e and to slay her w i t h o u t e x p o s
ing h i m s e l f to her d ir e c t k i l l i n g glance. G o r g o n s and
o th er g r o t e s q u e s were, of course, f r e q u e n t s u b j e c t s for
m i r r o r s in a nt i q u i t y , d e p i c t e d on A t h e n a - M i n e r v a 's shield,
the sh ie l d of a g re a t hero, or as s e p a r a t e themes. We
s ho u l d also r e c a l l h e r e t h e t u t e l a r y use of the i m a g e of
Bes, the g r o t e s q u e god of c o s m e t i c s, on a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n
m i r r or s . A p o t r o p a i c r e f e r e n c e s are p r e se n t in i m a g e s in
E g yp t ia n , Greek, Roman, and E t r u s c a n art, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e
d e p i c t i n g gods a n d g o d d e s s e s w h o s e b e n e v o l e n t p r o t e c t i o n
w as sought. I ha v e not f ou nd r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the
M e d u s a s t ory in the e ar l y M i d d l e Ages, but the t u t e l a r y
m i r r o r oc c ur s in l i t e r a t u r e and the v is ua l arts e s p e c i a l l y
in the story of the b a s i li sk , as n oted here.
2 9 2 g ee p i i n y N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , trans. H. R. R a c k h a m
( Ca m br i dg e , Mass.: H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1940), vol.
3, Bk. VIII, chap. 33, pp. 56-57. P li ny d e s c r i b e s the
b a s i l i s k s e r pe n t as be ing "not m o r e than 12 i n c h e s long,
and a d o r n e d w it h a b ri g ht w h i t e m a r k i n g on the head li ke a
so rt of d i a d e m . . ." He als o l ik en s the b a s i l i s k ' s
d e a t h - d e a l i n g lo ok to an a n i m a l he c a ll s the c a t o b l e p a s .
or " d o w n w a r d - l o o k e r ," w h i c h R a c k h a m s u g g e s t s m ay be the
gnu. Al so see B a l t r u s a i t i s , Le M i r o i r , 241. j
2 9 3s e e Ars en al M a n u s c r i p t 44, in C h a r l e s C a h i e r and
A r th u r Ma rt in , M e l a n g e s d *A r c h e o l o g i e et d ' H i s t o i r e
(Paris, 1851), vol. 2, 213. Cf. B a l t r u s a i t i s , Le M i r o i r .
241. For a d i s c u s s i o n of P ie r r e le Pi c ar d ( B e au v ai s ) , see
C a h i e r and M artin, M e l a n g e s . vol. 2, 106-232; vol. 3,
203-88; vol. 4, 55-87. M c C u l l o c h has w r i t t e n a s u c c i n c t j
h i s t o r y of the b e s t i a r y in her M e d i a e v a l L a ti n and F r e n c h j
Bestiaries. j
l
224
2 9 4 s e e Bal t ru s ai ti s , Le M i r o i r , 242 and fig. 5.
i 2 9 5 T he cry stal b e c o m e s a m i r r o r in the s i x t e e n t h

! c e n t u r y e d i t i o n of A u g u s t i n e De C i v i t a t e Dei l ibri XXII |
; a m e n d a t u m per J. V i v e m (Basel, 1522), X V I I I . 13, p. 574.
! See B a l t r u § a i t i s , Le M i r o i r , 241, and 308, n. 11.
i
i 2 9 6Biijliotheque p u b l i q u e et u n i. v e rs it ai re , Lat.
| 76, fol. 246. T h i s m a n u s c r i p t is a t t r i b u t e d to the
I P a r i s i a n school, t h ir d q u a r t e r of the t h i r t e e n t h c en t ur y .
| T h i s i l l u m i n a t i o n w as first p u b l i s h e d by B. G a g n eb in ,
L ’e n l u m i n u r e de C h a r l e m a g n e a F r a n c o i s I e r , e x h i b i t i o n
c a t a l o g u e (Geneva, 1976), 59. For a d i s c u s s i o n of this
w o r k and the d e p i c t i o n of the S e n s e s in m e d i e v a l art, see
! Ca r l N o r d e n f a l k , "Le s C in q Sen s da n s l ' a rt du M o y e n Age, j
j R e v u e de l *A rt 34 (1976): 21-22, and fig. 8; and idem,
| "Th e F i v e S e n s e s in Lat e M e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e A r t, " j
J o u r n a l of the W a r b u r g and C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s 48: 2ff.
2 97];n some r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of a l l e g o r i e s of the

Senses, e a c h S en se w as a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an ani ma l, f o l l o w
ing the b e l i e f that p a r t i c u l a r a n i m a l s p o s s e s s e d m o r e j
h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d s e ns e s t h a n did man. T he lynx, a b e a st |

t h o u g h t to hav e e s p e c i a l l y a cu te v ision, w a s a u s u a l |
a t t r i b u t e in m e d i e v a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the a l l e g o r y of
Sight. See N o r d e n f a l k , " T he F i ve S e n s e s , " 1-2.
2 9 8 p or a f u n d i s c u s s i o n of the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of |
the S e n s e s in m e d i e v a l and R e n a i s s a n c e a l l e g o r i e s , see j
ibid. |
2 9 9 x h e P a r v a n a t u r a l i a of A r i s t o t l e was a v a i l a b l e j
in L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n by the end of the t w e l f t h c e n t ur y . j
See [A ri s to tl e ], A r i s t o t e l e s l a t i n u s . ed. G. L a c o m b e
(Bruges: D e s c l u de B r o u w e r , 1 95 5- 57 ) , vol. 1, 59; and
C r o m b i e , M e d i e v a l and E a r l y M o d e r n S c i e n c e , vol. 1, 43.
3 0 0 p e Serisu et s e n s a t o I I . 4 3 8 a . 8. A r i s t o t l e a ls o
r e f e r s to the m i r r o r and v i s i o n in I I . 4 3 7 b . 12. See j
A r i s t o t l e De s ensu and De m e m o r i a , ed. and trans. G. R. T.
R o ss (New York, 1906; repri nt , N e w York: A r n o Press,
1973).
3 0l F o r a c o m p r e h e n s i v e h i s t o r y of o p t i c s d u r i n g the
M i d d l e Ages, see D a v i d C. L i n d b er g , T h e o r i e s of V i s i o n
fro m A l - K i n d i to K e p l e r ( C h icago: The U n i v e r s i t y of
C h i c a g o P ress, 1976). A ls o see C r o mb i e, M e d i e v a l and j
E a r l y M o d e r n S c i e n c e , vol. 1; and D a vi d C. L i nd b e r g , "Th e j
S c i e n c e of O p t i c s , " in S ci e n c e in the M i d d l e A g e s , ed. j
225
301(continued)
, D a v i d C. L i n d b e r g ( Ch icago: T h e U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o
! Press, 1978), 3 3 8 -3 6 8; and T h o r n d i k e , A H i s t o r y of M a g i c ,
vols. 1 and 2. For e x t e n d e d t r e a t m e n t of s e v e r a l m a j or
| f i g u r e s of the p eriod, see A. C. C r o m b i e , R o b e r t
I G r o s s e t e s t e and the O r i g i n s of E x p e r i m e n t a l S c i e nc e . 1100-
I 1700 (Oxford: C l a r e n d o n Press, 1953); J o h n P e ch am , Jo hn
j P e c h a m and the S c i e n c e of O p ti c s: Perspectiva communis,
| ed. and trans. D a v i d C. L i n d b e r g ( M a d i so n, W is e . : Univer- !
i sity of W i s c o n s i n P r e ss , 1970); and C l e m e n s B a e u m k e r ,
| W i t el o . ein P h i l o s o p h und N a t u r f o r s c h e r des XIII.
j J a h r h u n d e r t s . B e i t r a g e zur G e s c h i c h t e der P h i l o s o p h i e des I
! M i t t e l a l t e r s , vol. 3, pt. 2 ( Mu ns t e r , 1908). Transla-
i t i o n s of a n u m b e r of i m p o r t a n t t r e a t i se s , or e x c e r p t s
t h e r e of , are f ou nd in E d w a r d G rant, ed., A S o u r c e B o o k in i
M e d i e v a l S c i e n c e ( C am br i dg e , M as s . : Harvard University j
Press, 1974).
! 3 0 2 p o r a d i s c u s s i o n of the G r e e k o p t i c a l w o r k s j
n e w l y a v a i l a b l e in the West, a nd t h e ir i m p a c t on E u r o p e a n
s c i e n c e , see L i n d b e r g , T h e o r i e s of V i s i o n , 102-121;
C r o m b i e , R o b e r t G r o s s e t e s t e , 31ff; idem, M e d i e v a l and
E a r l y M o d e r n S c i e n c e , vol. 1, e s p e c i a l l y 33-64; and
L i n d b e r g , "The T r a n s m i s s i o n of G r e e k and A r a b i c L e a r n i n g
to the W e s t , " in S c i e n c e in t he M i d d l e A g e s , ed. D a v i d i
C . L i n d b e r g , 52-90. A l s o see J. M. M i l l a s - V a l l i c r o s a , I
" T r a n s l a t i o n s of O r i e n t a l S c i e n t i f i c W o r k s [to the E nd of
the T h i r t e e n t h C e n t u r y ] , " in T h e E v o l u t i o n of S c i e n c e ,
ed. Guy S. M e t r a u x and F r a n c o i s C r o u z e t (Ne w York, 1963),
128-167; F. G a b r i e l i, " T h e T r a n s m i s s i o n of L e a r n i n g and
L i t e r a r y I n f l u e n c e s to W e s t e r n E u r o p e , " in C a m b r i d g e
H i s t o r y of I s l a m , ed. P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. L a m b t o n . a n d
B e r n a r d L e w i s ( C a m b r i d ge : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press,
1970), vol. 2, 8 5 1 - 8 8 9; T h e l o c u s c l a s s i c u s for a g e n e r a l
d i s c u s s i o n of the t r a n s l a t i o n s and t h e ir r e c e p t i o n and
i mp a ct in t w e l f t h c e n t u r y E u r o p e is C h a r l e s H o m e r H as ki n s ,
T h e R e n a i s s a n c e of the T w e l f t h C e n t u r y ( C a m b r i d g e , M ass.:
H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y P ress, 1927), chap. 9.
3 0 3 s e v e r a l m a j o r w o r k s by A l k i n d i , A l h a z e n , and
o t h e r s s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d here: An e a r l y t r e a t i s e ( ninth
c e n t u r y ) is A l k i n d i ' s De a s p e c t i b u s . Largely a g eomet
r i c a l t r e at i se , it is a c r i t i q u e of E u c l i d ' s t h e o r y of
v i s i o n as e x p o u n d e d in h is O p t i c a . F o r A l k i n d i ' s work,
see De r a d i i s s t e l l i c i s fOn S t e l l a r R a y s l , in T h o r n d i k e ,
A H i s t o r y of M a g i c , vol. 1, 6 43ff, and vol. 2, 443. Al so
see L i n d b e r g s i l l u m i n a t i n g c h a p t e r on A l k i n d i in T h e o r i e s |
of V i s i o n , 18-32. A v ic e n n a , the g re at I s l a m i c p h i l o s o p h e r ;
and s c ie n ti st , w r o t e a b o u t the t he o ry of s i gh t and a b o u t j
226
303(continued) i
m i r r o r s in a n um be r of works, n o t a b l y the K i t ab a l - S h i f a ,
K i t a b a l - N a j a t , and the D a n i s h n a m a . For A v ic e nn a , the ;
m e c h a n i s m of vi si on could be c o m p a re d to the f o r m a t i o n of
j i ma g es in a mirror. A v i c e n n a ' s N a ja t was a ls o k n o wn in
j the W es t as The B o ok of D e l i v e r a n c e . See Avi ce nn a* s
; Psychology; An E n g l i s h T r a n s l a t i o n of the K i t ab al-Na.jat,
trans. F. R a h m a n (London, 1952). For the D a n i s h n a m a . als o
k n o w n as T h e Boo k of K n o w l e d g e , see [Avi ce nn a] , Le L i v r e
j de S c i e n c e . 2 vols., trans. M o h a m m e d A c he n a and H en ri
J M a s s e (Paris, 1955-58). T h e S h i f a , also c al l e d The B oo k j
! of H e a l i n g or S u f f i c i e n t i a in the M i d d l e Ages, is f o und in

I the L i b e r de Anima. Seu S e xt u s de N a t u r a l i b u s , ed. S. van
j Riet (Louvain: E d i t i o n s O r i e n t a l i s t e s , 1968-72).
I A v e r r o e s ( 11 26 - 11 98 ) p r o v i de d c o m m e n t a r i e s on A r i s t o t l e ' s I
j works, such as De se nsu et s e n s a t o . See Av er ro es , E p i t o m e I
of P a r v a N a t u r a l i a , trans. H ar ry B l u m b e r g ( Ca mb r id ge , |
Mass.: The M e d i a e v a l A c a d e m y of Amer ic a, 1961). Alhazen ;
(ca. 9 6 5 - c a . l 0 3 9 ) stu di ed l ight and vision, and his
a n a l y s i s of r e f l e c t i o n was an i m p o r t a n t part in the f o r m a
tion of his t he o ry of vision. His v is u al t h e o r i e s paved
the way for a mor e a c c u r a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the m e c h a n i s m
of sight. A l h a z e n ' s De s p e c u l i s c o m b u r e n t i b u s . a w o r k on
the p a r a b o l o i d a l b u r n i n g m irror, w as k n o w n in the W e s t by
the se c on d hal f of the t h i r t e e n t h century, and b e c a m e a
p o p u l a r text. E x c e r p t s of his On the P a r a b o l o i d a l B u r n i n g
M i r r o r TDe s p e c u li s c o m b u r e n t i b u s ] are t r a n s l a t e d , a l o n g
w i t h other w o r ks by the sci en ti st , in Grant, A S o u r c e Boo k
in M e d i e v a l S c i e n c e , 413 n. 104. For an e x c e l l e n t t r e a t
m en t of the work of these A r a b s c i e n t i s t s and t heir i m p ac t
on m e d i e v a l s c ie nc e in the West, see L i n db e rg , T h e o r i e s of
Vision.
3 0 4 p e L u c e , q uo te d in Crom bi e, G r o s s e t e s t e , 106-7.
See a l so see Crombie, G r o s s e t e s t e , 106-109, and 128-134,
for a d i s c u s s i o n of G r o s s e t e s t e ' s p h i l o s o p h y of light.
3 0 5 ^ u g u s t i n e was f r e q u e n t l y cited in G r o s s e t e s t e ' s

works. See Crombie, G r o s s e t e s t e . 128ff; and L in db er g,
T h e o r i e s of V i s i o n . 94ff.
3 0 6 p e n at u r a l o c o r u m , q uoted in Crom bi e ,
G r o s s e t e s t e , 110.
SO^Cr om bi e , G r o s s e t e s t e , 118-119, m a k e s this claim,

p o i n t i n g out that G r o s s e t e s t e ' s a p p l i c a t i o n of the law of
m i n i m u m path, or the law of economy, to the l a w of
r e f l e c t i o n (the a ngle of i n c i d e n c e e qu a l s the a ng le of
r e f l e c t i o n , as stated by Eu c l id ) r e s u l t ed in the p r i n c i p l e
227
307(continued)
of m i n i m u m path. C r o m b i e al s o n o te s that this p r i n c i p l e
had bee n e s t a b l i s h e d by H e r o of A l e x a n d r i a , w ho se w o r k
G r o s s e t e s t e did not know.
3 0 8 f oj- a d i s c u s s i o n of G r o s s e t e s t e ' s wor k w i t h the

b u r n i n g glass, see Crom b i e, M e d i e v a l and E a r ly M o d e r n
S c i e n c e , vol. 1, 102.
30 9g e e A l b e r t u s M a g n u s O p e r a . . . in l uc em edita.
s tu d i o & l a bo r e . . . , P e t r i I a mm y ( Ly g d vn i: Sumpt.
C l a u d i i Prost, P e t r i & C l a u d i i Rig au d, H i e r o n y m i de la
Garde, loan. Ant. H ug ue t a n , 1651).
3 1 0 T h e P e r s p e c t i v a , pa rt fi ve of B a c o n ' s Opus
m a j u s , w as al s o c i r c u l a t e d as a s e p a r a t e t r e a t i s e in the
M i d d l e Ages. See R o g e r B a c o n O p u s m a j u s , trans. R ob e r t
B e l l e B u r ke ( P hi l a d e l p h i a : U n i v e r s i t y of P e n n s y l v a n i a
Press, 1928).
3 H 0 n the s u b j e c t of e y e g l a s se s , B a c o n s u g ge s t e d
the use of l en s e s as an aid to d e f e c t i v e s i ght in his
O p u s m a j u s of 1 2 66 -1 26 7, f o l l o w i n g t h e e a r l i e r idea of
G r o s s e t e s t e , w ho had f irst p r o p o s e d in h is t r e a t i s e De
i r i d e the use of l e n s e s "to m a g n i f y s ma ll o b j e c t s and
bring distant objects closer." Th e i n v e n t i o n of e y e
glas s e s , a c c o r d i n g to C ro mb i e, p r c t c b l y o c c u r r e d soon
a f t e r 1286 by an u n k n o w n i nv en t o r , and w a s then m ad e
p u b l i c by A l e s s a n d r o d ella Spina, a f ri ar fro m Pisa. See
C r o m b i e , M e d i e v a l and E a r ly M o d e r n S c i e n c e , vol. 1, 105,
and 231-232; and E. Rosen, "The I n v e n t i o n of E y e g l a s s e s , "
J o u r n a l of the H i s t o r y of M e d i c i n e a nd A l l i e d S c i e n c e s 11
(1956): 13-46.
T he c a u s e of r a i n b o w f o r m a t i o n w a s the s u bj e ct of
s p e c u l a t i o n in a n t i q u i t y and t h r o u g h o u t the M i d d l e Ages,
for a d i s c u s s i o n of the p r i n c i p a l t h e o r i e s of r e f l e c t i o n
and r e f r a c t i o n f r om A r i s t o t l e and S e n e c a to G r os s e t e s t e ,
A l b e r t u s M a g n u s , R o g e r B acon, W i te lo , and T h e o d o r i c of
F r e i b u r g , see Car l B. Boyer, T he Ra in b o w : F r o m M y t h to
M a t h e m a t i c s (New York: T h o m a s Y o se l o f f , 1959), 17-142;
and C ro mb i e , G r o s s e t e s t e . 124-125, 1 5 9 - 16 0, 196-200, and
233- 2 5 9 .
3 1 2 g e e R o g e r Bacon, R o g e r B a c o n ' s L e t t e r C o n c e r n i n g
the M a r v e l o u s P o w e r of Art and of N a t u r e and C o n c e r n i n g
the N u l l i t y of M a g i c , trans. T e n n e y L. D av is . (Easton,
Pennsylvania: The C h e m i c a l P u b l i s h i n g Co., 1923), 28.
3 1 3 i bi d. , 29.
228
3 1 4 Ibid.
3 * 3 A p a r t f r o m h is w r i t in g s, few f a c t s are k n o w n
a b o u t W it e l o, or V it e l lo . See C ro mb i e, G r o s s e t e s t e ,
213ff; L i n d b e r g , T h e o r i e s of V i s i o n . 1 1 6 f f ; and B a e u m k e r ,
W i t e l o , 2 0 1- 22 4.
S i ^ S e e P e ch am , P e r s p e c t i v a c o m m u n i s , e s p e c i a l l y
1 8 9- 2 0 7 and 2 29 -2 3 1. P e c h a m also w r o t e on o p t i c s in
the T r a c t a t u s de P e r s p e c t i v a , an e a r l i e r w o r k p o s s i b l y
d a t i n g f r o m 1 27 5- 1 27 7 . See J oh n P ec ha m, T r a c t a t u s de
P e r s p e c t i v a , ed. and trans. D av i d C. L i n d b e r g (St.
B o n a v e n t u r e , N. Y.: T h e F r a n c i s c a n I n st i t u t e , 1972).
3 l? Se e C r o m bi e , G r o s s e t e s t e , 2 18 - 2 19 .
3 1 8 Ibid.
3 1 9 G u i l l a u m e s t a r t e d the R o m a n a bo u t 1237, and died

s o o n a f t e r b e g i n n i n g it. J e a n de M e u n r e s u m e d the p o em
a b o u t 1277 a nd c o m p l e t e d it. A ls o see above, 9 5 - 9 6 and
14 9- 15 3 , on the R o m a n de la R o s e . In a r e c e n t study,
P a t r i c i a E b e r l e c l o s e l y a n a l y z e d the p o e m ’s s t r u c t u r e and
m e a n i n g , in the l ig h t of J e a n de M e u n ' s use of o p t i c a l
m o t i f s and s c i e n t i f i c d i s c o u r s e . She p r o p o s e d t h a t o p t ic s
p r o v i d e s a k e y to the u n d e r l y i n g s t r u c t u r e of the R o m a n ,
a w o r k that w as c a l l e d by J e a n de Meu n, Le M i r o u e r aus
A m o u r e u s rT h e L ov ers' G l a s s ! . She p o i n t e d out t ha t the
p o e m d oe s not f o l l o w a t r a d i t i o n a l p l a n of c o h c c i v e and
c o h e r e n t d e v e l o p m e n t , but, rather, d i g r e s s e s f r e q u e n t l y —
a p o i n t of c r i t i c i s m by s om e of J e a n ’s c ri t i c s. Eberle
f o u n d an a n a l o g u e for the p o e m' s m u l t i f a c e t e d , d i g r e s s i v e ,
s t r u c t u r e in the m u l t i p l e p e r s p e c t i v e s to be seen in a
v a r i e t y of m i r r o r s and ot h er o p t i c a l d ev ic e s. Thus,
J e a n ' s p o em can be v i e w e d as a s e r i e s of r e f l e c t i o n s that
e x p l o r e s the m u l t i f a r i o u s n a t ur e of love. S ee E be rl e,
" Th e L o v e r s' Glass: N a t u r e ' s D i s c o u r s e on O p t i c s and the
O p t i c a l D e s i g n of the R o m a n c e of the R o s e ." in U n i v e r s i t y
of T o r o n t o Q u a r t e r l y 46 ( 1 9 7 6 -1 9 77 ) : 2 41 - 26 2.
3 2 0 g ee above, 9 5 - 9 6 and 149-153, on the s y m b o l i c

use of the m i r r o r in the R o m a n .
3 3 ^R o m a n c e of the R o s e . 361-2.
3 2 2 I b i d ., 383.
3 2 3 Ibid. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e s
of J e a n ' s p a s s a g e s on m ir r o r s, and on o p t i cs in g en eral,
229
323(continued)
has b ee n the s u bj e c t of some study. A l t h o u g h he m e n t i o n s
1 A l h a z e n in the poem, L y n n T h o r n d i k e d e t e c t e d the m o r e i
d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e of G r o s s e t e s t e ' s De i ri d e et s p e c u l o on
j J e a n ' s d i s q u i s i t i o n on m i r r o r s (and on r a i n b o w s ) . See
i T h o r n d i k e , A H i s t o r y of M a g i c , vol. 2, 442. F el i x Leco y, \
w h o e d i t e d a new e d i t i o n of the R o m a n , t h i n k s it l i ke l y
t ha t J e a n de M e u n b e c a m e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h A l h a z e n ' s w o rk
t h r o u g h the s c i e n t i f i c w r i t i n g s of e i t h e r J o h n P e c h a m (ca. !
i 1 2 3 0 - 1 2 9 2 ) or W i t e l o ( f 1. 1 2 5 0 - 1 2 7 5 ) . See G u i l l a u m e de
I L o r r i s et J ea n de Meun, Le R o m a n de la R o s e , ed. F e l i x
! L e c o y (Paris: L i b r a i r i e H o n o r e C h a m p i o n , 1 9 65 -7 0 ) , vol.
j 3, 172. E b e r l e d i s c u s s e s this q u e s t i o n in "The L ov ers'
I G l a s s , " 248-250.
I 3 2 4 R o m a n c e 0f t fre R o s e < 386 . J
I 3251]}^^., 3 8 6 - 7 . E b e r l e has n o t e d t h at J e a n ' s |

| d i s c o u r s e f o ll o w s S e n e c a ' s d i s c u s s i o n of o p t i c s in his
! N a t u r a l e s q u a e s t i o n e s . "De i g n i b u s in a er e " (Book I), and !
I e c h o e s h is i m p r e c a t i o n s and m i s t r u s t of m i r r o r s . See j
E be r le , " Th e Love rs ' G l a s s , " 2 56 -2 5 9. j
I
3 2 6 R o m a n c e 0f t h e R o s e , 3 8 4 . C o m m e n t a r y on the j
u s e of t h i s e x a m p l e and its r e l a t i o n s h i p to the t h e m e and

m u l t i f a c e t e d s t r u c t u r e of the p o e m l ie s b e y o n d the s c o pe
of t hi s t he sis. See Eber le , " Th e L ov e r s' G l a s s , " 2 5 7 -
260.
3 2 7 g ee above, 85ff.
328cf. Romance of the R o s e , 361.
329jn the C o n v i v i o II, xiv, l in e s 70-79, Dante

says:
. . .if the moon be r i g h t l y e x a m i n e d two s p ec i a l

t h i n g s are p e r c e i v e d in h e r w h i c h are not
p e r c e i v e d in the o t h e r stars; the one is
the s h a d o w upon her w h i c h is n o u g h t e ls e
th an the r a r i t y of her s u b s t a n c e , w h e r e o n
the r ay s of the sun may not be s t a y e d and
t h r o w n back, as f r o m her o t h e r parts;
the o t h e r is the v a r i a t i o n of her
l u m i n o s i t y , w h i c h n o w s h i n e s f r o m the
one side and n ow from the other,
a c c o r d i n g as the sun lo o ks up on her. I
Singleton has no te d that this follows the opinion of

1 1
230
| 3 2 9 ( c o n t i nu ed )
A v e r r o e s and a ls o A l b e r t u s M ag n u s, w h i c h they said w as j
ultimately derived from Aristotle. For f u r t h e r d i s c u s
sion, see S i n g l e t o n ' s c o m m e n t a r i e s in his t r a n s l a t i o n of
D a n t e A l i g h i e r i P a r a d i s o , vol. 3, pt. 2, 49. A l so see
' P a g e t T o y n b e e , D a n t e S t u d i e s and R e s e a r c h e s (London,
I 1902). See B. Nar di , S a g gi di f i l o s o f i a d a n t e s c a (Milan,
I 1930), 3-39, for the h i s t o r y of the v i e w e x p r e s s e d a b o v e
! in the C o n v i v i o and the P a r a d i s o .
i !
| 330paradjso t Canto II, li n e s 59-61. j

! '
3 3 1 s ee S i n g l e t o n ' s c o m m e n t a r i e s in D a n t e A l i g h i e r i ■
j P a r a d i s o , vol. 3. pt. 2, 46. For s om e of B e a t r i c e ' s !
a r g u m e n t s of r e f u t a t i o n , S i n g l e t o n r e f e r s to A l b e r t u s j
M a g n u s De c a e l o et m u n d o II, T r . i i a nd iii. j
j 3 32p a r a d i s o , Canto II, lines 9 7- 10 6 . |
333ibid., lines 1 3 9-148. j

3 3 4 s ee S i n g l e t o n ' s c o m m e n t a r y on this p a s s a g e in j
Dante A l i g h i e r i P a r a d i s o . vol. 3, pt. 2, 62-63. !
3 3 5 T h is w o r k f a l l s o u t s i d e the p e r io d c o v e r e d by j
this d i s s e r t a t i o n , and is p r e s e n t e d h e r e for r e f e r e n c e .
3 3 6 j s i,jore 0 f S e v i l l e E t y m o l o g i s e XVI, xvi, 3.

S p e a k i n g a b o u t glass, I s i d o r e said " n e q u e est alia
speculis aptior materia."
3 3 7 ,i,}1o r n d i k e h a s n o t e d that N e c k a m w r o t e a b o u t
g la s s m i r r o r s in b o th De n a t u r i s r e r u m and in De
u t e n s i l i b u s . S ee T h o r n d i k e , A H i s t o r y of M a g i c , vol. 2,
190.
3 3 8 " g u b t r a h e p l u m b u m s u p p o s i t u m vitr o, j a m nu l la
r e s u l t a b i t i m a g o i n s p i c i e n t i s ." Q u o t e d in U r b a n T.
H o l m e s , Jr., D a i l y L i v i n g in the T w e l f t h C e n t u r y (M adison:
U n i v e r s i t y of W i s c o n s i n Press, 1952), 144. See [ A l e x a n d e r
N e c k a m ] A l e x a n d r i N e c k a m De n a t u r i s r e r u m . . . w i t h the
p oe m of the s a m e a u t h o r, De l a u d i b u s d i v i n a e s a p i e n t i a e ,
ed. T h o m a s W r i g h t ( Lo ndon: R o l l s S e ri e s, 1963), 239.
3 3 9 g e e H a r t l a u b , Z a u b e r des S p i e g e l s , 42-4 3 , and

159; and G ra b es , T he M u t a b l e G l a s s , 73. T he p r o d u c t i o n of
g l a s s w a s a l s o w e l l u n d e r way by the t h i r t e e n t h ce nt ur y,
w i t h the f o u n d i n g of the M u r a n o g l a s s w o r k s in V e ni ce , and
by 1300, pure c o l o r l e s s gl as s w as b e i n g m a n u f a c t u r e d
231
there. By 1373, N u r n b e r g had a g l a s s m a k e r s guild. For
f u r t h e r d is cu ss io n , see L ew is Mumf o rd , T e c h n i c s and
C i v i l i z a t i o n (New Y or k and London: Harcourt Brace
J o v a n o v i c h , H a r v e s t / H B J Books, 1963), 124ff.
i
I
232
CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSION
T he m i r r o r that e n t e r e d the C h r i s t i a n era f r o m paganj

i
antiquity w a s an o bj e c t of m u l t i v a l e n t , and sometimes
a m b i v a l en t , meanings and s y m b o l i c uses. Many of its

I I
a nc i e n t significations were re-cast in C h r i s t i a n imag er y. ]
| i
j New m e a n i n g s wer e added, as the m i r r o r w as transformed and
reinterpreted by t h e o l o g i a n s and artists to r e f l e c t the
id ea l s or n ee d s of the new r e li gion.
F r o m a n ti q u i t y , the new era i n h e r i t e d a picture of
the u n i v e r s e that was a v is i on of m i r r o rs , a s e ri e s of
reflecting w or ld s , and the n o t i o n that the m i r r o r wa s a

I
m e d i u m in w h i c h d i v i n i t y w a s or c o u ld be p re se n t. An
i m a g e of m a c r o c o s m and m i c r o c o s m s e rv e d as a m e t a p h o r of
central importance for the C h r i s t i a n w o rl d. F r o m P a ul ' s
Corinthian mirror verses, and fr o m N e o - P l a t o n i c and E a r ly
Christian t ex t s to the la ter w r i t i n g s of A l a n of Lille,
Bonaventure, and T h o m a s Aquinas, the a n a l o g u e of m i rr o r
and u n i v e rs e , of m i r r o r and Deity, was a f f ir m ed .

|
Representations of this c os m i c m i r r o r f ir st a p pe a r j
I
in the t w e l f t h centu ry . At the same time, the c e l e s t i a l j
g l a s s a ls o becomes an a t t r i b u t e for the a l l e g o r i c a l j
233
j f i g u r e s of H u m i l i t a s and C a s t i t a s . V i r t u e s who a re mirrors!

i i
of d i vi ni t y . O n ly isolated examples of t h e s e symbolic
mirrors have s ur vived, but t he s e i m ag es appear to r e f l e c t !
a mo re g e ne r al use of the m e t a p h o r i c a l mir ro r, an e x e m
p l a ry g la ss that signifies the cosmos, the Deity, and
! ho l y virtue. T hi s m i r r o r is one in w h i c h divine visions
| appear, as in a n t i q u it y .
| At the same time, the m i r r o r is v i e w e d as an j

I I
i i n s t r u m e n t of d e c e p t i o n and sin in the h a nd s of Sir en s. i
|
These mermaid-like creatures, descendants of the b i rd -
figures of a n t i q u i t y who w e r e als o associated with mir
rors, w e re c a u t i o n a r y images of t e m p t a t i o n and sin. Their
reputation in the M i d d l e Ages r iv a l e d that of V en us , the
ancient g o d de s s of love, f er t il it y , and b eauty, whose
familiar attribute f ro m a n t i q u i t y was als o a m i r r or .
Venus, despised by the Church, is h e r s e l f rarely depicted
in e a rl y m e d i e v a l art, and s t il l mor e r a re l y w i t h a look
ing glass. T he i ma ge of the g o d d e s s on the c e l e b r a t e d
Projecta Casket, a surviving example fro m the fourth
century A.D., w o u ld se e m to b elie the c o n d e m n a t i o n s of
theologians of the P a t r i s t i c Age such as C l e m e n t of
Alexandria (d. 216). Here, the a n c i e n t goddess with her
mirror is r e p r e s e n t e d on a w o rk in w h i c h C h r i s t i a n and
p a ga n elements c o m m in gl e , and the c l a s s i c a l goddess
is i n v ok e d as a p o s i t i v e s ym bo l of love on a box
234
commemorating a Christian marriage. This more positive
! image is e c h o e d in d e p i c t i o n s of courtly lov e and toilette j

I
scenes tha t l at e r decorate mirror b o xes and h a n d m i r r o r s .
Th e medieval siren and the im age of the a n c i e n t love :
d e it y w o u l d appear to be i n e x t r i c a b l y linked, with the
| mirror of the d e c e i t f u l s i r en recalling the w a n t o n reputa- '
tion of the a n c i e n t Venus. The message of this w o r l d l y i
I
looking glass is t h a t the temporal pleasures represented |
( !
I by the s i r en are as transitory as are the fleeting reflec- I
i |
t ions in her mir ro r. Earthly delights d ec ei ve , promising i
lasting joy; but the y are as t r a n s i e n t and m i s l e a d i n g as
the m i r r o r image, which promises permanence and t r u t h and
delivers only i l l u s i o n and l a ck of s u b s t a n ce .
T he m i r r o r as a d ev i c e of t r i c k e r y is a l s o seen in
bestiaries, in r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of a n i m a l s b e in g fooled by
the reflection's apparent r ea l it y . This subject is seen
for the f i rs t time in m e d i e v a l art.
Both c a u t i o n a r y and exemplary mirrors continue in
the t h i r t e e n t h and fourteenth centuries with many new
i m a ge t y p es added. Mirrors of w i s d o m and k n o w l e d g e are
3een, as f irs t a t h i r t e e n t h century allegorical f i g u r e of
Sapientia is a s s o c i a t e d w it h a looking glass, and the n in
the e a r ly fourteenth century Prudentia acquires a mirror
attribute in G i o t t o ' s depiction of the V i r t u e in the A r e n a
Cha pe l. A c os mi c m i rr o r of f ai t h is a n e w a t t r i b u t e for
235
I i
j the a l l e g o r i c a l f i g u r e of F i d e s , in A m b r o g i o Lorenzetti's j
I
Massa Marittima M a e s t a « The m i r r o r tha t m e a n s p urity, j
f ir s t used in H i l d e g a r d ' s t we l f t h c e n t u r y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
!
j of C a s t i t a s .a c q u i r e s a n ew s i g n i f i c a n c e in the fourteenth S
i :
] c en t u r y w h e n it a p p e a r s in d e p i c t i o n s of the V i r g i n and
j a unic or n. Though long an a t t r i b u t e for the V i r g i n Mary i

i :
in m e d i e v a l devotional literature (deriving f ro m the
Biblical text, Wisdom 7 :26), these fourteenth century !

i
!
im a ge s of a m a i d e n w h o s e identity is a s s o c i a t e d with the !
V i rg i n a re the first of this type. !
But it is t h e cautionary mirror t ha t proliferates in j

!
the t h i r t e e n t h century, with s t i ll m o r e additions in the j

I
fourteenth c e n t ur y . In the thirteenth century, the m i r r o r
of e a r t h l y sin is s e e n as a n ew a t t r i b u t e for the a l l e g o r
ical figures of L u x u r i a . V a n i t a s (as w e l l as for V a n i t a s -
Luxuria conflations), and for t h e G r e a t W h o r e of the
A p o c a l yp s e. In the h a n d s of t h e s e u n i v e r s a l figures
of vice, the m i r r o r of t h e s i nf u l temptor-sirens —
u l ti m at e l y, the m i r r o r of V e n u s — assumes a larger role
in C h r i s t i a n iconography. Images of L u x u r i a and the G r e at
W h o r e of the A p o c a l y p s e a re numerous and t he looking g la s s
is a p r i n c i p a l attribute of bot h f i g u r e s by the m i d d l e of
the t h i r t e e n t h century. By the end of t he century, the
m i rr o r of V a n i t a s is clearly established. Ind ee d, Venus j
h e rs e lf r e t u r n s as the planetary goddess in the d e c a d e s j
236
following the B l a c k D e a t h of 1348, the t e r m i n u s of this
s t u d y .1
V a r i a t i o n s on t h es e m i r r o r s are seen in the
fourteenth century: O i s e u s e , a Venus-surrogate f i g u r e in
the R o m an de la R o s e , l a n g o r o u s l y consults her mir ro r .
V an a G l o r i a g azes fixedly into a m i rr o r in A m b r o g i o
Lorenzetti's Allegory of Bad G o v e r n m e n t in Siena, as does
Corporale B e l l e z z a . in a s i n g u la r representation attrib
uted to the M a s t e r of the D o m i n i c a n E f fi gies.
T he m i r r o r of V e n u s has found many a p p l i c a t i o n s and
facets of m e a n i n g in t he s e c en t u r i e s : In the h a nd s of the
sirens, seemingly fanciful temptresses on the p e r i p h e r y of
Christian iconography, the m i r r o r s o un de d a s er io us , but
subtle, w a r n in g. W i t h L u x u r i a and the G r e at W h o r e of the
A p o c a l y ps e , the m i r r o r a p p e a r s as a s t r o n g l y persuasive
sign of a d m o n i ti o n, s y m b o l i c of the dire fat e that f o l l o w s
its use. The t h i r t e e n t h century cautionary mirror at its
m os t a w f u l is seen f ir st in the d e c a d e s w h e n fear of the
imminent c a t a c l y s m of A p o c a l y p s e was at its fervent
apogee.
I have n o t ed an i n c r e a s e in s y m b o l i c mirror types,
especially c a u t i o n ar y , b eg i n n i n g in the m i d d l e of the
t h i r t e e n t h c en tu ry . S e v er a l f ac to r s may hav e contributed
to w i d e r use of the looking g lass as an a t t r i b u t e at this
time, and its c o n t i n u e d expansion in the f o u r t e e n t h
237
| c e nt ur y.
!
! First, the m i r r o r i ts e l f w as an increasingly
| familiar object of d a i l y use by the thirteenth century.

!
! Mirrors of glass, only recently available in m e d i e v a l

I
! Eur op e, ar e seen a l o n g s i d e the m e t a l l i c m i r r o r s . The
j superior reflecting quality of the l o o k i n g g la ss mus t
certainly ha ve a c c e l e r a t e d d em a n d for t h e se n ov e lt ie s , and
spurred improved mirror-making. At the s am e time, m e t al
m i r r o r s we re in use by an e v e r - w i d e n i n g segment of the

l
j population. Thus, the mir ro r, whether of m e ta l or glass,
m us t ha ve been an o b j e c t of g r o w i n g p u b l ic c o m me n t and
use.
It was al so an o b j e ct mi su s e d , as l a t e r satirized
by B o c c a c c i o in the C o r b a c c i o , a w o r k that describes an
encounter w it h an e x t r e m e l y va in w i d o w who p re en e d herself
b e fo r e a m i r r o r perhaps f i f ty t imes a day, almost u na b l e
to " te ar h e r s e l f a w a y ," delighting in her bedecked i mage
reflected fro m e v er y a n g l e . 2
T he t w e l f t h and thirteenth c e n t u r i e s ’ r e v iv a l of
ancient literary references to the m i r r o r may als o have
contributed to its i n c r e a s e d p r e s e n c e as a s y m b o l i c
object. For i n st an ce , the a n t i q u e t a le of N a r c i s s u s w as
g i ve n a n ew t e l li ng in a t w e l f t h century anonymous poem,
N a r c i s u s , wit h the s t or y a g ai n recalled in the R o m an de la
Rose fr om the late thirteenth c e n tu r y. The possibility
238
exists, too, that some a n c i e n t mi rr o rs , decorated w i th
symbolic image ry , were known or r e c o v e r e d in the same
period. References to th ei r e x i s t e n c e are few, perhaps
because some of the se early o b j e c t s m ay h a v e b e en used in
occult, and therefore proscribed, practices.3
T he greater visibility of the m i r r o r as an o b j e c t
us ed in d a i ly life, as a s u bj e c t for scientific study, and
as a c e n t r a l i ma g e in the m e t a p h y s i c s of light, with the
added f a c to r of the i n c i p i e n t r e vi v a l of a n c i e n t literary
references to r e f l e c t i o n , may all have contributed to in
creased n u m be r and t yp e of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the symbolic
mirror. Th e preponderance of c a u t i o n a r y m i r r o r s in the
thirteenth and fourteenth century m ay be r e l a t e d as we ll
to p e r c e p t i o n s of its increased use and m is u s e .
In a t i m e w h e n A p o c a l y p s e w as believed to be at
hand, the e a r t h l y m ir ro r, with its fleeting and insub
stantial r e f l e c t io n , appears as an apt analogue for the
transitoriness of life, an i n e s c a p a b l e fact f r es h l y per
c ei ve d in the u r g e nt m o me n t . On B i b l i c a l a u t h o r i t y , as in
the oft-cited v er s e from Isaiah (3:23), the m i r r o r was
associated with wanton and v ai n b e h a v i or , a reputation
confirmed by the w i d e n i n g use of m i r r o r s in the period.
Beginning in the thirteenth c en t u r y , with the
availability of o p t i c a l treatises from ancient authorities
and m e d i e v a l Arabic co mmentators, the n a t u r e of r e f l e c t i o n
239
increasingly be ca m e an o b j e c t for scientific investiga
tion and c o m m e n t a r y by W e s t e r n n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h e r s .
1
| C a t o p t r i c a l lore was i n c o r p o r a t e d in l i t e r a t u re , i n c l u d i n g
i
! two of the g r e a t e st p o e ms of the period, the R o m a n de la
!
! R o s e and T h e D i v i n e C o m e d y . As I have shown, the

i
scholarly study of m i r r o r s — part of the s c i e n c e of
optics — was u n d e r t a k e n at f i rst in the C h r i s t i a n Middle
Ages as a m a t t e r of t h e o l o g y. Fo r natural philosophers
s u c h as R ob e rt Grosseteste, an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of o p t i c s
could u n l o c k the m y s t e r i e s of nat u re . T h e m i rr o r of
science and the s c i e n c e of mi r ro r s , derived f ro m and
motivated by t h e o l o g i c a l aims, added to the l u s t r o u s
vision of a central, celestial mirror, a c o sm i c core of
perfection.
The "truth" of the r e f l e c t e d image, presumably
improved by the use of g l a s s for m i r r o r s and a d v a n c e s in
technology, was u n d e r s c o r e d by its new application in
representations of S a p i e n t i a , P r u d e n t i a . and F i d e s .
The mirror of the M i d d l e A g e s is f ir st represented
in art as the site of c e l e s t i a l v is i o ns , reflecting both
Biblical t ex t s (e.g., Paul's mirror verses in the e p i s t l e s
to the C o r i n t h i a n s ) and the a n c i e n t pagan use s of the
mirror. By the thirteenth c en t u ry , the s y m b o l i c looking
glass is i n c r e a s i n g l y introspective, returning to the
ancient t heme of the m i r r o r as a m e a n s to s e l f - k n o w l e d g e .
240
! As an a t t r i b u t e for L u x u r i a a nd the G r e a t Whore,
I for i n s ta n c e, the mir ro r , symbolizing a sinful preoccupa-
| tion w i t h w o r l d l y pleasures and their inevitable d i re
! consequences, admonishes the faithful beholder to a b a n d o n

I
! ephemeral earthly d e li g h t s , urging introspection and a
turning t o wa r d virtuous b e h av i o r . It is L u x u r i a * s
inability to "see" h e r i n ne r corruption tha t turns the
focus of the m i r r o r t o wa r d the v i e we r, giving the i mage
its powerful cautionary message for self-examination. The
reflecting pool of N a r c i s s u s , revived in the literature of
the t w e l f t h and thirteenth centuries and in the ar t of the
fourteenth, underscores the emergence of a m i r r o r of s elf-
k n o w l e d g e .^
T he use s of a m i r r o r in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h Sapientia
in a t h i r t e e n t h century Bible m o r a l i s e e , an d then-with
P r u d e n t i a . f i rs t see n in G i o t t o ' s ca. 1305 r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
of the V i r t u e in the A r e na C h a p el , ar e a l s o introspec
tive. ^ Moreover, these mirrors are concerned with
interior knowledge, signifying th at prudence is e x e r c i s e d
through reflection on the e x p e r i e n c e of the past and an
understanding of the p r e s e n t, applying it to w i s e action
in the future.
By the time of the d e v a s t a t i n g Black Death of 1348,
the principal meanings of the symbolic mirror ha ve been
established for the art of the R e n a i s s a n c e . In the next
241
centuries, exemplary mirrors of p e r f e c t i o n , knowledge, and
w i s d om , and cautionary mirrors of i m p e r f e c t i o n , de l u si on ,
and sin m u l t i p l y both in n u mb e r and type. In all, the
looking g lass resonates with its a n c i e n t significations
and its n ew and r e n e w e d m e d i e v a l uses, amplified or mor e
narrowly focused. For e x e m p l a r y and cautionary mirrors
alike, the r e f l e c t i n g glass remains a medium for k n o w l
edge, either of e x t e r n a l appearance or of intangible
v isio ns , retaining more or less a s e m b l a n c e of its a n c i e n t
mantic uses for s e e i ng heavenly t r u t h or b e i n g in its
p re s ence, for s e r v i n g as a m e d i u m in w h i c h the d e i t y is a
witness or t h r o u g h w h i c h d i v i n i t y m ay be e n c o u n t e r e d , for
perceiving the future, and for o b t a i n i n g inner knowledge,
but transformed by the t h e o l o g i c a l interpretations of the
C h r i s t i a n M i d d l e Ages.
242
j Notes
; ^For instance, V e n u s a p p e a r s in A n dr e a di
F i r e n z e ! s fresco* tfie A o o t h e o s i s of St.* Tfiomes A o u i n 3 s . in
| the S p a n i s h Chapel. St. M a r i a Novella, Fl or en ce . See j
| above, C h a p t e r III, n. 204.
i
j 2 G i o v a n n i B o c c a c c i o The C o r b a c c i o , ed. and trans.
I A n t ho n y K. C a ss el l (Urbana, I ll i nois: U n i v e r s i t y of
! I l l i n o i s Press, 1975), 44. T he re was m o u n t i n g f e el i ng in
j F l o r e n c e a g a i n s t the e x t r a v a g a n c e of w o m e n ' s finery,
I e x p r e s s e d in synodal laws on c l o t h in g e na c te d in 1310 and
! a g a i n in 1330, and c u l m i n a t i n g in the s u m p t u a r y s t a t u te s
! of 1355 and 1356, w h i c h c o n d e m n e d the l u x u r i o u s n e s s of the
dr ess of F l o r e n t i n e women. For a d i s c u s s i o n of this
s er i e s of laws, and a t r a n s l a t i o n of the 1355 and 1356
o r di n an c e s, see C a s s e l l ' s e d i ti o n of The C o r b a c c i o , xii-
xiii, and 153-164.
■^See above, Chapter III, 128-129, and ns. 182-

186.
^ J e a n F r a p p i e r n oted two p r i n c i p a l t h em e s in
the p o e t ic use of the m i r r o r m e t a p h o r in the t w e lf t h
t h r o u g h the f o u r t e e n t h c e nt u ri es : first, the m i r r o r h i nts
of love -- a r e f l e c t i o n of the loved one is found in the
l o ve r 's heart; and s ec ondly, the m i r r o r is used to speak
of i n t r o s p e c t i o n . See F ra pp i e r, " V a r i a t i o n s sur le t heme
du m i r o i r , " 138.
5 H ar t la ub , in Z a u b e r des S p i e g e l s , 163, first

noted the i n t r o s p e c t i v i t y of G i o t t o ' s P r u d e n t i a , and dated
this a s pe c t of m i r r o r s fro m that image. I b e li e ve that
the m e d i e v a l i n t r o s p e c t i v e m i r r o r is seen still earlier,
n o t a b l y in the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a f i g ur e r e l at e d to
S a p i e n t i a in a m i d - t h i r t e e n t h c e nt u ry B i b l e m o r a l i s e e
(Paris, B i b l i o t h e q u e N a t i o n a l e lat. 11560, fol. 59v0)
d i s c u s s e d above, 102-114.
243
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INFORMATION TO USERS

The most advanced technology has been used to photo­

Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are re­

Photographs included in the original manuscript have been

300 North Z ee b Road. Ann Arbor. Ml 48106-1346 USA

Transformations in the iconography of the mirror in medieval

Hancock, Pauola M., Ph.D.

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Adviser: John Howett

A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School

Graduate Institute of Liberal Arts

Approved for the D e p a r t m e n t :

The a u t h o r of this d i s s e r t a t i o n is:

The d i r e c t o r of this dissertation is:

N a m e of u s e r Address Date T y p e of use

Adviser: John Howett

m ir r o r in the art of the M i d d l e Ages. An o b j e c t of !

mirror symbolized perfection and imperfection, eternity

and e v a n es c en c e , v ir tu e and vice, o f t en simultaneously,

Biblical figures. This s tudy discusses n e w s u bj e c t matter

lor the mirror, as seen in p r o t o t y p i c a l images, and ;

considers possible sourc e s, whether in e a r l i e r art or in j

I, the s e co n d chapter surveys the m i r r o r as a s y m b ol in

ancient art and c h a r t s its m a j o r u se s in the Ne ar E a s t and

Egypt, and in G reece, E t ru ri a, and Rome, through the late

classical period. Chapter III f o c u s e s on the s y m b o l i c

mirror in the M i d d l e Ag e s and its t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s as

classical i ma g e r y was s y n c r e t i z e d w i t h C h r i s t i a n , and n e w

i mage types acquired the a t t r i b u t e of the l o o k i n g glass.

First, s y m b o li c m i r r o r s of p e r f e c ti o n, truth, and v i r t u e

are considered in i ma g es of v i s i o n s of God, of angels,

h o l y figu re s, and V i r t u e s such as P r u d e n t i a and Fides.

Representations of L u x u r i a and the G r e a t Whore of the

A p o c a l y p s e with the a t t r i b u t e of a m i rr or , are d is c u s s e d,

vice. The m i r r o r as an o bj ec t of scientific study is als o

■ in d aily life. Chapter IV s u m m a r i z e s the m i r r o r ' s ma n y !

; t yp es is noted, especially t hose of a cautionary nature, ;

the principal meanings of the s y m b o l i c mirror hav e been j

established for the art of the R e n a i s s a n c e . j

i CHAPTER II: THE SYMBOLIC MIRROR

CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSION ................................. 232

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................... 243

I A l o ng the way to and through this d i s s e r t a t i o n , in

| my t r a ve ls and at home, many individuals generously gave

I me advice, a s s i s t a nc e , and time, and I would like to

i r e c o rd my t ha n ks to the m here. A b o v e all, I am i n d e b te d

j to my advise r, J o h n How et t, for his i n s p i r e d coun s e l, his

| i l l u m i n a t i n g c o m m e n t a r i e s and c r i t i ci s m , and his c o n s t a n t

who read the m a n u s c r i p t at s e ver al s ta g e s and m a d e

Special t h an k s go to the s t a f f s of the E m o ry

University Libra ry , the I n d ex of C h r i s t i a n Art at

The most advanced technology has been used to photo

Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are re

moon no less a m ir r or , with reflected images to be d i s

the m i rr o r has been v ie we d as a m e an s to truth, to k n o w l

c ould be of e x t e r n a l appearances but also of inner v e r i

on its handle, back, or stand. In a dd i t io n, representa

passed into the n e w art and thoug h t . Its s ym b ol i c mes