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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION

This chapter does a review on relevant literature from articles, journals, books and

publications on financial literacy among senior high students. This chapter also forms

the theoretical and empirical basis upon which the study is conducted. The chapter

therefore considers the academic theories and the various views expressed by scholars

on the topic.

Language

Language definition varies across the world. According to scholars, it is the method of

human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a


structured and conventional way or the system of communication used by a particular

community or country.

a system of conventional spoken, manual, or written symbols by means of which human

beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture, express

themselves. The functions of language include communication, the expression of

identity, play, imaginative expression, and emotional release. (Crystal and Robins,

2013)

Second Language Acquisition

There are many languages spoken in the world. According to Bright Hub Education, the

first language learned by a baby is his or her mother tongue. It is the language, which

he or she listens to from his or her birth. Any other language learned or acquired is

known as the second language.

The definition of second language acquisition and learning is learning and acquisition of

a second language once the mother tongue or first language acquisition is established.

Second language acquisition or SLA is the process of learning other languages in

addition to the native language. For instance, a child who speaks Hindi as the mother

tongue starts learning English when he starts going to school. English is learned by the

process of second language acquisition. In fact, a young child can learn a second

language faster than an adult can learn the same language.


Though most scholars use the terms “language learning" and “language acquisition"

interchangeably, actually these terms differ. Base from the same source, language

learning refers to the formal learning of a language in the classroom. On the other hand,

language acquisition means acquiring the language with little or no formal training or

learning.

If you go to a foreign land where people speak a different language from your native

language, you need to acquire that foreign language. It can be done with little formal

learning of the language through your every day interaction with the native peoples in

the market place, work place, parks or anywhere else. This is true for learning spoken

language. (Bright Hub Education, 2010)

Linguistic Competence

The term linguistic competence refers to the unconscious knowledge of grammar that

allows a speaker to use and understand a language. Also known as grammatical

competence or I-language. As used by Noam Chomsky and other linguists, linguistic

competence is not an evaluative term. Rather, it refers to the innate linguistic knowledge

that allows a person to match sounds and meanings. In Aspects of the Theory of Syntax

(1965), Chomsky wrote, "We thus make a fundamental distinction between competence

(the speaker-hearer's knowledge of his language) and performance (the actual use of

language in concrete situations)." (Norduquist, 2017)


Others agree that it constitutes knowledge of language, but that knowledge is tacit,

implicit. This means that people do not have conscious access to the principles and rules

that govern the combination of sounds, words, and sentences; however, they do

recognize when those rules and principles have been violated. . . . For example, when a

person judges that the sentence John said that Jane helped himself is ungrammatical, it

is because the person has tacit knowledge of the grammatical principle that reflexive

pronouns must refer to an NP in the same clause." (Eva M. Fernandez and Helen Smith

Cairns, Fundamentals of Psycholinguistics. Wiley-Blackwell, 2011)

In [Noam] Chomsky's theory, our linguistic competence is our unconscious knowledge

of languages and is similar in some ways to [Ferdinand de] Saussure's concept of

langue, the organizing principles of a language. What we actually produce as utterances

is similar to Saussure's parole, and is called linguistic performance. The difference

between linguistic competence and linguistic performance can be illustrated by slips of

the tongue, such as 'noble tons of soil' for 'noble sons of toil.' Uttering such a slip doesn't

mean that we don't know English but rather that we've simply made a mistake because

we were tired, distracted, or whatever. Such 'errors' also aren't evidence that you are

(assuming you are a native speaker) a poor English speaker or that you don't know

English as well as someone else does. It means that linguistic performance is different

from linguistic competence. When we say that someone is a better speaker than

someone else (Martin Luther King, Jr., for example, was a terrific orator, much better

than you might be), these judgements tell us about performance, not competence.
Native speakers of a language, whether they are famous public speakers or not, don't

know the language any better than any other speaker in terms of linguistic competence.

(Kristin Denham and Anne Lobeck, Linguistics for Everyone. Wadsworth, 2010)

Two language users may have the same 'program' for carrying out specific tasks of

production and recognition, but differ in their ability to apply it because of exogenous

differences (such as short-term memory capacity). The two are accordingly equally

language-competent but not necessarily equally adept at making use of their

competence.

The linguistic competence of a human being should accordingly be identified with that

individual's internalized 'program' for production and recognition. While many linguists

would identify the study of this program with the study of performance rather than

competence, it should be clear that this identification is mistaken since we have

deliberately abstracted away from any consideration of what happens when a language

user actually attempts to put the program to use. A major goal of the psychology of

language is to construct a viable hypothesis as to the structure of this program. (Michael

B. Kac, Grammars and Grammaticality. John Benjamins, 1992)

An individual’s competence is defined by the grammar, or set of rules, that is represented

mentally and manifested by their understanding of acceptable usage in a given linguistic idiom.

Grammatical competence thus defines an innate knowledge of rules rather than knowledge of

items or relations. It is said to be innate because one apparently does not have to be trained to

acquire it and it can be applied to an unlimited number of previously unheard examples. The

two phrases I speak acceptable Chinese and I speak Chinese acceptably would be regarded as
acceptable by any native English speaker, but I speak acceptably Chinese would probably not.

Despite this, the more complex form, I speak quite acceptably Cantonese and some other

Chinese dialects as well as Japanese, might be regarded as alright. Examples like these are

thought to provide evidence of a deep structure of grammar, in other words, a linguistic

competence. (Hyme, 2013)

Hyme’s notion of communicative competence consists of four competences: linguistic,

sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic. Linguistic competence refers to the knowledge

of grammar and vocabulary. Traditionally, English language teaching focused on

mechanical grammar drills. This focus is influenced by the idea that grammar and

vocabulary are the basic building blocks of a language. Other aspects of

communication, such as culture and interpersonal relationships were neglected in this

traditional model.

For most teachers and researchers, there is no question about the importance of

grammar instruction. The question is whether this should be taught explicitly, or whether

learners will absorb grammatical rules as they meet them in their exposure to English.

Bilingualism

Bilingualism is commonly defined as the use of at least two languages

by an individual (ASHA, 2009). It is a fluctuating system in children and

adults whereby use of and proficiency in two languages may change


depending on the opportunities to use the languages and exposure to

other users of the languages. It is a dynamic and fluid process across

a number of domains, including experience, tasks, topics, and time.

Simultaneous bilingualism occurs when a young child has had

significant and meaningful exposure to two languages from birth.

Ideally, the child will have equal, quality experiences with both

languages.

Sequential bilingualism occurs when an individual has had significant

and meaningful exposure to a second language, usually after the age

of 3 and after the first language is well established. These second

language learners are referred to as "English language learners" in

U.S. schools.

The "bilingual" experience is unique to every individual. There is

variability in the amount and quality of exposure to the languages the

individual learns, as well as the experiences he or she has using the

languages when interacting with others.

Vocabulary
According to Colorin Colorado (2012) a vocabulary is a set of familiar words within a

person's language. A vocabulary, usually developed with age, serves as a useful and

fundamental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge. Acquiring an extensive

vocabulary is one of the largest challenges in learning a second language.

Teaching vocabulary to English language learners (ELLs) is an important part

of students' language development, but making the most of vocabulary

instruction requires careful planning. Which words will be most useful in a

new lesson and other settings? What kinds of practice can educators offer

so that students master the meanings of new words rather than simply

memorizing them? This resource section provides numerous research-based

ideas from veteran educators as well as vocabulary resources for the

classroom.

Middle Childhood Language Literacy Development

For many children, third grade marks a growth spurt—physically, emotionally, and mentally.

Most 8-year-olds show great gains in their cognitive development and tend to be able to ask

questions until they have enough information to draw conclusions about what they’re learning.

They’re also slowly budding into more mature children, making it an interesting year for both

them and their parents.round third grade, children can read fluently, apply

(and check) comprehension strategies (e.g., ask themselves if the

word they read makes sense), and expand their abilities to a wider
array of texts (e.g., mystery, fantasy, historical fiction, poetry, etc.).

For more ways to support the development of reading strategies,

check out Into the Book or Blue Ribbon Interactives. Children more

effectively apply their schema (their set of personal experiences) to

their growing understanding of books, vocabulary, and

communication. As a result, their written and spoken ideas are

increasingly persuasive, interesting, and engaging. Schema also

helps children deduce what they do not yet know. They can draw on

their schematic understanding to predict outcomes, respond to

questions, and to make comparisons with other texts, their own

experiences, and the world at large.

Children this age also use their developing inference abilities across

many types of interactions — printed and spoken. For example, when a

parent says, “Boy, I sure have a lot of packages to unload,” their child

can intuit the indirect request for help. Parents can support their

child’s developing inference abilities by asking unspoken questions

about information their child has heard or read. For some online

practice inferring, try these quick “mysteries,” or play an online

version of the inference game Battleship (itself an inference game),

with inference questions interspersed.


Children this age can retell stories, and form and defend ideas.

Understanding of cause and effect comes in more fully, as does an

awareness of fact vs opinion. Facilitate these budding skills by asking

your child questions about the topic or setting of a book before she

reads, by asking ‘why’ questions along the way, and by having open-

ended discussions about topics, such as how the author’s opinion

comes across in the book. For online fun, try this game.

Along with literacy abilities, language skills also impact social

development, as is seen in children’s understanding of the give-and-

take of conversation. As a result of increased thinking and language

skills, children this age are often quite chatty. They can form exciting

narratives, describe events in detail, categorize topics, negotiate, and

order events sequentially — all skills that help form the basis of

friendship. Understanding and applying social conventions is important

in this age group, and parents can support their child’s ability to

introduce new topics, extend conversation with comments and

questions, or offer balanced opinions on a subject. Learning to take

turns, use appropriate eye contact, and build off the topics of interest

will also support friendship endeavors. (Language Literacy

Development, 2011)
Universal Grammar

Universal Grammar is a linguistic theory developed by Noam Chomsky according to

which all human languages are constructed on the same, abstract template, and that

this explains why all normal speakers acquire their native language quickly and

accurately.

Chomsky developed the notion of Universal Grammar (UG) as a blueprint for the LAD.

UG, or generative grammar, consists in an abstract description of the components and

structure underlying all human languages.

Generative linguists seek to refine and test these abstract linguistic descriptions,

while second language generativists research whether and how UG is available to

learners of second languages.

According to Richard Norduquist (2018), Universal grammar is the theoretical or

hypothetical system of categories, operations, and principles shared by all human

languages and considered to be innate. Since the 1980s, the term has often been

capitalized. The term is also known as Universal Grammar Theory.


Linguist Noam Chomsky explained Universal grammar is taken to be the set of

properties, conditions, or whatever that constitute the 'initial state' of the language

learner, hence the basis on which knowledge of a language develops. ("Rules and

Representations. Columbia University Press, 2011)

The concept is connected to the ability of children to be able to learn their native

language. "Generative grammarians believe that the human species evolved a

genetically universal grammar common to all peoples and that the variability in modern

languages is basically on the surface only," wrote Michael Tomasello. ("Constructing a

Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition." Harvard University Press,

2008)

Universal grammar is the theoretical or hypothetical system of categories, operations,

and principles shared by all human languages and considered to be innate. Since the

1980s, the term has often been capitalized. The term is also known as Universal

Grammar

Consequently, Chomsky proposed the theory of Universal Grammar: an idea of innate,

biological grammatical categories, such as a noun category and a verb category that

facilitate the entire language development in children and overall language processing in

adults.

Universal Grammar is considered to contain all the grammatical information needed to

combine these categories, e.g. noun and verb, into phrases. The child’s task is just to

learn the words of her language (Ambridge & Lieven). For example, according to the
Universal Grammar account, children instinctively know how to combine a noun (e.g. a

boy) and a verb (to eat) into a meaningful, correct phrase (A boy eats).

This Chomskian (1965) approach to language acquisition has inspired hundreds of

scholars to investigate the nature of these assumed grammatical categories and the

research is still ongoing. (Barsky, 2018)

Language is a cognition that truly makes us human. Whereas other species do

communicate with an innate ability to produce a limited number of meaningful

vocalizations (e.g. bonobos), or even with partially learned systems (e.g. bird songs),

there is no other species known to date that can express infinite ideas (sentences) with a

limited set of symbols (speech sounds and words). (Henna, 2012)

This ability is remarkable in itself. What makes it even more remarkable is that

researchers are finding evidence for mastery of this complex skill in increasingly

younger children. Infants as young as 12 months are reported to have sensitivity to the

grammar needed to understand causative sentences (who did what to whom; e.g. the

bunny pushed the frog (Rowland & Noble, 2010).

After more than 60 years of research into child language development, the mechanism

that enables children to segment syllables and words out of the strings of sounds they

hear, and to acquire grammar to understand and produce language is still quite an

enigma.

One of the earliest scientific explanations of language acquisition was provided by

Skinner (1957). As one of the pioneers of behaviorism, he accounted for language

development by means of environmental influence.


Skinner argued that children learn language based on behaviorist reinforcement

principles by associating words with meanings. Correct utterances are positively

reinforced when the child realizes the communicative value of words and phrases.

Cognitivism

Cognitivism is the study in psychology that focuses on mental

processes, including how people perceive, think, remember, learn,

solve problems, and direct their attention to one stimulus rather than

another. Psychologists working from a cognitivist perspective, then,

seek to understand cognition. Rooted in Gestalt psychology and the

work of Jean Piaget, cognitivism has been prominent in psychology

since the 1960s; it contrasts with behaviorism, where psychologists

concentrate their studies on observable behavior. Contemporary

research often links cognitivism to the view that people process

information as computers do, according to specific rules; in this way, it

is related to studies in artificial intelligence. In addition, cognitivism

has influenced education, as studies of how people learn potentially

sheds light on how to teach most effectively. (Chegg, 2013)


Communicative Competence

If a language learner is asked what they think the goal of a language course is, they

would probably answer that it is to teach the grammar and vocabulary of that language.

However, if they are asked what their goal is as language learners, they would most

probably answer that it is to be able to communicate in that language.

n other words, a language user needs to use the language not only correctly (based on

linguistic competence), but also appropriately (based on communicative competence).

Of course, this approach does not diminish the importance of learning the grammatical

rules of a language. In fact, it is one of the four components of communicative

competence: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competence.

Linguistic competence is the knowledge of the language code, i.e. its grammar and

vocabulary, and also of the conventions of its written representation (script and

orthography). The grammar component includes the knowledge of the sounds and their

pronunciation (i.e. phonetics), the rules that govern sound interactions and patterns (i.e.

phonology), the formation of words by means of e.g. inflection and derivation (i.e.

morphology), the rules that govern the combination of words and phrases to structure

sentences (i.e. syntax), and the way that meaning is conveyed through language (i.e.

semantics).

Sociolinguistic competence is the knowledge of sociocultural rules of use, i.e. knowing

how to use and respond to language appropriately. The appropriateness depends on

the setting of the communication, the topic, and the relationships among the people
communicating. Moreover, being appropriate depends on knowing what the taboos of

the other culture are, what politeness indices are used in each case, what the politically

correct term would be for something, how a specific attitude (authority, friendliness,

courtesy, irony etc.) is expressed etc.

Discourse competence is the knowledge of how to produce and comprehend oral or

written texts in the modes of speaking/writing and listening/reading respectively. It’s

knowing how to combine language structures into a cohesive and coherent oral or

written text of different types. Thus, discourse competence deals with organising words,

phrases and sentences in order to create conversations, speeches, poetry, email

messages, newspaper articles etc.

Strategic competence is the ability to recognise and repair communication breakdowns

before, during, or after they occur. For instance, the speaker may not know a certain

word, thus will plan to either paraphrase, or ask what that word is in the target language.

During the conversation, background noise or other factors may hinder communication;

thus the speaker must know how to keep the communication channel open. If the

communication was unsuccessful due to external factors (such as interruptions), or due

to the message being misunderstood, the speaker must know how to restore

communication. These strategies may be requests for repetition, clarification, slower

speech, or the usage of gestures, taking turns in conversation etc.

These four components of communicative competence should be respected in teaching

a foreign language —and they usually are by modern teaching methods employed in

second language teaching. Usually most of the above are best learned if the language
learner immerses into the culture of a country that speaks the target language. (Ross,

2010)

Verbal Aptitude Test

Verbal Aptitude is the ability to use the written language and to understand concepts

presented through words.

Verbal aptitude tests can be many different things: They can assess a person's ability to

spell words correctly, use correct grammar, understand word meanings, understand

word relationships, and/or interpret detailed written information. (Chegg, 2016)

Factors that Affect Language Acquisition

Motivation, attitude, age, intelligence, aptitude, cognitive style, and personality are considered

as factors that greatly influence someone in the process of his or her second language

acquisition. Experts state that those factors give a more dominant contribution in SLA to

learners variedly, depend on who the learners are, their age, how they behave toward the

language, their cognitive ability, and also the way they learn. (Barsky, 2018)

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