Engineering Organisation and Strategic Goals

Technology
• Technology: incomplete knowledge to achieve things “unnatural” → all technology
eventually become obsolete.
• Technological system: Implementation → artefacts + people + admin (manage)
• Innovation: incomplete knowledge increases → change in technology ← how do we
evaluate?
• Engineers are casual agents of such a change.

Context (identify stakeholders from external view)

• Context sets value of innovation.
• Context: complex network of inter-acting 'organisations'
socio-political: government, cultural society
economic: patrons
users
industries
physical universe ecosystem
professional, educational institute
infrastructure → hard to change

Organisation (administrative arrangement)

• organisation: people + structure → strategic goal (purpose)
• strategic goal: long term goal, not a mile stone
• strategy: the way(method) to achieve it
• organisation → respond to innovation → review goals → change goals → interact with
each other
• organisation needs leadership → a organisation need to be guided and leaded
• people in the organisation → interact respond to feedback
• centralised organisation:
• rapid
• unvarying response to 'incident'
• decentralised organisation:
• flexible (local adoption)
• local innovation s response to 'incident'

Strategic decision making

• S- curve of technology change
• strategic plan:
• understanding the current situation
• nominate overall goal
• feasible, measurable, unambiguous, and elevating
• Model: a set of assumption
• Indicator: signal chosen to give “state” (progress)
• go/no go decision → analysis to decide whether to proceed or not
• engineering
• economics
• relationship
• reputation
The importance of ethics, in engineering

Professionals
• Profession: self-regulation, allow innovation, legal regulation is inadequate
• engineers act deliberately:
• change the way peoples live
• change social practices (direct or indirect)
• characteristic issues → ethics (difficult)
• confliction goal, aim
• imprecise definitions
• “arbitrary” assumption
• use of philosophical system
• virtue: honesty
• duties/responsibility: obligation
• utilitarianism: for the greatest benefit
• rights: basic human rights
• engineers → autonomous & responsible
• possible 'first principle' to guide an engineer's professional behaviour
• legalism
• obedience
• selfishness
• personal principles
• Use of professional standards (IEAust, IEEE) → code of ethics
• possible motive to conform to ethical principles
• fear of consequence
• religion
• loyalty
• altruism
• professional expectation
• implicit social contract: society trusts engineers to protect what society values

Code of Ethics
• for common good and shared value:
• ethical behaviour
• competent performance → act only in the area of the their competence
• innovative practice
• engineering excellence
• equality of opportunity
• social justice
• sustainable development
• place engineers responsibility for welfare, health and safety of community before their
responsibility to sectional and private interest.
• Engineers shall as with honour, integrity and dignity in order to merit the trust of the
community and professions.
• Act with equity without discrimination towards all of the community.

Sustainability ethics
• recognise the finite capacity of the environment
• recognise the rights of future generation, and no generation should increase its wealth
to the detriment of others.
Philosophical thinking

frameworks
• utilitarianism → producing result for achieving the most of good for the most of the
people
• Samaritanism → doing good that you do not have to do ↔ no duty, no obligation
• obligation → “I promise I will”, strong
• duty → weak than obligation
• social responsibility → duty with specific target
• heroism → self-sacrifice → whistle-blower

consequential (teleological)
• egoism → about oneself
• nationalism → about the nation
• epistemism → knowledge based
• utilitarianism → happiness, pleasure, welfare

non-consequential (deontological)
• duty
• what is right things to do
• social contract
• fairness

virtue ethics → human excellence

• honesty
• trustworthy

Immanuel Kant
duty as the basic moral feature
good will → duty

John Stuart Mill

act-utilitarianism and happiness

• avoid moral negligence

• avoid moral recklessness
• avoid moral blindness
• exhibit moral competence

Basic ethical principles (project)

• respect for person
• individuals as autonomous agent
• informed consent
• confidentiality
• beneficence → max the benefit min the harm
• justice
• scientific merit → in order to help others
• truth
• publication and openness → open to public, for public good
Engineering as Leadership

effective leadership
• it depends on leader: character, skill, competency
• it must match the current circumstances
• it depends on followers' needs, cultural expectation
• interaction and understanding of each others personality → limited by ethical
consideration
• it transforms goals/values of follower to different one.

Engineers leadership
• expert authority → do not move out side on expertise
• what is team
• flat structure
• self managed
• outcome focused (result driven)
• no one have all the skills
• creativity enhanced by interaction

effective team
• as established
• clear goal, desired by team, with time frame
• external support, resource
• competent team member
• as organised
• structure relevant to goal
• communication channel → agree and respect to each other
• individual responsibility
• standards
• as perform
• unity, morale
• active & positive leadership
• mutual accountability
• team commitment

effective team structure

• recognise individuals strength, weakness aspirations,
• the structure are transparent – goal, progress, condition of members
• provide feedback and rewards
• allow some failure (role of change, human fallibility) → possibility if recovery
• followership
• loyalty & compromise, but limited by ethical thinking
• communication

Engineer as social experimentation

• fully informed (informed consent)
• ongoing responsibility
• expert means prime responsibility for safety
• risk assessment (cost-benefit analysis) → risk = probability X severity
• technocratic decision → base on expert knowledge
Standard development

what is standard → fit for purpose in adequate level → consistently performed

why need standard
• safety, quality, reliability
• compatibility
• perform of the system
• minimise the unwanted
• alternate resource

ethical issue → user of standard

legal requirement ↔ applicable standard → when to use standard

Environmental problem
• resource scarcity → fossil fuels
• inter-generation equity → consideration for future generation
• intra-generation equity

sustainable in many aspect:

• socially
• environmentally
• economically
• technologically

engineers' responsibility
• engineers develop part of the solution → not to the whole problem
• avoid false claim
• truth → moral autonomy
• utilitarianism
• long term benefit (including future generation)
• respect for person
• virtue
• right
• duty

how engineers can contribute

strategic leadership and ethical behaviour (individual engineer bottom → up)
Activity week 2
organisation and strategic goal → context of team and behaviour of organisation
strategic decision
strategic goal
the strategy
organisational decision
leadership decision → how do you allocate resource (people)

Activity week 4
Leadership and management → the balance between them
what is the characteristic of effective leadership
• well managed
• honest
• good communication
• set standard
• compassion
• goal driven
• responsible
how do you know it is effective
Choir, band or orchestra, who is leader, what dose leader do?
• The controller may not be leader
• the one who set the goals, plans, keep every one in sync

Manager People like to sit:

Less responsibility
More responsibility

Leader

The essence of engineering is making trade-off between conflicting parameters. Improve in one
parameter can make another one worsens. As a engineer, we are trained to quantify the different
trade-off, draw some kind of cost/benefit curve, and make a rational choice based on our analysis.

Risk management

• communicate and consult → internally and externally

• identify the risk → where, when, how, why
• analyse the risk → consequence and likelihood
• evaluate the risk → estimate level of risk, pre-establish criteria, consider the balance
• treat the risk → cost-effective strategy, increase benefit and reduce cost
• monitor and review → monitor the effectiveness at all stage, continuous improvement
Activity week 5
Group decision-making (political decision ↔ ethical decision)
how to help team decision
what is strategic voting

Activity week 6
Strategic goals and plans
• what is overall goal for a organisation
• what to do to achieve it (strategy)
strategic goals: accompanied by a “value statement”
• clear and concise → understood by everyone, memorable and inspirational
• worth doing → everyone wants to achieve it, become member's top priority
• feasible → sufficient skills, existing resource (consider the internal and external
constrains)
• measurable → knowing the progress of the task, feedback and review
• communicate with all stakeholders → internally and externally
what is the difference between missions and goals?

Activity week 7
Recommendation and feedback
leadership involves monitoring both internally and externally. Is it better to raise too many or
too few alarms?

Activity week 8
Technocratic decision
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) recently released suggestions about the
use of bands in the 3 to 300 GHz range of the electromagnetic spectrum. In turn, the Federal
Government has asked IEAust, as Australia’s professional body representing engineers, to
provide expert advice about uses of this part of the spectrum within Australia. The senior
decision-makers of IEAust has decided to establish the Advisory Committee on Technical
Issues in Spectral Use (ACTISU) to provide the formal response to government’s request. You
are a special working group that it established to determine how ACTISU should be
structured and the details of its task. Consider, amongst others, such questions as these. In
each case, be prepared to explain your decisions.

• Who should be on ACTISU? Who should be explicitly excluded?

• When should ACTISU report?
• What questions must ACTISU examine? What questions might it examine?
• What questions should be explicitly excluded? (i.e. what is in ACTISU’s scope, and
what is not?)
• What supporting resources will ACTISU need? How should its budget be determined?
• Which of these questions need to be answered first by the Government? Explain why.
• Can you frame a ‘mission’ for ACTISU?
B9 keyreading
Technology and the environment

Sustainable development
Sustainable development is a way of using resources in order to maintain the growth
of the present economic and social state while preserving the environment and
causing minimal disruption to the present and future generations.

Root of the environmental problem

Environmental damage is normally caused by the technologies that gitate economic
growth. Thus by introducing some fundamental changes, in terms of appropriate and
clean technologies, this would maintain economic growth while achieving sustainable
development. However this is not always successful.

Technological fixes → seeks to reduce the effect of existing problems by other technology
Round circle phenomenon → when technological fixes are applied, this can pose new
environmental problems.

Clean Technology
Clean technology is the term used to describe technologies that do not pose any
environmental risks during its lifetime, as opposed to end-of-pipe technologies that
would require additional processes to deal with the wastes.

What prevents companies from using clean technologies?

Industries usually invest most of their money in end-of-pipe technologies. The main
reasons for this are because end-of-pipe technologies have been around for a while,
have lower cost and companies are reluctant to change. Furthermore, the shift to clean
technologies would require radical changes within the organisation, leading to more
costs, which is normally avoided.

The Engineers Decision

Engineers should abide by guidelines set out in the “Environmental principles for
Engineers”, “Policy on sustainability” and “Environmental impact assessment” by the
Institution of Engineers Australia.
• Engineers are required to provide honest and reliable advice for the limits of
technological solutions and the possibility of implementing cleaner technology.
• Engineers should continually communicate with clients, the government,
companies and the local community in regards to the impact of technology on
the environment.
• Engineers should keep up to date with all available technologies in order to
make the most appropriate decision.
• Engineers should understand and communicate clearly and persuasively in
regards to the long term financial success in moving towards a clean industry.
• Engineers should be aware of redesigning current technology systems in order
make it appropriate rather than fix defective technologies with satisfactory
results that are not long term.
• Engineers need to recognize their responsibility to the environment under a
rapid changing social context. This requires a change in their priorities.
• Key elements that need to be considered when designing sustainable systems:
• Environmental impact of their manufacture and use
• Accessibility to people of diverse ethnicity and physical abilities
• Safety
• Recyclability
DCH keyreading
Sustainable Engineering

Ecological sustainable development (ESD):

• “Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs”
• “Using, conserving and enhancing the community’s resources so that ecological processes, on
which life depends, are maintained, and the total quality of life, no and in the future, can be
increased”

Sustainable engineering:
“Practices that promote environmental, social and economic sustainability through greater
resource efficiency, reduced pollution and consideration of the wider social impacts of new
technologies, processes and practises”

Main principles to guide engineers to advance sustainability:

• Maintain Ecological Integrity and Biodiversity
• Apply the ‘Precautionary Principle’ – scientific proof doesn’t have to be 100% certain
• Consult Stakeholders
• Promote Equity (Economic, environmental, social)
• Conserve Resources (reduce raw material use, minimise impact of raw material sourcing,
increase durability/recyclability of product)
• Limit Emissions (Liquids, Gasses and solid waste, toxic, radioactive, GHG etc)
• Practise Industrial Ecology

Intergenerational and Intragenerational Equity

• Intergenerational: Ensuring future generations have access to resources that would provide
opportunity for a quality of life equal to or better than that enjoyed by current generations.
Eg. Ozone depletion, depletion of fossil fuels, overuse of waste sinks, increased salinity from
poor farming practice.
• Intragenerational: Ensuring the consumption of resources and distributions of wastes does
not disproportionately favour one country, region or social group, causing disadvantage to
another.

Environmental Justice
Study that attempts to document, prove or refute allegations a community or population is
suffering disproportionately as a result of the actions of another community.

Constraints of Sustainable Engineering Practice

ESD is development that will fit within constraints imposed by the environment, society and
the economy.
• Environment: including natural and built environment
• Societal: Recognises people or groups affected by engineering practice, and considers
how to avoid or mitigate these effects.
• Economic: constraints of financial costs of engineering options, and subsequent return
(financial, societal or environmental) derived from this work.

Engineers can reduce environmental impact in a number of ways:

• Substitute: Use more renewable sustainable resources.
• Conserve: Use less to achieve the same result (efficiency).
• Re‐use/Recycle: Use a resource again with no, or minimal, processing.
• Reprocess: Salvage, transport and reprocess non‐renewable resources.
• Redress Impact: Minimise or make up for the impact of use (carbon offsets).
ABC keyreading
Strategic leadership

Leadership
For any goal of sufficient complexity, no one individual possesses all of the skills or
knowledge necessary to achieve this goal. As such, cooperation between different
individuals is necessary in order to achieve goals. Leadership, then, can be defined as a
process of social influence in which one individual, the leader, assists a group of people
in the act of cooperating to achieve a common goal.

Strategic leadership
Strategic leadership is the component of leadership associated with long and medium
term strategy.

Strategic Planning
A strategic plan, in business, is a process for determining where an organization is
going over the next few years. Such plans are vital in business or charitable
organizations, and as such a number of formal methodologies for strategic planning
have been published in order to aid long range strategic planning.

B9 keyreading
Strategic Leadership & Ethics

Many public decisions have to rely on the expert advice to a certain extent.
• Different expert gives different advices and interpretations; it is not always easy for a
layman to decide which experts to believe
• People have a tendency to listen to the expert advice without any doubt because of the
experts’ authority.
• Not everybody has the time and energy to participate in every decision making and
often leave the decision to other people.

Public can influence the decision making in the following ways:

• accountability
• Organization’s policies and actions are open to public
• Quite indirect and weak, dependent on the degree of secrecy
• Representation
• Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf
• More powerful form of influence
• Participation
• More direct influence
EM10 keyreading
Responsibilities

Engineering as a Social Practice

Engineering designs and innovations impact on society. They alter living conditions, cultural
values and infrastructure as well as pollution and the environment. An engineer's
responsibilities is like a contract with society. There are four provisions:
• An engineer's devotion to serve society and advance public good.
• An engineer's self-regulation in the provision of these services.
• An engineer's place of honour in society and above average livelihood.
• An engineer's unusual degree of autonomy in the performance in their professional
duties.

These engineering societies have the role of:

• Advancing engineering knowledge.
• Managing technical risks and disasters.
• Protecting ethical engineers.
• Promoting and enforcing codes of ethics.

Promotion and Enforcement of Codes of Ethics

Public health, safety, and welfare should be promoted above all other values like market
value, competitiveness and cost. No engineering project is risk free, products are like
experiments, where subjects are the general public. Engineers have ethical obligations and
social responsibilities because of the experimental nature of engineering projects. Engineers
have to make judgements about safety and risk unlike scientists and trade-os between costs
and benets. So engineering decisions can't be based only on sound law-like principles.
Because we can't always make decisions on sound principles sometimes our judgements can
fail.

KS keyreading
Leadership & Teamwork

Definition and characteristics of a team

The concept of a “team” is familiar to everyone, at some stage in their life they will have
participated in a team. However the elements that make teams work effectively are not as
commonly understood or discussed. Effective teamwork results in both individual work
outputs and collective products; in short an effective team is more than the sum of its
individual members work outputs.

Differences between working groups and teams.

Work group Team
· Strong, clearly focussed leader · Shared leadership roles
· Individual accountability · Individual and mutual accountability
· Groups purpose is the same as the broader · Specific team purpose that the team itself delivers
organisational mission · Collective work products
· Individual work products · Encourages open-ended discussion and active
· Runs efficient meetings problem-solving meetings
· Measures its effectiveness indirectly by its influence · Measures performance directly by assessing
on others (such as financial performance of the collective work products
business) · Discusses, decides, and does real work together.
· Discusses, decides, delegates
EM14 keyreading
Technocratic and democratic

Technocratic
• Bases the risk on the technical process and is not always influenced by the general crowd and
the effects to society.
• Believes risk are measurable from scientific resources
• “nobody wants to substitute scientific knowledge with intuition”(Renn)

Democratic
• Democrats says that publics assessment of technology incorporates a larger number of
dimensions and concerns such as society’s ability to cope which are said to be ignored by
professional risk assessment.
• Believe in fairness and distribution of the risk and the benefits that it brings determines
whether the risk is sociably acceptable.
• Individual input -> the way individuals believe the risk and benefits are to be distributed
HG keyreading
Organizational Environment, Changing Economic Conditions and the Effective Supervision of
Technical Personnel:A Management Challenge

Risk and Uncertainty in the Workplace:

• Rapidly changing technology -> uncertainty in R&D projects
• Three methods recommended to reduce uncertainty and improve creativity:
• Feedback to understand value of group
• Complexity of tasks indicates engineer’s self-worth and value
• Information exchange amongst group -> increased learning
• As uncertainty rises, shared information, support and organisational learning must increase.

Organisational Structure:
There are two main types of organisational structures:
• Hierarchy:
• Established levels of management, centralised information system, emphasis
on local knowledge and skills
• Good for highly complex tasks and more stable conditions in the technology
environment
• Ideal for clear goals
• Organic:
• Ad-hoc centre of authority, lateral communications, expanded responsibility,
• commitment beyond technical definition
• Good for dynamic environment and enhances innovation and creativity.
• Compensates for lack of structure with higher levels of commitment, shared
• beliefs and information exchange
• Ideal for uncertain goals, and technical uncertainty.

Career Considerations:
To avoid technical obsolescence, engineers must constantly update their knowledge. There
are two main career paths for a maturing engineer, and each can cause stress in its own way:
• Specialising in a particular technical area
• Choosing a career in management

Compensation:
How to reward engineers work and creativity?
• Monetary compensation? This is only useful if the engineer values increased pay. One
paper argues that monetary rewards are unprofitable as technical achievements are
usually the result of teamwork and can lead to reduced cooperation, innovation as well
as divisiveness
• Potentially more appropriate forms of compensation: Job security, increased
autonomy, recognition, self-worth
Ko keyreading
Management & Leadership

Two senses of leadership:

• Process that help direct and mobilise people and their ideas
• Manager of a group of people in formal positions (Confusion: not everyone in a leadership
• position provides leadership)

Relationship between management and leadership

Similarities:
i. Deciding what needs to be done, creating networks of people
ii. Monitor the working progress
iii. Both are complete action systems
Differences
i. Different time frame
ii. Different focus on staff
iii. Management focuses on control, while leadership focuses on empowerment
and energizing people
iv. Leadership produces useful changes, while management creates orderly results

• Strong leadership and strong management create the potential for conflict
• Both of leadership and management are needed if organisations are to prosper, to be
successful

Managers role Leaders role

1. Planning and budgeting: setting targets (short, mid and 1. Establishing direction: potentially very long term goals
long term) and establishing the necessary steps to meet along with strategies to achieve this vision
these targets 2. Aligning people: communicating this vision with key
2. Organising and staffing: structuring an organisation and people to create coalitions of people dedicated to its
setting jobs for meeting targets. Matching staff to these achievement
jobs based on expertise, and delegating responsibility of 3. Motivating and Inspiring: keeping people moving
duties. towards the goal despite major setbacks
3. Controlling and problem solving: monitoring work
completed versus schedules, and then planning how to
resolve problems (deviations from the plan) as they occur.
Difference
The difference in these two areas is seen in the outcome achieved. Management has the ability to produce consistency
with a degree of predictability and order. While leadership produces change (often dramatically), with the potential of
this change being very useful.
N3 keyreading
Skills and leadership

THREE SKILL APPROACH

1. Technical Skill
Technical skill is knowledge about and proficiency in a specific type of work or activity. This includes
analytical ability, the ability to use appropriate tools and techniques and competencies in a specialized
area (Katz, 1955). Technical skills play an essential role in producing the actual products a company is
designed to produce. Technical skill is most important at lower and middle levels of management. It’s not
essential for leaders at the highest level like CEO’s, presidents etc.
2. Human Skill
Human skill is knowledge about and ability to work with people. Human skills are ‘people skills’. Human
skills allow a leader to assist group members in working cooperatively as a group to achieve common goals
(Katz, 1955). Leaders with good human skills often adapt their own ideas with those of others. Simply put,
human skill is the capacity to get along with others as you go about your work. Human skills are equally
important at all levels of management.
3. Conceptual Skill
Conceptual skills are abilities to work with ideas and concepts. A leader with conceptual skills works easily
with abstractions and hypothetical notions. He or she is good at putting the company’s goals into words
and can understand and express the economic principles that affect the company. Conceptual skills are
central to creating a vision and strategic plan for an organization. Thus, this skill is most important (in fact
critical!) at the top management levels and relatively less important at the middle and lower management
levels.

The three most important competencies desired in a leader are:

• Problem solving skills,
• Social judgement skills, and
• Knowledge.
N10 keyreading
Team leadership

How effective is your team?

 Clear, elevating goal
 Results-driven structure
 Competent team members
 Unified commitment
 Collaborative climate
 Standards of excellence
 External support and recognition
 Principled leadership

Principles of ethical leadership

The five essential elements of ethical leadership are:
· Respect Others
· Serve Others
· Shows Justice
· Manifests Honesty
· Builds community
MS2 keyreading
Use of ethcal theory

Resolving Moral Dilemmas

Ethical theories are useful in understanding moral dilemmas, but they can never be a
substitute for good moral judgement when solving moral dilemmas. Below are some of the
uses of ethical theories than can be applied to when trying to resolve a moral dilemma:

• Ethical theories help to identify the moral considerations that make up a dilemma. For
each of the ethical theories, we can look at the considerations from two different sides,
the public and the employer.
• Virtues – loyalty to employers and colleagues vs. loyalty to the public.
• Utilitarianism – safety of the public vs. economic benefits to the company.
• Duty – protect the public affected by your work vs. respecting management-
levels decisions.
• Rights – rights of the public to be protected vs. rights of management to have
their decisions respected.
• Ethical theories can give precisely what type of information is relevant to solving
moral dilemmas. E.g. All theories agree that potential harm to the public are urgently
relevant, and it is not right to only consider your company and the employer when
reaching a decision.
• The theories give a general priority of the obligation to protect the public due to the
rights concerning risks to people’s lives, the duties of engineers to protect the public,
and the comparison between death and risk compared to economic benefits. This view
though, does not always override all other obligations, but this obligation to the public
is most important to a professional engineer.
• They provide a systematic framework for moral reasoning and strengthen our ability
to reach a balanced and insightful judgement.

Justifying Moral Obligations

The ethical theories can also be used to help justify the obligations of an engineer. It can be
said that engineering ethics takes its primary focus as the promotion of safety while bringing
useful technological products to the public. Focussing on safety obligations, we can look at
how some of the ethical theories would affect the obligations of engineers.

• Act Utilitarianism – engineers would need to act in ways to maximise the good
consequence for everyone affected by engineering projects and products.
• Rule Utilitarianism – engineers would need to act to rules that if widely followed
would produce the best consequences for everyone available.
• Duty – the obligations of the engineers come down to one or more of the basic
principles of duty, such as to show respect for people.
• Rights – engineer’s safety obligations are based on the requirement that professionals
respect the moral rights of those affected by their work.

• Basic rights imply everyone has a right not to be killed or put in danger by technological
products whose dangers are not obvious. This in turn implies a right to informed consent
when obtaining goods or services that may be dangerous

• These rights give place an obligation on those creating products or delivering services to
provide relevant safety information to those that would be affected. The nature of these
obligations are generally shaped by rights, creating a direct link between basic human rights
and the safety obligations of engineers (both as to what the obligations are, and how the
engineer obtains them).
MS4 keyreading
Commitment to safety

The Concept of Safety

• The concept of safety is subjective. What’s regarded as safe in one situation may not
be safe in another.
• Safety defines what risks people would find acceptable or unacceptable if they knew
the risks and were judging it with a sound mind

Risks
Acceptable Risk
William D. Rowe: “A risk is acceptable when those affected are generally no longer
apprehensive about it”. Apprehension depends on how the risk is perceived. This
perception is influenced by the following factors:
• Voluntarism and control

Knowledge of Risk
1. A product is safe if:
a. It is as safe as it possibly can be
b. It is the cheapest possible product
c. It meets the required safety limit according to regulations
d. It is used properly (i.e. The engineer has no role in ensuring safety)
e. A safe exit is provided

Uncertainties of Design
What is the most important purpose of an aeroplane?
• Maximise profits
• Highest return on investment
• Deliver people from one destination to another
• Ensure the safety of all participants using the aeroplane

Safe Exists
Whilst it is impossible to design a product that is completely safe, we have an ethical
responsibility to ensure:
1. The product fails safely
2. The product can be abandoned safely
3. The user can safely escape the product