Kinematics of Machinery

Module 03 - Kinematic Synthesis

Design Process

Engineering design is the process of applying the various techniques and scientific
principles for the purpose of defining a device, a process or a system. It is a qualitative process in
that it not only involves mathematics and the sciences, but also invention, aesthetics and creativity.

Much of engineering deals with the topics of analysis which means to decompose a system
into its constituent parts. But before any system can be analysed, it must exist. Thus, the first step
in the engineering design process is synthesis, which means putting together.

Another important feature of the design process is that, by nature, it is an iterative process.
To iterate means to repeat. For example, if the idea on analysis is found not to satisfy the objectives,
a better idea needs to be found.

Thus, synthesis of mechanisms in order to accomplish desired motions and analysis of

mechanisms in order to determine their behaviour, are fundamental to the machine design process.

Linkage Synthesis

Many machine design problems require the creation of a device with particular motion
characteristics. For example, you need to move a tool from one position to another in a definite
time interval, or you need to trace out a certain specified path in space to fit a part in an assembly.
So the need is for a linkage to generate the desired motions. Kinematic synthesis is the creation of
a mechanism to produce a desired set of motion characteristics.

Steps in Linkage Synthesis

Kinematic synthesis, though a qualitative and iterative process, follows three logical steps,
viz; type, number and dimensional synthesis.

Type Synthesis refers to the definition of the proper type of mechanism suitable for the
problem. It means selection of the type of mechanism like a linkage, a gear system, belts and
pulleys, a cam system, or a robot. This is the start of the design process and usually involves design
factors such as manufacturing processes, materials, safety, reliability, space and economics.
Kinematics is only slightly involved in type synthesis.

Number Synthesis is the second step in the design process following type synthesis. It
refers to the determination of the number and order of links and joints necessary to produce motion
of a particular degree of freedom. Order of links means binary, ternary, quaternary, etc., links. This
involves the use of the Kutzbach and Grubler criteria for mobility or degree of freedom. Number
synthesis allows the exhaustive determination of all possible combinations of links that will
provide the chosen degree of freedom. Then the designer has a definitive catalogue of possible
linkages to choose from to solve the motion control problem.

Dimensional Synthesis is the third step in design. It deals with the determination of
kinematic dimensions (link lengths, offsets, etc.) of the mechanism to accomplish the desired
motions. Just as in kinematic analysis, both graphical and analytical methods are available for
dimensional synthesis.

The graphical methods have the advantage of being a more direct approach, and produce
results, often of acceptable accuracy (precision), with much less effort than in analytical methods.
Analytical methods of synthesis have the advantage in their general approach (general equations),
and their extreme accuracy and adaptability for use with a digital computer.

Function, Path and Motion Generation

Broadly speaking, the requirements of motion characteristics can be classified as

 function generation,

 path generation, and

 motion generation or body guidance

1. Function generation is the correlation of an input motion with an output motion in a

mechanism. In such a mechanism, the output link is made to rotate, oscillate or reciprocate
according to a specified function of time or function of the input motion. This is called function
generation. For example, the output and input variables of a mechanism are proportionally related
to the variables of a specified function such as y = f(x). The input and output links of a function
generator may be either a crank or a slider. In case of a four bar linkage, x represents the motion
(crank angle) of the input crank and the linkage is designed such that the motion of the output
crank (or rocker) approximates the function y. It is possible to design mechanisms to generate
functions with very small error over a limited or small range of the input variable.

2. Path generation is control of a point in the mechanism such that it follows a prescribed
path. Typically, a coupler point on a mechanism traces the desired path. Common requirements
are that a portion of the path be a circle, ellipse or a straight line. Often the timing of the arrival of
the point at particular locations along the path is also defined.

3. Motion generation or body guidance is control of a line in the mechanism such that it
takes a prescribed set of sequential positions. Here the mechanism must move an object from one
position to another. The movement may be a simple translation or a combination of translation and
rotation. An example is the control of the “bucket” of a bulldozer. The bucket must assume a set
of positions to dig, pick up, and dump the excavated earth. It can be looked at as if a line painted
on the side of the bucket is made to take up the desired positions.

4. Dead centre problems are sometimes classified as another motion generation problem. In
these the linkage is designed so as to generate the prescribed dead-centre configuration. Usually,
these configurations are specified to obtain the required quick return ratios, where the average
velocity of the forward stroke is slower than that of the return stroke. This can be accomplished in
both slider-crank and four-bar crank-rocker mechanisms, with a constant speed of the input crank.

Approximate and exact synthesis

Though it is possible to design a mechanism that can theoretically generate a desired

motion, there can be an error in actual motion. This is called structural error and is defined as the
difference between the function produced by the synthesised linkage and the function originally
prescribed for the linkage.

Moreover, graphical solution processes in kinematic synthesis can cause graphical error.
In addition, there can be manufacturing errors. The error due to manufacturing tolerances in link
dimensions is called mechanical error. However, it should be noted that structural error will exist
even if no graphical or mechanical errors were present.

The branch defect may exist if the designed linkage has two distinct modes of assembly.
In this case, it is possible that the design meets the prescribed requirements at each of the precision
points, but it cannot be moved continuously between these positions without being taken apart and
reassembled in the second mode. Obviously such linkages have no practical use.

The order defect refers to a linkage that satisfies all the precision points, say, 1, 2, 3 and 4,
but cannot reach these points in that order. The desired configurations may be taken up in the
sequence 1, 2, 4 and then 3, or 1, 3, 2 and then 4, etc.

Chebychev Spacing of Precision Points

Precision points or positions are the successive locations of the output link prescribed, at
which the mechanism fits the desired characteristics. The amount of structural error in kinematic
synthesis solution can be affected by the choice of the precision points. One of the problems of
linkage design is to select a set of precision points for use in the synthesis procedure which will
minimise the structural error. For many function generation problems the structural error in a four-
bar linkage solution can be held to less than 4%.

A very good trial for spacing the precision points so as to minimise the structural error is
obtained by the method of chebychev spacing. For ‘n’ precision points in the range x0  x  xn 1
the precision points xj; according to chebychev spacing, are given by
1 1 (2j –1) 
xj  (x n 1  x 0 ) – (x n 1  x 0 ) Cos
2 2 2n

where j = 1, 2, ...., n

Example: If a linkage is required to be designed to generate the function y = x 0.8 over the range
1  x  3 using three positions, the values of xj at these three precision points are:

1 1 (2 1–1) 
x1  (3 1) – (3–1) Cos  2 – Cos  1.134
2 2 2 3 6

1 1 (2  2 –1)
x 2  (3 1) – (3–1) Cos  2.000
2 2 2 3

1 1 (2  3–1)
x3  (3 1) – (3–1) Cos  2.866
2 2 2 3

The corresponding values of ‘y’ are

y1  x10.8  1.1340.8  1.106

y2  x 20.8  20.8  1.741

y3  x30.8  2.8660.8  2.322

 Chebychev spacing of the precision points can also be found graphically, as shown. A
circle is first constructed whose diameter is equal to the range, x  xn 1 – x0 . Then a regular

polygon having 2n sides is inscribed in this circle. Perpendiculars are then drawn from each corner
to intersect the diameter x at the precision points.

Consider a four-bar mechanism arranged to generate a function y = f(x) over the range
x0  x  xn 1 . The corresponding range in the angular movement of the driver crank is 0    n 1

. Similarly, the range in y is y0  y  yn1 and the corresponding range in the angular movement of

the follower crank 0    n1 .

Assuming a linear relationship between x and  as shown above,

n 1 – 0
0  (x – x0 )
x n 1 – x0

n 1 – 0
Similarly   0  (y – y0 )
yn 1 – y0

For n precision points these equations can be written as

n 1 – 0
 j 0  (x j – x0 )
x n 1 – x0


0  (x j – x 0 )
x
 
and  j  0  (y j – y0 )
y

where j  1, 2, ..., n x  xn1 – x0 ,   n 1 – 0

y  yn 1 – y0 , and   n 1 – 0

Example: A four bar mechanism is to be designed by using three precision points to generate the
function y = x1.5 for the range 1  x  4 . Assuming 300 starting position and 1200 finishing
position for the input link 900 starting position and 1800 finishing position for the output link, find
the values of x, y,  and  corresponding to three precision points. Use Chebychev positioning.

Given : x = 3

x0  1 xn 1  4  x  4 – 1  3

y0  1 1.5  1 yn 1  41.5  8  y  8 – 1  7

0  30 0 n 1  1200  8    120 – 30  900

0  90 0 n 1  1800  8    180 – 90  900

j xj j yj j

1 1  x1.5 
2
(x n 1  x 0 ) – (x n 1  x 0 ) 
2
0
x
(xj – x 0 ) j
0 
y

y j  y0 
(2 j –1)
cos
2x

0 1 30o 1 90o

1 1.2 36o 1.316 94.06 o

2 2.5 75o 3.952 127.95o

3 3.8 114o 7.410 172.41o

4 4 120o 8 180o

Analytical synthesis of four bar mechanism

 Replace the four links of the four bar mechanism with position victors, as shows
above. Then the vector sum will be zero. That is,

r1  r2  r3  r4  0

Then the components of these vectors in the x and y directions should also separately add up
to zero. The component sums are

r1 cos 1  r2 cos 2  r3 cos 3  r4 cos 4  0

r1 sin 1  r2 sin 2  r3 sin 3  r4 sin 4  0

From the figure it can be seen that sin 1  0 and cos 1  1, since 1  1 , Substituting, the
equations become

r1  r2 cos 2  r3 cos 3  r4 cos 4  0

r2 sin 2  r3 sin 3  r4 sin 4  0

For eliminating coupler angle 3 in the equations, move all terms to the right hand side of

the equations, except those with 3 and square both sides. We get

r32 cos2 3   r1  r2 cos 2  r4 cos 4 

2

and r32 sin2 3   r2 sin 2  r4 sin 4 

2

Expand the right hand sides and add the equations.

Then, r32  r12  r22  r42  2r1r2 cos 2  2r1r4 cos 4

2r2r4  cos 2 cos 4  sin 2 sin 4 

 ie, r32  r12  r22  r42  2r1r2 cos 2  2r1r4 cos 4  2r2 r4 cos  2  4 

r32  r12  r22  r42 r1 r

ie,  cos 2  1 cos 4  cos  2  4 
2r2r4 r4 r2

This equation can be written as

k1 cos 2  k 2 cos 4  k 3  cos  2  4 

r1 r1
where k1  k2 
r4 r2

r32  r12  r22  r42

and k3 
2r2r4

This is cal

This is called Freudenstein’s equation and can be used for analytical synthesis of a four bar
mechanism. (Take special care of 4 ).

If we wish to synthesise a four bar linkage such that the output crank occupies the angular
positions 1, 2 , 3 corresponding to the angular positions 1, 2 , 3 of the input crank, these

values can be substituted in the Freudenstein’s equation  for 2 and  for 4 . Then we get
the three equations:

k1 cos 1  k 2 cos 1  k3  cos  1  1 

k1 cos  2  k 2 cos 2  k3  cos   2  2 

k1 cos 3  k 2 cos 3  k 3  cos  3  3 

These simultaneous equations are solved to get the values of k1, k2 and k3. Then a length,
say for r1, is selected and the equations for k1, k2 and k3 are solved for the corresponding dimensions
of the other links. r2, r3 and r4.

Examples 1 and 2

On occasion, linkages are synthesised given their instantaneous motion characteristics. In

case of a four bar linkage, the positions, velocities and accelerations of the input and output cranks
for any instant are specified. Then the Freudenstein’s equation, which pertains to the position of
the mechanism, is differentiated with respect to time, to get the equation for the velocities. The
velocity equation is further differentiated with respect to time to get the acceleration equation.

Thus, we have three simultaneous equations in three unknowns, viz, k1, k2 and k3. These
are solved to get their values. Further, assuming the length of one link, the dimensions of other
links are calculated. Example 3.

Analytical Synthesis of Slider Crank Mechanism

In the case of a slider crank mechanism the displacement of the slider must be coordinated
with the rotation of the crank O2A in a prescribed manner. In the case of a function generator, the
displacement must follow a function, y = f(x).

If displacement is proportional to the rotation of the crank, it may be written

as S  Si  C  2  2i  for 2i  2  27 ,

Where S = position of the slider, 2 = Orientation of the crank; C = given proportionality.

In the x – y coordinate system, as shown in figure above, points A and B have the
coordinates A (xA, yA) and B(xB, yB) where xA = r2 cos 2 and yA  r2 sin 2

XB  S and yB  r4

From the triangle ABC

AB2 = BC2 + AC2   x A  x B    yA  yB 

2 2

But AB = r3 and substituting for xA , xB , yA and yB .

r32   r2 cos 2  S   r2 sin 2  r4 

2 2

 r22  S2  2Sr2 cos 2  2r2r4 sin 2  r42

or 2r2Scos 2  2r2r4 sin 2  r22  r32  r42  S2

ie, k1Scos 2  k 2 sin 2  k3  S2

where k1  2r2
 k2  2r2r4

k 3  r22  r32  r42

This equation is similar to the Freudenstein’s equation for the four bar linkage and can be
used in a similar manner for the synthesis of a single crank mechanism.

Also, when the instantaneous conditions of a slider crank mechanism are given, three
simultaneous equations can be generated by first differentiating the position equation with respect
to time to get the velocity equation and the velocity equation, in turn, can be further differentiated
with respect to time for the acceleration equation. Solving these equations gives the required link
dimensions.

Examples 1 and 2

Overlay method
 Synthesis of a function generator using the overlay method is the easiest and quickest of
all methods. But it is not always possible to obtain a solution and sometimes the accuracy is poor.
Theoretically, as many precision points as desired can be used in this method.

The first step in the synthesis is to choose a suitable length for O2A, the input crank and
another for the coupler AB. On a sheet of tracing paper, construct the input rocker O2A in all its
six positions. Then with the length of AB as radius, draw arcs numbered 1 to 6 using A1 to A6
respectively as centres (Fig.1)

On another sheet of paper, construct the output rocker, whose length is unknown, in all its
six positions. With O4 as centre, draw a number of equally spaced arcs intersecting the lines O41,
O42, etc. These arcs represent possible lengths of output rocker (Fig. 2).

The final step is to manipulate the tracing (Fig.1) over the drawing (Fig.2) in an effort to
find a fit. A fit is obtained when the ‘B’ arcs on the tracing paper intersect the respective radial
lines from O4 on the drawing such that all intersecting points lie on the same arc on the drawing.
The fit so found is shown in Fig. 3.

Sometimes no such fit may be found. Then trials have to be attempted by changing the
assumed dimensions and/or drawing more arcs on the drawing paper.

Transmission Angle

The quality of synthesis, or whether the synthesised mechanism is a good one or a poor
one is judged by various parameters. Though there is no single “index of merit” for all mechanisms,
most of the indices are related to the velocity ratios of the mechanism, and therefore can be
determined from the geometry of the mechanism. One such index of merit used to judge a four bar
mechanism is the “transmission angle”.

Consider the four bar linkage shown in figure 1. This linkage is the crank-rocker type; link
2 is the driver, link 4 the follower, link 1 the frame and link 3 the coupler.

The transmission angle r shown in the figure is the angle between the output link and the
coupler. The value of this transmission angle varies continuously from some minimum to some
maximum value as the linkage goes through its range of motion.

The different instantaneous centres of the mechanism are marked in figure 1. I24 is the
instantaneous centre of links 2 and 4. The velocity VI24 of this point taken as a point of either of
the two links must be the same, by the definition of an instantaneous centre. Hence, VI24 = 2 × I24
A =  4 × I24D where W2 and W4 are the respective angular velocities of links 2 and 4.

2 I24 D
Therefore, 
4 I24 A

The mechanical advantage of a linkage is the ratio of the output torque exerted by the
driven link to the necessary input torque required at the driver.

T4
That is, M.A. 
T2

If friction and inertia forces of the linkage are neglected, the input power must equal the
output power; hence

T22  T44 T2 W2 = T4 W4

T4 2 I24 D
Or mechanical advantage   
T2 4 I24 A
 Construct BA and CD perpendicular to the line I24 BC. Then by similar triangles

I24 D CD CDsin 

 
I24 A BA BAsin 

Hence the mechanical advantage of a four bar linkage is directly proportional to the sine of
the transmission angle. The transmission angle and the mechanical advantage are continuously
changing as the mechanism moves.

Figure 3 shows torque T2 applied to link 2. This causes a force F34 to be applied by link 3
to link 4 at point C. Its radial and tangential components Fr34 and Ft34 are resolved parallel and
perpendicular to link 4 respectively. Ideally, all the force F34 should go into producing the output
torque T4 on link 4. However, only the tangential component creates the torque T4

The radial component Fr34 only produces tension or compression in link 4. This, the
optimum value of the transmission angle is 90o . When r is less than 45o , the radial component of
the force is larger than its tangential component. Most machine designers try to keep the minimum
transmission angle above about 40o, to promote smooth running and good force transmission.

The transmission angle provides one means to judge the quality of a newly synthesised
linkage. If it is unsatisfactory, you can iterate through the synthesis procedure to improve the
design.

Toggle position of truck tail gate, indicating zero transmission angle – application of four
bar linkage.

Two - position Synthesis

There are many graphical solutions for synthesis of a mechanism, even if only two -
positions are specified. A simple two – position synthesis of a crank – rocker mechanism is
described here.

Finished linkage
 2-Position Synthesis of a Function Generator

Problem: Design a four bar crank –rocker to give 45 o of rocker rotation with equal
time forward and back from a constant speed motor input.

Synthesis :

1. Draw the output link O4B in its two extreme positions, O4B1, and O4B2, in any
convenient location (length O4B is arbitrarily chosen) such that the desired angle of motion, 4 =
45o is subtended at 4

2. Draw the Chord B1B2 and extend it in either direction.

3. Select a convenient point O2 on line B1B2 extended.

 4. Bisect line segment B1B2, and draw a circle of that radium about O2

5. The two intersections of the circle with extended line B1B2 are marked A1 and A2
as shown.

6. The length of coupler is A1B1 or A2B2

7. The length of all the links can then be measured as :

ground (frame) link 1 – O2O4

crank link 2 – O2A

Coupler link 3 – A B

rocker link 4 – O4B

8. Make a cardboard model of the linkage and articulate it to check its function and
its transmission angles.

It is seen that, in the above procedure many arbitrary decisions and assumption are made
because there are many more variables than the relationships specified. These choices are actually
definitions of design parameters. A poor choice will lead to a poor design.

Thus these are qualitative synthesis approaches and require an iterative process. The first
solution reached will probably be not satisfactory, and several attempts (iterations) shall be
necessary.