User’s Guide to

Fiber-Optic Video
Transmission

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 Table of Contents
Introduction to Fiber Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Early Applications for Fiber Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Information Transmission Over Fiber Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Advantages of Fiber-Optic Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
End-to-End System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
System Testing, Troubleshooting, and Maintenance . . . . . 14
Fiber-Optic Transmission Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Applications for Video Fiber-Optic Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fiber-Optic Routing Switchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Future of Video Fiber-Optic Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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2
Introduction To Fiber Optics
Fiber-Optic Medium
Fiber optics is a method of carrying information using optical fibers.
An optical fiber is a thin strand of glass or plastic that serves as the
transmission medium over which information is sent. It thus fills the
same basic function as a copper cable carrying a telephone conversa-
tion, computer data, or video. Unlike the copper cable, however, the FIGURE 6.10-1 Basic building blocks of a fiber-optic system.
optical fiber carries light instead of electrons. In so doing, it offers
many distinct advantages that make it the transmission medium of
choice for applications ranging from telephone calls, television, and
machine control. Early fiber optics exhibited high loss that limited transmis-
sion distances. To correct this, glass fibers were developed
The basic fiber-optic system is a link connecting two electronic
that included a separate glass coating. The innermost region
circuits. Figure 6.10-1 shows a simple fiber-optic link.
of the fiber, the core, carried the light, while the glass
There are three basic parts to a fiber-optic system: coating or cladding prevented the light from leaking out of
• Transmitter: The transmitter unit converts an electrical signal to an the core by refracting the light back into the inner boundar-
optical signal. The light source is typically a light-emitting diode, ies of the core. Snell’s Law explained this concept. It states
LED, or a laser diode. The light source performs the actual conver- that the angle at which a light reflects as it passes from one
sion from an electrical signal to an optical signal. The driving circuit material to another depends on the refractive indices of the
for the light source changes the electrical signal into the driving two materials.
current. In the case of fiber optics, this is the refractive index
• Fiber-optic cable: The fiber-optic cable is the transmission medium between the core and the cladding. Figure 6.10-2 illustrates
for carrying the light. The cable includes the optical fibers in their the equations for Snell’s Law. In this figure, the upper region
protective jacket. of the frame, n1, indicates a higher refractive index than the
lower region n2. The refractive index of the upper region is
• Receiver: The receiver accepts the light or photons and converts
designated as n1 while the lower region refractive index is
them back into an electrical signal. In most cases, the resulting
n2. The figure on the top shows the case with the angle of
electrical signal is identical to the original signal fed into the
the indices less than the critical angle. Note that the angle of
transmitter. There are two basic sections of a receiver. First is the
the light changes at the interface between the higher
detector that converts the optical signal back into an electrical
refractive index, in region 1, and the lower refractive index,
signal. The second section is the output circuit, which reshapes and
in region 2. In the center figure, the angle of indices has
rebuilds the original signal before passing it to the output.
increased to the critical angle. At this point all the refracted
Depending on the application, the transmitter and receiver circuitry light rays travel parallel to the interface region. In the figure
can be very simple or quite complex. Other components that make on the bottom, the angle of indices has increased to a value
up a fiber-optic transmission system, such as couplers, multiplexers, greater than the critical angle. In this case 100% of the light
optical amplifiers, and optical switches, provide the means for refracts at the interface region.
building more complex links and communications networks. The
Advancements in laser technology next elevated the
transmitter, fiber, and receiver, how- ever, are the basic elements in
fiber-optics industry. Only the light-emitting diode or its
every fiber-optic system.
higher powered counterpart, the laser diode, had the
Beyond the simple link, the fiber-optic medium is the fundamental potential to generate large amounts of light in a focused
building block for optical communications. Most electrical signals can beam small enough to be useful for fiber-optic transport.
be transported optically. Many optical components have been
Communications engineers quickly noticed the importance
invented to permit signals to be processed optically without electrical
of lasers and their higher modulation frequency capabilities.
conversion. Indeed, one goal of optical communications is to be able
Light has the capacity to carry 10,000 times more informa-
to operate entirely in the optical domain from system end to end.
tion than radio frequencies. Because environmental condi-
Snell’s Law

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FIGURE 6.10-2 Light wave refraction principles. The refraction index of
the core, n1, is always less than that of the cladding, n2. Light incident on the
boundary at less than the critical angle, φ1, propagates through the boundary,
but is refracted away from the normal to the boundary (a) at the critical angle,
φC, along the boundary (b). Light incident on the boundary at angles φ1
above the critical angle is totally internally reflected (c). (Adapted from Force,
Inc., illustration used with permission.)
tions, such as rain, snow, and fog, disrupt laser light, a transmission
scheme other than free space was needed. In 1966, Charles Kao and
Charles Hockham, working at the Standard Telecommunications
Laboratory, presented optical fibers as an ideal transmission
medium, assuming fiber-optic attenuation could be kept under 20
dB per kilometer. Optical fibers of the day exhibited losses of 1,000
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dB/km or more. At a loss of 20 dB/km, 99% of the light
would be lost over only 1000 meters (3300 ft).
Scientists theorized that the high levels of loss were due to
impurities in the glass and not the glass itself. At the time in
1970, an optical loss of 20 dB/km was within the capabilities
of electronics and opto-electronic components for short
distances (less than 1 km) but not for longer distances
(greater than 1 km). Dr. Robert Maurer, Donald Keck, and
Peter Schultz of Corning succeeded in developing a glass
fiber that exhibited attenuation at less than 20 dB/km, the
limit for making fiber optics a usable technology. Other
advances of the day, such as semiconductor chips, optical
detectors, and optical connectors, initiated the true begin-
nings of the fiber-optic communications industry.
Optical Windows and Spectrum
Wavelength remains a significant factor in fiber-optic
developments. Figure 6.10-3 illustrates the wavelength
“windows.” Table 6.10-1 shows the wavelength of each
optical window and the typical application for multimode
(MM) or single-mode (SM) operation.
The earliest
FIGURE 6.10-3fiber-optic systems
Fiber attenuation were
versus lightdeveloped
wave- length at an
characteristics.
operating wavelength of about 850 nm. This wave- length
corresponded to the so called “first window” in a silica-based
optical fiber, as shown in Figure 6.10-3. This window refers to
the wavelength region that will offer a low optical loss that
sits between several large absorption peaks. The absorption
peaks are caused primarily by moisture in the fiber and
Rayleigh scattering, which is the scattering of light due to
random variations in the index of refraction caused by
irregularities in the structure of the glass.
The attraction to the 850 nm region came from its ability to
use low-cost infrared LEDs and low-cost sili- con detectors.
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TABLE 6.10-1 De Facto Standard Light Wavelengths
As technology progressed, the first window lost its appeal due to its
relatively high 3 dB/km losses. Most companies began to exploit the
“second window” at 1310 nm with a lower attenuation of about
0.5 dB/km. In late 1977, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone developed
the “third window” at 1550 nm. The third window offers an optical
loss of about 0.2 dB/km.
The three optical windows—850 nm, 1310 nm, and 1550 nm—are
used in many fiber-optic installations today. The visible wavelength
near 660 nm is used in low-end, short-distance systems. Each wave-
length has its advantages. Longer wavelengths offer higher perfor-
mance, but always come with higher cost.
Table 6.10-2 provides the typical optic attenuation for each of the
common wavelengths versus the fiber- optic cable diameter. A
narrower core fiber has less optical attenuation.
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), an international
organization that promotes world-wide telecommunications
standards, has specified six transmission bands for fiber-optic
transmission. The first is the O band (“original band”), which is from
1260–1310 nm. The second band is the E band (“extended
band”), which is 1360–1460 nm. The third band is the S band (“short
band”), which is 1460–1530nm. The fourth band in the spectrum is
the C band (“conventional band”), which is 1530–1565 nm. The fifth
band is the L band (“longer band”), which is 1560–1625 nm. The sixth
band is the U band (“ultra band”), which is 1625–1675 nm. There is a
TABLE 6.10-2 Typical Optical Fiber Loss
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seventh band that has not been defined by the ITU that is in
the 850 nm region. It is mostly used in private networks. The
seventh band is widely used in high-speed computer
networking, video distribution, and corporate applications.
Researchers have attempted to develop new fiber optics
that could reduce costs or improve performance. Some
alternative fiber materials have found specialized usage.
Plastic fiber is ideal for short transmission distances that
are ideal for home theater installations. Lower cost glass
fiber reduces the need to develop longer distance plastic
fiber and the higher cost of copper wire has expanded glass
fiber-optic cable applications.
Types of Fiber-Optic Material
There are two distinct parts of a fiber optic cable—the
optical fiber that carries the signal and the protective
covering that keeps the fiber safe from environmental and
mechanical damage. This section deals specifically with the
optical fiber.
An optical fiber has two concentric layers called core and
cladding. The core (inner part) is the light-carrying part. The
surrounding cladding provides the difference in refractive
index that allows total internal reflection of light through
the core. The index of refraction of the cladding is less
than 1% lower than that of the core. Typical values, for
example, are a core index of 1.47 and cladding index of 1.46.
Fiber manufacturers must carefully control this difference
to obtain the desired fiber characteristics.
Fibers have an additional coating around the cladding. This
coating, which is usually one or more layers of polymer,
protects the core and cladding from shocks that might
affect their optical or physical properties. The coating has no
optical properties affecting the propagation of light within
the fiber. This coating is just a shock absorber.
Figure 6.10-4 shows the light traveling through a fiber. Light
injected into the fiber and striking the core-to-cladding
interface at a critical angle reflects back into the core. Since
the angles of incident and reflection are equal, the light will
again be reflected. The light will continue as expected down
the length of the fiber.
Light, however, striking the interface at less than the critical
angle passes into the cladding, where it is lost over distance.
The cladding is usually inefficient as a light carrier, and light
in the cladding become attenuated fairly rapidly. The
propagation of light is governed by the indices of the core
and cladding and by Snell’s Law.
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FIGURE 6.10-4 Total internal reflection in an optical fiber. Rays of light incident on the
core/cladding boundary at greater than the critical angle, determined by the quotient
n1/n2, propagate down the fiber’s core at a velocity determined by that fiber’s value. One
ray is shown to keep the diagram simple. (From AMP, Inc., copyright illustration, used
with permission.)
Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation
through a simple optical fiber. This analysis considers only meridional
rays, the rays that pass through the fiber center axis each time
they are reflected. Other rays, called skew rays, travel down the fiber
without passing through the axis. The path of the skew ray is typically
helical, wrapping around and around the center axis. To simply
analyze, skewer rays are ignored in most fiber-optics analysis.
A cone known as the acceptance cone, shown in Figure 6.10-5, defines
which light will be accepted and propagated by a total internal
reflection. Light that enters the core from within this acceptance cone
refracts down the fiber. Light outside the cone will not strike the
core-to-cladding interface at the proper angle that allows total
internal reflection. This light will not propagate.
The specific characteristics of light propagation through fiber depend
on many factors. The factors include the size and composition of the
fiber as well as the light source injected into the fiber. An understand-
ing of the interplay between these properties will clarify many
aspects of fiber optics.
FIGURE 6.10-5 Light ray acceptance cone geometry. The acceptance cone is an
imaginary right angle cone extending outward coaxially from the fiber’s core. It is a
measure of the light-gathering capability of a fiber. Its ray acceptance angle, called the
numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber, is uniquely determined by the refractive indices of
that fiber’s core and clad- ding. (From AMP, Inc., copyright illustration, used with
permission.)
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FIGURE 6.10-6 shows the difference between the input pulse injected into a
fiber and the output pulses exiting the fiber. The decrease in the height of the
pulse shows the loss of optical signal power. The broadening of the pulse
shows the bandwidth limiting effects of the fibers. It also shows the different
paths of rays of light traveling down the fiber. And, it shows the relative index
of refraction of the core and cladding for each type of fiber.
Fiber itself has a very small diameter. Table 6.10-3 provides
the core and cladding diameters of four commonly used
fibers.
To realize how small these fibers are, note that human hair
has a diameter of about 100 μ. Fiber sizes are usually
expressed by first giving the core size, followed by the
cladding size. Thus, 50/125 means a core diameter of 50
microns (μm) and a cladding diameter of 125 microns (μm).
Optical fibers are classified in two ways. One way is by the
material makeup:
• Glass fiber: Glass fibers have a glass core and glass
cladding. They are the most widely used type of fiber. The
glass used in an optical fiber is an ultra pure and transpar-
ent silicon dioxide or fused quartz. If ocean water was as
clear as fiber, one could see to the bottom of the Marianas
Trench in the Pacific Ocean, a depth of 36,000 feet.
Impurities are purposely added to the pure class to
achieve the desired index of refraction. The elements
germanium and phosphorus are added to increase the
refractive index of the glass. Boron or fluorine is used to
decrease the index. There are other impurities that are not
removed when the class is purified. These additional
impurities also affect the fiber properties by increasing
attenuation from scattering or by the absorbing light.
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 TABLE 6.10-3
Core and Cladding Diameters of Four Commonly Used Fibers
• Plastic-clad silica (PCS): PCS fibers have a glass core and plastic
cladding. The performance of PCS fiber is limited compared to a
fiber made of all glass.
• Plastic: Plastic fibers have a plastic core and plastic cladding. Plastic
fibers are limited by high optical loss and low bandwidth. The very
low cost and ease of use make them attractive for applications
where low bandwidth or high losses are acceptable. Plastic and PCS
fibers do not have the buffer coating surrounding the cladding.
The second way to classify fibers is by the refractive index of the core
and the modes that the fiber propagates. Fiber can be categorized
into three general types; Figure 6.10-6 shows the three general
fiber types and their basic characteristics.
Modes
Mode is a mathematical or physical concept describing the propaga-
tion of an electromagnetic wave through any media. In its mathemat-
ical form, mode theory derives from Maxwell’s equations. James Max-
well first developed mathematical expressions to the relationship
between electric and magnetic energy. He proved that they were
both a single form of electro-magnetic energy, not two different
forms as was then commonly believed. His equations also showed
that the propagation of electromagnetic energy follows strict rules.
Maxwell’s equations form the basis of electromagnetic theory.
A mode is a solution to Maxwell’s equations. For purposes of this
chapter, a mode is simply a path that a ray of light travels down a
fiber. The number of modes that a given fiber will support ranges
from 1 to over 100,000 individual rays of light. This depends on the
physical properties of the fiber and fiber diameter.
Refractive Index Profile
The refractive index profile describes the relationship between the
indices of the core and cladding. Two main relationships exist: step
index and graded index. The step index fiber has a core with a
uniform index throughout. The profile shows a sharp step at the junc-
tion of the core and cladding. In contrast, graded index has a
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nonuniform core. The index is highest at the center of the
core and gradually decreases until it matches that of the
cladding. Therefore, there is no sharp transition between the
core and the cladding. By this classification, there are three
types of fibers:
• Multimode step index fiber, commonly called step index
fiber.
• Single-mode step index fiber, called single-mode fiber.
• Multimode degraded index fiber, called graded index fiber.
The characteristics of each type have an important bearing
on its suitability for particular applications.
Step Index Multimode Fiber
The multimode step index fiber is the simplest type. It has a
core diameter from 100–970 microns. This fiber type
includes glass, PCS, and plastic fibers. The step index fiber is
the most widely used fiber type. This is despite relatively low
bandwidth and high losses.
Since light reflects at different angles for different paths, the
different rays of light take a shorter or longer time to
propagate down the fiber. The ray of light that travels
straight down the center of the core arrives at the other end
first. Other rays of light arrive later, since they refract back
and forth in a zigzag path. Therefore, rays of light that enter
the fiber at the same time exit the fiber at different times.
The effect is that the light has spread out in time.
This spreading of an optical pulse is called modal dispersion.
A pulse of light that began as a tight and precisely defined
shape has dispersed or spread over time. Dispersion
describes the spreading of light by various mechanisms.
Modal dispersion is that type of dispersion that results from
the varying path lengths of each mode of light as it propa-
gates through the fiber.
The typical modal dispersion for a stepped index fiber
ranges from 15–30 ns per kilometer. This means that when
rays of light enter a 1 km long fiber at the same time, the ray
of light that takes the longest path will arrive 15–30 ns after
the ray of light that took the shortest path.
The modal dispersion of 15–30 billionths of a second does
not seem to be very much, but dispersion is a fiber’s main
limiting factor to bandwidth. Pulse spreading results in
the overlapping of adjacent pulses, as shown in Figure
6.10-7. Eventually the pulses will merge so that one pulse
cannot be distinguished from another. This results in the loss
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FIGURE 6.10-7 Pulse spreading due to modal dispersion.
of information. Reducing the modal dispersion in a fiber will increase
a fiber’s bandwidth.
Graded Index Multimode Fiber
One way to reduce modal dispersion is to use graded index fiber.
Here the core has numerous concentric layers of glass, somewhat like
the annular rings of a tree. Each successive layer outward from the
central axis of the core has a lower index of refraction.
Light travels faster in a lower index of refraction, so the further the
light is from the center axis, the greater the speed. Each layer of the
core refracts the light. Instead of being sharply refracted as it is in a
step index fiber, the light is now bent or continually refracted in
almost a sinusoidal pattern. Those rays that follow the longest path
by traveling in the outside of the core have a faster average velocity.
The light traveling near the center of the core has the slowest average
velocity. As a result, all rays tend to reach the end of the fiber at the
same time. The graded index reduces modal dispersion to 1 ns per
kilometer or less.
Popular graded index fibers have a core diameter of 50 or 62.5
microns and a cladding diameter of 125 microns. The fiber is popular
in applications requiring high bandwidth, especially telecommunica-
tions, local area networks, computers, and video applications.
Single-Mode Fiber
Another way to reduce modal dispersion is to reduce the core’s
diameter until the fiber propagates only one mode efficiently. The
single-mode fiber has a very small core diameter of only 5–12
microns. The standard cladding diameter is 125 microns. The cladding
diameter was chosen for three reasons:
• The cladding must be about 10 times thicker than the core in a
single-mode fiber. For a fiber with an 8 or 9 μm core, the cladding
should be at least 80 μm.
• It is the same size as a graded index fiber that pro- motes size
standardization.
• It promotes easy handling because it makes the fiber less fragile
and because the diameter is reasonably large so that it can be
handled by technicians.
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Since the single-mode fiber only carries one mode, modal
dispersion does not exist. Single-mode fibers have a poten-
tial bandwidth of 50–100 GHz-kilometers. Present fiber has a
bandwidth of several GHz and allows transmissions of tens
of kilometers.
Dispersion-Shifted Single-Mode Fibers
There are three types of single-mode optical fibers usually
found in typical applications for telecommunications and
data networks. Beyond standard single-mode fibers, there
are also dispersion-shifted (DS) fibers and nonzero-disper-
sion-shifted (NZ-DS) fibers. The purpose of these fibers is to
reduce dispersion in the transmission window having the
lowest attenua- tion. Normally, attenuation is lowest in the
1550 nm window and dispersion is lowest in the 1310 nm
win- dow. Dispersion shifting creates a fiber that shifts the
lowest dispersion to the 1550 nm region. This shifting of
dispersion results in a fiber suited for highest data rates and
longest transmission distances. In a standard single-mode
fiber, the points of lowest loss and high- est bandwidth do
not coincide. Dispersion shifting brings them closer togeth-
er.
Early Applications For
Fiber Optics
The U.S. armed services immediately took advantage of fiber
optics to improve its communications and tactical systems.
In the early 1970s, the U.S. navy installed a fiber-optic
telephone system aboard the USS Little Rock. In 1976, the air
force followed suit by developing its Airborne Light Optical
Fiber Technol- ogy (ALOFT) program. The early successes of
these applications spawned a number of military research
and development programs to create stronger fibers,
tactical cables, and ruggedized, high-performance compo-
nents for applications ranging from aircraft to undersea.
Soon after, commercial applications began to appear. The
broadcast television industry was always interested in
systems that offered superior video trans- mission quality. In
1980, broadcasters of the winter Olympics, in Lake Placid,
New York, requested a fiber- optic video transmission
system for backup video feeds. The fiber-optic feed, because
of its quality and reliability, soon became the primary video
feed, making the 1980 winter Olympics the first use of fiber
optics for a live television production in history.
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The telecommunications industries took advantage of this new
technology. In 1977, both AT&T and GTE created fiber-optic
telephone systems in Chicago and Boston, respectively. Soon after,
fiber-optic telephone networks increased in number and reach.
Network designers originally specified multimode-grated index fiber,
but by the early 1980s, single-mode fiber operating in the 1310 nm
and later in the 1550 nm wavelength windows became the standard.
In 1983, British Telecom’s entire phone system used single-mode fiber
exclusively. Computer and information networks slowly moved to
fiber. Today fiber is favored over copper due to lighter-weight
cables, lightning strike immunity, and the increased bandwidth over
longer distances.
In the mid-1980s, the U.S. government deregulated telephone
service, allowing small telephone companies to compete with the
giant, AT&T. MCI and Sprint led the way by installing regional
fiber-optic telecommunications networks throughout the world.
Existing natural rights of way, such as railroad lines and gaspipes,
allowed these and other companies to install thousands of miles of
fiber-optic cable. With this boom, the fiber manufacturer’s output
capacity struggled to keep up with the demand of the optical fibern
eded to increase bandwidth over greater distances...
In 1990, Bell Labs sent a 2.5 gigabit-per-second signal over 7,500 km
without regeneration. With the use of soliton lasers and an
erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA), the light pulses maintained
their shape
and intensity. In 1998, Bell Labs researchers transmitted 100 simulta-
neous optical signals. Each optical signal was at a data rate of 10
Gbps and was transported for a distance of nearly 250 miles. The
bandwidth on one fiber was increased to 1 terabit per second. This
was achieved using dense wavelength-division multiplexing
(DWDM) technology, which allows multiple wavelengths to be
combined into one optical signal. FIGURE 6.10-8 illustrates a basic
DWDM system.
DWDM technologies continue to develop as the need for band-
width increases. The potential bandwidth of fiber is 50 terahertz or
better. DWDM technology has decreased greatly in cost and
power consumption over the years. The DWDM laser technology
requires strict temperature control and compensation. This makes the
FIGURE 6.10-8 Dense wave-division multiplexing.
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device draw high amounts of power and adds to the system
costs. Today it is still a rather expensive form of optical
multiplexing.
More commonly used in the broadcast television industry is
coarse wave-division multiplexing (CWDM). CWDM technol-
ogy gives the ability for up to 18 simultaneous optical
signals on one fiber. This gives a usable bandwidth of more
than 70 Gbps. CWDM optics are relatively common that
operate at 4 Gbps.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) mandated
that all broadcasters switch from analog to digital transmis-
sion, which provides the capacity for high definition (HDTV).
This presented researchers with the challenge to provide
high bandwidth fiber-optic transport for HDTV. Beyond
broadcast television, however, consumers are requesting to
have broadband services, including data, audio, and video,
delivered to the home.
Information Transmission
Over Fiber Optics
A fiber-optic cable provides a pipeline that can carry large
amounts of information. Copper wires or copper coaxial
cable carry modulated electrical signals but only a limited
amount of information, due to the inherent characteristics
of copper cable.
Free-space transmission, such as radio and TV signals,
provides information transmission to many people, but this
transmissions scheme cannot offer private channels. Also,
the free-space spectrum is becoming a costly commodity
with access governed by the FCC. Fiber-optic transmission
offers high bandwidth and data rates, but it does not add to
the crowded free- space spectrum.
Information Modulation Schemes
The modulation scheme is the manner in which the informa-
tion to be transported is encoded. Encoding information can
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improve the integrity of the trans- mission, allow more information to
be sent per unit time, and in some cases, take advantage of some
strength of the communication medium or overcome some weak-
ness.
Three basic techniques exist for transmitting information such as
video signals over fiber optics:
• Amplitude modulation (AM) includes baseband AM, radio frequen-
cy (RF) carrier AM, and vestigial sideband AM.
• Frequency modulation (FM) includes sine wave FM, square wave
FM, pulse FM, and FM-encoded vestigial sideband.
• Digital modulation of the optical light source with the ones and
zeros of a digital data stream. A simplified explanation is that the
light or laser source is off for a digital zero and on for a digital one.
In actual practice, the light source never completely shuts off. The
light source modulates darker and lighter for digital zero and one
information.
Advantages of Fiber-Optic
Transmission
In addition to fiber optics technical advantages, the cost of materials
for Fiber optics is becoming more attractive because the cost of
copper wire has risen substantially in recent years.
Longer Distances
A significant benefit of fiber-optic transmission is the capability to
transport signals long distances. Basic systems are capable of sending
signals up to 5 km over multimode fiber and up to 80 km over single
mode without repeaters. Most modern fiber-optic systems transport
information digitally. A digital fiber-optic system can be repeated or
regenerated virtually indefinitely. An electro-optical repeater or an
erbium doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) can be used to regenerate or
amplify the optical signal.
Multiple Signals
As discussed in previous sections, fiber has a band- width of more
than 70 GHz using typical off-the-shelf fiber-optic transport equip-
ment. Theoretically, hundreds, even thousands, of video and audio
signals can be transported over a single fiber. This is achieved by
using a combination of time-division multiplexing (TDM) and optical
multiplexing. Fiber-optic transport equipment is readily available to
transport more than 8 video and 32 audio channels per wavelength.
Off- the-shelf coarse wave-division multiplexing CWDM equipment
easily provides up to 18 wavelengths. This combination of equipment
provides up to 144 video and 576 audio channels, as shown in Figure
6.10-9.
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Size
Fiber-optic cable is very small in diameter and size when
compared to copper. A single strand of fiber- optic cable is
about 3 mm. A video coaxial cable is typically much larger.
Fiber cable facilitates higher capacity in building conduits.
There is often limited space in existing building conduits for
infrastructure expansion. In mobile and field productions for
sports and news events, fiber is often the cable of choice
due to space limitations in a mobile and electronic news-
gathering vehicle.
Weight
A fiber-optic cable is substantially lighter in weight than
copper cable. A single core PVC-jacketed fiber weighs about
25 pounds per kilometer; RG-6 copper coaxial cable may be
three to four times as much.
Noise Immunity
A signal traveling on a copper cable is susceptible to
electromagnetic interference. In many applications it is
unavoidable to have to route cabling near power substa-
tions; heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
equipment; and other industrial sources of interference. A
signal traveling as photons in an optical fiber is immune to
such interference. The photons traveling down a fiber cable
are immune to the effects of electromagnetic interference.
In military applications, fiber systems are immune to an
electromagnetic pulse (EMP) generated by a nuclear
explosion in the Earth’s atmosphere. Fiber-optic equipment
is used in command and control bunkers to isolate facilities
and systems from EMP interference. A fiber-optic signal does
not radiate any interference or noise.
Ease of Installation
One of the myths regarding fiber is that it is difficult to install
and maintain. This may have been true in the early days, but
now it is as simple to terminate an optical fiber with a
connector as it is to install a BNC connector on coax.
Fiber-optic termination kits are now available that require
no epoxy and special polishing. Simple cable stripping tools
are used, similar to those used for copper coax, to prepare
the fiber for termination. Epoxy-free connectors are
available to terminate both multimode and single-mode
fiber-optic cable. The connectors are already pre-polished.
No pol-ishing equipment is needed.
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 FIGURE 6.10-9 Time-division and optical multiplexing equipment offers substantial capacity for carrying video and audio signals. (Courtesy of
Multidyne Video & Fiber Optic Systems.)
Connector Types
Over the years as fiber-optic communications have grown and
changed, there have been many different types of connectors. Today
there are four common connector types that are used in most
fiber-optic applications (Figure 6.10-10).
The first is the ST connector (Figure 6.10-10(a)). It is a bayonet-style
connector similar to a coaxial BNC connector, and is available for
single-mode and multi-mode applications.
The next style is the FC connector (Figure 6.10-10(b)). This connector
has a threaded screw–type receptacle. It is similar to an RF-type
connector, and is only used for single-mode applications.
The telecommunications industry standardized on the SC connector
(Figure 6.10-10(c)). It is a square snap-in–type connector and has
gained popularity in the video and computer networking industries.
Telecommunications and networking applications typically require
two fibers: one for transmitted data and one for received data traffic.
Since SC-type connectors were popular in these types of applications,
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two SC connectors were required. As the size of fiber
equipment reduced and the density of fiber-optic input/out-
puts (I/Os) increased, a small alternative to the SC connec-
tor was required. This led to the LC connector as shown in
Figure 6.10-10(d). An LC is approximately half the size of an
SC connector. It is rectangular in shape and has a locking
clip.
Ease of Splicing
Another myth is the repair or maintenance of a broken or
cut fiber. The cost of fusion splicing equipment has come
down significantly. The fusion splicer is a small portable
device that is easily carried in the field.
A fusion splice is easy to perform. First, the fiber is stripped
and prepared using simple tools. The fiber is then placed in
the fusion-splicing machine. An LCD screen shows the
device automatically aligning the fibers. With the press of a
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11

FIGURE 6.10-10 Fiber-optic communications connector types.
button a fusion arc is generated to splice the fibers together. The
fusion splicer even tests the connection when complete.
There is now an even simpler way to splice a fiber in the field—me-
chanical splicing. A mechanical splice consists of a small device that is
used to splice a fiber. It is about 2 inches long by 1/2 inch wide. The
process involves first stripping the fiber-optic cable and then insert-
ing the ends into the splicing unit with mating gel. A key is used to
close and clamp the unit shut. The mechanical splice gives fiber
installers the ability to splice and repair with inexpensive equipment
in areas where no electrical power is available.
Radiation and Security
Fiber-optic transport is a secure means of communications. Since a
fiber-optic cable emits or radiates no RF energy, it is impossible to
passively listen or to tap into a fiber-optic circuit. The only way to tap
into a fiber-optic cable is to physically cut the cable. An eaves-
dropper would have to cut the fiber and install a splitter to tap into
the fiber-optic link. The cut in the fiber and the inserted splitter can be
detected by fiber-optic test equipment.
Environmental Conditions
Fiber-optic cable is immune to most environmental conditions.
Fiber-optic cable is capable of tolerating temperature extremes.
Unlike copper cable, fiber is immune to moisture. Fiber is available
with jacketing that is resistant to nuclear radiation. Many fiber-optic
systems are used for the inspection of nuclear reactors. Many military
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applications require fiber-optic equipment and cable to
have resistance to radiation.
End-to-End System Design
A common misconception is that it is difficult to design a
fiber-optic system. There are simple calculations to be made
using information from the fiber- optic product datasheet.
When designing a fiber-optic system it is necessary to know
the number and type of signals to be sent through the fiber
as well as the trans- mission distance or required optical
budget. We also need to know the transmission distance or
required optical budget.
Transmitter Launch Power
The datasheet of any fiber-optic transport system will
provide the transmitter unit’s output optical power. There
may be different models with varying levels of output
power. A more powerful transmitter can be chosen to reach
a further transmission distance. A typical fiber-optic trans-
mitter has an output optical power of –8 dBm or 0.158
mW.
Receiver Sensitivity
The receiver sensitivity is another parameter found on any
fiber-optic equipment datasheet. The receiver sensitivity is
the minimum optical signal or power required for the
receiver unit to operate properly. Many systems have a
minimum receiver sensitivity of –28 dBm or 0.00158 mW.
The –28 dBm value represents an optical power that is 28
decibels below the 0 dBm or 1 mW reference point.
Optical Power Budget
The optical budget of a fiber-optic transport system takes
into account the optical power of the transmitter, loss in the
fiber for a given distance, receiver sensitivity, and
signal-to-noise required. Optical power, like electrical power,
is measured in watts or milliwatts. Fiber-optic systems are
typically designed using decibels referenced to 1 milliwatt
or 0 dBm. The following formula shows the conversion from
watts to decibels:
dBm = 10 × log(laser power in mW).
The output power of an optical laser may be 1 milliwatt. The
equivalent power in dBm would be 10 * log (1mW) = 0 dBm.
For 0.5 mW laser, output power would be 10 * log(0.5 mW) =
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12
–3 dBm.
The optical attenuation of a multimode fiber at the 850 nm wave-
length is about 3 dB/km. The attenuation on single-mode fiber at
1310 and 1550 nm is 0.5 and 0.2 dB/km, respectively. Using these
numbers we can calculate how much optical power is required to
reach a certain transmission distance. For example, a 10 km run over
single-mode fiber at 1310 nm would incur a loss of 5 dB (10 km × 0.5
dB/km). The optical budget that a fiber-optic system pro- vides is the
difference between the fiber-optic transmitter optical output power
and the receiver sensitivity. For example, if the transmitter power is –8
dBm and the minimum receiver level is –28 dBm, then the maximum
loss the system can withstand is 20 dBm.
In many cases it may seem that a multimode or single-mode fiber run
has optical power to reach 40–60 km. When transmissions exceed
about 5 km in multi- mode systems and about 15 km in single-mode
systems, other factors due to dispersion come into play and limit the
transmission distance.
Bandwidth
The optical losses and usable bandwidth of a fiber- optic system have
to be taken into account. As mentioned previously, multimode fibers
have greater losses and less bandwidth compared to single mode.
Single mode has lower losses and very high band- width than does
multimode.
Most manufacturers of multimode fiber-optic cable do not specify
dispersion. They will provide a figure of merit known as the band-
width-length product or just bandwidth with units of MHz-kilometer.
For example, 500 MHz-km translates to a 500 MHz signal that can be
transported 1 km. The product of the required bandwidth and
transmission distance cannot exceed 500:
BW × L ≤ 500
A lower bandwidth signal can be sent a longer distance. A 100 MHz
signal can be sent
L = BW – product/BW
= 500 MHz-km/100 MHz
= 5 km
Single-mode fiber typically has a dispersion specification provided by
the manufacturer. The dispersion is specified in picoseconds per
kilometer per nanometer of light source spectral width or ps/km/nm.
This loosely translates to the wider the spectral bandwidth of the laser
light source, the more dispersion. The analysis of dispersion of a
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single-mode fiber is very complex. An approximate
calculation can be made with the following formula:
BW = 0.187/(disp × SW × L),
where:
disp is the dispersion of the fiber at the operating
wavelength with units seconds per nanometer per
kilometer.
SW is the spectral width (rms) of the light source in
nanometers.
L is the length of fiber cable in kilometers.
For example, with a dispersion equal to 4 ps/nm/ km,
spectral width of 3 nm, and a transmission length of 20 km,
then:
BW = 0.187/(4 × 10–12 s/nm/km) × (3 nm) × (20 km)
BW = 779,166,667 Hz or about 800 MHz.
If the spectral width of the laser light source is doubled to 6
nm the bandwidth will drop to about 390 MHz. This shows
how significant the spectral width of the laser source is on
the usable bandwidth of a fiber. If a laser light source with a
narrow optical spectral width is used, or a fiber with a lower
dispersion figure, the bandwidth and transmission distance
will increase.
In single-mode fiber communications, there are two basic
types of laser light sources. The first type is the less expen-
sive laser that uses Fabre-Perot laser diode (FP-LD) technol-
ogy. The FP-LD is an inexpensive choice for digital fiber-op-
tic communication. With a spectral width of typically 4 nm
or more, it is primarily used for lower bandwidth or
short-distance applications. The second is the distributed
feedback laser diode (DFB-LD) technology. These light
sources are more expensive and are widely used for long-
distance fiber-optic communications. The typical spectral
width for a DFB laser is about 1 nm. When a DBF laser is
used in combination with a low dispersion fiber, the
transmission bandwidth and distance can be significantly
higher.
See Table 6.10-2, which shows the typical fiber-optic cable
losses, and Table 6.10-4, which shows the bandwidth for
different types of fiber cable.
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Optical Losses
Optical loss or attenuation can vary from 300 to 0.2 dBm/km for
plastic or single-mode fibers, respectively. Optical fiber has different
loss characteristics at different wavelengths. The optical windows, as
men- tioned earlier, are regions within the optical fiber spectrum with
low loss.
The earliest fiber-optic systems operated in the first optical window
in the 850 nm range. The second window is the 1310 nm range,
which has zero dispersion. The third window is the 1550 nm window.
A multi- mode fiber has an attenuation of about 4 dB/km at 850 nm
and about 2.5 dB/km at 1310 nm. The multimode fiber spectrum
attenuation curve is shown in Figure 6.10-3. Note the high loss
regions at 700, 1250, and 1380 nm. The single-mode fiber attenuation
FIGURE 6.10-11 Single-mode fiber attenuation curve.
curve is shown in Figure 6.10-11. There are high-loss regions at 800, (Courtesy of Corning Glass Works.)
1100, and 1490 nm regions. The high-loss region at about 1100 nm is
called the mode transition region. This is where the fiber changes
from multimode to single-mode characteristics. attenuation is constant at all bit rates and modulation
frequencies. The attenuation in copper cable increases at
In order to make use of the low-loss properties of a given region in
higher bit rates and modulation frequencies. In a copper
the fiber, the optic light source must generate light at that wave-
cable, a 100 MHz signal will be attenuated more per foot
length. For multimode fiber, light sources are used in the 850 and
than a 50 MHz signal. This results in distances and band-
1310 nm wavelengths. In single-mode fiber, light sources are typically
width limitation. In a fiber cable, the 100 Mhz and 50 MHz
at 1310 and 1550 nm. CWDM lasers are in the 1470–1610 nm range.
signals are attenuated the same.
The curve in Figure 6.10-11 shows that the fiber has low loss and a flat
spectrum at these wavelengths. Corning introduced a CWDM metro
fiber that eliminated the high water peak or the high-loss region
centered at about 1380 nm. Most single-mode fibers, on new installa- System Testing,
tion, use this flat- spectrum fiber with a usable spectrum from about
1270–1610 nm. The new fiber gives the ability to have up to 18
Troubleshooting, And
CWDM wavelengths on one single-mode fiber. Maintenance
Most video fiber-optic systems take advantage of the 18 usable There are simple procedures to test, troubleshoot, and
wavelengths. CWDM is far less expensive than its 42 wavelength maintain a fiber-optic system. For basic procedures only
counterpart, DWDM. With the fiber-optic systems available with up to simple inexpensive equipment is required. More sophisticat-
8 channels of video per wavelength, when combined with the ed equipment can be used for advanced analysis.
capabilities of CWDM optical multiplexing, more than 144 channels
of video can be transported over one fiber.
Plastic fiber is used over short distances due to high attenuation. The
Measuring Optical Power
visible light region at around 650 nm is used over plastic fiber. Optical The optical power output from a fiber-optic transmitter or
fiber cable can be measured with a simple and inexpensive
light meter. The light meter is calibrated for each of the
TABLE 6.10-4 Typical Fiber-Optic Bandwidth three optical windows—850, 1310, and 1550 nm. The meters
are available with interchange- able connectors so that
systems with any fiber connector type can be tested. The
meter gives a reading in milliwatts or dBm.
When troubleshooting a fiber-optic system, the first step is
to see if the transmitter unit is sending any optical power.
The technician will attach the meter to the transmitter with

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14
a fiber patch cord. The output optical power of the transmitter can
then be confirmed against the manufacturer’s datasheet. If the
transmitter is within specification, the next step is the see if light is
making it through the fiber to the receiver side.
If the light level output of the transmitter does not meet specifica-
tions, this indicates the source of a possible failure. After reconnect-
ing the transmitter back to the fiber, the optical meter is connected to
the receiver side of the fiber. Measure the output fiber from the end
of the fiber. The theoretical attenuation for the fiber length can be
calculated. Using the theoretical attenuation of the fiber and
subtracting it from the transmitter optical output power, the power
level that should be present at the fiber end near the receiver can be
calculated. As long as the optical power level at the received side is
higher than the receiver optical sensitivity, the fiber link should
operate. If there is a low or no optical signal at the end of the fiber on
the receiver side, the fiber may be damaged or have faulty or dirty
connectors. Lint-free optical wipes, isopropyl alcohol, and a can of
compressed air can be used to clean all optical connectors.
A test of a fiber-optic cable can be performed prior to the purchase of
fiber equipment. If a calibrated optical source is not available,
handheld calibrated light sources are available as a companion
device to the optical power meter. The calibrated light source can be
attached to one side of the fiber and the optical meter to the other
end.
Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
More extensive tests can be performed with an optical time domain
reflectometer (OTDR). An OTDR is a sophisticated device that sends a
calibrated light source at a specific wavelength down one end of a
fiber. The unit is extremely sensitive and measures the extremely low
levels of light reflected back through the fiber.
OTDR works very much like sonar. In sonar an audio tone is bounced
off objects. The size of the reflection and the delay determine the size
and distance of the objects. As the downstream light beam from the
OTDR hits connectors, splices, and other defects in the fiber, it reflects
small amounts of light back to the OTDR. Based on the size of the
reflection and the time it takes for the reflection to return to the
OTDR, the system will provide a calibrated representation of the
attenuation and flaws in an optical fiber. The OTDR analysis can be
performed at different wavelengths with various modulation
schemes. An OTDR analysis is typically only necessary on very long
fiber runs with many optical connectors, patch panels, and splices. It
is easier to predict optical losses and bandwidth on the majority of
fiber-optic cable runs since there will be a minimal number of
connectors and splices. Most applications will not require an OTDR.
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Cleaning and Maintaining Optical
Connectors
Fiber-optic connectors should be cleaned with lint-free
optical wipes, and 100% pure isopropyl alcohol should be
used with the wipes. Compressed air is also useful to clean
any dirt and debris from connectors or receptacles. There are
cassette-type cleaning devices that have an advanceable
cleaning ribbon. The tips of a male fiber-optic connector are
typically ceramic. A protective cap should always be applied
to the connector on the fiber cable as well as to the connec-
tor on the fiber equipment. This prevents damage and dirt
build up.
Fiber-Optic Transmission
Systems
Digital Modulation
The digital bit is the basic unit of digital information. This
unit has two values: one or zero. The bit represents the
electronic equivalent of the circuit being on or off where a
zero equals off and a one equals on. One bit of information
is limited to these two values. The digital information is
transmitted through the fiber serially one bit at a time.
A digital pulse train represents the ones and zeros of digital
information. The pulse train can also depict high and low
electrical voltage levels or the presence and absence of a
voltage.
Digital in the Television and Video
Industries
A digital signal can mean different things to video and cable
TV system engineers, causing much confusion. The most
common types of digital video and audio are:
• Uncompressed digital video and audio
• Lossless compression of digital video and audio
• Lossy compression of digital video and audio
• Complex digital modulations schemes such as 64
QAM, 256 QAM, 16 VSB, 64 QPSK, etc.
• SONET, ATM, or other telecom base standards
• Serial digital interface (SDI)
• High-definition serial digital interface (HD-SDI)
• Digital audio or AES/EBU
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15
The process of digitizing a standard NTSC video signal is straightfor-
ward. The typical bandwidth of a video signal is 4.5 MHz. Typically a
sample rate of four times the video bandwidth is used or about 18
mega-samples per second. The analog-to-digital (A/D) converter
typically has a sampling resolution of 8, 10, or 12 bits.
This process generates a serial digital data stream of about 144–270
Mbps. The video signal is typically encoded in a digital format at the
video source or in the video camera. Depending on the digital video
for- mat, the analog video will be encoded in one of several standard
formats such as 4:2:2, 4:1:1, or 4:2:0.
While these encoding schemes are not referred to as compression,
they omit or remove certain information to reduce the systems
bandwidth requirement. In the encoding schemes above, the three
digits refer to the three common components of video. The first
component is luminance (Y) or the light intensity of the video signal.
The second is the color signal of red minus luminance (R–Y). The third
component is the color signal of blue minus luminance (B–Y). These
three components are referred to as YUV. The numbers 4:2:2 have to
do with the fact that twice the bandwidth is used for the Y channel
than the two color channels. This technique is a form of compression
that will be addressed later in the chapter. HDTV or high-definition
video requires a data rate of 1.485 Gbps for one uncompressed signal.
The most efficient means of analog video transport utilizes analog to
digital conversion. Once video and audio signals are converted to
digital information, many channels can be combined into one
high-speed data stream using TDM. The high-speed serial digital data
stream is then converted to light via a laser or LED.
The receiver unit performs the reverse function. The light or optical
signal is received by a PIN photo detector. The optical signal is
converted back into a serial data stream. The data stream is demulti-
plexed using TDM. The digital data is then converted back to video
and audio via digital-to-analog (D/A) converters.
Digital video transmission has many advantages over analog trans-
mission. An analog fiber-optic sys- tem requires high-linearity optical
components that are expensive and require fine tuning and complex
calibration procedures. Once a video or audio signal has been
digitized, it can be transported via fiber using readily available
digital telecom optical components for both multimode and
single-mode applications. A digital system has a higher immunity to
noise and superior performance characteristics compared to an
analog system. A digital signal can be regenerated and repeated
virtually indefinitely without signal or performance degradation.
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Compressed Digital Video
When compression is introduced into a video trans- port
system, a substantial reduction in bandwidth can be
implemented. A digital composite signal requires 144 Mbps
and an HD-SDI signal requires 1.485 Gbps. When consider-
ing a system that will transport many channels of digital
video, an enormous amount of bandwidth is required. A
compression system removes redundant or repetitive
information from the digital data stream. A compression or
transmission encoding scheme will take advantage of
limitations in the human eye. The human eye has lower
sensitivity or resolution to color detail. Many compression
or encoding schemes take this into account and compress
or omit certain color details.
There are two basic types of compression systems: lossless
and lossy. A lossless compression system does not degrade
the video or audio quality. The receiver unit recovers the
original uncompressed information. A lossless compression
system strictly removes repeti- tive information from the
data stream. Most video content has repetitive information
from one video frame to the next. For example, the
background image may not change from frame to frame.
Therefore, there is no need to send this information repeti-
tive times. Unfortunately, a lossless compression scheme
does not offer significant bandwidth savings. A compression
rate of three to four times can be expected.
A lossy compression scheme can achieve very high levels of
compression but at the cost of image or signal quality. A
lossy compression algorithm removes detail from the
original image. Once the information has been removed, it
cannot be reconstructed. There are many compression and
encoding schemes used in video transport. The 4:2:2, 4:1:1,
and 4:1:0 encoding schemes mentioned earlier are a
technique used to reduce bandwidth. Since the human eye
has less sensi- tivity or less resolution for color, these
encoding schemes have less bandwidth for the color
informa- tion. The human eye has higher resolution horizon-
tally than vertically. When taking this into account, most
video formats have a higher horizontal resolu- tion than
vertical resolution.
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16

FIGURE 6.10-12 16-QAM encoding phase constellation.
QAM Digital Encoding
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is a widely used modula-
tion technique for video transport appli- cations, particularly in digital
cable TV systems. In a serial digital modulation scheme there are only
two informational states: 1 and 0, or on and off. With 256- QAM there
are 256 states. The information is encoded by a varying 360 degree
quadrature phase and ampli- tude. This modulation scheme can
provide an enor- mous amount of data throughput in a limited
amount of bandwidth, but a higher signal-to-noise band ratio is
required. Figure 6.10-12 is the phase constellation for a 16-QAM
signal.
Multiplexing
In communication, there are many techniques to transport multiple
signals over one transmission medium. These techniques apply to
fiber-optic trans- port.
Time-division Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is an encoding technique that
combines many data streams into one high-speed serial digital
stream by combining each data stream in turn on a time basis and
converting it into a single data stream. As a result, the single data
stream is a sum of the total data from the streams to be multiplexed,
plus some overhead bits to organize the data stream.
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To produce a serial data stream from a parallel data source, a
parallel to serial converter or serializer may be employed
that takes, for example, an 8-bit parallel data word and
converts it into a 1-bit serial digital signal. If a system with
eight 150 Mbps serializers is to be multiplexed together in a
TDM system, the output serial data stream will be 8 times
150, or 1200 Mbps.
Optical Multiplexing
Optical multiplexing techniques can be used in addition to
the TDM techniques mentioned above. If both optical
multiplexing and TDM are combined, very large bandwidths
of information can be transported by one fiber.
Wave-Division Multiplexing
Wave-division multiplexing (WDM) is the technique of
taking two or more wavelengths or colors of light and
combining them onto one fiber. On one end of the fiber the
two wavelengths are combined, and then on the other end
separated. Basic WDM uses two wave-lengths. In multimode
the 850 and 1310 nm wave-lengths are used. In single
mode, 1310 and 1550 nm are used. The two wavelengths
can travel in the same direction or in opposite directions.
Coarse Wave-Division Multiplexing
Coarse wave-division multiplexing (CWDM) gives the ability
to combine up to 18 wavelengths onto one fiber. The 18
wavelengths are evenly spaced from 1270–1610 nm in 20
nm increments. Each laser source is precisely tuned to a
given wavelength to within ±1 nm. What makes CWDM
technology possible is extreme temperature stability in laser
light sources from 0–70ºC without active cooling. CWDM
lasers are relatively inexpensive and provide very high and
scalable band-width. A system could be initially designed
and installed using only one wavelength. At any point in the
future, up to 17 more wavelengths can be added to increase
the system capacity. Components are avail- able to provide
both multimode and single-mode CWDM systems.
Dense Wave-Division Multiplexing
Dense wave-division multiplexing (DWDM) takes optical
bandwidth and throughput to a higher level. DWDM
permits up to 80 wavelengths to share one fiber. The DWDM
spectrum is spaced very tightly over a narrow range. The
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17
laser systems are complex in order to provide precise wavelength
accuracy and sta- bility over temperature. If the wavelength of a laser
drifts, it will interfere with an adjacent channel.
The typical DWDM channel spacing is 0.8 nm. The tight spectrum of
DWDM permits optical amplifica- tion using EDFA. DWDM technology
is expensive and is seldom used in video applications. It is rare that an
application will require the use of 80 wavelengths. DWDM technolo-
gy is typically used for fiber-optic systems with long fiber-optic cables
between conti- nents and on the ocean floor. DWDM technology is
only available for single-mode fiber.
Applications For Video
Fiber-optic Transport
There are many applications for fiber-optic communications. Any
application that requires high bandwidth or high bit rate communi-
cations is ideally suited for fiber-optic transport. The television and
video industries are a perfect application for fiber-optic transport.
Analog television is a relatively high bandwidth signal of more than 5
MHz. Digital television (in particular HDTV) has bit rates of more than
1.5 Gbps. High- resolution computer graphics can have a bandwidth
exceeding 500 MHz. All of these television and video applications are
ideal for fiber.
Broadcast Television Transmission
As mentioned earlier, television production and broadcast engineers
have always sought out the best technology for media events such as
the Olympics. In the mid-1980s, fiber-optic transport was introduced
into the television industry. Fiber optics are used in all aspects of
production and distribution of video and audio signals. The state of
the art for the transport of analog video is to use 12-bit video digital
encoding. The serial digital bit rate can vary from about 144–300
Mbps.
With the introduction of digital video in the 1990s, fiber-optic
transport continued to enjoy growth in the broadcast industry.
Digital video was encoded into data rates ranging from 144–360
Mbps. These high bit rate video signals could only travel over copper
up to about 300 meters. Transport distance beyond 300 meters with a
coax required a repeater (which needs power) or a fiber optic system.
The transition to 100% DTV/HDTV has created a need to transport
signals with a bit rate as high as 1.5 Gbps. HDTV using an SDI
interface (HD-SDI), in its native or uncompressed form, is 1.485 Gbps.
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HD-SDI can better reach about 150 meters over a coax. Once
again, fiber is the only choice to reach distances beyond 150
meters.
Systems can be designed using many of the technologies
described above. Analog and digital signal transport can be
mixed. Time-division and optical multiplexing can be
combined.
A broadcast television station may typically reside in a
downtown metropolitan area. The television transmitter and
satellite up and down links may be on a distant mountain-
top outside the city. This situation is a perfect application for
fiber transport. The system may require both analog video
and digital video since the station may be in the midst of its
conversion from analog to digital broadcast. Signals in both
directions will be required to support downlink satellite
video.
Another typical application is that of back-haul feeds, where
many channels of video and audio are trunked together
over one fiber. Such a system can use TDM to combine
groups of eight channels of video with audio into single
wavelengths. The optical multi- plexing or CWDM technolo-
gy is used to combine the wavelengths with groups of eight
videos onto one fiber. The combined technique of TDM and
CWDM provides a fiber transport capacity of more than 144
video channels on one fiber.
High-Resolution Graphics and Video
Transmission
The quality and fidelity of an analog signal over long
distances are difficult to maintain over copper. As sig- nals
increase in bandwidth and bit rate, it becomes more and
more difficult for systems to transport these high bandwidth
signals even a short distance over copper. This becomes very
apparent when working with high-resolution video and
graphics.
A computer-generating RGB-HV or UXGA signal at 1,600 ×
1,200 pixels requires an analog bandwidth of close to 500
MHz. If the signal is digitized, it requires a data transport bit
rate of 3–4 Gbps. There are many copper-based products
that will transport these sig- nals but at a cost in perfor-
mance and video quality. Figure 6.10-13 shows a typical
RGB/UXGA high-resolution video and audio fiber-optic link.
Many applications today require the same video or graphical
signal to displayed on a series of monitors.
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FIGURE 6.10-13 Typical RGB/UXGA high-resolution video and audio fiber-optic
link. (Photo courtesy of Multidyne Video & Fiber Optic Systems.)
An example may be an airport terminal where arrival and departure
information is displayed every 100 ft. This application requires a long
daisy-chain of units that can drop and repeat the same signals to
each monitor every 100 ft.
Systems are available with the drop-and-repeat or daisy-chain
feature. As shown in Figure 6.10-14, one transmitter can send the
video signal to the first receiver. The first receiver decodes the optical
signal and generates an output for the local monitor. The receiver
also repeats and regenerates the optical signal to send to the next
receiver in the chain. This tech-nique saves on installation and
equipment costs. The alternative would be to run a fiber from each
monitor back to the control room. Instead, one fiber can feed many
monitors.
Optical Repeaters and Distribution Amplifiers
There are applications in fiber-optic communications where a signal
requires regeneration and replication. The function required is similar
to that of a distribution amplifier or digital signal reclocker. A passive
splitter can be used to split an optical signal, but each signal is
significantly weaker after the split. A device called an optical repeater
or distribution amplifier can be used to repeat or regenerate a weak
optical signal. This is helpful on long fiber-optic runs where a fiber
signal is reaching its limit. The repeater can be used to regenerate the
signal for further distribution.
The same device can be used to replicate an optical signal. One
optical signal can be replicated up to eight times with one device.
Unlike the passive split were the optical output is diminished, the
output optical signals are regenerated to full optical power.
The device can also be used as a mode converter or wavelength
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remapper. The device can be configured with a
single-mode input and multimode outputs. This gives the
ability to convert from multimode to single mode or from
one wavelength to another wave-length. The devise can
convert optical signals to CWDM wavelengths.
Broadband Cable Television Transport
Broadband cable television signals are traditionally trans-
ported over a hybrid system of fiber and coax. Hundreds of
video sources are modulated onto individual carriers and
combined into one broadband RF signal. These RF signals
can have a frequency band-width of 48–870 MHz. This is an
enormous bandwidth to transport strictly over coax. Cable
systems are designed to transport the high bandwidth
signals over fiber to each residential community. The last
mile of distribution is then accomplished over coax for
delivery to each home. Multiple line amplifiers are used to
transport the high bandwidth signals over coax the last mile.
Another application is in a campus environment such as a
corporation, university, or military base, where the buildings
are spread over some distance. Many of these facilities have
an internal cable television system. These facilities will
receive a commercial cable TV signal from a local provider.
They will strip out the channels of interest, such as news and
educational programming. They will then combine these
channels with their own internal programming, such as
human resource and training channels. The channels are
then modulated and combined into one broadband RF
signal.
Many of the buildings on the campus may be several miles
away. Broadband fiber-optic links can be used to get the
cable TV signal to each building. The cable TV is then
distributed in each building via coax the last several 100 ft.
Broadband RF and Satellite Link
Transport
There are many broadband RF applications for fiber. One
important application is satellite uplinks and downlinks.
Commercial satellites, for long wave-length applications,
typically use an intermediate frequency (IF) signal as a
means of communication. The IF signal is typically 70 or 140
MHz. The signal has a limited transport distance over copper
coax. The noise level and sensitivity of a satellite system will
suffer with the use of copper coax. The relatively high band-
width and noise sensitivity issues make IF signal transport
ideal for fiber.
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 FIGURE 6.10-14 Daisy-chain or drop-and-repeat video fiber transport.
Consumer and residential satellite service is finding its way into
more and more commercial, corporate, and military applications.
Consumer satellite equipment is used in many applications as a
source of information and news. A large corporation may use
consumer satellite instead of cable for news and informational
content. In a corporate building or military bunker, the satellite dish
may be on the roof many floors above the control or conference
room. The L- band signal has a bandwidth from 950–2,150 MHz. A
coax run will not transport the L-band satellite signal very far. A
consumer satellite dish is small due to a shorter wavelength. It
typically has a device called a low-noise block downconverter (LNB).
The LNB is an active device that receives the satellite signal and
translates and amplifies it to be sent down the coax to the receiver.
The LNB requires a DC voltage, which is typically generated by the
receiver and sent up the coax. If a fiber link is used, the DC voltage
needs to be generated on the dish side of the fiber link. When
designing an L-band fiber link, the system needs to provide the
appropriate LNB DC power.
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Fiber-Optic Routing
Switchers
Just about every broadcast and audio visual system today
has some sort of a video and audio routing switcher. The
switcher gives the user the ability to control the source and
destination of a given video and audio signal. As more and
more video and communications migrate from copper to
fiber, it makes sense that the need for an optical routing
switcher arose. The optical routing switcher is a new concept
for the video market, but it has been used for many years in
the telecommunications industry. It has been used to route
and control telephone traffic.
As video and broadcast television industries become more
and more complex with dozens of different video and
encoding formats, optical switching starts to make more
sense. In broadcast or video application there may be
analog video, component video, SDI, and HD-SDI. An optical
switch can switch most signals in the optical domain. There
are two basic types of optical switching.
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Photonic Fiber-Optic Switcher
The first is 100% optical switching using 3D microelectromechanical
mirror (MEMS) technology. It uses electronically controlled mirrors to
route optical signals. This type of switch has an optical input, an
optical cross-point, and an optical output. The abbreviation for this
technology is OOO. An OOO switch provides only point-to-point
switching. One input cannot be multicast to many outputs. The
mirrors cannot point to more than one output at a time. The use of
mirrors does permit multiple wavelengths and wave- lengths in both
directions. Switches are available is sizes from 8 × 8 to 256 × 256. Pure
optical switching is available for multimode and single-mode
applications. Optical switching supports both analog and dig- ital
optical signals.
Pure optical switching is performed using 3D MEMS arrays. Tiny
mirrors are fabricated out of silicon. The mirrors are positioned and
controlled with electrostatic charges. The core of the optical switch is
a 1 inch square cube. The cube has an array of up to 256 input fibers
on the left side as shown in Figure 6.10-15. Each fiber has a lens that
focuses the optical light onto a MEMS mirror. Each input has its own FIGURE 6.10-15 Three dimensional MEMS pure optic switching element.
mirror. On the right side is an array of output fibers. Each output has a (Photo provided by Calient Net- works.)
MEMS mirror. An optical connection is made when one input mirror
aligns with one of the output mirrors.
Optical switching is cost effective for any applications
Fiber-optic switching is ideal for video broadcast, production, requiring 32 or more switched optical ports. It eliminates the
security, and other video applications requiring transmission, switch- need for expensive video transceivers to convert signals
ing, and replication of high-quality optical signals. The fiber-optic between electrical and optical formats. Switching the
switcher revolutionizes how video is distributed and managed. It is signals in optical format can substantially reduce the cost
based on state-of-the-art field proven photonic switching technolo- per port in fiber-optic transport equipment costs.
gy. Laser light is switched in a pure optical format, without electrical
conversion, allowing it to support transparent connections compati-
ble with any video or data format including uncompressed HD video
Electro-Optical Switch
at 1.5 Gbps. Also, since the switching is done optically, the switch The second type is the electro-optical switch. The
eliminates video degradation. With a traditional electrical switcher, electro-optical switch uses a hybrid approach. The input is
electrical-to-optical (EO) and optical-to-electrical (OE) conversions are optical, the cross-point is electrical, and the output is optical.
required that cause signal degradation and jitter. The abbreviation for this technology is OEO. An OEO switch
supports point-to-multipoint or multi- ast switching. Any
An optical switch supports a wide range of formats from 19.4 Mbps
input can be switched to every output if necessary. Since the
ATSC through 1.5 Gbps HDTV as well as NTSC, PAL, SECAM, SMPTE
optical signal is converted to electrical, only one wavelength
259M serial digital (SDI) video, broadband analog, L-band, IF, and
can be switched at a time. Also an electrical cross-point only
many more. The optical switcher will also transparently switch CWDM
operates in one direction. Therefore, only one wave-length
and DWDM signals.
in one direction is supported.
Optical switcher technology can be used in the field to support
applications requiring reliable, high-quality video distribution such as
mobile production trucks, sports venues, and professional video
facilities; campus video and surveillance networks; remote video
monitoring; as well as government and military. Optical layer protec-
tion and fault tolerant switching can be configured for mission
critical, nonstop applications.

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The Future Of Video Fiber-Optic
Transport
Systems are currently in development for the trans- port of high-reso-
lution video at bit rates exceeding 10 Gbps. Digital cinema and the
proliferation of HDTV television will demand fiber-optic transport
systems with high bandwidth capabilities. Fiber transport to the
home of video, telephone, and Internet traffic is slowly becoming a
reality in many North American communities. This will fuel the
demand for high- speed content delivery and distribution through-
out the globe.

Bibliography
A Brief History of Fiber Optic Technology, at http://www.fiber- optics.in-
fo/fiber-history.htm.
Corning website, at http://www.corning.com/.
Fiber Optics website, at http://www.wetenhall.com/Physics/History.ht-
ml.
Goff, David R. Fiber Optic Video Transmission: The Complete Guide, 1st
ed. Boston: Focal Press, 2003.
Goff, David R. Fiber Optic Reference Guide, 3rd ed. Boston: Focal Press,
2002.
A Short History of Fiber Optics, at http://www.sff.net/people/-
Jeff.Hecht/history.html.
Multidyne website, http://www.multidyne.com.
Optical Cable Corporation website, at http://www.occfiber.com/.
Sterling, Donald J. Technicians’ Guide to Fiber Optics, 4th ed. Delmar
Learning, 2004.
Fiber Optics Communications Handbook, 2nd ed. Blue Ridge Summit, PA:
TAB Books, April 1991.

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