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TECHNIQUES FOR APPROXIMATING

THE INTERNATIONAL TEMPERATURE SCALE OF 1990

Contents

1. Introduction 1

PART 1: TECHNIQUES AND THERMOMETERS FOR APPROXIMATING THE

INTERNATIONAL TEMPERATURE SCALE OF 1990 9

2. Uniform-Temperature Enclosures 10
2.1 1 K to 300 K 10
2.2 150 K to 350 °C 14
2.3 300 °C to 1100 °C 16
3. Specialized Fixed Points 20
3.1 Fixed Points Below 0 °C 20
3.1.1 Superconductive Fixed Points 20
3.1.1.1 General Remarks 20
3.1.1.2 Requirements for Superconductive Fixed Points 21
3.1.1.3 Realization of Superconductive Fixed Points 22
3.1.2 Standard Reference Materials 22
3.1.3 Vapour Pressure Thermometers 24
3.1.4 Sealed Cells 25
3.2 Fixed Points -50 °C to 630 °C 28
3.2.1 Ice Point (0 °C) 28
3.2.1.1 Preparation of the Ice Point 32
3.2.1.2 Operating Conditions 33
3.3 Fixed Points above 630 °C 34
3.3.1 Copper 28.1% Silver 71.9% Eutectic Alloy 35
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3.3.2 Melting Points of Gold (1064 °C), Palladium (1555 °C), and
Platinum (1768 °C) by the Wire-Bridge Method 36
3.3.3 Miniature Fixed Points for Thermocouple Calibrations 37
3.4 Fixed Points for Pyrometry 39
3.4.1 Blackbody Furnaces 39
3.4.2 Radiance Temperatures on Melting 41
4. Germanium Resistance Thermometers 42
4.1 Principles and Range of Use 42
4.2 Fabrication 42
4.3 Electrical Characteristics 45
4.3.1 Method of Measurement 45
4.3.2 Resistance/Temperature Characteristics and Sensitivity 46
4.3.3 Stability 48
4.3.4 External Influences 49
4.4 Thermal Properties 49
4.4.1 Self-heating and Thermal Anchoring 49
4.4.2 Time Constant 52
4.5 Calibration and Interpolation Formulae 52
5. Rhodium-lron Resistance Thermometers 55
5.1 Range of Use and Sensitivity 55
5.2 Fabrication 55
5.3 Reproducibility and Stability 57
5.4 Self-heating 58
5.5 Calibration and Interpolation 58
6. Vapour Pressure Thermometry 60
6.1 Two-Phase Equilibrium 62
6.2 Technical Details of Construction 67
6.2.1 Bulb 67
6.2.2 Connecting Tube 69
6.2.3 Pressure Sensor 69
6.2.4 Filling the Thermometer 71
6.3 Metrological Characteristics and Measurement Corrections 72
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6.3.1 Extent of Sensitivity and Measurement 72

6.3.2 Reproducibility and Accuracy 72
6.3.3 Response Time 75
6.3.4 Correction for Aerostatic Pressure 75
6.3.5 Thermomolecular Effect 75
6.3.6 Corrections Due to Impurities 79
6.3.7 Particular Problems with Helium [Cataland et al. (1962), Kerrik (1970),
Montgomery and Pells (1963), Rusby and Swenson (1980)] 83
6.3.8 Other Corrections 84
6.4 Conclusion 84
7. Magnetic Thermometry 85
7.1 Magnetic Thermometer 85
7.2 Technical Aspects of Magnetic Thermometry 86
8. Platinum Resistance Thermometers 88
8.1 General Remarks 88
8.2 Interpolation Equations for Standard Platinum Resistance
Thermometers 89
9. Platinum Thermocouples 95
9.1 General Remarks 95
9.2 Construction 96
9.3 Annealing of the Thermoelements 98
9.4 Guidelines for Proper Handling and Use -Installation and Sources of
9.5 Errors 99
9.6 Approximations to the ITS-90 102
10. Infrared Radiation Thermometers 104

PART 2: TECHNIQUES AND THERMOMETERS TRACEABLE TO THE INTERNATIONAL

TEMPERATURE SCALE OF 1990 107

11. Carbon Resistance Thermometers 108

11.1 Fabrication and Use 108
11.2 Resistance-Temperature Characteristics and Sensitivity 109
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11.3 Thermal Contact 111

11.4 Response Time 111
11.5 Influence of External Factors 112
11.6 Stability and Reproducibility 113
11.7 Calibration and Interpolation Formulae 114
12. Carbon-Glass Resistance Thermometers 116
12.1 Fabrication 116
12.2 Resistance-Temperature Characteristics; Sensitivity; Calibration 116
12.3 Stability 117
13. Platinum-Cobalt Resistance Thermometers 119
14. Diode Thermometers 120
15. Liquid-in-Glass Thermometry 123
16. Industrial Platinum Resistance Thermometers 129
16.1 Quality of Industrial Platinum Resistance Thermometers 129
16.1.1 Stability 132
16.1.2 Self-heating 134
16.1.3 Response Time 137
16.2 Interpolation Equations for Industrial Platinum
Resistance Thermometers 137
16.3 National and International Specifications for IPRTs 139
17. Thermistors 145
18. Base-Metal Thermocouples 147
18.1 General Remarks 147
18.2 Types of Base-Metal Thermocouples 147
18.2.1 Type T Thermocouple 148
18.2.2 Type J Thermocouple 148
18.2.3 Type K Thermocouple 148
18.2.4 Type E Thermocouple 149
18.2.5 Type N Thermocouple 149
18.2.6 Tungsten-Rhenium Thermocouple 149
18.3 Construction 150
18.3.1 Thermoelements 150
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18.3.2 Sheaths 150

18.3.3 Protection Tubes 152
18.3.4 Thermocouple Construction 152
18.3.5 Circuit Construction 153
18.4 Annealing of the Thermoelements 155
18.5 Guidelines for Proper Handling and Use -Installation and
Sources of Errors 156
18.6 Calibration of Base-Metal Thermocouples 158
19. Thermometry in Magnetic Fields 160
20. References 169
Appendices
A. Differences between the ITS-90 and the EPT -76, and between the
ITS-90 and the IPTS-68 189
B. Addresses of National Standards Laboratories 191
C. Some Suppliers of Various Cryogenic Thermometers 194
D. Calculations Relative to the Filling of a Vapour Pressure Thermometer 196
E. Calculation of the Aerostatic Pressure Correction for a Vapour
Pressure Thermometer 199
F. Interpolation polynomials for Standard Thermocouple Reference Tables 200