DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF ADALINE

BASED SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER

B.E. (EE) PROJECT REPORT

Prepared By:

Syed Mohsin Hasan EE-10-042

Syed Awn M. Jafri EE-10-040
Syed Minhal Raza EE-10-019
Waleed Khan EE-10-064

Project Advisor:

Mr. Muhammad Ali Baig

Department of Electrical Engineering

N.E.D. University of Engineering. & Technology, Karachi-75270

 Abstract

Non-linear loads such as cyclo-converters, motor drives and inverters cause harmonics in
power system and destroy the power quality. They not only affect the equipment in the power
system but also deteriorate user appliances. In order to reduce the effects of harmonics in power
system, we use shunt active power filters. They reduce the total harmonic distortion in the power
system within the safe limits defined by IEEE Std. 519-1992. Not only that, they can also enhance the
power factor and compensate for the reactive power. There are several techniques to perform this
task. This report mainly focuses on the adaptive Shunt Active Power Filter. The adaptive (Adaline
Based) shunt APF is compared with the conventional Instantaneous Power Theory based APF and
the one which is easier to implement and performs better is recommended for use.
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Acknowledgments

At first, we thank Almighty Allah for bestowing his blessings upon us and giving us the
opportunity to learn through this project. We explored new things and Alhamdulillah were able to
complete this project.

We are also thankful to our beloved parents for their valuable support and prayers
throughout our lives. What we are today, is all because of them.

Next, we extend our profound gratitude to the Internal Advisor of our project Mr.
Muhammad Ali Baig for his unconditional guidance throughout the course of this project. We
heartedly thank him for listening to our ideas and tolerating us as well. His firm and serious attitude
brought the best out of us and is, indeed, one of the major reasons behind the completion of this
project.

We are also thankful to Mr. Muhammad Jawwad Iqbal for taking out time from his busy
schedules and listening to our queries. And certainly, he was always there when needed.

Lastly, we would like to thank Mr. Riazuddin for believing in us and for appreciating our
devotion and hard work. His encouragements always boosted up our strengths.
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Table of Contents

Abstract .......................................................................................................................................ii

Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................iv

Table of Figures ........................................................................................................................ viii

Preface ........................................................................................................................................ 9

Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 10

1.1 Adaptive Systems ........................................................................................................ 10

1.2 Adaptive Techniques in Power Systems ..................................................................... 11

Chapter 2 Background ........................................................................................................... 12

2.1 Power Quality ............................................................................................................. 12

2.2 Types of Loads............................................................................................................. 12

2.3 Disadvantages of Non-linear Loads ............................................................................ 13

2.4 Total Harmonic Distortion .......................................................................................... 13

2.5 Variable Loads ............................................................................................................. 13

Chapter 3 ADAptive LINear Element (ADALINE) .................................................................... 14

3.1 Adaptive Linear Combiner .......................................................................................... 14

3.1.1 Desired Response and Error: ................................................................................. 16

3.1.2 Mean Square Error ................................................................................................ 17

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3.1.3 Simple Gradient Search Algorithm ........................................................................ 19

3.2 LMS Algorithm ............................................................................................................ 19

Chapter 4 Harmonic Mitigation ............................................................................................. 21

4.1 P-Q Theory: ................................................................................................................. 22

4.2 Adaline Based Methods for Harmonic Mitigation: ..................................................... 23

4.3 Current Estimation through Direct Method ............................................................... 25

Chapter 5 Active Power Filter ................................................................................................ 27

5.1.1 Current Estimator .................................................................................................. 29

5.1.2 Power Converter: .................................................................................................. 30

Chapter 6 SIMULINK Model Description ............................................................................... 31

6.1 3-phase Source............................................................................................................ 31

6.2 Line Impedance (Zt) .................................................................................................... 32

6.3 V-I Measurement ........................................................................................................ 32

6.4 Circuit Breaker ............................................................................................................ 32

6.5 Non-Linear Load .......................................................................................................... 32

6.6 Powergui ..................................................................................................................... 32

6.7 Analyzer ...................................................................................................................... 33

6.8 Shunt APF .................................................................................................................... 34

6.8.1 Current Estimator .................................................................................................. 34

6.8.2 Hysteresis controller.............................................................................................. 37

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6.8.3 Bridge inverter ....................................................................................................... 37

6.8.4 DC Capacitor .......................................................................................................... 37

6.8.5 Coupling inductor .................................................................................................. 38

Chapter 7 Simulations and Results ........................................................................................ 39

7.1 Different types of loads .............................................................................................. 39

7.1.1 Load 1 .................................................................................................................... 39

7.1.2 Load 2 .................................................................................................................... 40

7.1.3 Load 3 .................................................................................................................... 40

7.2 CASE I: Compensation of a Simple Bridge Rectifier (Load 1) ...................................... 42

7.3 CASE II: Compensation of Two Parallel Bridge Rectifiers (Load 2) ............................. 45

7.4 CASE III: Compensation of Bridge Rectifier in Parallel with Inductors (Load 3) ......... 48

7.5 Comparison of Adaline Based APF with Conventional P-Q Theory based APF .......... 50

7.5.1 Considering Load 1 ................................................................................................ 50

7.5.2 Considering Load 2 ................................................................................................ 52

7.5.3 Considering Load 3 ................................................................................................ 54

Chapter 8 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 56

APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................. 57

Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 59
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Table of Figures

FIGURE 3-1 GENERAL FORM OF ADAPTIVE LINEAR COMBINER ............................................................................................................. 15

FIGURE 3-2 ADAPTIVE LINEAR COMBINER WITH DESIRED RESPONSE AND ERROR SIGNAL .......................................................................... 16
FIGURE 3-3 PERFORMANCE SURFACE ............................................................................................................................................ 18
FIGURE 4-1 ADALINE FOR HARMONIC CURRENT IDENTIFICATION WITH DIRECT METHOD........................................................................... 25
FIGURE 5-1 GENERAL SCHEME OF SHUNT APF................................................................................................................................ 27
FIGURE 5-2 IDEAL WAVEFORM IN CASE OF SQUARE LOAD CURRENT ..................................................................................................... 27
FIGURE 5-3 ACTIVE POWER FILTER ............................................................................................................................................... 28
FIGURE 5-4 ADALINE FOR ESTIMATING LOAD CURRENT ..................................................................................................................... 29
FIGURE 5-5 FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT SEPARATION ..................................................................................................................... 30
FIGURE 6-1 THREE PHASE FOUR WIRE SYSTEM................................................................................................................................. 31
FIGURE 6-2 ANALYZER BLOCK ...................................................................................................................................................... 33
FIGURE 6-3 CURRENT ESTIMATOR BLOCK ...................................................................................................................................... 34
FIGURE 6-4 ADALINE ................................................................................................................................................................. 35
FIGURE 6-5 LMS ALGORITHM IMPLEMENTATION ............................................................................................................................ 36
FIGURE 7-1 LOAD-1 BRIDGE RECTIFIER .......................................................................................................................................... 39
FIGURE 7-2 LOAD 2- TWO BRIDGE RECTIFIERS IN PARALLEL ............................................................................................................... 40
FIGURE 7-3 LOAD 3- BRIDGE RECTIFIER WITH INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL ................................................................................................ 41
FIGURE 7-4 COMPENSATION OF HARMONIC CURRENT GENERATED BY LOAD 1 ...................................................................................... 42
FIGURE 7-5 COMPENSATION OF HARMONIC CURRENT GENERATED BY LOAD-2 ..................................................................................... 45
FIGURE 7-6 COMPENSATION OF HARMONIC CURRENT GENERATED BY LOAD-3 ..................................................................................... 48
FIGURE 7-7COMPARISON OF THD FOR PHASE A OF LOAD 1.............................................................................................................. 50
FIGURE 7-8 COMPARISON OF THD FOR PHASE B OF LOAD 1 ............................................................................................................. 51
FIGURE 7-9 COMPARISON OF THD FOR PHASE C OF LOAD 1 ............................................................................................................. 51
FIGURE 7-10 COMPARISON OF THD FOR PHASE A OF LOAD 2 ........................................................................................................... 52
FIGURE 7-11 COMPARISON OF THD FOR PHASE B OF LOAD 2 ........................................................................................................... 53
FIGURE 7-12 COMPARISON OF THD FOR PHASE C OF LOAD 2 ........................................................................................................... 53
FIGURE 7-13 COMPARISON OF THD FOR PHASE A OF LOAD 3 ........................................................................................................... 54
FIGURE 7-14 COMPARISON OF THD FOR PHASE C OF LOAD 3 ........................................................................................................... 55
FIGURE 7-15 COMPARISON OF THD FOR PHASE B OF LOAD 3 ........................................................................................................... 55
FIGURE 9-0-1 PRINCIPLE OF HYSTERESIS CONTROLLER ...................................................................................................................... 57
FIGURE 9-0-2 SIMULINK MODEL OF HYSTERESIS CONTROLLER ......................................................................................................... 58
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Preface

The purpose of our project is to prove that adaptive techniques for harmonic mitigation are
better than the techniques based on the instantaneous power theory. We have selected the idea of
our project from the journal paper published in IEEE transactions on industrial electronics, VOL.54,
No.1, February 2007 by Djaffar Ould Abdeslam and his team. Several adaptive techniques for
constructing an APF are discussed in this transaction; however, the one selected by us is by-far the
simplest.

The mathematical proofs about the LMS algorithm, used by adaptive techniques, have been
taken from the book “Adaptive Signal Processing” by Bernard Widrow & Samuel D. Stearns.

Chapter 1 gives an insight about adaptive systems to the reader. Chapter 2 is a background
on different types of loads and the ones that cause harmonics. The method to measure harmonics is
also described in the same chapter. Adalines are discussed in chapter 3, which also covers the
algorithm on which Adalines work, i.e. LMS algorithm. Chapter 4 is a detailed study of harmonic
mitigation techniques including P-Q theory and direct method of current estimation. Chapter 5 is
about active power filter and the main blocks used to construct it in MATLAB SIMULINK.
Implementation of LMS algorithm and construction of Adaline using it, description of the non-linear
load, three phase source and all the other blocks used for the construction of our model system are
covered in chapter 6. From chapter 7 and onwards we have discussed the results obtained by
running our model system on SIMULINK.

When compared on the basis of total harmonic distortion and convergence time, it has been
found that our proposed idea about estimating current through adaptive systems is superior to the
conventional P-Q Theory technique.

MOHSIN, AWN, MINHAL, WALEED

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Chapter 1

Introduction

What if we can design artificial systems that are capable of adjusting themselves
according to their environment? It will not only eradicate the need of dedicated systems
for unique inputs; but, will also make that system sensitive to environmental variations.
This phenomenon is called adaptation.

1.1 Adaptive Systems

Living beings have this ability inherently to adjust their behavior and physical
features according to their surroundings. In Merriam-Webster dictionary, adapt means
to change (something) so that it functions better or is better suited for a purpose.

Artificial adaptive systems are the ones that adjust their parameters by looking at
their environmental conditions, desired output or both. For example, some robots
employ controls that utilize feedback loops to sense new conditions in their environment
and adapt accordingly.

Adaptive systems are widely used because they can automatically update
themselves with changing environments and variable system requirements. Moreover,
they can also be trained to perform specific filtering and decision making tasks. This
training or programming allows them to synthesize systems, hence giving them the
capability to “self-design”. This ability to vary parameters with respect to time makes
adaptive systems non-linear and hence difficult to analyze.

To illustrate the dominance of non-linearity of adaptive systems over linear

systems; suppose a designer has created a “fixed-design” system which he/she thinks is
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optimal. But a fixed design system can only be optimal when it has been tried on all
possible input conditions and the designer also knows what he/she wants it to do, under
all the given input conditions. However, in many instances, accounting for all input
conditions is quite improbable; or the conditions assumed constant for the “fixed-
design” may vary. Under such circumstances, using an orderly search process, adaptive
systems would give superior performance, compared to a system of fixed design
because they perform best in a wide range of possibilities. Therefore, by their very
nature, adaptive systems must be time varying and non-linear.

Certain forms of adaptive systems become linear when their adjustments are
kept constant after the adaptation has taken place. These “linear adaptive systems” are
easier to analyze, mathematically tractable and very useful.

1.2 Adaptive Techniques in Power Systems

Electrical power systems have variable parameters; especially the load, which
depends on user habits. And to compensate for the adverse effects of the power system
such as reactive power and the harmonic current we want systems which will change
themselves according to the changing load.

This report investigates one such system for harmonic compensation that does
not require much computation and remains same for a variety of loads. We shall connect
different loads to the same system without altering any other parameter of the
compensating mechanism.
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Chapter 2

Background

It has been accepted world-wide that electrical systems are the most complex
systems designed by humans. The main purpose of these huge electrical systems is to
continuously supply power to the consumers without any interruption, along with a
good power quality. However, power quality is one of the major concerns in electrical
power systems.

2.1 Power Quality

“The deviation of voltage and in-phase current from the ideal, continuous single-
frequency sine wave with a rated constant frequency and amplitude is called power
quality.”

One of the major factors behind the poor power quality of electrical systems is
the harmonics introduced in these systems. Harmonics are basically the high frequency
components in current and voltage waveforms that are introduced because of the non-
linear behavior of the loads.

2.2 Types of Loads

The loads in power systems can be classified on the basis of their linearity.
According to this, we have two main types of loads i.e. linear and non-linear loads. The
loads whose current waveforms have a linear relation with the voltage waveform are
called linear loads. On the contrary, the loads that distort the current waveform shape
because of the switching action are called non-linear loads. Few examples of such non-
 13

linear loads, that are used in power systems, are speed control circuits, welding plants,
thermal plants, variable frequency drives, power inverters, etc.

2.3 Disadvantages of Non-linear Loads

With the advent of time, the use of non linear loads has increased drastically.
This is because of their wide use in control strategies of electrical power and the
automation of power systems. But, these non-linear loads also produce huge harmonic
distortion in the power systems i.e. they distort the shape of the current waveform due
to the injection of high frequencies. These high frequency harmonics travel through the
power systems and cause various problems, such as greater magnetization and heating
losses in the cores of electrical machines and transmission lines. Moreover, they also
disturb the power quality of electrical power system.

2.4 Total Harmonic Distortion

In order to save the system and its components from deterioration, harmonics’
effect must be minimized in the power system. To measure the harmonic content in the
system we use Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). THD is the ratio of the harmonic
content, except fundamental component, in a signal and the fundamental component.
The value of THD shows how much harmonics are affecting the actual signal.

2.5 Variable Loads

The other problem associated with power systems is that they are not static. The
loads applied to them are variable. Therefore, any harmonic suppression technique
which is fixed for a particular load is unsuitable. We need a mechanism which adjusts
itself according to the changing load and such schemes are achievable by using adaptive
filters. These adaptive systems are based on small processing units called ADAptive
LINear Elements (ADALINES). We shall first have a good understanding of these
ADALINES and therefore, they are discussed in detail in Chapter 3.
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Chapter 3
ADAptive LINear Element
(ADALINE)
ADAptive LINear Element (ADALINE) can be regarded as a unit with multiple
inputs and single output, which can replicate our desired response in decomposed form.
Adaline has variable parameters called weights, which vary according to the difference
between the desired output and output of Adaline. The output of Adaline is the sum of
the product of inputs with their adjusted weights.

To discuss Adaline in detail, it is sub divided in two parts. The basic structure is
described under the heading of Adaptive linear combiner, while the weight adjustment
algorithm is discussed under the heading of LMS Algorithm.

3.1 Adaptive Linear Combiner

Adaptive linear combiner is the base of adaptive signal processing. It appears, in

one form or another, in most adaptive systems and can be regarded as most significant
element in “learning” systems.
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Figure 3-1 General form of adaptive linear combiner

Figure 3-1 shows an adaptive linear combiner with input elements x0 , x1 , . . . . , xL

, a corresponding set of multiplying adjustable weights w0 , w1 , . . . , wL , a summer and a
single output y. The process through which the weights are adjusted is called “weight
adjustment”, “gain adjustment” or “adaptation” process.

This system is termed as “linear” because for fixed values of weights the output is
linear combination of corresponding inputs. However, when the weights are being
adjusted, they depend upon the values of corresponding inputs and previous output.
Now the output of the system is not related to the input in linear fashion and becomes
non-linear.

The equation of input signal can be given as:

𝑋𝑘 = [ 𝑥0𝑘 𝑥1𝑘 ……… 𝑥𝐿𝑘 ]𝑇 … … (3.1)

Where T shows transpose, to signify that Xk is actually a column vector. The

subscript k is used as a time index.
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Weight vector can be given as:

𝑊𝑘 = [ 𝑤0𝑘 𝑤1𝑘 ……… 𝑤𝐿𝑘 ]𝑇 … … (3.2)

We can develop an output equation using (3.1) and (3.2)

𝑦𝑘 = 𝑤𝑙𝑘 𝑥𝑙𝑘 … … (3.3)

𝑙=0

or,

𝑦𝑘 = 𝑋𝑘 𝑇 𝑊𝑘 = 𝑋𝑘 𝑊𝑘 𝑇 … … (3.4)

3.1.1 Desired Response and Error:

The adjustment of the weight vector depends on the output signal and the
“desired response”. The weight vector is adjusted to cause the output to agree as closely
as possible with the desired response. An “error” signal is generated by comparing the
output and desired response; weights are optimized to get minimum value of error.

Figure 3-2 Adaptive linear combiner with desired response and error signal
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Figure 3-2 shows that output signal yk is subtracted from the desired signal dk to
produce the error signal εk.

The error signal with time index k is

𝜀𝑘 = 𝑑𝑘 − 𝑦𝑘 … … (3.5)

Substituting (3.4) into this expression yields

𝜀𝑘 = 𝑑𝑘 − 𝑋𝑘 𝑇 𝑊 = 𝑑𝑘 − 𝑋𝑘 𝑊 𝑇 … … (3.6)

We have dropped the subscript k from weight vector for convenience. We now
square (3.6) to obtain the instantaneous squared error.

𝑇
𝜀𝑘 2 = 𝑑𝑘 2 + 𝑊 𝑇 𝑋𝑘 𝑋𝑘 𝑊 − 2𝑑𝑘 𝑋𝑘 𝑇 𝑊 … … (3.7)

3.1.2 Mean Square Error

Mean square error 𝜉 can be expressed as;

𝑀𝑆𝐸 ≜ 𝜉 = 𝐸 𝜀𝑘 2 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑘 2 + 𝑊 𝑇 𝑅𝑊 − 2𝑃𝑇 𝑊 … … (3.8)

Where,

E expresses the expected values at the time index k

𝑥0𝑘 2 ⋯ 𝑥0𝑘 𝑥𝐿𝑘

𝑇
R = E [𝑋𝑘 𝑋𝑘 ] = E ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑥𝐿𝑘 𝑥0𝑘 ⋯ 𝑥𝐿𝑘 2

P = E [𝑑𝑘 𝑋𝑘 𝑇 ] = E [𝑑𝑘 𝑥0𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑥1𝑘 … 𝑑𝑘 𝑥𝐿𝑘 ]𝑇

The mean square error 𝜉 is a quadratic function of components of weight vector

W, when the desired response and input component is stationary. Using the values of
weights we can develop a performance surface, which relates the values of individual
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weights with the MSE (mean square error). Minimum value of MSE on that performance
curve gives us the value of optimal weights.

Consider an example where we have to adjust values of two weight components

to get optimum results. Figure 3-3 below shows bowl-shaped error function or
performance surface for the particular example. The point at the “bottom of the bowl” is
projected upon weight-vector plane to get optimum values of weight for minimum value
of MSE (which is zero in this case).

Figure 3-3 Performance surface

The optimum weight values in this case are w0 = 0.65 and w1 = -2.10

Generally gradient method is used to get information about the minimum value
of Mean square error. The gradient of the mean-square-error performance surface,
designated by ∇ 𝜉 or simply ∇, can be obtained by differentiating (3.8) with respect to
W.

𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝜉 𝜕𝜉 𝑇
∇= =[ … ] … … (3.9)
𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑤0 𝜕𝑤1 𝜕𝑤𝐿
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3.1.3 Simple Gradient Search Algorithm

Now the question arises, how to find optimum weight W*, that causes the mean
square error to be minimized? Not knowing about the performance function, we start
the process of finding gradients by substituting arbitrary weight w0. Next value of weight
is calculated by simple gradient search algorithm which is given by

𝑤𝑘+1 = 𝑤𝑘 + 𝜇 −∇k … … (3.10)

Where, k is the step or iteration number. Negative value of gradient shows

negative slope which is necessary to proceed “downhill” on the performance surface. 𝜇
is a constant which can be called as learning parameter that governs the stability and
rate of convergence. Convergence can be defined as time instant ‘k’ when,

𝑤𝑘+1 = 𝑤𝑘 … … (3.11)

i.e. when ∇k becomes zero which shows flattening of the performance curve
consequently the point of minimum MSE on the performance curve.

Note that the above weight is for single input, the weights for other inputs will be
calculated in the same manner.

3.2 LMS Algorithm

There are several algorithms for descending on the performance surface and
estimating the gradient. Least Mean Square (LMS) algorithm uses a special estimate of
the gradient.

If in an adaptive system, the input Xk and desired signal dk are available at each
time index then LMS algorithm is generally the best choice for adaptive signal
processing.
 20

In other methods estimate the gradient of 𝜉 = 𝐸 𝜀𝑘 2 by taking differences

between short-term averages of 𝜀𝑘 2 . However, in LMS algorithm we take 𝜀𝑘 2 itself as
estimate of 𝜉𝑘 .

Using the same error equation (3.5)

𝜀𝑘 = 𝑑𝑘 − 𝑋𝑘 𝑇 𝑊

Differentiating the equation with respect to W;

𝜕𝜀𝑘
= − 𝑋𝑘 … … (3.12)
𝜕𝑊

At each iteration in the adaptive process, we have a gradient estimate of form

𝜕𝜀𝑘 2 𝜕𝜀𝑘
𝜕𝑤0 𝜕𝑤0
. .
∇𝑘 = . = 2𝜀𝑘 . = −2𝜀𝑘 𝑋𝑘 … … (3.13)
. .
𝜕𝜀𝑘 2 𝜕𝜀𝑘
𝜕𝑤𝐿 𝜕𝑤𝐿

Now the equation (3.10) of simple gradient search algorithm can be given as;

𝑤𝑘+1 = 𝑤𝑘 + 2𝜇𝜀𝑘 𝑋𝑘 … … (3.14)

We can see that the LMS algorithm can be implemented practically without
squaring, averaging or differentiation which symbolizes its simplicity and ease of
computation.

Since the weight calculation, at each iteration, is based on imperfect gradient

estimates, the adaption process becomes noisy; but the noise attenuates with time.
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Chapter 4
Harmonic Mitigation
The growing use of non linear loads has increased the harmonic content in power
systems which have very adverse effects on the power system performance. For
example, the harmonic contributes many problems such as transmission power losses,
conductor overheating, overloading of capacitor bank and noise. And in order to
improve the power system quality, the harmonic content must be mitigated.

Several techniques have been used to eliminate the current harmonics and to
improve the power factor, simplest of them is passive LC filters. However, passive LC
filters are bulky, load dependent and inflexible. They can also cause resonance problems
to the system. With the increased pollution caused by harmonics in power networks, a
more dynamic and adjustable system is needed, which can accommodate any type of
load attached to it. These system are called Active Power Filters.

Active power filters can be incorporated with the power system in different
configurations; for example, in series, shunt or as a combination of both. The shunt APF
is the most commonly used topology nowadays because it is the most basic
configuration of APFs. Moreover, APFs architecture can be broken down into three main
blocks (1) recovering an equilibrated and balanced voltage system, required by some
harmonic estimation techniques (2) reference current calculation by identifying and
filtering harmonics (3) reinjection of the current in system through the APF’s power
circuit, controlled by the reference current generated in the second block.

The second block of the APF can be made by using different harmonic detection
algorithms such as recursive least error squares, Kalman filtering, Fourier Transforms,
etc. The most common of the techniques used is the Instantaneous Power Theory (IPT)
 22

or P-Q theory, which separates the active power associated with the fundamental
frequency from the reactive power and the power associated with the harmonics.

4.1 P-Q Theory:

The P-Q theory is based on the algebraic transformation of source voltages, va, vb,
vc and load currents, iLa, iLb, iLc into α-β coordinates, using the following formulae of Clark
transform:

1 1
1 − − 𝑣𝑎
𝑣𝛼 2 2 2 𝑣
𝑣𝛽 = 3 3 3 𝑣
𝑏 … … (4.1)
0 − 𝑐
2 2

1 1
2 1 − − 𝑖𝐿𝑎
𝑖𝐿𝛼 2 2
𝑖𝐿𝑏 … … (4.2)
𝑖𝐿𝛽 = 3 3 3 𝑖
0 − 𝐿𝑐
2 2

From these transforms the instantaneous power is then calculated using:

𝑝 𝑣𝛼 𝑣𝛽 𝑖𝐿𝛼
𝑞 = −𝑣𝛽 𝑣𝛼 𝑖𝐿𝛽 … … (4.3)

Solving this, gives us two components of active and reactive powers, one is the
DC component and the other is AC component.

𝑝 = 𝑝 + 𝑝 … … (4.4)

𝑞 = 𝑞 + 𝑞 … … (4.5)

The unnecessary power values are then separated from the fundamental power
component using a low pass filter. These are then used to form the compensation
currents through inverse Clarke transformation which converts the α-β components
 23

back to line currents (a, b, c). Compensation currents are provided to the Hysteresis
controller to generate gating signals for the IGBT based inverter. The inverter then re-
injects the harmonic current in the system at the point of common coupling, hence
relieving the power source and transmission lines from the burden of reactive power
and harmonic current.

Normally, the active component of the power is separated from the other
components of power by using a low pass filter. But, these filters have a problem of
accurate phase and gain tuning and three more current sensors are required for sensing
load current. Also, cut-off frequency and selection of the order of the filter affect its
performance.

4.2 Adaline Based Methods for Harmonic Mitigation:

Adaptive filtering technologies and Adaline-based APFs were developed to

overcome shortcomings of the Instantaneous Power Theory. These techniques are more
efficient and can be applied on different parts of the APF. One such part of the APF
which can be replaced by the adaptive technique is of estimating the harmonic currents.
There are three different methods for estimating the harmonic currents; namely, (1) the
direct method, (2) the three mono-phase method and (3) the active reactive powers
method.

The three monophase method uses current transformation, after which two
Adalines are used for estimating fundamental harmonic from the measured current of
each phase. Whereas, the active reactive powers method employs the direct Concordia
transform to convert the measured currents into active and reactive powers. Two
Adalines are used to separate the continuous components of powers from the
alternative components to calculate the reference current, with the help of inverse
Concordia transform.
 24

Direct method is the simplest of all three; because, it neither requires PLL (phase
locked loop) nor any current transformations, to calculate the harmonic current. This
method is discussed in detail in the next heading.

Table 1-Comparison Of Different Harmonic Mitigation Techniques

Cosф (for
Need Need of Adequate Adequate Number cosф = THD (for a THD
Filtering
of Current for single for three of 0.941 of 24% without
Method
PLL Transforms phase phase Adalines without compensation)
correction)
Conventional
Low-Pass Yes Yes No Yes - 0.9870 1.2%
Filter
Direct
No No Yes Yes 3 0.9913 0.95%
Method
Three-
monophase No Yes Yes Yes 6 0.9927 0.79%
Method
Active &
Reactive
Yes Yes No Yes 2 0.9921 0.84%
Powers
Method
 25

4.3 Current Estimation through Direct Method

The backbone of Active Power Filter is the calculation of reference current which
will be fed to the control mechanism. If the estimated current is not correct, the control
mechanism will generate a current unable to mitigate harmonics in the power system.

Figure 4-1 Adaline for harmonic current identification with direct

method

The direct method of estimating currents is so-far the simplest of all the current
estimation methods, because it neither requires any tedious current transformations nor
any phase locked loop at the point of common coupling.

We start our calculation of harmonic current by decomposing the measured load

current in Fourier series in the following way:

𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝐼𝑛1 cos 𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝐼𝑛2 sin 𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼) … … (4.6)

𝑛=1…𝑁

Where,

iload is the current of any phase

n shows the total number of harmonics

N shows the number of harmonics which must be taken in to account

 26

ω is the fundamental frequency

α is the initial phase angle

Figure 4-1 shows the Adaline that is used for Fourier series decomposition of the
load current. The fundamental component of the current is separated from this equation
and it becomes:

𝑖𝐿𝑓 = 𝐼11 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼) + 𝐼12 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛼) … … (4.7)

Once we have successfully separated the fundamental current, we can obtain the
current ih which contains only the undesirable harmonics by subtracting the
fundamental component of the current form the load current.

𝑖ℎ = 𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 − 𝑖𝐿𝑓 … … (4.8)

ih is the reference current, which we need for the control mechanism of inverter.
 27

Chapter 5
Active Power Filter
The simulated model comprises of three main blocks:

1. Active power filter (APF)

2. Non-linear load

3. Analyzer

The active power filter is connected in parallel to the simulated power system
and is responsible to mitigate the harmonics caused by the non-linear load, by injecting
the compensatory current in to the system. The APF will be discussed in detail later.

Different non-linear loads are designed in order to formulate different cases, to

analyze the performance of the APF. The analyzer block contains different graphs and
windows that show the performance analyzing parameters of the APF. The analyzer
block is not a part of the power system.

Figure 5-1 General scheme of Shunt APF Figure 5-2 Ideal waveform in case of square load
current
 28

The active power filter can be divided into two main blocks:

1. Current estimator

2. Power Converter

The current estimator estimates the reference current (harmonic current) which
is fed to the hysteresis controller. The controller then generates a signal to operate the
inverter. The inverter synthesizes harmonic current which is then injected to the power
system.

Figure 5-3 Active Power Filter

 29

5.1.1 Current Estimator

The reference current is estimated by breaking down the current in its

component frequencies using the fourier series of the load current. Adalines are used to
implement the Fourier series. In figure 6-1, we provide signals of different frequencies as
input to the Adaline and their amplitudes are adjusted by adjusting the weights of the
Adaline.

Figure 5-4 Adaline for estimating load current

Here we have provided odd harmonic frequencies up to the 29 th order because

harmonics start becoming less significant as their order increases. And only odd
harmonics are considered because even harmonics are insignificant in 3 phase electrical
systems.

The weighted inputs, when summed, form our desired output signal. In this case,
load current is our desired signal. Finally, the load current’s decomposed form is used to
separate the fundamental component of the harmonic current, as shown in figure 5-3.
 30

W1 and W2 are the amplitudes of sine and cosine components of the fundamental
current, respectively.

Figure 5-5 Fundamental component separation

We then subtract the Adaline generated fundamental component only from the
load current to get the harmonic current. This is the reference current for control power
converter.

5.1.2 Power Converter:

The power converter comprises of a hysteresis controller and a three phase

voltage source bridge inverter. The reference current estimated by the current estimator
is fed to the hysteresis controller which tries to track it accurately and generates the
gating signals for the bridge inverter. The bridge inverter is made up of power MOSFETs
or IGBTs. It synthesizes the estimated current and injects it into the system. The inverter
is coupled to the system through a series coupling inductor, called commutation
inductor, in order to avoid high inductive kick or limit di/dt. Leakage inductance of a
coupling transformer can also serve this purpose.
 31

Chapter 6
SIMULINK Model Description
The complete system model of the adaline based shunt active power filter in a
three-phase four wire system is shown in figure 6-1. The specifications and ratings of
different components of the model are discussed below.

Figure 6-1 Three phase four wire system

6.1 3-phase Source

The 3-phase source found in SimPower system is used with following

specifications:

 Phase to phase rms voltage(V) 400V

 Frequency(Hz) 50Hz
 Internal Connection Yn
 Source Resistance(Ω) 0.001Ω
 32

 Source Inductance 1e-8

6.2 Line Impedance (Zt)

A 3-phase RLC branch (having resistance and inductance only) is used to represent the
line impedance (Zt). The resistance and inductance are kept as follows:

 Resistance R (Ω) 0.01Ω

 Inductance L (H) 1e-6

6.3 V-I Measurement

Line to ground voltages and line currents are measured using the 3-phase VI
Measurement block.

6.4 Circuit Breaker

The shunt active power filter is connected to the transmission line through a
circuit breaker (in series). The switching time of the circuit breaker is kept 0.02 seconds
so that the APF will be connected to the power system after the defined time and its
effect can be clearly observed.

6.5 Non-Linear Load

In order to analyze the performance of APF in a better way, different non-linear

loads are designed to formulate different cases (discussed in the next chapter).

6.6 Powergui

The powergui block is required to run the simulations having blocks from
SimPower System. It provides different options to change the configurations of the used
blocks.
 33

6.7 Analyzer

The analyzer block contains the performance analyzing parameters of the APF
like the power factor and THD displaying windows along with the scopes displaying the
source voltage and current, non-linear load current, neutral current and the current
injected by the APF .

Figure 6-2 Analyzer block

 34

6.8 Shunt APF

In order to investigate about the components of the shunt APF we will have to
look under mask of this object. The shunt APF was shown in figure 5-3

6.8.1 Current Estimator

The current estimator is a major part of the shunt APF. The purpose of the
current estimator block is to estimate the compensatory harmonic current. It estimates
the required compensation current by subtracting the fundamental harmonic current
from the non-linear load current. Figure 6-3 shows all the components of the current
estimator for all three phases.

Figure 6-3 Current Estimator Block

 35

Zero-order Hold

The zero-order hold block makes the load current discrete, since the adaline only
processes discrete signals.

6.8.1.1 Fundamental Harmonic Generator

As the name implies, the fundamental harmonic generator block generates the
fundamental frequency current through adaline.

6.8.1.1.1 Adaline

Figure 6-4 Adaline

 36

Adaline is the main component of the fundamental harmonic generator and the heart of the shunt
APF. We have decomposed the load current into its frequency components through adaline. Our
adaline is designed to calculate up to “twenty nine odd harmonics” of the non-linear load current.
Each harmonic component of the load current is estimated using two LMS blocks. The output
current will be the sum of all harmonic components, estimated by the adaline. The estimated
fundamental harmonic is subtracted from load current to generate reference current for power
converter. The error between the non-linear input current and the estimated non-linear output
current is fed to the LMS block.

6.8.1.1.1.1 LMS Block

Figure 6-5 LMS Algorithm implementation

The adaline computes the weights of the harmonic components of the load
current using the LMS algorithm. The estimated output of adaline is compared with the
desired output and the error is fed to the LMS block. The LMS blocks adjust the weights
of the harmonic components by minimizing the error through calculating the gradient.

𝑤𝑘+1 = 𝑤𝑘 + 2𝜇𝜀𝑘 𝑋𝑘 … … (3.13)

 37

The LMS algorithm is applied using the embedded MATLAB Function block as
shown in figure 6-5.

Where, parameters of equation (3.13) in figure 6-5 are;

W is weight

K is time index

𝜀𝑘 is error

𝜇 is learning parameter

6.8.1.2 Mean

The mean block makes the discrete harmonic current (estimated by the adaline)
continuous so that it can be fed to the hysteresis controller.

6.8.2 Hysteresis controller

The hysteresis controller is used to generate the gating signals for the IGBTs of
the three phase bridge inverter. The hysteresis controller takes the estimated
continuous harmonic current as input and forces the inverter to simulate the harmonic
current correctly. A detailed description of hysteresis is given in Appendix.

6.8.3 Bridge inverter

The bridge inverter generates the required harmonic current that will be injected
into the power system. The three phase bridge inverter used in the simulation is made
up of three arm IGBTs, controlled by the hysteresis controller, as discussed earlier.

6.8.4 DC Capacitor

The capacitors are used to drive the IGBTs of the inverter, thus becoming the
source of the compensation current.
 38

6.8.5 Coupling inductor

The inverter is coupled to the system through coupling inductor in order to limit the
di/dt effects.
 39

Chapter 7
Simulations and Results

7.1 Different types of loads

For the analysis of our project, we have considered three different types of loads:

7.1.1 Load 1

Figure 7-1 Load-1 Bridge rectifier

It is a simple bridge rectifier connected through a circuit breaker. The circuit

breaker gets closed at t=0 seconds.

The load resistor connected across the three arm bridge rectifier is of 2 ohms.
 40

7.1.2 Load 2

This load comprises of two, three arm bridge rectifiers connected in parallel. The
circuit breaker connected to the first rectifier gets closed at t=0 seconds and remains
closed throughout. However, the circuit breaker of the second bridge rectifier closes at
t=0.08 seconds. This switching of the second circuit breaker brings both the rectifiers in
parallel. The load resistor connected to both the rectifiers is of 2 ohms.

Figure 7-2 Load 2- Two Bridge Rectifiers in parallel

7.1.3 Load 3

In this load, inductors are connected in parallel to each arm of the bridge
rectifier. The inductors draw reactive power of 2000 VAR. This is done, in particular, to
analyze the power factor improvement through the Active power filter, since most real
time loads are highly inductive in nature and have low power factors. The load resistors
of this bridge rectifier are also taken as 2 ohms.
 41

L
e
t

u
s

n
o

Figure 7-3 Load 3- Bridge Rectifier with Inductors in parallel

Figure 7-3 Load 3- Bridge Rectifier with Inductors in parallel

Let us now have a close look in to the simulations to understand the working and
versatile behavior of the Adaline based Shunt Active Power Filter. For this purpose, we
have considered following cases, taking the loads discussed above. All the simulations
have been performed in MATLAB SIMULINK environment, propriety software from
MATHWORKS.Inc.
 42

7.2 CASE I: Compensation of a Simple Bridge Rectifier (Load 1)

A simple three arm bridge rectifier, which is actually a non-linear load, was
connected to the power system. The adaline based shunt active power filter was
connected in parallel to the non-linear load in order to compensate the harmonics of the
load. Figure 7-4 shows waveforms of load current, compensatory current (generated by
adaline based APF) and source current respectively. It can also be seen from figure 7-4,
that the APF was switched on at 0.02 seconds. Before, the APF was switched on; the
source current had various harmonics in it. After the compensation of harmonics, it can
be seen that the source current is now a pure sinusoidal wave with a single frequency of
50 Hz.

Load current (A)

Compensatory current (A)

Source current Is (A)

Time (seconds)
Figure 7-4 Compensation of Harmonic Current generated by Load 1
 43

Table 2 further elaborates the behavior of total harmonic distortion (THD) and
power factor (pf), as compensated by the APF. The values of THD and power factor are
taken after every 0.02 seconds.

Table 2- Power Factor and Total Harmonic Distortion of all phases after compensation

TIME
THD (%) P.F
(second)
PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C
0.02 25.90 26.43 26.76 0.9624
0.04 18.11 30.53 31.49 0.9747
0.06 1.19 1.63 1.54 0.9806
0.08 0.62 0.67 0.61 0.9836
0.1 0.58 0.59 0.54 0.9854
0.12 0.58 0.57 0.53 0.9867
0.14 0.59 0.58 0.54 0.9875
0.16 0.59 0.58 0.54 0.9882
0.18 0.59 0.58 0.55 0.9887
0.2 0.60 0.59 0.56 0.9891
. .
. .
. .
1.00 - - - 0.9922

It has been observed that the total harmonic distortion (THD) of all phases A, B
and C has reduced upto 0.60%, 0.59% and 0.56% respectively, which is far within the
limits standardized by IEEE 519 Std. Also, the power factor of the three phase source has
been improved upto 0.9891 in 0.2 seconds. The power factor of the source kept on
increasing and so at 1.00 seconds, the power factor was observed to be 0.9922.
 44

According to IEEE 519 Standards, the THD of the power source should remain
within 5%. Keeping this in to account, following values of time are tabulated when the
THD of the source has reduced upto 5%.

Phase A: 0.0436 sec

Phase B: 0.0439 sec

Phase C: 0.0455 sec

This clearly shows that the Adaline based APF adapts very quickly and responds
in no time, i.e. the harmonics are compensated in approximately two cycles of a 50Hz
sinusoidal wave.
 45

7.3 CASE II: Compensation of Two Parallel Bridge Rectifiers (Load 2)

To analyze the dynamic behavior of the adaline based Shunt Active Power Filter,
load 2 was connected to the under discussed power system. The switching of the second
bridge inside the load helps us further in understanding the converging time and fast
response of the APF. The APF was switched on at 0.02 seconds and the changes in the
load current, compensatory current and source current can be observed through Figure
7-5.

Table 3 represents the tabulated results of the total harmonic distortion (THD)
and power factor (pf), taken after every 0.02 seconds.

Load current (A)

Compensatory current (A)

Source current Is (A)

Time (seconds)
Figure 7-5 Compensation of Harmonic Current generated by Load-2
 46

Table 3-Power Factor and Total Harmonic Distortion of all phases after compensation

TIME THD (%)

P.F
(second) PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C
0.02 25.9 25.9 26.7 0.962
0.04 18.11 30.5 31.5 0.975
0.06 1.19 1.63 1.54 0.981
0.08 0.62 0.66 0.61 0.984
0.1 14.05 16.61 18.12 0.982
0.12 3.38 4.48 4.81 0.982
0.14 2.18 2.34 2.28 0.982
0.16 2.01 2.04 1.99 0.983
0.18 1.91 1.94 1.89 0.983
0.2 1.84 1.86 1.82 0.983
0.22 1.78 1.80 1.76 0.983
0.24 1.75 1.77 1.72 0.983
0.26 1.73 1.74 1.69 0.983
. .
. .
. .
1.00 - - - 0.9834

Table-3 shows that the THD of phases A, B and C has reduced upto 0.62%, 0.66%
and 0.61% respectively, in 0.08 seconds. After this, the second bridge rectifier comes in
parallel to the first bridge of the load. But, the APF quickly adapts this change in the load
and brings down the THD o0f phases A, B and C upto 3.38%, 4.48% and 4.81% at 0.12
seconds.

This behavior of the APF shows that, the adaline based APF is not a dedicated
system. In fact, it can adapt according to the changing load environment very quickly.
Moreover, it can be observed that the power factor of the considered load has imporved
 47

upto 0.983 in 0.26 seconds. And when the simulations are run till 1.00 seconds, the
power factor further improved upto 0.9834 and was still improving.

This behavior of adaline based APF can also be seen through it’s convergence
time, calculated when THD of the source has reduced upto 5% (as standardized by IEEE
519 Standards).

Phase A: 0.0436 sec ; 0.1133 sec

Phase B: 0.0439 sec ; 0.1162 sec

Phase C: 0.0455 sec ; 0.1197 sec

The first values of the corresponding phases represent the convergence time of
first bridge rectifier of the load. Whereas, the second values represent the convergence
time after both the bridges are in parallel.
 48

7.4 CASE III: Compensation of Bridge Rectifier in Parallel with

Inductors (Load 3)

In order to analyze the compensation of power factor by the adaline based shunt
active power filter, a highly inductive load was connected to the under discussed power
system. This will exhibit the performance of the APF for most of the practical loads used
in the industry, which are highly inductive in nature. Figure 7-6 shows the waveforms of
load current, compensatory current and source current respectively. The APF is switched
on at 0.02 seconds.

Load current (A)

Compensatory current (A)

Source current Is (A)

Time (seconds)

Figure 7-6 Compensation of Harmonic Current generated by Load-3

 49

At a step size of 0.02 seconds, the values of THD and power factor are tabulated in Table 4
below.

Table 4-Power Factor and Total Harmonic Distortion of all phases after compensation

TIME
THD (%) P.F
(second)
PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C
0.02 25.52 26.02 26.37 0.947
0.04 18.7 30.7 30.09 0.960
0.06 1.14 1.61 1.54 0.966
0.08 0.62 0.67 0.61 0.969
0.1 0.58 0.59 0.54 0.971
0.12 0.589 0.595 0.549 0.972
0.14 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.973
0.16 0.61 0.62 0.56 0.973
0.18 0.62 0.64 0.58 0.974
0.2 0.64 0.66 0.59 0.974
. .
. .
. .
1.00 - - - 0.9857

It can be seen from Table 4 that just within 0.2 seconds, the total harmonic
distortion (THD) of phases A, B and C has reduced from 25.52%, 26.02% and 26.37% to
0.64%, 0.66% and 0.59% respectively. Moreover, the power factor has also improved
upto 0.974 within 0.2 seconds. While, when the simulations are run till 1.00 seconds it
was observed that the power factor got improved upto 0.9857 and was still improving.
 50

7.5 Comparison of Adaline Based APF with Conventional P-Q Theory

based APF

7.5.1 Considering Load 1

The following line graphs in figures 7-7, 7-8 and 7-9 show the behavior of total
harmonic distortion (THD) for each phase of load 1, by adaline based APF and P-Q
Theory based APF. It can be clearly observed that our proposed idea, the Adaline based
APF has reduced the THD far below than conventional P-Q theory based APF and thus, is
performing better in all three phases.

30

25

20
Adaline based
APF
15
P-Q Theory based
APF
10

0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Figure 7-7Comparison of THD for Phase A of Load 1

 51

35

30

25

20
Adaline based
APF
15 P-Q Theory based
APF
10

0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Figure 7-8 Comparison of THD for Phase B of Load 1

35

30

25

20
Adaline based
APF
15
P-Q Theory based
APF
10

0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Figure 7-9 Comparison of THD for Phase C of Load 1

 52

7.5.2 Considering Load 2

When Load 2 (two parallel three arm bridge rectifiers), is connected to both the
active power filters. It was found that, the adaline based APF still performed better in all
three phases than the conventional P-Q Theory based APF, by producing very less total
harmonic distortion (THD). These analyses are also exhibited through the graphs shown
in figure 7-10, 7-11 and 7-12.

30

25

20
Adaline based APF

15 P-Q Theory based

APF
10

0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26

Figure 7-10 Comparison of THD for Phase A of Load 2

 53

35

30

25

20
Adaline based APF
15
P-Q Theory based
APF
10

0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26

Figure 7-11 Comparison of THD for Phase B of Load 2

35

30

25

20
Adaline based
15 APF
P-Q Theory based
10 APF

0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26

Figure 7-12 Comparison of THD for Phase C of Load 2

 54

7.5.3 Considering Load 3

Harmonic compensation for a non-linear inductive load was analyzed, through

conventional P-Q Theory based APF and adaline based APF. Again, it was observed and
concluded that the adaline based APF compensated the harmonics (i.e. less THD) much
better than the conventional APF.

This can be seen with the help of following graphs in Figures 7-13, 7-14 and 7-15.

30

25

20
Adaline based APF

15
P-Q Theory based
APF
10

0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Figure 7-13 Comparison of THD for Phase A of Load 3

 55

35

30

25

20
Adaline Based APF

15
P-Q Theory based
APF
10

0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Figure 7-14 Comparison of THD for Phase C of Load 3

35

30

25

20
Adaline based APF
15
P-Q Thoery based
APF
10

0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Figure 7-15 Comparison of THD for Phase B of Load 3

 56

Chapter 8
Conclusion
The objective of our project was to compare the performances of two APFs, one
based on instantaneous power theory (IPT) and the other on adaptive technique, and
conclude which of the two is better suited for the power system. The parameters on
which we judged the two techniques were Total Harmonic Distortion, power factor and
the time taken by the APF to bring THD in safe limits of 5%.

The results obtained by the adaptive technique based APF were better. The THD
reduced to 0.7%; within milliseconds of the APF coming online, whereas, the IPT based
APF reduced the THD to 3.5% with a slightly longer delay. The adaptive technique based
APF was also able to enhance the power factor up to 0.99 but the power factor took a
little more time to get stabled than that of the IPT based APF.

Adaptive technique based APF is more suitable for the power system because the
technique is more efficient, easier to implement and does not require tedious
computations. Moreover, it reduces the total harmonic distortion (THD) upto 0.7%
which is much lesser than conventional IPT based APF.
 57

APPENDIX

Hysteresis Controller

A hysteresis controller is actually a feedback controller that switches between

two levels or states abruptly. It is also known as a bang-bang controller and can be
understood and analyzed in terms of a hysteresis providing element. Hysteresis
controllers have the advantages of quick response and easy implementation. Due to
these advantages the hysteresis controller is considered to be the best choice for
controlling the voltage source inverters.

The hysteresis current controller controls the voltage source inverter in a way
that the inverter tries to follow and synthesize the current, fed to the hysteresis
controller as the reference current.

The hysteresis band is used to control the output current by setting its upper and
lower limits (to deviate from the reference current) and ultimately determines a
switching signal that triggers the gates of inverter.

Figure 9-0-1 Principle of Hysteresis controller

It compares the output current signal of the inverter with the reference current
signal and determines an error signal that acts as the gating signal for the transistors of
inverter. The range of the error signal depends upon the upper and lower limits of the
 58

hysteresis band. If the error signal remains within the limits set by the hysteresis band,
the inverter continues its state. But if the value of error signal exceeds the maximum
value of error, the transistors of inverter are switched off. Similarly, the transistors are
switched on if the value of error becomes smaller than the minimum value of error.

Besides the simplicity of implementation and fast response, the hysteresis

controller does not require any knowledge about the connected load which makes it
more suitable for the inverters used in active power filters. However it has a
disadvantage of variable switching frequency.

SIMULINK Model of Hysteresis Controller

Figure (9) shows the hysteresis controller modeled in SIMULINK. It can be seen in
the figure 9-2 that ‘Relational Operator’ and ‘Logical Not Operator’ blocks are used
together to form a hysteresis controller. The relational operator and the logical not are
connected to the gates of IGBTs of the three phase bridge inverter.

The output of the inverter I_meas is compared with reference current I_ref using
relational operator. If I_ref is greater than I_meas, the relational operator will give ‘1’ at
output and ‘0’ if i_ref is smaller than i_meas. In this way the gates of IGBTs get triggered.

Figure 9-0-2 SIMULINK model of Hysteresis controller

 59

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[2] B. Gold and C. M. Rader, Digital Processing of Signals. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969
[3] P. Eykhoff, System Identification. New York: Wiley, 1974
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Sept. 1976
[5] Djaffar Ould Abdeslam, Patrice Wira, Jean Mercklé, Damien Flieller, and Yves-André
Chapuis, “A Unified Artificial Neural Network Architecture forActive Power Filters”.
[6] Bhim Singh, Kamal Al-Haddad, Senior Member, IEEE, and Ambrish Chandra, Member, IEEE,
“A Review of Active Filters for Power Quality Improvement”.
[7] L. A. Moran and J. W. Dixan, “Active Filters”, in Power Electronics Handbook, M. Rashid, Ed.
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[8] Djaffar OULD ABDESLAM, Jean MERCKLE, Patrice WIRA, Damien FLIELLIER, “Harmonic
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[9] Yongtao, Dai1 and Wenjin, Dai2, “Harmonic and Reactive Power Compensation with
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