The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.

gov

Reference Tables for

Physical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE
Radioactive Decay Data Specific Heats of Common Materials
RADIOACTIVE DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT
ISOTOPE (years) (Joules/gram • °C)
14 14 3 Liquid water 4.18
Carbon-14 C N 5.7 × 10
Solid water (ice) 2.11
40
40 Ar 9 Water vapor 2.00
Potassium-40 K 40 1.3 × 10
Ca
Dry air 1.01
238 206 9
Uranium-238 U Pb 4.5 × 10 Basalt 0.84
10
Granite 0.79
87 87
Rubidium-87 Rb Sr 4.9 × 10
Iron 0.45
Copper 0.38
Equations Lead 0.13

distance between foci

Eccentricity = Properties of Water
length of major axis
change in field value Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
Gradient =
distance
Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g
change in value Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g
Rate of change =
time
Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g
mass
Density = Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL
volume

Average Chemical Composition

of Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere
ELEMENT CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHERE
(symbol) Percent by mass Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume
Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04 33.0 21.0
Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88
Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48
Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49
Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18
Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11
Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33
Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42
Nitrogen (N) 78.0
Hydrogen (H) 66.0
Other 0.91 0.07 1.0 1.0

2011 EDITION Eurypterus remipes

This edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in the
classroom beginning in the 2011–12 school year. The first examination for
which these tables will be used is the January 2012 Regents Examination in
New York State Fossil
Physical Setting/Earth Science.
 Generalized Landscape Regions of New York State
ds
Interior an
wl
Grenville Province Lowlands e Lo
(Highlands) e nc
awr
S t. L

Interior Lowlands
Adirondack
Mountains Champlain Lowlands

Lake Ontario
Tug Hill
Plateau
ce

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition

vin

Erie-Ontario Lowlands
P

(Plains)
s)
a nd ro

ins
l

Lake Erie
i gh nd

wlands
En

ounta
(H gla

Allegheny Plateau
M
ew

k Lo
i c
N

w
n
o h a

The Catskills
M
Taco
o n-

) nds
nds H ighla
o n
Huds

pla H uds
U rong
( h a t tan P
u Man
ea
at Key
Pl

n
Major geographic province boundary lain

ia
a l P

h
st
ds

Landscape region boundary

c
Coa
l an rk

State boundary n tic

ala
w
N

la

p
At
Lo ewa

International boundary

Ap
Miles N
0 10 20 30 40 50
W E
0 20 40 60 80
Kilometers S

2
 73°
75° 74° 45°
45°
Generalized Bedrock Geology of New York State

er
MASSENA

iv
R
e
modified from

nc
re
PLATTSBURGH

w
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

La
t.
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

S
76°
1989

AIN
MPL
A
MT. MARCY
VERMONT

CH
44°
44°
WATERTOWN

R iv e r
LAKE
elevation 75 m
OLD FORGE

on
ds
LAKE ONTARIO

Hu
79° 78° 77°
OSWEGO

ROCHESTER UTICA
NIAGARA FALLS

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition

SYRACUSE
43°

ar a River
43°

ag
Moha
wk

Ni
R iv e r
BUFFALO

r
ve
elevation 175 m ALBANY

Ri
LAKE FINGER LAKES

see
ERIE

ne
Ge
ITHACA
Rive r

er
MASSACHUSETTS

iv

JAMESTOWN ELMIRA BINGHAMTON

R

SLIDE MT.
Susquehanna 42°
42° KINGSTON
79° 78° 77° 76°
De
Hu ds on

law

P E N N S Y L V A N I A
are
Rive r

GEOLOGIC PERIODS AND ERAS IN NEW YORK

CONNECTICUT

75°
CRETACEOUS and PLEISTOCENE (Epoch) weakly consolidated to unconsolidated gravels, sands, and clays NE
LATE TRIASSIC and EARLY JURASSIC conglomerates, red sandstones, red shales, basalt, and diabase (Palisades sill) W UND
JE ND SO
PENNSYLVANIAN and MISSISSIPPIAN conglomerates, sandstones, and shales Dominantly RS ISLA
EY N G 73° 41°
DEVONIAN sedimentary LO 41°
limestones, shales, sandstones, and conglomerates 41° RIVERHEAD 72°
SILURIAN } SILURIAN also contains salt, gypsum, and hematite. origin
NEW YORK D
ORDOVICIAN CITY ISLAN
limestones, shales, sandstones, and dolostones LONG
CAMBRIAN }
CAMBRIAN and EARLY ORDOVICIAN sandstones and dolostones
moderately to intensely metamorphosed east of the Hudson River
} Dominantly
40°30'
73°
ATLANTIC OCEAN

CAMBRIAN and ORDOVICIAN (undifferentiated) quartzites, dolostones, marbles, and schists 74° 73°30'
metamorphosed
intensely metamorphosed; includes portions of the Taconic Sequence and Cortlandt Complex
rocks Miles
TACONIC SEQUENCE sandstones, shales, and slates Miles N
slightly to intensely metamorphosed rocks of CAMBRIAN through MIDDLE ORDOVICIAN ages 20 30 40 50
MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC gneisses, quartzites, and marbles
Lines are generalized structure trends.
} Intensely metamorphosed rocks
0 100 2010 30
0
40 50
20 40 60
W
80
E

MIDDLE PROTEROZOIC anorthositic rocks } (regional metamorphism about 1,000 m.y.a.) 0 20 40 60 80

Kilometers
Kilometers S

3
Surface Ocean Currents

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 4

 Tectonic Plates

Iceland
Hot Spot

North American Eurasian

Eurasian Plate Plate
h
e
Plate Aleutian Trenc Yellowstone
idg
Juan de Hot Spot
Fuca Plate
ti cR
n
la
At

Canary
d-

Islands

P
ab
Mi

San Andreas Hot Spot

Fault

Ar late
ian
Philippine an
African
Plate Hawaii ibbe

e n ch
Plate

a
Mi
t d Hot Spot Cocos Car late
P

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition

Tr ria n a
M Plate

-In
Fiji Plate
Pacific Galapagos South

frican Rif
Plate Hot Spot
Pe American

st A
r

dian Ridge
Plate

Ea
Tr e n c h
To n g a
u-C

Easter Island St. Helena

Indian-Australian Hot Spot Nazca Hot Spot

n Plate Plate
hile Tren

idge

ia
ch

S
Ind ou Tasman
Mid-Atlantic Ridge

cR

e st e the Hot Spot

cifi

g as
t
t Scotia
Pa

hw Rid
u Ind
ia n Plate
So st
Ridg
e Ea
Bouvet
Hot Spot
Antarctic Antarctic
Plate Plate Sandwich
Plate

overriding
Key plate

Transform plate boundary subducting Complex or uncertain Mantle

Relative motion at plate
plate boundary (transform fault) plate boundary hot spot
Divergent plate boundary
(usually broken by transform Convergent plate boundary
faults along mid-ocean ridges) (subduction zone)

NOTE: Not all mantle hot spots, plates, and

5
boundaries are shown.
 Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust Relationship of Transported
r Depo
Particle Size to Water Velocity
nd/o s
and B ition
na 100.0
ctio ation uria Boulders
pa ent l
om em 25.6
C C Cobbles
SEDIMENTS 10.0
6.4

PARTICLE DIAMETER (cm)

SEDIMENTARY

n
E r o s i on
1.0 Pebbles

Weathering & Erosio

ROCK
We (U
athe plift)
H

ring
e

& Ero 0.2

a

M e lt i n g

sio 0.1
t

n
a
M e ta m or p h
nd/or Pre m

( U p l if t )
r Pressure
t and/o Sand
Hea tamorphism
M e
0.01
n 0.006
lift) rosio
ss ur
is

(U p IGNEOUS
&E Silt
e

e r in g ROCK 0.001
th
Wea lting 0.0004
METAMORPHIC Me
Clay

n
ROCK
io
0.0001
atic
di f

100

1000
li

10
0.01

0.05
0.1

0.5

500
5

50
Me
l ti n MAGMA So
g
STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s)
This generalized graph shows the water velocity
needed to maintain, but not start, movement. Variations
occur due to differences in particle density and shape.

Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification CRYSTAL

SIZE
TEXTURE

crystalline
Obsidian Non-
Basaltic glass

non-
ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION

(usually appears black) Glassy vesicular

EXTRUSIVE
(Volcanic)

Pumice Scoria Vesicular

IGNEOUS ROCKS

(gas
Vesicular rhyolite Vesicular Vesicular basalt pockets)
andesite less than
1 mm Fine
Andesite Basalt
Rhyolite
Diabase
larger 10 mm
Dunite
10 mm 1 mm

Peri- Non-
INTRUSIVE

Diorite Coarse
to

Granite
(Plutonic)

Gabbro dotite vesicular

Very
Pegmatite
or

coarse
CHARACTERISTICS

LIGHTER COLOR DARKER

LOWER DENSITY HIGHER

FELSIC COMPOSITION MAFIC
(rich in Si, Al) (rich in Fe, Mg)
100% 100%
Potassium
feldspar
(pink to white)
MINERAL COMPOSITION

75% 75%
Quartz
(relative by volume)

(clear to
white) Plagioclase feldspar
(white to gray)
50% 50%
Pyroxene
(green)
Biotite
(black)
25% Olivine 25%
(green)
Amphibole
(black)

0% 0%

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 6

 Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification
INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
TEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMPOSITION COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL

Pebbles, cobbles, Rounded fragments Conglomerate

and/or boulders
embedded in sand, Mostly
silt, and/or clay quartz, Angular fragments Breccia
feldspar, and
Clastic Sand clay minerals;
(0.006 to 0.2 cm) Fine to coarse Sandstone
(fragmental) may contain
fragments of . . . . .
Silt Very fine grain Siltstone . . . .
(0.0004 to 0.006 cm) other rocks . . . . .
. . . .
and minerals
Clay Compact; may split
Shale
(less than 0.0004 cm) easily

CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

TEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMPOSITION COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL

Halite Rock salt

Fine Crystals from
to chemical
Crystalline Gypsum Rock gypsum
coarse precipitates
crystals and evaporites
Dolomite Dolostone

Crystalline or Precipitates of biologic

Calcite origin or cemented shell Limestone
bioclastic Microscopic to fragments
very coarse
Bioclastic Compacted
Carbon plant remains Bituminous coal

Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification

GRAIN TYPE OF
TEXTURE SIZE COMPOSITION METAMORPHISM COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL

Fine Low-grade Slate

metamorphism of shale
FOLIATED

ALIGNMENT

Regional
MINERAL

(Heat and Foliation surfaces shiny

pressure from microscopic mica Phyllite
Fine crystals
to increases)
AMPHIBOLE
MICA

medium
FELDSPAR

Platy mica crystals visible

QUARTZ

GARNET

from metamorphism of clay Schist

or feldspars
PYROXENE
BAND-

Medium High-grade metamorphism;

ING

to mineral types segregated Gneiss

coarse into bands

Carbon Metamorphism of
Fine Regional bituminous coal Anthracite coal

Various Various rocks changed by

Fine Contact heat from nearby Hornfels
minerals (heat)
NONFOLIATED

magma/lava

Metamorphism of
Quartz quartz sandstone Quartzite
Fine
to Regional
coarse Calcite and/or Metamorphism of
or Marble
dolomite limestone or dolostone
contact

Coarse Various Pebbles may be distorted Metaconglomerate

minerals or stretched

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 7

 GEOLOGIC HISTORY
NY Rock
Record
Eon Era Period Epoch Life on Earth Sediment
Million years ago Bedrock
Million years ago
0 HOLOCENE 0
0.01
PHANERO-

QUATERNARY PLEISTOCENE 1.8 Humans, mastodonts, mammoths

PLIOCENE
ZOIC

NEOGENE 5.3 Large carnivorous mammals

CENOZOIC MIOCENE Abundant grazing mammals
23.0
OLIGOCENE Earliest grasses
33.9
500 PALEOGENE EOCENE Many modern groups of mammals
55.8
PALEOCENE Mass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and
L 65.5
many land plants
A
T LATE
MESOZOIC
E CRETACEOUS
1000
Earliest flowering plants
M First
PROTEROZOIC

sexually EARLY Diverse bony fishes

I reproducing
D organisms 146
D LATE Earliest birds
L JURASSIC MIDDLE Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids
E
EARLY
200
P R E C A M B R I A N

E LATE Earliest mammals

A TRIASSIC
Earliest dinosaurs
2000 R MIDDLE
Oceanic oxygen
L begins to enter EARLY Mass extinction of many land and marine
the atmosphere 251
Y PALEOZOIC LATE organisms (including trilobites)
MIDDLE Mammal-like reptiles
PERMIAN
EARLY Abundant reptiles
L Oceanic oxygen 299
A produced by LATE
CARBONIF-

PENNSYLVANIAN Extensive coal-forming forests

T cyanobacteria EARLY
318
EROUS

E combines with LATE Abundant amphibians

iron, forming
M MISSISSIPPIAN Large and numerous scale trees and seed ferns
3000 I iron oxide layers MIDDLE
on ocean floor (vascular plants); earliest reptiles
D EARLY
D 359
ARCHEAN

L Earliest amphibians and plant seeds

E Earliest stromatolites LATE
Extinction of many marine organisms
Oldest microfossils
DEVONIAN MIDDLE Earth’s first forests
Earliest ammonoids and sharks
E EARLY Abundant fish
416
A Evidence of biological LATE Earliest insects
carbon SILURIAN Earliest land plants and animals
R
EARLY Abundant eurypterids
4000 L 444
Y LATE
Oldest known rocks Invertebrates dominant
ORDOVICIAN MIDDLE
Earth’s first coral reefs
EARLY
488
Estimated time of origin LATE
4600
of Earth and solar system Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft-bodied organisms)
MIDDLE
CAMBRIAN Earliest fishes
Extinction of many primitive marine organisms
EARLY Earliest trilobites
542 Great diversity of life-forms with shelly parts

580 Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft-bodied

marine organisms)

Abundant stromatolites
(Index fossils not drawn to scale) 1300

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N

Cryptolithus Valcouroceras Centroceras Eucalyptocrinus Tetragraptus Coelophysis Stylonurus

Elliptocephala Phacops Hexameroceras Manticoceras Ctenocrinus Dicellograptus Eurypterus

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 8

OF NEW YORK STATE
Time Distribution of Fossils
(including important fossils of New York) Important Geologic Inferred Positions of
The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of Events in New York Earth’s Landmasses
existence of a specific index fossil (e.g. Fossil A lived at the end
of the Early Cambrian).

O S Advance and retreat of last continental ice

Sands and clays underlying Long Island and 59 million years ago
NAUTILOIDS

Staten Island deposited on margin of Atlantic

DINOSAURS

MAMMALS

BIRDS

Ocean

Dome-like uplift of Adirondack region begins

Initial opening of Atlantic Ocean 119 million years ago

North America and Africa separate
VASCULAR PLANTS

Intrusion of Palisades sill

L
CRINOIDS

Pangaea begins to break up

CORALS

BRACHIOPODS
GASTROPODS
AMMONOIDS

232 million years ago

Alleghenian orogeny caused by
TRILOBITES

collision of North America and

Africa along transform margin,
forming Pangaea
EURYPTERIDS
GRAPTOLITES

R
Q Catskill delta forms
PLACODERM FISH

C F G N X Z
Erosion of Acadian Mountains
Acadian orogeny caused by collision of
359 million years ago
I V North America and Avalon and closing
of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean

H M P
E U Y Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins

K Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston delta

forms
B D Taconian orogeny caused by closing
T W of western part of Iapetus Ocean and
collision between North America and
J volcanic island arc

458 million years ago

Widespread deposition over most of New York
A along edge of Iapetus Ocean

Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean

Erosion of Grenville Mountains

Grenville orogeny: metamorphism of

bedrock now exposed in the Adirondacks
and Hudson Highlands

O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Mastodont Cooksonia Naples Tree Condor Cystiphyllum Maclurites Eospirifer

Beluga Whale Bothriolepis Lichenaria Pleurodictyum Platyceras Mucrospirifer
Aneurophyton
ADU (2011)

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 9

 Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 10

 Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
S
17
16
TRAVEL TIME (min)

15
14
13
12
11
10
P
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
EPICENTER DISTANCE (× 103 km)

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 11

 Dewpoint (°C)
Dry-Bulb Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)
Tempera-
ture (°C) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
– 20 – 20 – 33
–18 –18 – 28
–16 –16 – 24
–14 –14 – 21 – 36
–12 –12 –18 – 28
–10 –10 –14 – 22
–8 –8 –12 –18 – 29
–6 –6 –10 –14 – 22
–4 –4 –7 –12 –17 – 29
–2 –2 –5 –8 –13 – 20
0 0 –3 –6 – 9 –15 – 24
2 2 –1 –3 – 6 –11 –17
4 4 1 –1 – 4 – 7 –11 –19
6 6 4 1 –1 – 4 – 7 –13 – 21
8 8 6 3 1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –14
10 10 8 6 4 1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –14 – 28
12 12 10 8 6 4 1 – 2 – 5 – 9 –16
14 14 12 11 9 6 4 1 – 2 – 5 –10 –17
16 16 14 13 11 9 7 4 1 –1 – 6 –10 –17
18 18 16 15 13 11 9 7 4 2 – 2 – 5 –10 –19
20 20 19 17 15 14 12 10 7 4 2 –2 – 5 –10 –19
22 22 21 19 17 16 14 12 10 8 5 3 –1 – 5 –10 –19
24 24 23 21 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 2 –1 – 5 –10 –18
26 26 25 23 22 20 18 17 15 13 11 9 6 3 0 –4 –9
28 28 27 25 24 22 21 19 17 16 14 11 9 7 4 1 –3
30 30 29 27 26 24 23 21 19 18 16 14 12 10 8 5 1

Relative Humidity (%)

Dry-Bulb Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)
Tempera-
ture (°C) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
– 20 100 28
–18 100 40
–16 100 48
–14 100 55 11
–12 100 61 23
–10 100 66 33
–8 100 71 41 13
–6 100 73 48 20
–4 100 77 54 32 11
–2 100 79 58 37 20 1
0 100 81 63 45 28 11
2 100 83 67 51 36 20 6
4 100 85 70 56 42 27 14
6 100 86 72 59 46 35 22 10
8 100 87 74 62 51 39 28 17 6
10 100 88 76 65 54 43 33 24 13 4
12 100 88 78 67 57 48 38 28 19 10 2
14 100 89 79 69 60 50 41 33 25 16 8 1
16 100 90 80 71 62 54 45 37 29 21 14 7 1
18 100 91 81 72 64 56 48 40 33 26 19 12 6
20 100 91 82 74 66 58 51 44 36 30 23 17 11 5
22 100 92 83 75 68 60 53 46 40 33 27 21 15 10 4
24 100 92 84 76 69 62 55 49 42 36 30 25 20 14 9 4
26 100 92 85 77 70 64 57 51 45 39 34 28 23 18 13 9
28 100 93 86 78 71 65 59 53 47 42 36 31 26 21 17 12
30 100 93 86 79 72 66 61 55 49 44 39 34 29 25 20 16

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 12

 Temperature Pressure

1040.0 30.70
110
380
220 30.60
Water boils 100 1036.0
370
200 30.50
90 1032.0
360
180 80 30.40
350 1028.0
160 70 30.30
340
1024.0
140 60 30.20
330
50 1020.0 30.10
120 320
40 1016.0 30.00
100 310
30 One atmosphere 29.90
80 300 1012.0
Room temperature 20
290 29.80
60 1008.0
10
280 29.70
40
Water freezes 0 1004.0
270 29.60
20
–10 1000.0
260 29.50
0
–20
250 996.0 29.40
–20 –30
240 29.30
992.0
–40 –40
230
29.20
–60 –50 988.0
220
29.10
Key to Weather Map Symbols 984.0
29.00
Station Model Station Model Explanation 980.0
28.90

976.0 28.80
28 196
1 972.0 28.70
2 +19/
27 968.0 28.60
.25
28.50

Present Weather Air Masses Fronts Hurricane

cA continental arctic Cold

Drizzle Rain Smog Hail Thunder- Rain cP continental polar
Warm
storms showers cT continental tropical Tornado
Stationary
mT maritime tropical
mP maritime polar Occluded
Snow Sleet Freezing Fog Haze Snow
rain showers

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 13

 Selected
Properties of
Earth’s
Atmosphere

Planetary Wind and Moisture

Belts in the Troposphere
The drawing on the right shows the
locations of the belts near the time of an
equinox. The locations shift somewhat
with the changing latitude of the Sun’s
vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere,
the belts shift northward in the summer
and southward in the winter.
(Not drawn to scale)

Electromagnetic Spectrum

X rays Microwaves

Gamma rays Ultraviolet Infrared Radio waves

Decreasing wavelength Increasing wavelength

Visible light
Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red (Not drawn to scale)

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 14

 Characteristics of Stars
(Name in italics refers to star represented by a .)
(Stages indicate the general sequence of star development.)
1,000,000
Massive
Deneb Betelgeuse Stars
100,000 SUPERGIANTS
Rigel
(Rate at which a star emits energy relative to the Sun)
(Intermediate stage)
Spica
10,000

Polaris GIANTS
1,000 (Intermediate stage)
Aldebaran
100
Luminosity

MA Pollux
IN Sirius
10 (E a
SE
rly QU
s ta E N
ge C Alpha Centauri
) E
1 Sun

0.1

40 Eridani B
0.01
Barnard’s
WHITE DWARFS Star
0.001 (Late stage)
Procyon B Small
Proxima
Centauri Stars
0.0001
30,000 20,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 3,000 2,000
Surface Temperature (K)
Blue Blue White White Yellow Orange Red
Color

Solar System Data

Celestial Mean Distance Period of Period of Eccentricity Equatorial Mass Density
Object from Sun Revolution Rotation at Equator of Orbit Diameter (Earth = 1) (g/cm3)
(million km) (d=days) (y=years) (km)
SUN — — 27 d — 1,392,000 333,000.00 1.4
MERCURY 57.9 88 d 59 d 0.206 4,879 0.06 5.4
VENUS 108.2 224.7 d 243 d 0.007 12,104 0.82 5.2
EARTH 149.6 365.26 d 23 h 56 min 4 s 0.017 12,756 1.00 5.5
MARS 227.9 687 d 24 h 37 min 23 s 0.093 6,794 0.11 3.9
JUPITER 778.4 11.9 y 9 h 50 min 30 s 0.048 142,984 317.83 1.3
SATURN 1,426.7 29.5 y 10 h 14 min 0.054 120,536 95.16 0.7
URANUS 2,871.0 84.0 y 17 h 14 min 0.047 51,118 14.54 1.3
NEPTUNE 4,498.3 164.8 y 16 h 0.009 49,528 17.15 1.8
EARTH’S 149.6 27.3 d 27.3 d 0.055 3,476 0.01 3.3
MOON (0.386 from Earth)

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 15

 Properties of Common Minerals

FRACTURE
CLEAVAGE
HARD- COMMON DISTINGUISHING
LUSTER NESS COLORS CHARACTERISTICS USE(S) COMPOSITION* MINERAL NAME
1–2 silver to black streak, pencil lead,
 gray greasy feel lubricants
C Graphite
Metallic luster

metallic gray-black streak, cubic cleavage, ore of lead,

2.5  silver density = 7.6 g/cm3 batteries
PbS Galena

black to black streak, ore of iron,

5.5 – 6.5  silver magnetic steel
Fe3O4 Magnetite

brassy green-black streak, ore of

6.5  yellow (fool’s gold) sulfur
FeS2 Pyrite
Either

5.5 – 6.5 metallic silver or ore of iron,

or 1  earthy red
red-brown streak
jewelry
Fe2O3 Hematite

white to ceramics,
1  green
greasy feel
paper
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Talc

yellow to
2  amber
white-yellow streak sulfuric acid S Sulfur

white to easily scratched plaster of paris,

2  pink or gray by fingernail drywall
CaSO4•2H2O Selenite gypsum

colorless to flexible in
2 – 2.5  yellow thin sheets
paint, roofing KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 Muscovite mica

colorless to cubic cleavage, food additive,

2.5  white salty taste melts ice
NaCl Halite

black to flexible in construction K(Mg,Fe)3

2.5 – 3  dark brown thin sheets materials Biotite mica
AlSi3O10(OH)2
colorless bubbles with acid, cement,
3  or variable rhombohedral cleavage lime
CaCO3 Calcite
Nonmetallic luster

colorless bubbles with acid building

3.5  or variable when powdered stones
CaMg(CO3)2 Dolomite

colorless or cleaves in hydrofluoric

4  variable 4 directions acid
CaF2 Fluorite

black to cleaves in mineral collections, (Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al) Pyroxene

5–6  dark green 2 directions at 90° jewelry (Si,Al)2O6 (commonly augite)
black to cleaves at mineral collections, CaNa(Mg,Fe)4 (Al,Fe,Ti)3 Amphibole
5.5  dark green 56° and 124° jewelry (commonly hornblende)
Si6O22(O,OH)2
white to cleaves in ceramics, Potassium feldspar
6  pink 2 directions at 90° glass
KAlSi3O8
(commonly orthoclase)
white to cleaves in 2 directions, ceramics,
6  gray striations visible glass
(Na,Ca)AlSi3O8 Plagioclase feldspar

green to commonly light green furnace bricks,

6.5  gray or brown and granular jewelry
(Fe,Mg)2SiO4 Olivine

colorless or glassy luster, may form glass, jewelry,

7  variable hexagonal crystals electronics
SiO2 Quartz

dark red often seen as red glassy grains jewelry (NYS gem),
6.5 – 7.5  to green in NYS metamorphic rocks abrasives
Fe3Al2Si3O12 Garnet

*Chemical symbols: Al = aluminum Cl = chlorine H = hydrogen Na = sodium S = sulfur

C = carbon F = fluorine K = potassium O = oxygen Si = silicon
Ca = calcium Fe = iron Mg = magnesium Pb = lead Ti = titanium

 = dominant form of breakage

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 16