Science and Technology in Ancient India by Nene

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
IN
ANCIENT INDIA
Compendium of
Technical Papers and Articles
By
Dr. A.S. Nene
Ishaan Publications Nagpur

December 2018
Prologue
The word Shilpa is an enigmatic term. Different persons assume different

meanings for same word, till the correct meaning is understood. “Shilpa” is
such enigmatic word. To most of the people, Shilpa means a carving in wood
stone or metal.
The word “Shilpa” is derived from a Sanskrit root – Sheel samadhau and
literally means anything that pleases your mind. Sage Bhrugu has defined
Shilpa as creation of different materials with the help of machines,
techniques and arts.
Shilpashastra is commonly interpreted as ancient Indian sciences. But laws
and principles of science change from time to time. Hence better
interpretation would be Engineering Philosophy of ancient India because the
knowledge contained in Shilpashastra is an eternal truth.
For proper understand of Shilpashastra some technical terms must be under
stood first. Such terms are explained below;
 Shilpashastra - The engineering Philosophy related to a particular
subject comprising different techniques skills or arts.
 Shilpasamhita –A compilation of rules and procedure related to a
particular science.
 Vidya –A techniques related to creation or execution of a Shilpa.
 Kala - An art or skill acquired by practice and experience. Even a blind
of deaf person can master any particular skill.
As per sage Bhrugu, Shilpashastra covers 51 inter-related subjects, 10
Shastras or branches of engineering, 32 engineering techniques and 64 skills
related to engineering.
Information related to Shilpashastra can be traced in Indian scriptures such
as Veda, PuraNa, Upanishada, Gruhya-sutra, Shulba-sutra, BramhaNa and
Niti. There were more than 10,000 texts exclusively devoted to
Shilpashastra. But hardly 1000 texts are available now.
The reasons for loss of this ancient technical literature of India may be due
to;
1. Natural- decay of writing materials-Birch tree bark (Bhurjapatra), palm
leafs (Talpatra) or paper etc.
2. Language- Most of literature is in Sanskrit. Modern the engineers do
not understand Sanskrit and Sanskrit scholars cannot interpret
engineering terms.
3. Secrecy- Most of books were preserved as part of worship material and
remained un-noticed.
4. Foreign aggression- Most of the aggressors destroyed the heritage
structures and libraries. Some aggressors took most of the original
texts to their countries
5. Neglect by modern engineers – Teachers who teach engineering
subjects are themselves ignorant about the heritage of engineering
knowledge. Indian authors do not mention a single word about
Shilpashastra in their books. Practicing engineers and architects,
therefore, do not include ancient Indian techniques in their works.
6. Religion barriers- There is a misconception that Shilpashastra is for a
particular religion or caste, and therefore its study lacks government
support.
7. Irrelevance- Applications of Shilpashastra may be irrelevant today due
to advent of modern materials (cement, plastic, fossil fuel etc) and
construction tools and techniques.
8. Improper interpretations- Translation of many Shilpashastra texts
were done by western scholars, without adequate knowledge of Indian
religions and culture.
9. Absence of technical data- Western books on engineering contains
technical data, calculation tables and codes. But Indian Shilpashastra
lacks such information.
The exact period of Shilpashastra related texts is difficult to ascertain. Few
authors had mentioned the date of completion of their work directly or
indirectly giving planetary positions on that particular date. A table below
gives the chronology of references.
Chronology of References
Text (B.C.) Text (A.D.)
Vedas- 15000 to 10000 B.C. Hayashirshapancharatra 301- 400
Puranas - 10000 to 5000 B.C. Samarangana Sutradhara -1001- 100
Brihat-Samhita- 5000 B.C. Aparajitprichha - 1101- 200
Mahabharata- 3000 B.C. Manasollas- 1131
Shatapathbramhana- 1500 B.C. Shusruta- 1101-1200
Krushiparashar- 1300 B.C. Ratnasamuchchya- 1201- 300
Shilpashashtra-800 to 200 Manasara- 1201- 300
Arthshashtra-300 B.C. Tantrasamuccaya-1428
Amarkosha-300 B.C Shilpadipak- 1401-1500
Rajvallabha- 1433- 1468
From 17th to 19th centaury Shilpashastra was almost neglected. The

beginning 20th centaury brought new hopes of revival of Shilpashastra. The
time line given below shows the progress.
 1833- A thesis entitled as “Essay on architecture of the Hindus” by
Ramaraja, was submitted to Royal Asiatic Society of London.
 1876 - Rev. J.E. Kornas translated a Sanskrit text “Mayamat
Shilpashastra”.
 1920- Madras manuscript library was established. Shri Ramaraja, a
civil judge, was requested to compile information related to
Shilpashastra.
 1900- A.V.Tyagraj Ayyar compiled a book entitled “Indian architecture
of the Shilpashastra of India”
 1927- Dr Prasanna kumar Acharya compiled 3000 pages encyclopedia
named as “Manasara -an encyclopedia of Hindu architecture. Six more
books were added by him to the Manasara series.
 1930-1950-Many ancient texts were edited and published and new
generation of research workers started working on this subject.
T.Ganapati Sthapati, Dr. Dixitar, Dr.Raghawan, Dr.Madayya, Raosaheb
K.V.Vaze and Shri G.G.Joshi are few prominent names.
 1950-2000- Many publishing houses such as Chaukhaba Series, Motilal
Banarasidas,Tanjore Saraswati Mahal library, Jagannath Jaguste etc
published low cost books in regional languages.
 2000 onwards- With the advent of computers, digital printers and
scanners, digitization of ancient texts was possible. Government of
India formed Digital libraries in different parts of the country. Billions
of pages are available for free downloading. Many institutions hosted
their own web sites for exchange of knowledge. Rest of the world is
again attracted towards this subject.
For last 30 years I am working on the subject of Shilpashastra and
published 15 books published 30 technical papers and articles. I have also
uploaded about 50 presentations on web for free downloading.
During my research I have collected huge amount of reference material,
in the form of books, Journals, technical papers, Video clips related to
Shilpashastra. 90 pages Index of my digital library is also available on
internet. (7 DVDs)
The purpose of compilation of all my technical papers, lectures and
articles is to make this information freely available to the students of
Science and Technology.
I hope and pray that the day is not far away when the subject of
Shilpashasra would be included in engineering curriculum.
Dr. A.S. Nene

Nagpur 11November 2018
Contents
Topic Page
Preface
List of Contents
1 A-Agriculture
A1- Bibliography of Indian Agriculture 01
Sciences
2 B- Biological Science
B1- Engineering Applications of Indian 04
Botany
3 C-Environmental Protection
C1- Environmental Geo-technology 20
C2- Environmental sciences in ancient India
29
4 D-Forts and Castles
D1- Prakar Shashtra or Science of Forts and 41
Castles
5 E-Introduction to ancient Texts
E1- Aircrafts in ancient India 65
E2- Alchemy in ancient India 73
E3- Alkalis from Vegetables 78
E4- Anshubodhini Shastra 81
E5- Chemistry of ancient India 86
E6- Geography of Ancient India 91
E7- Indian Vastu Shastra 104
E8- Introduction to Yantrarnav 111
E9- Medical Sciences of Ancient India 118
E10- Panchanga in Indian lexicons 124
E11- Introduction to RasarNava 128
E12- Sakaladhikara 134
E13- Sanskrit Lexicons 138
6 F- Soil Stabilization
F1- Gadi soils –A case study 143
F2- Ground Improvement and Soil
Stabilization Techniques 148
F3- Soil Stabilization as per Kashyapa
Samhita 158
7 G-Visual and performing Arts
G1- Secrets of Endurance of Ancient Indian
Cave Paintings 161
G2- Ancient Indian Pottery Industry 170
G3- Pottery Science in ancient India 175
G4- Sixty-four arts of ancient India 194
G5- Visual arts as depicted in ancient Indian 211
texts
8 H- Miscellaneous
H1- Ancient Indian Myths 223
H2- Futuristic Invention Ideas 232
H3- Legendary Soils of Ancient India 240
H4- Rock engineering in ancient India 244
H5-Secrets of endurance of Indian heritage
structures 255
H6- GG Joshi Trust Nagpur 263
9 List of published books 266
***.***
A1
Bibliography of Ancient Indian Agriculture Sciences
Edited English translation of Hindi article by Shri G. G. Joshi published

in "Shilp-Sansar”, pages 283-285 of 30 April 1955
Synopsis - The paper presents list of references on Ancient Agriculture.

Manuscripts
The list includes manuscripts preserved in Oriental libraries. The
present status of these manuscripts is not known.
1. Aaramadi Pratishta Padhati - Handwritten manuscript
2. Aaramvrukshya, - Handwritten manuscript
3. Drumkalpa - Jainshala Library
4. Kashyapiya Krushi,- manuscript Adyar library Adyar
5. Krushisangraha - manuscript
6. Parashariya Krushi - manuscript at Bhandarkar Institute , Pune
7. Krushishashanam - manuscript at Bhandarkar Institute , Pune
8. Krushishashanam - manuscript at Tanjore Saraswati Mahal
Library Tanjore
Books and Articles
Marathi
1. Borkar, Vaidya Raj Datto Ballal, (xxxx) "Vrukshya Yajurveda
Sarth Upawan Vinod -book published at Islampur (Satara), Rs.0-
50.
2. Deo, G.C. (1905)," Edited text "Amarkosh (300BC)" by King
Amarsingh, a Sanskrit Encyclopedia. Published by Sharada Krida
Mumbai.
3. Dwivedi, Dasharath Narayan, (1909), Edited Commentary on
"Krushishashanam", a (1300 BC), Sanskrit text;
1 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene

4. Pade, S.D...(xxxx) "Vanaspatikoth "
5. Thatte, P.H. (1923 - 1924) "Draught management (Marathi)
Published by, Maharashtra Krushiwal Magazine Pune article no.8
6. Thatte, P. H. (1927- 1929) "Wonderful Tree propagation -
(Adbut Vrukshotpadan)" - article series 1 to 4, Publisher, Udyam
Magazine, Nagpur. Aug. 1927 to July 1929.
7. Vaze, K.V. (1923) "Brihat Parashariya Krushishashtra" Publisher
Udyam, Nagpur, May 1923.
8. Vaze, K.V. (1923 -1924) "Agriculture in Chandragupta period"
Published by Maharashtra Krushiwal Magazine Pune, article
no.7 &8
9. Vaze, K.V. (1925) "Red, green and blue cotton", Udyam Jan -
March Bharatiya Krushishashtra-
10. Vaze, K.V. (1929.) "Vrukshya Vidya" Publisher-
Maharashtra Sahitya Patrika, year 1
11. Vaze, K.V (xxxx) "Prachin Hindi Shilpasar , Chapter on
Agriculture
12. Vaze, K.V. (xxxx)"Krushi Shashanam" (with pictures and
meanings), Pub. by Karmavari Book Depot Mahal Nagpur, Price
Rs.2.50.
Telugu (Available at Oriental Book Agency, Pune 2.)
1. Vrikshayurveda--, Pub. V.Ramaswami Shashtralu, Chennai, Price
8 Anna
2. Vrikshayurveda-- by Dr.Lamipati , Ayurved Shiksha series,
Jayantipuram, Price Rs 4 and 2 anna,
Bengali
Books published by Hem Chandra Mishra, Kasipura Krushi Shala,
Kolkata.
1. Krushidarpan

2. Krushi Vidya.
3. Vrukshyaropanpranali.
4. Vanapradhan Bharatiya Sanskruti, by KM. Munshi, Government
of India Price 2 anna,
5. Krushi Paddhati - (Parashariya Krushi) in Bengali, by Pandit
Tarakant, Kawyatirth, Kolkata 1932 Pub by G.P. Majumdar.
Hindi
 Puran Singh, Itawa (1972), a book ,"Aaryakrushi Vidyan"
 Umaprasad Sharma (1960) "Upawan Rahasya - Poetry form of
Upawan Vinod" book published at , Banaras
English
1. Majumdar G.P. (xxxx.) "Upawan Vinod ", pub. Indian Research
Institute Kolkata, Review Vol. 16, Bhandarkar Institute
Translated by Gananath Sengupta,
2. Yadyanarayan Aiyar (xxxx), "Agriculture and allied arts in Vedic
India" Bangalore 4
3. Aiyar, Y.N. "Dairying in Ancient India" Bangalore 4
4. Gangopadhyay Radharaman, (xxxx). "Some materials for the
study of Agriculture in Ancient India" Pub. N.C. Mukherjee & Co.
Serampur (W. Bengal)
5. Majumdar, G.P. (19xx), "Origin and development of the sciences
of Arbour-Horticulture in Ancient India" Paper presented at
18th All India Oriental Conference.
6. Majumdar, G.P. (19xx), "Origin and development of the sciences
of Agriculture in Ancient India" Paper presented at 18th All
India Oriental Conference.
7. Vaze K.V., (1929), "Why study of botany is necessary to
Engineers" Vedic Magazine issues

8. Ghoshal, N.N., (1930) "The Agrarian system in Ancient India ",
Kolkata University.
9. Majumdar, G.P.," Plants and plant life as in treaties and
traditions" - Kolkata University,
10. Basu and Kirtikar, (xxxx), "Indian medicinal plants with
plates "
11. Mahabharata - Shantiparwa Chapter 184- senses and
organs of plants.
12. Harit Samhita With comments in English.
Conclusion: It can be concluded that there is a need to review the

vast ancient Indian Literature on Agriculture with a modern
perspective.
***.***

B1
Engineering Applications of Ancient Indian Botany
Invited paper presented at ISC 2015 Mumbai
Abstract: Ancient texts on Indian engineering philosophy comprise of

ten sciences, thirty-two techniques and sixty-four skills of engineering.
All these sciences are interlinked in one way or other. Hence one can
find hundreds of references of botany related to engineering.
Engineering and Botany: Many ancient texts, describes engineering
applications of various components (Panchanga) of trees, plants, and
creepers.
Engineering and Botany: The Engineering applications of botany can
be grouped under following heads.
 Soil Stabilization, by herbal additives, for brick earths, mud
plasters, pottery clay, mud floorings etc.
 Tempering of steel implements -chisels, pick-axe, knifes etc.
 Water purification.
 Rainfall predictions.
 Gold plating of copper.
 Crack detection herbal paints.
 Adamantine Glue.
 Lime Mortars and lime plasters
 Basic herbal colors and pigments.
 Herbal paste for water divining.
1-Adobe construction
Stabilization includes soil selection, treatment with herbal additives.
Such soil is used for brick earth, mud walls, bricks, plastering, and
outer coat of idols, pottery and other objects.
Ancient Soil plasticizers:

Functions of soil plasticizers are;
 Increase the workability with minimum water content
 Increase the water repellent property
 Increase the strength by increasing the density
 Impart glazing to pottery products.
Ancient plasticizers can be grouped as
A) Extracts of herbs, fruits and tree barks: Trifala- Aamla, Hirda and
Behada, Wood apple, Holy tree fruit ,Barks- Khadir4, Arjun trees
2B) Natural fibers: Cotton, coir, wool, silk cotton or jute
C) Natural polymers: Cow Dung, Jaggery, Coconut water, Eggs,
GreenAlgae, rice husk, burnt coconut shell
1a Bricks and Roofing tiles: Yajurved samhita mentions about
method of preparation bricks and a special type of pot (Ukha). The soil
is stabilized by adding hairs of goat, fine sand, iron slag and stone
dust.
Shatapatha Brahman mentions use of sand, stone dust and iron slag
for soil stabilization.
Mix extracts of barks of trees (Pipal and Agar) in wet clay . Knead the
clay daily for 30 day and the use for bricks or roofing tiles.
Trifala is mixed with water .and boiled till the solution is reduced to
one fourth of original volume. It is called Trifala-Kashaya. (Ref.
Shilparatna).
The suitable soil is mixed with Trifala-Kashaya. The soil is kneaded for
a long period. The soil such prepared was used for plastering of walls.
Vastu Vidya Savyakhya describes the soil preparation as below,
• Add extracts of barks of milky trees; knead for one to ten days
• Add extracts of barks of Shirish tree, knead for one to ten days
Add decoction (Kashaya), knead for 3 to 30 days

1b-soil stabilization for idol making: Additives- milk, yogurt, ghee,
stone dust; iron slag. Decoctions made from barks of Khdir or Arjun
trees, turpentine oil, resinous exudation of Sal tree, and grass of
kandru plant.
Ref. Tantrasamuchhyaya and Vastu Vidya
Preparation of soil by mixing various ingredients and the process of
mud plastering for idols is described in details in Sakaladhikar.
Suitable soil (white, red or yellow) is mixed with cow’s milk and tawny
color, linseed oil, floor of wheat and barley. A decoction is prepared by
boiling barks of Bakul and milky trees in water
Clay balls are prepared and allowed to dry. Further lime and gum is
added to dry pulverized clay balls are allowed to mature for one
month. Lime in 1:2 pats is added and the mixer is used for coating the
idols. Ref. Aparajitprichha (1200-1300 AD)
1c-Foundry soils for metal casting: The tribal people of Bastar use
a technique called Dhokra Technique. The steps are;
 The first layer, the closest to the wax sculpture, is the river bed
soil, water and coal powder applied with brush.
 A paste of red soil with rice husk is applied to first dry solidified
layer This is applied with hands
 A final coating of rice husk, sand and clay is applied to the entire
surface of the piece.
1d. Lime concrete floors: The Floors are made from poured and
toweled mud with psyllium hulls (Isabgol).The mud is easy to work
and acts as a binder when the floor dries. It reduces cracking and
increases strength.
1e.Light weight wood: For seats of air balloons extracts of few trees
are specified in Agastya samhita.

1f. Waterproof cloth: The juice of coreless trees contains water
retarding substances (lac) and hence the juice was used in preparing
silk cloth gas holders in ancient India.Mix floor of Satu, powder of
Amaksh ,Tatwasi and coconut water to clay in a proportion of 8 parts
of clay and 1 part of admixtures.
1g. Ceramic pots: Prepare a mixture of Swesha,Guggul and Kunda
grass (one sixteenth of clay) and curd (one eleventh of clay). Apply
this mixture to clay pot before baking in a furnace.
1h- Glazing of earthen pots: Apply a mixture of Ghee, honey and
Herb powder (Kapittha, Bilwa and Niryas) to clay pots. This process
imparts glazing to the china clay pots.
1i- Coloring of Clay pots: Mix sesame powder and resins of Kapittha
and Beal trees. Add desired coloring agent (Kushta, Red ochure,
orpiment etc). Polish the pot with the mixture to impart suitable color.
Alternatively take equal parts of Sandal wood, Karpur, Gorochan and
Agaru . Add clay 6 parts to the mixture in linseed oil. Apply this oil
paint to earthen pots.
2. Stone Cutting
2a-Tempering or hardening of tools: The steps involved are;
Ref. Brihat Samhita Ref. Brihatsamhita,ch.53. V 116-117
1. Heating the tool in fire until it becomes red hot.
2. Application of paste* of certain materials and / or dipping the red
hot tool in a specific solution**.
3. Sharpening the tools.
4*-Paste is made of excreta of pigeon and rat, powder of horns of a
buffalo
, milk extract of a plant (Mandar)
** -Solution is mixture of buttermilk and ash of banana plant
2b-Breaking of stone blocks : The steps involved are;

1-Heating: The stone block is heated by make a pyre of wooden logs
of Palash or Tinduk trees. The heating is continued till the color of
wooden logs becomes bright red or orange.
2-Cooling: The fire is moved to adjacent area of rock surface. The
preheated surface is cooled down quickly by pouring certain types of
liquids listed below.
 Solution of quick lime in cold water
 Solution prepared by mixing buttermilk with rice paste, ripe
berries.
 Solution prepared by boiling Neem leaves and some tree barks.
Ref. Brihat Samhita
3-Water Purification: Powder of Nirmali seeds is used to remove the
turbidity of water, roots of Khus plant to give pleasant smell to
drinking water and certain seeds to kill the bacteria present in the
water.
Use of Basil leaf was known for increasing self life potted water. Core
of Jamun tree wood acts as algaecide, it destroys the algae in 24
hours.
Seeds of drumstick tree also act as coagulant for turbidity remover.
Ref.Brihatsamhita, ch.53. V 121-122
4-Rainfall prediction: Ancient text Kadambini mentions certain
precursors of rainfall. It mentions flowering of certain trees can be
linked to onset of rainy season. Rainy season starts 45 days after
Amaltash flowers bloom Ref. Kadambini
5-Gold / Silver plating of copper: “Vanaushadhi GunAdarsh”
mentions that “if juice of Palash flowers, treated with sulfur, is rubbed
on copper surface, the surface shines as gold”. Similarly, decoction of
mixture of flowers juice and Hartal (Orpiment) is used to make silver
like lead metal.

Ref. Pade.
6. Waterproof cloth for hot air balloons: Apply three coats of
decoction of barks of trees (Umber, Kadamb, Mango, Hirda and Behda)
to the cloth. Then apply three coats of black gram paste Soak the cloth
in solution of sugar and powders sea shells. Allow the cloth to dry to
make it water tight.
7. Wood Varnish :Extract of barks of milky trees (Vat, Pipal, Umber,
Beal and cedar trees) is mixed in water. Mixture is boiled. Sealing wax,
Jatuling, oil and Hingul is added. Such varnish is applied to wood for
polishing and preservation.
8- Preservation of Ropes: Soak the freshly woven rope in coconut
oil mixed with ripe bananas and hide glue.
9-Herbal paints for Softening or crack detection for rocks
Microscopic defects in stones, which were invisible to eyes, were
detected by applying some herbal paints so that the defects were
clearly visible.
Herbal paints for stone softening
• Mix powder atis root, Hiracus and red ochre in milk. Apply this paint
to the stone and keep it overnight. OR
• Grind Jatamasi,Koshta, Gayaratri Hirkus and chor in milk add
coconut water. Apply the solution to the stone. OR
• Grind and mix Jatamasi,Rog and Aswamari in rain water. Apply the
solution to the stone. Ref. Shilparatna Ch.14 and Varahsamhita.
10- Adamantine Glue: Ashtabandha and Vajralepa
A bonding agent mortar or glue was very essential for fixing idols, in
wall construction, when cement and other modern materials were
unknown.
Even now these glues, known as Astabandha, are prepared in temple
premises for fixing or re-fixing images of gods.

Five prescriptions for such glues are described in Shilpashastras.
Ancient Indian texts such as Brhatsamhita of Varaha-Mihira and
Mayamatam of Sage Maya describes the materials and methods of
cementing material in chapter Vajralepa.
First formula:
The ingredients are unripe fruits of Tinduka and Kapittaka, flowers of
silk cotton seeds of Sallaki, barks of Dhanavana and Vaca root.(Refer
Table 1)
All these ingredients are boiled 256 parts of water till the decoction
reduces to an eighth of its original volume (i.e.32 Parts).
The sediments are mixed with substances, such as. Shrivasaka ,
Raktabola, Guggulu, Bhallataka, Kunduruka resin , Atasi and Bilva
fruit.
The resulting paste is termed as adamantine glue. This glue is heated
and then used in construction of temple, and fixing Siva’s emblems
and idols of gods. It was expected to last for a million years. Ref.
Brihatsamhita ch.56. v-1-4
Formula Explained in Shilparatnakar
The ingredients are unripe fruits of Tinduka (Diospyros malabarica)
and Kapittaka (Feronia elephantum), flowers of silk cotton (Morus
Acedosa) seeds of Sallaki (Boswellia serrata), barks of Dhanavana and
Vaca (Orris root).
The method of preparation is same as mentioned for one .
Third Variety As per Brihatsamhita
This variety of glue known as Vajratala or Vajralepa Ingredients are
horns of cows, buffalo and goats, hairs of donkey, buffalo hide, cow
hide and Neem fruits,wood-apples and myrrh.
This mixture too should be boiled in water and reduced to one-eight.
In this glue some organic substances are also included

Forth Variety by Maya
A compound of eight parts lead, two of Bell metal, and one of iron
rust, and is known as Vajrasanghata ( Adamantine compound)
It may include other materials mentioned in the previous versions as
well ,
Fifth Kerala Variety Astabandha –Compound of 8 materials.
Preparing the mixture is a 41-day long procedure and the eight
ingredients are 1-Finely powdered conch, 2-gall-nut ,3-sealing wax ,4-
Fruits of gooseberry,5-Resin of pinus damar,6-Cotton fibers,7-Medium
sizes gravels ,8-Small sizes gravels (From the Bharatapuzha a river in
Kerala, India)
Mixture is hammered by four or five men alternatively. During
thisprocess one turns it with an iron spatula. For hammering, only
wooden hammers made of tamarind wood are used. The weight of the
hammer would be 8 to 10 kilos.
7The lump is very soft and malleable. It becomes hot during the
hammering and becomes hard like stone when the hammering is
stopped.
An estimated 0.1 million hits of hammering are needed for a kilogram
of adhesive.
Hide Glue
A hide glue. Hide glue (Sirus or Shirus) is prepared from fresh skin of
a buffalo cooked in water till it becomes soft as butter. Water is
allowed to evaporate. The material is cut into small pieces are dried in
sunlight.
When needed the dried piece is boiled in water. This is a substitute for
resins of tree. This glue is called Vajralep . Annexure 1 gives the
ingredients for adamantine glue.
11-Lime Mortars

Shilparatna mentions different techniques for lime mortars. Annexure
2
shows additives for lime plasters.
a-Lime Mortar
Grind ripe bananas, fibers of cotton and pulp of cactus and mix in
slaked lime to make a good quality lime mortar. Alternatively add
decoction of barks of trees (Pipal.Amla,Kadamb) and paste of black
gram to the slaked lime.
Natural Polymers
b-Sudha - Molding Lime for sculpturing
Lime prepared by burning conches (Shankha) or oysters (Shipi) is
called Sudha. Fine sand, decoction of moog, jiggery water and Banana
powder is added to lime.
The recommended proportions are, Lime - 4 parts, Fine sand- 2 parts,
Banana powder – 1 part and jiggery -1 part. All ingredients are mixed
by rolling again and again.
c-Sunla
Curd, milk, black gram paste, gud, ghee, ripe bananas, coconut and
mango pulp are added to slake lime. Plaster made of these materials is
non-shrinking .
d- Waterproof lime mortar
8Mix Ghee, coconut water, black gram paste , extract of barks(Pipal),
milk, curd, decoction of Trifala, and Pichhit, in proportion of
3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 and 11 parts to 100 parts of slaked lime.
e-Base coat for Cave Paintings
Ajanta caves :Clay, cow dung, stone powder, rise husk and lime.
Sirgirea caves:Tempered kaolin clay, rice husk, Coconut shell fibers
and lime.
Bagh caves :Red clay, green gram, lime and jute.

Mansoullas recommends use of powder of conchs, katha, pulses,
molasses, and boiled bananas. Mix 3 parts of slaked lime and 1 part of
powder of dry unripe banana. Add water to make butter like mixture.
Such leveling coat gives marble finish to the wall surface
9. Colors and Paints: The main purpose of colors and paints is to
enhance the aesthetics of any structure and to improve the durability.
The related ancient Indian texts are, Vishnudharmottara Purana
,Chitrasutra and Manosollas.
Basic Colors are White, yellow, red, black and blue are five basic
(pure) colors. All other composite colors are made from these colors.
White color - White color is prepared from lime made of shells or
mother of pearls or from white clay (pottery clay-Kaolin). White color
is prepared by mixing resins of Neem or wood apple tree with white
soil or lime. The mixture is pulverized and dissolved in hot water.
Yellow color - Yellow color is prepared from pounding yellow wood
trees (Haridra) and yellow soil (from hills or river banks) together. The
mixture is poured in clear water for two hours. The top yellow solution
is stored in earth pot till it dries. The dry powder is used for preparing
yellow color.
Red color - Red color is prepared from Sindur (Vermilion), Gaierik (Red
ochre), Hingul (Cinnabar) or Laksharus (Shellac) to get light, medium,
dark and very dark shades respectively. Red ochre is finely pulverized
and sieved through a muslin cloth. The powder is cleaned by mixing
with water. Vermillion is mixed in water and stirred for 12 hours. All
these colors are mixed with resin of Neem.
Black color -Oil lamp is ignited in a mud pot. Inner surface of another
mud pot is smeared with powder of dry cow dung. This pot is place on
the first pot such that lamp black is coated inside the top pot. The
lamp black is cleaned with water before application.

Blue color - Blue color is prepared by drying a mixture of blue minerals
or
indigo and resin of wood apple.
Golden color - Golden color is prepared from gold foil pulverized with
fine sand. The mixture is poured in water and top suspension is
separated and mixed with adamantine glue. The painted surface is
polished with horn (of an ox or wild boar).
Natural Colors from wood: Select wood of suitable colors from forest.
Crush into clean water. Filter the mixture. Again crush the filtered
wood particles and repeat the procedure and store the liquid color in
an earthen pot.
12-Water divining: Dowsing is a method to locate underground
water sources. Dowsing technique includes use of pendulums, Y rods
etc, to find metals, ores, gemstones, oils and lost articles.
Breach child: A person born as Breach child person possesses some
magnetic powers which are useful for water dowsing. If such person
(born as breach child) is not available, dowsing can be done by any
person with the help of herbs mentioned in ancient Indian text
An herbal paste is prepared by grinding ten types of seeds or roots in
cow’s urine. Such paste is applied to the feet of a person who wishes
to do dowsing. This paste helps in locating underground water. Ancient
Indian text “Mantrashastra” describes the constituents of this herbal
paste. Ref. Annexure 3
Case Studies
A. Gadhi soils –white soil
The main constituents are local soil, fine sand, cow dung, quick lime,
extracts of Belphal, fibers of jute and water for mixing. The mixture is
allowed to mature for a minimum period of 30 days and kneaded every
day. In modern terms the soil is stabilized soil. Such 150 year old mud

forts still exist in many parts of India. Villagers use the soil for
plastering the walls and floors of their mud houses.
B. Mud flooring.
The floors of Padmanabhapurum palace (1601 A.D) in Kerala were
made of a material that is unique blend of burnt coconut shells, quick
lime, palm toddy, the whites of eggs and extracts of certain barks of
trees and nuts. The floor has not lost its mirror like finish during four
centuries. Modern civil engineering could not replicate such flooring
due to unknown herbal additives.
Conclusions
It can be seen from above information that;
 Ancient Indian engineers had adequate knowledge of Indian
botany and knew how to implement this knowledge for
strength, durability and aesthetic purposes.
 With the advent of modern materials, organic materials were
replaced by synthetic materials.
 However secret of endurance of Indian heritage structures lies in
materials used and the construction techniques.
Ancient References
• Aparajitprichha- (12th to 13th Century A.D.), Bhuvanadev
Acharya, Ed.P.A.Makkad,Gaikwad Oriental Series No.65,(1950)
• Brihatitasamhita (Varahsamhita),Pub. Khemraj Shrikrishnadas,
Mumbai (1945) .
• Kadambini (1999),Ed. and Pub. by P.S.Oza,Jaipur,
• Manasollas of King Someshwara,Ed. By Shirgondekar,G.K.,Pub.
Central Library, Vadodara, 1925.
• Mayamat,Ed.T.Ganapati Shastri, Pub. by Saraswati Mahal Library
Series No.113, Thajavur,(1968).
• Rig Veda (3000-5000 B.C)

• Sakaladhikar, - by Sage Agasta Sakaladhikara - Ed by V.G. Iyangar,
Pub. By Saraswati Mahal Library, TSM Series No. 141 (1973),
Thajavur.
• Shatapath Bramhan (1400 A.D.),Ed.G.P.Upadhyaya, Pub. Oriental
Science research Institute, New Delhi.
• Shilpratna by Shrikumar, Ed. T.Ganapati Shastri,Pub.Anantshayan
Sanskrit
Granthmala, No.75,(1929).
• Shukla-Yajurveda samhita- - Hindi Edition, Ed. Pandit Jwalprasad
Mishra, Pub. by Khemraj Srikrushadas, New Delhi
• Tantrasamuchhyaya-(1428 A.D.) of Narayan Nambudripad,Ed.
T.Ganapati Shastri,Pub. Ananta shayana Sanskruit Series No. 151
(1919), Mysore.
• Vastuvidya Savyakhya,Ed. K.Mahadevshastri,Pub. Triverdram
Sanskrit Series No. 142,(1977),Tiruanantpuram.
• Vishnu-dharmottara Pooran of Ved Vyas, Ed.Madhusadna
Sharma,Pub. Khemraj krushnadas Mumbai(1911)
• Yajurved Samhita (B.C.2500),Pub. Khemraj Shrikrishnadas, Mumbai
(1945).
Modern References
 Nene, A.S. (2009),” Geotechnical engineering of ancient India”,
Pub. Pune Vidyarthi Gruha, Pune.
 Pade S.D. (1973), “Vanoushadhi Gunadarsh “ ,Pub. Gajanan
Book depot, Mumbai
 Vaze, K.V. (1924),“ Prachin Hindi Shilpasar” (Essence of ancient
Indian Engineering Philosophy) ,a Marathi Book, Pub. ,Varada
Publications Pune.
Annexure-1 Ingredients for adamantine glues
1 Tinduka- Fruits of Diospyros paniculata

2 Kapittaka- Feronia elephantum
3 Shalmali- Flowers of silk cotton
4 Sallaki -Seeds of Boswellia serrata
5 Dhanavana- Barks of Orris root
6 Vacha- Barks of Orris root
7 Shrivasaka -A tree resin used as incense
8 Raktabola -Myrrh
9 Guggulu -Commiphora roxburghii
10 Bhallataka-Semecarpus anacardium
11 Kunduruka -Deodar tree resin
12 Atasi L-inum usikatissimum
13 Bilvaphal -Fruits of Aegle marmelos
Annexure 2-Ingredient for Lime mortar & plasters
1 Ash 9 Cow dung 17 Mahuwa flowers
2 Bark of Neem 10 Egg white 18 Milk, curd or ghee
3 Bark of Pakar tree 11 Flowers Silk cotton 19 Mustard cake
tree
4 Bee wax 12 Green gram 20 oil
(Moog)
5 Belgiri (aegle'pulp) 13 Guggul 21 Powder of Cattle
horn
6 Black gram(Udad ) 14 Hemp fiber 22 Resin of Sal tree
7 Brick powder 15 Jaggery 23 Rice husk
8 Clay 16 Juice of Cactus 24 Saaf flower oil
Annexure 3- Constituents of this herbal paste

Sanskrit Name English/ Latin Sanskrit English/ Latin
Name
1 Vanhi Marking nut 2 Koshataki Wild ribbed gourd

Tree Luffa operculata
Prosopis
cineraria
3 Vajri / Snuhi Holy Milk 4 Swetark White_variety of
Hedge Madar plant
Euphorbia Calotropis_gigantea
neriifolia Linn
5-Girikarnika/ Butterfly pea 6 Vacha Calamus -root
Shankhapushpi Clitoria Vacha
ternatea
7 Patha / False pareira 8 Nirgudi Vitex negundo
Phadvel Patha brava Nirgundi
creeper
9 Katutumb Bitter 10 Nimba Citrus × limon
Pumpkin Lemon
lagenaria
siceraria
11Keshar / Mesua Ferrea 12 Gomutra Cow’s Urine
Nagkeshar
***.***

C1
Environmental Geo-technology
As depicted in ancient Indian literature
First International Conference on Environmental Geo-technology ,

Allentown, Neyork USA-1986
ABSTRACT
Ancient Indian literature includes texts on engineering sciences also.
Some of these texts deal in details with environmental and
geotechnical engineering.
The information in these texts has scientific background and can be
very useful to modern scientists and engineers. This paper presents, in
brief, information on environmental Geo-technology as depicted in
ancient Indian Literature.
INTRODUCTION
Engineering sciences were very advanced in India in ancient period (as
early
as 5000 BC). More than thousand texts (Shilpasamhita) can be
mentioned on the various engineering sciences. Out of these some five
hundred or more texts are preserved, in the form of manuscript on
palm leaves, tree barks etc, in some of the libraries of Oriental
research institutes and museums. The vast technical literature still
exists as it was concealed in religious and mythological scriptures.
Modern engineers and scientists, unfortunately, have not paid proper
attention to this ancient literature mainly due to lack of knowledge of
the language i.e. Sanskrit or due to improper Translation and
interpretation of this information by non-technical academicians.
The various aspects of environmental Geo-technology, as depicted
through

ancient Indian Literature, are presented in brief in this paper.
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOTECHNOLOGY
1. Environment Factors
As per ancient practice of planning of structures neighborhood of
following
six factors was taken into account.
A) People, B) Animals, C) Birds, D) Trees, E) Water, F) Site (Ref.25).
Only the last three factors are discussed herein.
A) Trees : Trees form a part of Indian cultural Heritage. Ancient texts
clearly specify the trees which are suitable or unsuitable near the
structures. Tree roots cause considerable volume change within the
foundation stratum and
thus results in damage to foundation as well as to superstructure. The
trees
which are declared unsuitable are (Ref. 5.53, 15.38, 25.5, 22.2, 8.1,
20.1)
i) Plaksha (Ficus Infectoria)
ii) Nyagradha (Ficus Bengalensis)
iii) Ashwath (Peepal)
iv) Audumber (Country Fig)
v) Thorny Trees
vi) Milky Trees
According to some texts (Ref 20.1) the trees should be at such a
distance such that they do not cast shadows in the second or third
quarter of daytime.
Alternatively the clear spacing between the tree and building should
not be
less than twice the height of the tree.

Some texts (Ref. 5.252) recommend that the unsuitable trees should
be confined by a ring of masonry wall around it and the tree roots
crossing this boundary should be cut as when necessary.
Some suitable trees such as Ashoka (Polyathia Longifolia), Bakul
(Mimusops
Elenji), Panas (Jack Fruit) etc are recommended to be planted midway
between unsuitable trees and buildings as per some texts. (Ref. 5.
252).
Some trees which are recommended to be grown near the buildings
are Banana tree, coconut tree, Neem, Pomegranate etc, for the
obvious reason of their germicidal and medicinal properties (Ref 21,
22, 5.52, 20.1).
Modern geotechnical engineers too have realized the importance of the
problem and have identified certain parameters (Ref Geotechnique
June 83) influencing the damage due to the tree roots. The
parameters were a) Type of tree specie, b) spacing between tree and
foundation, c) climatic conditions, d) type of foundation stratum etc. In
this context one can admire the utility of information depicted in the
ancient literature.
B. Water: In ancient time construction of wells reservoirs, canal works
etc was considered highly pious work and formed a part of duties of
kings and wealthy people. Water divining was a well developed
science. Varahmihir (5000 B.C.) in his book Brihatsamhita (Ref. 5,
chapter 53) described in detail about water divining. The depth, quality
and quantity of water was predicted on the basis of surface features
such as rock outcrop, type of trees and their foliage, presence of
anthill, etc. Venkatraman (23) and Pognon (11) have given details
about this and about the texts on this science. Fluctuation of water
table effects properties of foundation stratum especially in case of

expansive soils. Hence Kashyapa Shilpa (7.4) and other texts (Ref.
17.1, 20.1, 2.2 etc) recommend that the foundation should rest on
rock or a stratum near to water table.
C. Site: The site near to hills was considered as good. The site sloping
towards center, cracking ground (expansive soils) saline ground etc.
was considered unsuitable.
2. SITE INVESTIGATIONS
Importance of site investigation was well known to ancient Indian
engineers
or scientists. Most of the texts discuss in detail about site, selection
and site investigations in their preliminary chapters. . First explore the
site, then plan
for structure. as quoted in Matsya Purana (Ref 9.253) and other texts
(Ref 22.2, 8.1, 20.11, 6. etc.) given the description of unsuitable sites.
Sites containing defects such as ash, coal deposits, burial grounds
porous or expansive soils, saline soils etc. were considered unsuitable
as building sites Many texts describe the field tests for ascertaining the
suitability of sites. The simple field tests were,
• Compactness test,
• Permeability,
• Resistance to penetration of a sounding tool,
• Germination test,
• Flower test,
• Lamp test.
Only the last three pertaining to the theme of this paper are discussed
below.
FIELD TESTS FOR SOIL INVESTGATION

1. Germination Test: In this test certain types of seeds are sown at the
proposed site. If germination takes place within three, five days
average or
bad respectively. (Ref. 12- 24.3).
2. Flower Test : In this test flowers of four colors namely white, red,
yellow and blue are placed in leaf cones at the four corners of a pit in
the evening and the condition of the flowers is observed at the next
day morning. The freshness of flowers indicates the suitability of site.
If white flowers are fresh
the site is best, if red flowers are fresh then the site is good and so on.
(Ref. 5.53, 15.10, 8.1, 22.2)
3. Lamp Test: In this test four oil lamps are lit in the four directions
(east, north, west and south) in the foundation pit. Out of these , the
lamp which lasts for longest period indicates the suitability of site. If
the lamp in the east direction lasts for longest period then the site is
considered best and so on
(Ref. 5.53, 24.1, 9.253, 15.10).
All the above tests are based on geotechnical environmental factors
namely humidity, water content, temperature, oxygen content,
thermal conductivity etc.
INDEX TESTS ON SOILS
The quality of any building material was decided on basis of index
tests such
as color, smell, taste, shape, sound and touch (Ref. 6.4 and 25.5).
These index tests were also applicable to foundation soil also. Based
on these index tests the foundation soils are classified into four
categories. Such classification is shown in the table 1.
TABLE - 1: CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATION SOILS
Index Classification
Test Good Average Poor Bad

Color White Red Yellow Black/ Blue
Smell Pleasant Like Food blood Bad/Foul /Fishy/
Taste Sweet Pungent Bitter Sour/Salty
Slope East North West South
Sound * Drum or Flute Broken Pot
Touch Oily Pleasant Unpleasant hot/ cold
* on impact by rammer
STABILIZATION AND COMPACTION

Earliest reference on sol stabilization can be found in Shatapatha
Brahman
(Ref. 16). “Then the ground was stabilized (by Gods) using gravels and
boulders, as a cobbler stretches the leather by driving nails.. Many
texts describe in detail the method of compaction of foundation pits
using rammers of the size of elephant’s foot. Use of brick-bats,
boulders, sand and clay in proper proportion in combination with water
has been described in many texts (Ref. 25.5, 12.1, 17.1). Preparation
of soil by mixing various ingredients and the process of mud plastering
for walls etc. is described in details in Sakaladhikar (Ref 24, chapter
25). The water content of the soil for plastering it recommends, should
be such that when a clay ball rolled on the palm, the lines of palm are
printed on the clay ball. (This water content, as per authors
experience, corresponds to liquidity index of 0.35 to 0.45).
Various processes of preparation of soil for idols, by mixing different
ingredients, gums, resins etc to make the soil water repellent and
hard, were known in ancient period. (Ref. 14.25, 19.11, 4.232).
Ancient Indians knew about quick sand condition. Amarkosha (Ref
3.2), an ancient dictionary type text gives thirty eight names of
different types of land.
The quicksand is termed as “ Bandhokak” or water which holds a
person or animal. Such soils were stabilized by draining excess water

through sand drains connected to river etc. (Ref. 6.8). Other aspects
or stabilization such as brick making, pottery etc are beyond the scope
of this paper.
CONCLUSIONS
The various aspects of environmental Geo-technology are discussed in
the foregoing paragraphs. This information leads to following
conclusions.
1. Some of the basic principles of modern geotechnical and
environmental engineering were known to Indian people in ancient
period (5000 B.C.).
2. Many of the ancient practices of soil investigations, planning and
construction methods have scientific basis and can be useful, with due
modification, in present period.
3. There is a need to review the vast ancient Indian Literature with a
modern perspective.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to express his gratitude to Mr. G.G. Joshi, 176, Ram
Nagar, Nagpur., who has a rare collection of texts on Ancient Indian
Engineering Sciences, inspired the author to pursue this topic.
REFERENCES
For few references of period, (1000 AD - 5000 BC), a definite period of
publication is not known. The ancient references are published by
various publishers by appending with English or Indian Language
translations from Sanskrit.
1. Aagneya Purana (3000 BC) Published. by Anandasrama Sanskrit
Book Series No. 41, Poona.
2. Aashwalayan Gruhyasutra (3000 BC) Pub. by Trivendrum
Sanskrit Series No. 78, Trivendrum and also Pub. Anandashram
Sanskrit Book Series No. 105, Poona.

3. Amarkosh (11th Century) ED by G.C. Deo, Pub by Sharada Krida
Press, Bombay (1905).
4. Aparajitprichha (12th-13th Century AD) Ed by Bhuwandeo
Acharya, Pub. by Gaikwad Oriental Series No. 65, Baroda
(1905).
5. Brihatsamhita (5000 BC) Pub. by Khemraj Shrikrishnadas,
Bombay (1945).
6. Bhrugusamhita - Ed by K.V. Vaze Unpublished, Another version
,Bhrugu Sutra. Pub. By V.R. Shashtralu & Sons, Madras.
7. Kashyap Shilpa Pub. By Anandashram Sanskrit Book Series No.
95, Poona (1926).
8. Manushyalaya Chandrika - Pub. Trivedraum Sanskrit Series No.
56, Trivendrum. Ed by T.G. Shashtri, Pub. by Anantshayan
Sanskrit Book Series No. 56, Madras (1917).
9. Matsya Purana (3000 BC) - Pub. by Anandashram Sanskrit Book
Series No. 54, Poona (1907).
10. Mayamatam - Pub. by Saraswati Mahal Library Series
No.113, Thanjavur (1968).
11. Pognon, Major C.A. (1923), .Water divining. paper
presented at Bombay Engineering Congress, Bombay.
12. Poushkarsamhita - Pub. by Gnanapandithar Press,
Krishnampeth, Triplicane, Madras (1934).
13. Rajavallabh (15th Century) - Pub. by M.R. Jagushte
bookseller, Ahmadabad.
14. Sakaladhikara - Ed by V.G. Iyangar, Pub. by Saraswati
Mahal Library, TSM Series No. 141 (1973), Thanjavur.
15. Samarangan Sutradhar (11th Century AD.) - Ed D.N.
Shukla Pub. By Vastu Vangmay Prakashan Shala, Faizabad Road,
Lucknow, (1965).

16. Shatapath Bramhan (1400 BC) - Pub. by Prachin
Vaidyanikadhyan Anusandhan, New Delhi.
17. Shilpadeepak (15th Century AD.) - Pub. by M.R. Jaguste,
Book Seller, Trun Darwaja, Ahmadabad.
18. Shilpaprakash - Ed by Alice Boner and S.R. Sharma, Pub.
by E. Jabriel, Lieden Netherlands.
19. Tantra Samuchhaya (1428 AD) - Pub. by Ananshayan
Sanskrit Book Series No. 151, Madras.
20. Vasturajvallabha (1433-1468 AD) - Pub. by M.R. Jaguste,
Book seller, Tran Darwaja, Ahmadabad.
21. Vasturatnakar - Ed by V.P. Trivedi, Pub. by Choukhaba
Sanskrit Series, Gaya Ghat, Banaras (1955).
22. Vastuvidya Savyakhya - Pub. by Trivendrum Sanskrit
Series No. 142, Trivendrum.
23. Venkatraman, K. (1950) - .Water divining, Ancient and
Modern., Jr. of Central Board of Irrigation, New Delhi, (March
1950).
***.***

C2
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES IN ANCIENT INDIA
National Conference on ‘Sustainable Development of Urban

Infrastructure’ 2010, Nagpur, Pages 445-451
ABSTRACT
Ancient Indian literature includes texts on engineering sciences also.
Some of these texts deal in details with environmental sciences. The
information in these texts has scientific background and can be very
useful to modern scientists and engineers. The paper presents
information on environmental sciences depicted in some of ancient
Indian texts
INTRODUCTION
The ancient Indian sages gave the mankind Mantra (Sanskrit hymns),
Tantra (Technology) and Yantra (Machines). Engineering sciences were
very advanced in India in ancient period (as early as 5000 BC). More
than thousand texts (Shilpasamhita-s) can be mentioned on the
various engineering sciences. Out of these some five hundred texts are
still preserved in some of the libraries of oriental research institutes
and museums, in the form of manuscript on palm leaves, tree barks
(Bhurjapatra) etc. The vast technical literature still exists as it was
concealed in religious and mythological scriptures. Modern engineers
and scientists, unfortunately, have not paid proper attention to this
ancient literature mainly due to lack of knowledge of the language
(Sanskrit) or due to improper translation and interpretation of this
information by non-technical academicians. A few aspects of
environmental sciences as depicted through ancient Indian Literature
are presented in brief.

The Vedic Hymn the Prithvi Sukta in Atharva Veda (Ref.4) is
unquestionably the oldest and the most evocative environmental
invocation. In it, the Vedic seer solemnly declares ‘Mata Bhumih
Putroham Prithivya’- Earth is my mother, I am her son.’ Mother Earth
is worshiped for all her gifts of herbs and vegetation. Her blessings are
sought for prosperity in all endeavors and fulfillment of all righteous
aspirations. (Fig.1)
यस्यां समुद्र उत ससंधरु ांपो यस्यामन्न कृ ष्टयः

संबभुवुः।
यस्यांसमदं जीवंसत प्राणदे जत ् सा नो पूवप
व ेये दधातु॥
अथवव वेद कांड १२
1-Prayer of Motherland
The word “Environment” is derived from a French word “Environ”
which means to be present throughout. “The surroundings or
conditions in which a person, an animal or a tree lives or operates” are
termed as Environment in modern sense. A Sanskrit word
“Paryavaranam” was prevalent in ancient India thousand years prior to
advent of modern science. The word “Paryavaranam” is combination of
four words “Pari+ang+vru+lyut”.
Veda(s) directly or indirectly advocates protection of nature to live
long healthily. Poet Kalidas in his epic “Shakuntalam” advises king
(Ruler) to protect nature which protects all mankind. The physical
components envisaged with environment were “land, trees,
mountains, rivers, oceans, sky and air etc. The Arthshashtra by
Kautilya (Ref.3) written as early as between 321 and 300 BC, contain
provisions meant to regulate a number of aspects related to the
environment. The fifth pillar edict of Emperor Ashoka also contains
such regulations.
PANCHMAHABHOTA

The concept of Panchmahabhota” was explained in “Aitariya Upanishad
(Ref. 2) which says the five basic elements Earth (Prithwi), Water
(Aap), Air (Vayu), Sky (Aakash) and Light (Tej) must be protected
without creating any imbalance between these elements. A slight
imbalance causes catastrophic effects. First four elements and trees
are discussed below.
Earth - One can find 32 names for earth in Sanskrit literature. Atharva
Veda (Ref.4) mentions that a person, who protects earth, attains name
and fame in all universes. There are many hymns is Veda(s) praising
earth as mother of living things. All eighteen Puranas have a separate
chapter on site selection. Importance of site investigations was known
in ancient India. Various site classification systems were based on
color, smell, sound, taste of soil.
Many ancient texts describe simple field tests also for site selection.
Some of these tests are based on environmental properties. Such tests
are discussed below.
Germination Test: In this test certain types of seeds are sown at the
proposed site. Depending upon the time taken for germination (three,
five or seven days) the site is considered as good, average or bad
respectively. (Vishwakarmaprakash-Ref.16)
Flower Test: In this test flowers of four colors namely white, red,
yellow and blue are placed in leaf cones at the four corners of a pit in
the evening and the condition of the flower is observed at the next day
morning. The freshness of flowers indicates the suitability of site. If
white flowers are fresh the site is best, if red flowers are fresh then the
site is good. (Manushyalayachandrika- Ref.8)
Lamp Test: In this test four oil lamps are lit in the four directions
(east, north, west and south) in the foundation pit. Out of these the
lamp which lasts for longest period indicates the suitability of site. If

the lamp in the east direction lasts for longest period then the site is
considered best and so on. (Brihat Samhita- Ref. 5)
All the above three tests are based on geotechnical environmental
factors namely humidity, water content, temperature, oxygen content,
thermal conductivity etc.
Water - Indians have always fully appreciated the beneficent use of
water. This is evident from many Vedic prayers and especially from the
famous hymn Apohishta from Rig-Veda
आपोव्ददष्टा मयो भुवस्तान उजे दधातन।महे रणाय

चक्षसे॥
ऋग्वेद १०-९-१
2-Prayer of Water Goddess
(Ref. 11, Fig.2). The meaning of the verse is “Water is mother of
welfare, May our mother show the way of prosperity and imparts her
strength to us”
One can find 100 names for water in an ancient text Nighantu (Ref.9).
In ancient time, construction of wells reservoirs, canal works etc was
considered highly pious work and formed a part of religious duties of
kings and wealthy people. Water divining was a well developed
science. Varahmihir in his book Brihat Samhita (Ref.6) described in
detail about water divining. The depth, quality and quantity of water
was predicted on the basis of surface features such as rock outcrop,
type of trees and their foliage, presence of anthill, presence of
hibernating animals (frog, fish, snake etc). Brihat Samhita gives a
guide line to select a site based on the above three environmental
factors. The text mentions “The land which is leveled ground and full
of trees, medicinal plants, and creepers with scented flowers, and non-
saline soil with ample water, is suitable for habitat. Nitisutras of
Chanyakkya - aphorisms – pithy sentences (Ref.10 and Fig.3)
predicts;

 “God Vishnu and River Ganges would abandon this earth after
ten and five thousand years (respectively), but only after
twenty-five hundred years the earth would be abarren land.
(Prediction of Global warming?)
 One who destroys wells, tanks or temples is a wicked person.
 The only three precious things on the earth are water, food and
pleasing words.
कलौ दशसहत्रेषु हररस्यतासत मेददनीम ्।

तदर्धदव जान्हवीतोयं तदर्धदव ग्रामदे वता
॥१७३॥
वापी कूप तडागानामाराम सूरवेष्मतामग्र ्।
उच्छे दते सनराशंक स ववप्रो म्लेच्छ
उच्चते॥१८३॥
पृसथदया त्रीव्ण रत्नासन जलमन्न
सुभावषतम ्॥२१६॥
3-Nitisutra of Chanakya
Construction of bathing ghats, digging of wells, construction of water

tanks was considered as pious work. Ancient text Vasturatnakar (Ref
14, Fig.4) mentions that “One who renovates wells, tanks, temples
gets 8 times results than that of constructing new structures.
वापीकूपतडागेषु दे वतायतनेषु च।
जीणावन्युर्धदरते यस्तु पुण्यमष्टगुण भवेत॥१०॥ वास्तुरत्नाकर
अ. २
Maintenance of water bodies

The portion of river bank, where river undergoes sharp bend, is
susceptible to land erosion hence bathing ghats are constructed at
such location.

Rig Veda says “The earth becomes pious with rain water which
enriches the fertility of soil, so the pollution of water is banned”. One
can find twenty names of most respected rivers of India in Vedas.
In Taittiriya Aranyaka (Ref. 13) it is stressed that one should not
excrete or urinate in water, one should not spit or take bath without
any cloths on the body. The Vedic seers may be taking caution against
various contagious diseases that may spread through water by
excreting in it or spiting or taking bath naked.
Veda advises that a man should perform different rites like Yagna to
free him from the debts of Gods. He should perform the rites like
Sraddhas (rituals based on beliefs) to get freed from the debts of
parents He should give water to the trees and plants and food to the
birds and animals around his house. All these are for keeping
friendship with them and for maintaining the balance between man,
animals and other creatures and plants and trees in the nature.
Air - In Vedic period part of worship was a sacrificial fire (Yagna) in
which Ghee and different types of wood (Palash, Khadir, Audumber,
Shami etc) and grasses (Kush, kasha and Durwa etc) were offered to
gods. It was believed that the gases produced during the sacrifice,
reduces air pollution. Many scientific investigations have proved this
belief. It was also observed that cow ghee offered in fire controls the
radio activity in large volume.
Uttar Pradesh pollution control board conducted experiments during
the Yagna at Gorakhpur UP by setting up latest equipments at about
20 meters east from the altar. The samples of 100 ml each of water
and air collected from the surroundings were analyzed using high
volume Envirotech APM-45 and other sensitive instruments. Level of
Sulphor dioxide was found reduced from 3.36 to 0.80, level of Nitrous

Oxide reduced from 1.16 to 1.02 mg per av. Sample. Further Bacteria
count in Av. water samples reduced from 4500 to 1250
From these scientific studies it was found that,
 Burning sugar and its smoke has a significant effect in purifying
the atmosphere. It kills the germs of T.B., measles, smallpox
and cow-pox.
 If cow’s ghee is put into the fire, its smoke will lessen the effect
of atomic radiation to a great extent.
 The medicinal firewood (samidha) used in Yagna are cellulose-
rich and have less calorific value.
 Sublimation/Vaporization of sacrificed substances of firewood
controls the air-supply and temperature variation.
 Yagya fire breaks up molecule-to-molecule bonds of the
sacrificed substances rather than triggering their independent
combustion process.
 Experimental studies have shown that Yagna or Agnihotra
creates a pure, hygienic, nutritional and healing atmosphere.
(Saxena , Ref 12)
Trees - Rig-Veda contains 23 hymns that praise the medical plants

(ousadhis). Various thoughts on the patient, disease, doctor and the
medicine are seen in those hymns. Old Indians believed that all kinds
of plants have some medical power. One such hymn says” The medical
plants are like horses that take the diseased to the other side of the
ocean of torture. These, shining forth with flowers and fruits, cure all
diseases”. Rig-Veda Praises forests and stresses the need of their
protection. There are six hymns in this Sukta which begins as follows:-
‘Animals like cows wander freely and confident eating grass and leaves
in the forest.

Bowers shine forth like dwelling places or houses. People from Villages
who come to the forest for collecting fire wood, return in the evening
with sufficient pieces of wood in their hands’.
It is also argued that “If one will reach heaven, cutting trees,
destroying the plants, doing violence and spreading blood and flesh in
the sacrifice, which else is qualified to reach the hell!” Trees give us
pure air so three are not to be destroyed. Yajurveda says “Protect
trees they will protect you”. The Sanskrit word for forest is “aranya or
place free from wars or disputes.
All these descriptions indicate that the Vedic seers had great concern
about the forests and they believed that they should be protected for a
peaceful life on earth.
Trees form a part of Indian cultural Heritage. Ancient texts clearly
specify the trees which are suitable or unsuitable near the structures.
Tree roots cause considerable volume change within the soil layer
below foundation and thus results in damage to foundation as well as
to superstructure. The unsuitable and suitable trees are listed in a
table 1 below.
The ancient texts recommend that the trees should be at such a
distance such that they do not cast shadows in the second or third
quarter of day time. Alternatively the clear spacing between the tree
and building should not be less than twice the height of the tree. Some
texts recommend that the unsuitable trees should be confined by a
ring of masonry wall around it and the tree roots crossing this
boundary should be cut as when necessary.
Some suitable trees such as Ashoka Bakul or Jack Fruit etc are
recommended to be planted midway between unsuitable trees and
buildings. Some trees which are recommended to be grown near the

buildings are Banana tree, coconut tree, Neem, Pomegranate etc, for
the obvious reason of their germicidal and medicinal properties.
Table 1 - Trees
Unsuitable Trees Suitable Trees
Sanskrit Botanical Sanskrit Botanical Name
Name Name Name
Plaksha Ficus Ashoka Polyathia
Infectoria Longifolia
Nyagradha Ficus Bakul Mimusops Elenji
Bengalensis
Ashwath Peepal Panas Jack Fruit
Audumber Country Fig Thorny Trees Milky Trees
Modern engineers too have realized the importance of the problem and
have identified certain parameters influencing the damage due to the
tree roots. The parameters were a) Type of tree species, b) spacing
between tree and foundation, c) climatic conditions, d) type of
foundation stratum etc. In this context one can admire the utility of
information depicted in the ancient literature.
Awareness of Pollution Prevention
The following quotations from ancient texts are equally relevant in the
present age. Drainage of water or wastewater: If a land is waterlogged
then the water should be drained out by digging drains parallel to
north east and refilling the trenches by brickbats and stones so that
excess water drains out. Bhrugusamhita (Ref.5). Water drains should
be deep (1 meter) below ground and the bottom surface should be
smooth and sloping. If such drain
is not provided then the owner should be fined (54 coins).

Treatment of saline soils: An ancient text Krishishasanam, (Ref.7)
states about saline soils and also describes the procedure to treat such
soils. Saline soil destroys seeds sown in it. This soil should be
excavated again and again and replaced by fertile soil. Add fertilizers
and water or plant trees such as Tobacco etc., which remove salinity of
soils.
Waste and Garbage disposal: As per Kautilya (Ref.3) waste disposal
sites should be on north east side and far away from residential areas.
Sanitation: Kautilya (Ref.3) has described following fines to be
imposed for violation of civic rules on sanitation;
 Throwing garbage on the streets - 2 coins
 Throwing garbage in drains - 4 coins
 Throwing garbage at religious places - 16 coins
 Throwing dead animals – 48 to 96 coins depending upon size of
animal
 Cremation at unauthorized places -192 coins.
As per Vashishtasamhita (Ref.14) Rivers, roads, agricultural fields,

green lands sunshades and public places should not be polluted (by
urination or excreta)
Duties of sanitary inspectors: As per Kautilya (Ref.3) sanitary
inspectors should have close watch against pollution of water at
various storage sites.
Noise pollution
Observance of silence was considered as no less a ritual activity as
compared to the recitation of Mantras which involves noise. Aapstamb
Gruhyasutra (Ref.1) advises the student to put fire woods into the
ritual fire in the evening silently. Similarly, restraining speech after the
performance of principal rites is prescribed. The Aapstamb

Gruhyasutra states that the student should observe silence till the
stars appear in the sky. The vow of silence among the saints is
famous. All devotes used to observe vow of silence for a prescribed
period every year. Sound pollution is a difficult problem now faced by
the environmentalists. The Vedic Seers had foreseen the consequences
of sound pollution and that is why the prescribed the vow of silence
(Mauna) in various rites and rituals!
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the information available in ancient Indian texts, it can be
concluded that,
1. The term Environment was first defined in ancient Indian texts.
2. The residential sites were selected on the basis of environmental
factors such as land, trees and water.
3. Methods for pollution prevention were described in these texts.
4. The ancient knowledge is consistent with modern environmental
engineering.
REFERENCES
1. Aapstamb Gruhyasutra Pub. by Trivendrum Sanskrit Series
2. Aitariya Upanishad, Pub. By Chaukhamba Sanskrit series
Banaras
3. Arthshashtra by Kautilya, Ed by R P Kangle Pub. by Motilal
Banarasidas Allahabad
4. Atharva Veda, Pub. By Chaukhamba Sanskrit series Banaras
5. Bhrugusamhita (Bhrugu) Pub. By V.R. Shashtralu & Sons,
Madras.
6. Brihat Samhita (or Varahsamhita)- (5000 BC) Pub. By
Khemraj Shrikrishnadas, Bombay (1945).
7. Krishishasanam, (Kashypa)- (1300 BC), Ed by Dasharatha
Sharma Dwivedi,(1909)

8. Manushyalayachandrika- (1917). Pub. Trivendrum Sanskrit
Series No. 56, Trivendrum. Ed by T.G. Shastri,
9. Nighantu (2002) Ed. by Lakshman Sarup, The Nighantu and
The Nirukta (London,
10. Milford 1920-29), Reprint by Motilal Banarasidas New
Delhi.
11. Nitisutras of Chanyakkya, Ed by R P Kangle Pub. by Motilal
Banarasidas Allahabad
12. Rig-Veda- Chaukhamba Sanskrit series Bananas
13. Saxena M., Sen Gupta B., Pandya (2007),” Comparative
study of Yagna in Microbial Environments. Ind. J. Air Pollution
Control., VII , pp. 16-20
14. Taittiriya Aranyaka, (1926), Pub. By Anandashram, Pune
15. Vashishtasamhita Pub. By Mahadev Jagushte, Ahmadabad
16. Vasturatnakar (1955) Chaukhamba Sanskrit Series
Banaras
17. Vishwakarma Prakash- Pub. by Motilal Banarasidas
Allahabad
***.***

D1
Ancient Indian Prakar Shashtra or Science of Forts and Castles
Invited Lecture- Conference on Raja Bhoj, held at Bhopal , December
2017
1 Introduction
Ancient Indian literature such as Vedas, Puranas, and Shilpa-
Samhita(s) etc. are encyclopedias of Science & Technology. The word
Shilpa is derived from words Sheel samadhou which mean anything that
pleases the mind. Sage Bhrugu has given a definition of Shilpa.
नानाववधानां वस्तुनां यंत्राणां कल्पसंपदा ।

धातुनां साधनांच वास्तुनां सशल्पसंज्ञीतम ्॥
भ्रुगुसंदहता अ. १
Definition of Shilpa
Sage Bhrugu classified all engineering science into ten shastra(s),

thirty-two Vidyas and sixty-four kalas.
Extent of Shilpa shashtra- Engineering Science -shashtra
1. Biological Sciences-Krishi 2. Water Resources-Jala
3. Mining & Metallurgy-Khani 4. Surface Transport-Ratha
5. Water Transport-Nauka 6. Air Transport-Vyomayan
7. Dwellings-Veshm 8. Forts and Castles -Prakaara
9. Town planning- NagarRrachana
10. Machines -Yantra
Vidyas –Techniques
There are Four out of Thirty-two Vidyas related to Prakar Shastra
24. Forts-Doorg Vidya
25. Castles-Koota Vidya
26. Moats-Aakaar Vidya
27. Warfare-YuddhaVidya

There are Six out of Sixty-four Four Kala(s) - Arts or Skills related to
Prakar Shastra
58. Wrestling- Mallayuddha
59. Weapons- Shashtranipatan
60. Missiles - Astranipatan
61. Military formation- Vyuha rachana
62. Surgery- Shalyadruti
63. Wound Dressing- Vrananirakaran
2 Praakaar Shashtra
For a king, building of forts or castles was essential. As armors are
meant for protection of body, forts and weapons were necessary for
protection of kingdom and people.
Contents of ancient Indian texts in brief is given below,
• The Rig Veda (4000B.C.) mentions warfare and combats fought by
the Aryans.
• The epics Mahabharata and Ramayana mentions warfare, weapons
and war ethics.
• Dhanurveda(s) mainly deal with archery (wars with bow and arrows).
• Shukraniti is the most authentic text of Indian warfare.
• YuddhajayarNava is important text on warfare.
Modern commentaries on this subject are;
• Arthashastra of Kautilya,
• SamarangaN Sutradhar and
• Yuktikalpataru of Raja Bhoj
• YuddhajayarNava
Some Shilpa samhitas deal with naval warfare and Air warfare.
Few modern terms on forts are given below;
• Castle - "a private fortified residence".
• Bailey - a ward - a fortified enclosure.

• Keep -A great tower, the most strongly defended point of a castle.
• Curtain walls- a defensive ditch with arched bridge, for defending a
walled city.
• Moat- A defensive ditch with steep sides, and could be either dry or
filled with water.
• Gatehouse - The gatehouse to control the flow of traffic with
projecting towers on each side of the gate.
3 FORTS AND CASTLES
Forts are essential for self protection during war. One soldier on fort is
stronger than hundred soldiers outside of the fort.
एकः शतयोधधयसत प्राकारस्थो धनुधरव ः ॥

शतंदशसहस्त्रानी तस्मादग
ु व ववसशष्यते ॥
Strength of a fort
There are mainly two types of Forts - Natural or Artificial
• Natural forts- those surrounded by mountains, or rivers and difficult
to be conquered by enemy.
• Artificial forts - those which has protection walls, trenches or other
obstructions.
• Forts are classified as; Durg, Koota and Aakar
अकृ वत्रम कृ वत्रमंच तत्पुनव्ददव ववधम्भवेद ॥

वद्दै व घदितं दग
ु व सगररनद्य दद सासितं ॥
अकृ वत्रमसमसतज्ञेयं दल
ु र्ध
व यमररभूभुजा॥
प्राकारपररखारण्य संियंयभ्दवेददह ॥
कृ वत्रमं नामववज्ञेयं लंर्धयालंर्धयेतुवैररणां॥ युर्धदजयाणवव
Types of forts
Mayamat specifies different types of forts.
धनदग
ु ,व महीदग
ु ,व सगरीदग
ु व तथैवच॥
मनुष्यदग
ु ,व संसगव, वरदग
ु च
व तासनषि ॥
सगररवनजलपण्केरीण दै वत समष्राव्ण सप्तदग
ु ावव्ण १
दग
ु द
व ग
ु म
व मुक्तं दल
ु र्ध
ं यं दख
ु गाहं च ॥

रक्षाथवच जयाथवह्यररसभरभेद्यच दग
ु सव मष्टस्याद ॥ मयमत अ१०
Different types of forts
प्राकारत्वेन सनददव ष्टं ववस्तीणं ववषमबलं ॥

अधोधोबर्धयमानोदह कंदराल्पजलांववतः ॥
आकरत्वेन सनददव ष्टःयु दल
ु घ्
व योदहभूभूजा ॥
न दग
ु व दव्ु ग्मवत्याहुः योघृदग
ु व प्रकीसतवतं ॥
योधशून्यं तुयग्मृग
व कायसमसमंदहतत॥ युर्धदजयाणवव
Forts and their types
Fortified cities were common in India. The examples of oldest cities are
the city of Mathura, Magadha and Ujjain.
Patliputra fort was guarded by a ditch with wooden walls. It had 570
towers and 54 gates.
Sisupalgarh in Orissa was ancient fortifications of 3rd century.
Agni puraNa mentions five defects of forts –
1. Drying and silting of the ditches surrounding the fort,
2. Bad and neglected condition of ramparts and towers,
3. Use of outdated instruments and machines of warfare,
4. Neglect of arsenal,
5. Insufficient garrison of soldiers.
24th Vidya- Forts-Doorg Vidya
Yuddhajayarnav states;
1. True strength of a king lies in his forts and not in his army.
2. One soldier at a fort can fight hundred soldiers outside the fort.
3. Hundred soldiers are enough to fight ten thousand soldiers of the
enemy.
राज्ञो बलं न दह दग
ु म
व ेव बलं बलम।
अत्लल्पबलवान ् राजाव्स्थरो दग
ु ब
व लाभ्दवेत ॥
एक्क शतं योधयसत प्राकारस्थो धनुधरव :।

शतं दशसहस्त्राव्ण एवं दग
ु े ववसशष्यते ॥ युर्ध्जयाणवव
True strength of a king
25th Vidya- Castles-Koota Vidya

Rig-Veda contains a hymn.”O Kashypa your creation (Castle) is spacious, well
equipped. May such creation give shelter to the king!"
यत्ते सशल्पं कश्यप रोचनावद् इं दद्रयावत्पुष्कवलं सचत्रभानु

याव्स्मंसूयाव अवपवता: सप्तसाकं तव्स्मंन्नराजानमसधंवविते ॥ऋग्वेद
Vedic Forts
Castle is one which is protected by wall, moats on thorny bushes and
one which is un-conquerable. Such castle can defend from enemy.
प्राकारपररखारण्यसंियं यद्भवेददहं ।
कृ वत्रम नाम ववदज्ञेयं लंघ्यालंघ्यं तु वैररणाम ्॥ युवक्तकल्पतरु
Obstructions around fort
An entry or exit from the castle should be easy. Otherwise the King
gets imprisoned in his castle.
सप्रवेशापसरणं दग
ु म
व ुत्तममुच्चते ।
अन्यत्र वंददशालेव न ताट्गग्दग
ु म
व ाियेत ्॥
Forts exit
Castles are provided with two main entrances and four obstructions.
The main gate is fortified with pointed long nails. There are secret
staircases and bridges for crossing the trenches around castle.
26th Vidya - Moats-Aakaar Vidya
Moat is a deep wide ditch, usually filled with water, surrounding a
fortified town, fortress, or castle. If there are no natural or artificial
forts available in a land, then moats are constructed for defense
purposes.
यव्स्मन्दे शे सगररनावव्स्त नद्यो वा गहनोदका: ।

तस्य मर्धये महीपाल: कृ वत्रमं दग
ु म
व ाचरे त ् ॥ युवक्तकल्पतरु

Artificial Forts
• Moat-deep, well constructed, underground passage with little water
and difficult for enemy to cross.
• It is full of water, so wide that cannot be crossed by elephants or
horses.
• The water in the moat may be infested by crocodiles. Such moats
act as a fort.
अधोऽधो बर्धयमानोवप कंदरोल्पजलांववत:

दग्ु त्वेन समुददष्ट: सुदल
ु घ्
े यो दह भूभुजाम ्॥ युवक्तकल्पतरु
Fort surrounded by dry moat
Classification of forts and Castles as per Shukraniti
A. Parikha durga ,B-Parigha durga, C-Vana durga ,D-Dhanva durga,
E-Jala durga, F-Giri durga, G-Sainya durga and H-Sahayya durga
Classification of forts and Castles As per Mayamatam
A. Giridurg, B-Vanadurg ,C-Jaldurg , D-Pankadurg ,E-Arindurg ,
FDaivatadurg-
and G-Mishradurg ,
The fort should have adequate storage of grocery, oils, Salt,
medicines, poisons, metals, men, animals, bamboos, firewood, grass,
wood, garrison
and its commander.
सगररवनजलपंकेररणदै वतसमिाव्ण सप्तदग

ु ावव्ण
धान्यैतैलै: क्षारै : सलवणभैषज्यगंधववषम ्॥
लोहांगारस्नायुववषाणवेव्ष्वबंधनैयक्त
ुव म ्
तृणचमवकारयुक्तं सवल्कलं सादारुयुक्तम ्॥
नृपभवनसमोपेतं ह्स्स्त्य श्वरथपदासत बहुमुख्यम। मयमत अ १०
Types of forts
Classification of forts and Castles as per Kautilya Arthashastra
A. Dhanadurga , B-Mahidurga, C-Giridurga, D-Jaladurga ,
E-Manushyadurga ,F-Sansurgawardurg

Classification of forts and Castles as per Yuktikalpataru – Raja
Bhoj
A. Giri Durg, B-Jala Durg ,C- Maru Durg, D- Vana Durg,
E- Mahee Durg , F- Nru Durg, G- Mishra Durg, H- Daiva Durg
A-Hill forts
A1-Praantar –situated on the top of hill and comprising of many
tunnels . eg. Chitor garh.
A2-Giree parshwak- on the slopes of a big hill. e.g. Bundee fort
A3- Guha (Cave) - surrounded by hills on all sides, e.g. Jaypur or
Udaypur forts of Rajastan
B-Jaladurg (Water forts)
B1- Aantar dweep –land surrounded by flowing water or sea eg Janjira
fort
B2-Sthala durg –fort surrounded by stagnant water.
C- Maroo durg (Desert forts)
C1- Nirudak –Land surrounding the fort is without water.
C2 -EreN – Land surrounding the fort is infertile and devoid of
vegetation.
D-Vana Durg (Forest forts) :forts surrounded by dense forests.
E-Mahee durg
E1-Paarigh – Ramparts or parapets of such forts are made of stone or
bricks joined with mud mortar. Heights of walls are twice the width.
E2-Mud fort – a fort surrounded by muddy , sandy or alkaline soils
E3-Mrud durg (Mud Fort) - The walls of such fort are made of mud,
such as Bharatpur fort
F- Nrudurg –Such forts are protected by own army (Sainya durg) or
army of friendly country (Sahay durg).
G- Mishra Durg (Mixed type) –The defense system of such fort
contents systems of both Nagar (Town) and Van (Forest) type of forts.
H.Daivadurdh (Devine) -type of fort protected by divine powers.
Ancient Vastu texts on Forts
Aushanus Dhanurveda Ramayana
Mahabharata Manusmruti
Kautilya Arthashastra Kamandika Nitishastra
Akashbhairavkalp Narada Shilpashstra
Agastya Shilpa Shastra Mayamatam
Manasara Vishvakarma Vastu
Ancient Vastu texts on Forts
Shukraniti ,Bramhand Purana,
Matsya PuraN / Agni PuraN Devi PuraN,
Manasollas / Shivtatva Ratnakar
Rajaniti ,Vishvakarma prakash,
SamarangaNsutradhar, Yuktikalpataru,
Jayapruccha, Vasturajavallabha, Vastumanjiri
V27. Warfare-YuddhaVidya
Yuddha vidya –Warfare is the forth technique under the science of
Praakaar Shasta. Jamadagnya Dhanurveda mentions four types of
warriors.
आचायव: सप्तयुर्धद: स्याच्चतुसभवभागवव: (कवव( स्मृत:।

ददाभ्यां चैव भवेद्योर्धदा एकेनं गणलो भवेत ्॥ जामदग्न्य
धनुवद
े अ १
Four types of soldiers
1. Acharya- One who can fight with any of the seven hand weapons.
2. Bhargava or Kavi – one, who can fight with four hand weapons.
3. Yoddha- one, who can fight with two hand weapons,.
4. Ganak – one who can fight with only one hand weapon.
Same text mentions four methods of war. These types are,
उत्तमं मासयकास्त्रेण नासलकास्त्रेण मर्धयमम ्।

शस्त्रै: कसनष्ठं युर्धदं च बाहुयुर्धदं ततोऽधमम ् ॥ जामदग्न्य धनुवद
े अ ९
Four types of wars
1. Mayik- War using missiles is most effective.

2. Naalik- War using guns and rifles
3. Shashtra- war with hand weapons
4. Bahu - war with hands alone, least effective.
Ancient text Shukraniti mentions one additional and most effective
method of war i.e. Mantrashakti. The text describes effects of each of
the five methods.
मंत्रेररतमहाशवक्तबाणाद्यै: शत्रुनाशनम ्।
मासयकास्त्रेण तद्युर्धदं सववयुर्धदोत्तम स्मृतम ्॥
नालाव्ग्नगोलसंयोगाल्लक्ष्ये गोलसनपातनम ्।
नासलकास्त्रेण तद्युर्धदं महा-हासकरं ररपो: ॥
कुंताददशस्त्रसंपातैनावशनं ररपुणाच यत ्।
शस्त्रयुर्धदं तु तज्ज्ञेयं नालास्त्राभवत: शुभम ्॥
कष्णै: संसधममावणां प्रसतलोमानुलोमत:।
बंधनैघावतनं शत्रोयुक्
व त्या तब्दाहुयुर्धदकम ्॥
शुक्रनीसत
Five types of wars
Skills under warfare
As per Bhrugu Shilpa Samhita six skills are ,
 K58-Mallayuddha-Wrestling
 K59-Shashtranipatan-Weapons
 K60-Astranipatan- Missiles
 K61-Vyuha rachana -Military formation
 K62-Shalyadruti-Surgery
 K63-Vrananirakaran-Wound Dressing
But according to Shukraniti other five skills are namely
1. Taking up stands for employment of arms.
2. Dueling

3. Marking of aim
4. Battle arrays
5. Employment of horses, elephants, chariots etc.
K58.Wresling- Mallayuddha- Wrestling or Martial Arts
Local names of these are,
Gatka, Kalaripayattu, Mardani Khel ,Silambam ,Varma Kalai ,Huyen
Langlon ,Malla-Yuddha ,Niyuddha or Sqay
K59. Weapons- Shashtranipatan
Jamadagnya Dhanurveda mentions seven types of hand weapons.
These are Wheel, Spear, Belt, Sword, Maize and Hands.
धनुश्चक्रं च कु6तं च खड्गश्च क्षुररका गदा ।

सप्तमं बाहुयुर्धदं स्यादे वं युर्धदं तु सप्तधा ॥ धनुवद
े अ १
Seven weapons of hand war
K60. Missiles - Astranipatan
1. Sukraniti contains references on fire-arms, (agneyastras)
2. Kautalya describes agni-bana, and mentions three recipes
3. The Visvasaghati-agni-yoga was virtually a bomb which burst and
the fragments of metals were scattered in all directions.
4. The agni-bana was the fore-runner of a gun-shot.
5. Sir A. M. Eliot proved that origin of gunpowder was in India,
6. dhupa of the Agni Purana means a rocket, perhaps a version of the
Kautaliyan term natadipika.
7. Manasollasa refers installation of yantras (engines of war) inside the
walls of the forts
8. Samarangana Sutradhara clearly reveals the frequent use of fire
arms in the battle-field.
9. Sataghni (killer of hundreds of men) were used for the protection of
the forts
Kautilyas view on ammunition depots

One can find detailed information on ammunition depot, storage of
arms, their maintenance, duties of store officer etc. These instructions
are relevant even today.
Strategic planning-Kautilya
1. Victory of king depends on number of elephants. By virtue of the
strength, elephants can break the gates of fort, crush the enemy
soldiers.
2. During war arrangement for treating wounded soldiers should be
ready with proper doctors, nurses and medicines.
3. Soldiers have to do different types of works during war, such as
erecting of camps, bridges, dispensaries, water, supply of food and
weapons, construction of roads etc.
During the war various wings of army have to move forward in a
coordinated method. For that proper strategic planning (Vhuha) is
necessary. SamarangaN Sutradhar mentions following rules of it.
1. War is to be fought in a situation of survival, but in other case it
should be fought only after careful consideration.
2. In case of small army, it should be kept united. It should move from
place to place to fight gorilla war.
3. In case of large army, it should attempt should be made to encircle
or corner the enemy army.
Site for the battlefield
Victory in war depends upon three things;
1. Correct time
2. Knowledge of strength of opponent
3. conditions at the battlefield
As per Agni PuraaNa “general should attack enemy’s army if the
ground in
the front and sides is undulating.
K61.Military formation- Vyuha rachana
Types of vyuhasa or military arrays
1. Danda(Staff) array,
2. Shakata (Cart or car shaped) array.
3. Varaha (boar) shaped,
4. Matsya (fish) shaped ,
5. Makara (mythological aquatic animal) shaped,
6. Padma (lotus) shaped,
7. Suchimukha (needle) shaped,
8. Garuda (Eagle) shaped,
9. Sarp (snake shaped) array.
K62.Surgery- Shalyadruti
1. Sushruta, the earliest surgeons of the recorded history (600 B.C.)
2. The first surgeon to perform plastic surgical operations.
3. Use of cheek flaps to reconstruct absent ear lobes, the use of wine
as anesthesia, and the use of leeches to keep wounds free of blood
clots.
K63.Wound Dressing- Vrananirakaran

Nitishastras recommends that a wounded opponent should be sent to
his home or the wounds should be treated by skilled surgeons at the
victors camp. After he is cured he should be set at liberty.
सचदकत्स्यः स्यात्खववषये प्राप्यो वा स्वगृहे भवेत।

सनर्व्वणश्च स मोक्तदयः एष धमवः सनतनः ॥
महाभारत, शांतीपवव ९५-१७-१८
Treatment of wounds

5 Weapons of Ancient Indian Wars
1. Sivavyasa Dhanur Veda gives measurement of bow .
2. Kodanda Mandana nentions various characteristics of bow
3. Shatapath Bramhana describes the origin of an arrow.
4. Agni Purana describes the procedure to make arrow and its parts
5. Kautilya describes three types of Agni BanNa, materials used for
these fire arms (highly inflammable components, animal dung,
charcoal made from certain plants, guggul, turpentine and lac.)
Classification of weapons
Dhanur Veda classifies the weapons of offence and defense into four
categories – mukta, amukta, muktamukta and yantramukta.
The Nitiprakasika, divides them into three broad classes,
1. mukta (thrown),
2. amukta (not thrown), and
3. mantramukta (discharged by mantras).
The bows and arrows are the chief weapons of the mukta group.
Vaissampayan mentions twenty kinds of Amukta Weapons .
Minor and Mystical weapons of warfare
According to Nitiprakasha there are two classes of Muktamukta
weapons;
1-Sopasamhara –throwing out -43 types
2-Upasamhara-withdrawing -43 types
Khadga-Charma(Sword and shield), DhanurbaaN(Bow and arrow),
Shallya(Thorn), Bhalla(Spear), Ardhachandra (Curved axe), Narach,
Shakti, Yashta, Parshu,Chakra, Parigh etc. All are made of steel.
खाड्गचमवधनुबावणौ शल्बभल्लौ तथापरौ ॥

अधवचद्र
ं श्चवाराचः शवक्तयष्ठौ तथापरे ॥
परशुश्चक्रशूलेच पररघश्चैव मादय ॥

अस्त्रभेदाः समुदद्दष्टाः िीमभ्दोजमही भुजा ॥ युक्तीकल्पतरू
Names of different weapons
The sword should have good Anga, VarN, Swar and Netra. As per
ancient Indian metallurgy quality of steel is tested by its Ang, Roop,
Jaatee, Netra, Arishta,, Bhumee, Dwanee and Maan. Except last two
other qualities can be achieve by a black smith, but last are natural
properties.
पंचार्धयासनपुणै गदे सम्भादयतेऽवप कृ वत्रमा ॥

अंत्यावकृ वत्रमौज्ञेयोतावेवा सहजाववसत॥
Qualities of a good sword
According to “Yuktikalpataru” the sword should be long and light, sound
loud, unbreakable (repairable). The width and length should be
proportional to the length of the blade. The blade thickness should be
¼ of the width.
दीघवता लघुता चैव स्वर ववस्तीण्ताव तथा॥

दभ
ु द्य
े ता सुघिता खड्गनां गुण संग्रहः ॥
खववता गुरुता चैव मंदता तनुता तथा॥
सुभेद्यता दघ
ु ि
व ता खड्गाना दोष संग्रहः॥
यावत्योगुणयोदै घ्ये तदधांगुलयो यदा॥
प्रसरे त्च्चतुथांशं इसत वैमान मुक्तम ॥ युवक्तकल्पतरू
Properties of Sword
As per YuddhajayarNav, quality of Sword was judged by its sound (when
struck with stone stick or nail). Sword sounding like String instrument
(Sitar) was considered as the best.
तंत्रीस्वरसमो याव्स्मन ् भवेत खड्गे हतेर्धवसनः ॥

तंत्रीर्धवसनरय खड्गः कुलिी धन नाशनः॥॥
गंसभर तार र्धवसनता खड्गस्य शुभलक्षण ॥
नखेनवाथदं डेन तथा लोह शलाकया ॥
लोष्ट्रेन शकवरासभवाव र्धवसनववज्ञान मुच्यते॥ युर्धदजयाणवव
Sound of sword

Eight types of sounds of sword are described in the same text. Sounds
of a good sword can be Hans, Megh, Kasya and Dhakka and those of
bad sword are Kaak, Tantree, Gardhbha and Prastar. The weapon
(Sword) should be prepared properly for its effective use.
हं स कांस्ये तथा मेघो ढक्का काकाश्च तंवत्रका ॥

गदव भः प्रस्तरश्चैव र्धवसनरष्टववधः स्मृत ॥
पूवच
े त्वारः शुभदाः परे सनंदास्पदास्तथा ॥ युर्धदाणवव
Eight types of sounds of sword
Two types of Bows are mentioned in “Yuktikalpataru”, one is made of

horn and other is made of bamboo. Bows should be strong and
flexible, Bows are to be prepared carefully.
धनुस्तुव्ददववधंप्रोक्तं शाड्गवाशतथैकच ।
कोमल वणवदृढता गुणौ तस्य उदाहतौ॥ युक्तीकल्पतरू
Two types of bows
Arrows of any name or type must be light and strong so these can
travel long and penetrate deeply.
लघुता दृढताचैव तथा खरतरास्यता ॥

बाणानामदह सनददव ष्टो भूभुजांगुणसंग्रहः ॥
शरभल्लो खरतरौ लघु दृढतरोमतौ॥
ं स्तुकसथता लघु तीर्व्तरननः॥
नाराचस्तुसशरालः स्ललत्तीक्ष्णाग्रः ककवशात्रकः॥
शवक्तमष्टयादयोयेन्य ते तीक्ष्णाग्राः प्रकीसतवताः ॥युवक्तकल्पतरू
Qualities of good arrows
..
Amour
The word “Armor” means a protection cover, for human body, to be
used in the time of war. In ancient time weapons of war were sword,
spear ,mace etc Armors were developed to wear or put on the vehicles
during war.

यत्तेसशल्पंश्यपरोचनावत ्। इं दद्रयावपुष्कलंसचत्रभानु ॥
यव्स्मंसूयावअवपवताः सप्तसाकं। तव्स्मंराजानमसधववियेमं॥
तैतररय ब्राम्हण २।७।१५।३।७
Description of armor
Arthashastra of Chanakya contains Different names of such armors

such as,
 ShrirastraN-Hear gear/Helmet
 KanThatraN- Collar band
 Kanchuk –Chest band
 VakhaaN- knee to foot protector
 Nagodarik – Knee to lap protector
 PadatraN- Protective shoes
Raja Bhoj, King of Dhar (1100 A.D.), in his book “Yuktikalpataru” had
described various types of armors and their requisite qualities.
According to this text, an ideal armor should have following qualities.
1. It should be light and strong,
2. Easy to wear or remove,
3. It should not obstruct free movements of body.
4. It should not cause wound or physical disability.
6 Use of animals in war
• Horses, Camels and elephants were vital assets in the warfare of the
ancient world.
• Physicians treating human beings were also trained in the care of
animals.
• Ancient Indian medical treatises such as those of Charaka, Sushruta
and Harita Samhita contain chapters or references about the care of
diseased, as well as healthy, animals.

Elephants: Arthashastra mentions a special officer to take care of
elephants and their training. Seven types of training were given to the
elephants.
Horses: Nakulshastra,gives seven symptoms of a good horse rider.
चलदकशलयपाद: कणवमर्धयैकदृवष्ट:।
न चलसत कदिदे शे स्वासने संव्स्थतो य: ॥
हयहृदयगसतज्ञ: स्थानदं डावपाती ।
स खलु तुरयाता पूज्यतां पासथववेन॥ शासलहोत्र
A good horse rider
Horse trainer: Shalihotra gives instructions for trainer
भीते वक्ष:स्थलं हन्यात ् वक्त्रं चोन्मागवगासमन:।

कुवपते पुच्छसंस्थानं भ्रांते जानुददयं तथा:॥
यज्ञत्प्रस्खलते गात्रं तस्य दं ड सनपातयेत ्।
अस्थानदं दपाताच्च बहुदोषी प्रजायते ॥ शासलहोत्र
Tips for a horse rider
Oxen: An ancient text "Gawaryuveda" mentions seven defects of oxen.
दयंगो वववणो ववषम: व्खत्री धूम्रश्चल: खर: ।

एते सप्तमहादोषा वृषभाणामुदीररता:॥ गवायुवद
े
Defects of Oxen
Sage Palakapya advised that a serum should be prepared from the
meat of mongoose, peacocks, and pigs. This serum should be used as
medicine against poisons.
भक्षयंसत मांसासन वववषणां भक्षयंसत तान ्।

नकुलानां वराहाणां पृषतानां च युवक्तत:॥
मांसान्यादाय तेषां तु यथोक्तं कारयेद्रसम ्।
औषधासन सभषक्तेषां ववषहारीव्ण कारतेत ्॥ हस्त्यायुवद
े २-६
Insulin preparation

Dogs: Kings and noble men should keep dogs for hunting, chasing or
for games. Qualities of good breeds of dogs detailed in Yuktikalpataru.
मृगयाथव शाकुनाथव कौतुकाथव महीभृता।

स्वान: पोष्यास्तस्तेषामात्र वक्षासम लक्षणम ्।
गुणजासतप्रभदे न शुनां भेदा ह्यनकधा॥ युवक्तकल्पतरु
Hunting with dogs
1. Chariots are suitable for wars on plain ground,

2. Elephants are useful for uneven ground and
3. Horses or camels are more suitable in desert wars.
4. Infantry is used for difficult terrain.
5. For naval wars boats or ships are used.
रथयुर्धदं समेदशे ववषमे गजसगरः॥ अश्वयुर्धदं मरौदे शेपवत्तयुर्धदं च दग

ु म
व े॥
अस्ययेसववयुर्धदं स्थान्नौकायुर्धदं जलप्लुते ॥ युर्धदजयाणवव
Uses of animals in war
7 Duties of a king and ministers

The king in his council of minister should have persons such as
Advisor, Priest, Ministers, Ambassador, Writers, Astrologers, Home
minister, defense minister and heads of different divisions of army.
The integrity of all such persons should be unquestionable. These
ministers should be uncorrupt, alert and expert in their own fields.
गुरुः पुरोदहतांमात्यो मंत्रीदत

ू श्च लेखकः॥
ज्योसतज्ञोऽ न्तः पुरार्धयक्षो बलार्धयक्षाददकं क्रमाद ॥
अप्रमत्तांलुब्धाश्च ववरोषाश्चैव राजसु ॥
अमात्यान ववववधांकुमाव तत्र तत्र ववपव्श्चतः॥ युर्धदजयाणवव
Council of ministers
The king should bear in mind that his rule is to protect religion, people
and their comforts. King must protect farmers as they produce
agricultural wealth. Mines, forests and animals are sources of wealth.

धमवहेतोः सुखाथावय भल्यानां मरणायच ॥
आपदथव च संरक्ष्य कोशोराज्यवतासदा ॥
ववर्धयाचराजकोशश्च स्तोकस्तोदकनवधवते ॥
आयुष्यंच धनेचव
ै स्तोकस्तोकेनहीयते ॥
राज्ञोपायेनसंरक्ष्या ग्रामेग्रामे कृ षीवलाः॥
तेभ्यः कृ सशस्ततश्चाथाव अथेभ्यः सवव सम्पदः ॥ युर्धदजयाणवव
आकर प्रभवः कोशो धनधान्य समृर्धदवः।
राजानः कोशदं डाभ्या प्राप्नुवसतच गौरव ॥ कौदिलीय अथवशास्त्र
Duties of a king
• The Hindu science of warfare values both ethical principles (niti) and
valor (shaurya).
• The Nitishastra, books on ancient Indian policy, shows that though
the subjects treated them were secular; still they had their basis in
religion.
• Religion governed the actual life of every person from birth to death.
• It was therefore realized that waging of war without regard to moral
standards.
8 Ethics of ancient Indian wars
The ancient Indian wars were fought for defending the noble cause of
God, crown and Country. There were strict laws of war as mentioned
below.
• A warrior in armor must not fight with one not so clad.
• One warrior should fight only one enemy warrior and cease fighting if
the opponent is disabled.
• Aged men, women and children, the retreating, or one who shows a
sign of unconditional surrender should not be killed.
• The army should not destroy agricultural lands, the fruit and flower
gardens, temples and other places of public worship.

• The conqueror, before invading the foreigner's country, used to send
an ambassador with the message: 'Fight or submit.'
• More than 5000 years ago India recognized that the person of the
ambassador was inviolable. This was a great service that ancient
Hinduism rendered to the cause of international law.
Ethics as per Mahabharata (Shantiparv)
• A warrior in armor must not fight with an enemy who is not in armor.
• One should fight only one enemy, and cease fighting when opponent
becomes invalid.
नासन्नह्यो नाकवचो योर्धददयःक्षवत्रयो रणे शांतीपवव ९५.७

एक एकेन भादयश्च ववसृजेसत व्क्षपासम च शांतीपवव ९५.७
स चेत्सन्नर्धद आगच्छे त्सन्नद्रदय ततो भवेत |
स चेत्ससैन्य आगच्छे त्ससैन्यस्तमथाह्स्दयेत ॥ शांतीपवव अ ४.९१
स चेव्न्नकृ त्या युर्धदे त सनकृ त्या प्रसतयोधयेत |
अथ चेर्धदमवतो युर्धयेर्धदमेरणैव सनवारयेत ॥ ८॰९
War ethics mentioned in Mahabharata
Persons who are not to be killed

The person who is asleep, who is in drunken state, who is devoid of
clothes or weapons, the lady, the minor, the helpless, the afraid one
who deserts the battlefield should not be killed .
मूसछव तं नैव ववकलं नाशस्त्रं नान्ययोसधनम ्|

पलायमानं शरणं गतञचैव न दहं सयेत ् ॥४१॥
Rules of wars
One should not kill the enemy who is lying unconscious, who is
crippled or devoid of weapon or is stricken with fear and also who has
come for shelter (asylum).
भीरुः पलायमानोऽवप नांवेष्टदयो बलीयसा |

कदासचच्छूरतां यासत शरणेऽकृ तसनश्चयः |

संभत्ृ य महतीं सेनां चतुरंगा महीपसतः ॥४२॥
Prisoners of wars
• The Mahabharata (Shantiparv) rules that the king who killed an
envoy would sink into hell with all his ministers.
• A warrior in armor must not fight with another warrior who is not clad
in a coat of mail.
• One should fight only one enemy, and cease fighting when opponent
becomes invalid.
• If the enemy is clad in mail, his opponent should put on armor.
• A cavalry soldier should not attack a chariot-warrior. But a chariot
warrior could attack a chariot–warrior. Similarly a horse-warrior could
resist another horse-warrior.
• The general rule is that warriors should fight only with their equals.
• Poisoned or barbed arrows should not be used.
• A weak or wounded man should not be killed, nor one who has no
son.
• Soldier whose weapon is broken, or whose bow-string is cut, or who
has lost his car should not be hit.
• A warrior who requests to be rescued saying” I am thine” or joins his
hand in supplication, or throws his weapon, must not be killed. But he
can be captured as a prisoner of war.
• A king should fight only with a king and not with warriors of inferior
status.
• If a mediator enters the field to bring about peace between the
contesting parties, both should stop fighting.
• No injury should be inflicted on such a mediator.
9 Conclusions
• The ancient Indian literature on all aspects of warfare is astounding.
• It clear that the ancient Indians were adept in the art and science of
war.

• Ancient Indian literature refers to a period dating back to thousands of
years, and during this time period most of the civilizations were either
barbaric or non-existent.
• Many descriptions of weapons of war may appear today as myths but
these are in fact futuristic invention ideas.
• During the last 50 years, scientists of developed counties have
developed war materials such as missiles, biological weapons, and
spacecrafts vividly mentioned in ancient India literature.
• India never fought any war to expand its geographical boundary but
always professed the ethics of war and importance of peace.
• But such principles are not palatable to terrorists and merchants of
war materials
10 Ancient References (Authors and period of publication unknown)
A1-PuraNas
Agni Purana Bhagawat Puran
Bramhanda purana Devipurana
Markandeya Purana Matsya Purana
Padma Purana Vaman Purana
Varaha Purana Vayu Purana
Vishnudharmottar Purana Padma Purana
Skanda Purana
A2-Dhanurvidya (Archery) and Weapons

Aushanas Dhanurveda Bharadwaj Dhanurveda
Jamadagnya Dhanurveda Oushanus Dhanurveda
Sharangdhar Dhanurveda Dhanurveda(or Ishan
Trayabika Samhita)
Vaishampayan Dhanurveda Vashishtha Dhanurveda
Virachitamani Dhanurveda Vishwamitra Dhanurveda

Epics & Smruti Grantha
Gautama Smruti Manu Smruti
Vishnu Smruti Mahabharata
Ramayana Vaishampayan niti
A4- Veterinary Sciences

Ashwasarasamuchhyaya Asvayurveda
Asvashastra- Jayadeva Ashwashastra Shalihotra
Hastyayurveda Hastihrdayaprabandh Matangalila
A5-Nitishastras
Arthashastra-Kautilya Arthashastra- Bruhaspatiya
Kamandakiya Nitisara Lagvar Nitisara -Hemachandra
Shukranitisara Sukraniti
Nitivakyamrta by Rajaniti
Somadeva
A6-ShilpaSamhita
Agastya shilpashashtra Mayamata
Parashar Samhita Taittariya Samhita
Vasturajavallabha Vishvakarma
vasushashtra
Manasollas of Someshwara Naradshilpashashtra
Samarangansutradhar Vastumanjari
Vishvakarma prakash Yuktikalpataru of Bhoja
Concluding Remarks: It can be concluded that,

 The ancient Indian literature on all aspects of warfare is astounding.

 The depth and breadth of the treatment of the various topics by Indian
sages, makes it clear that the ancient Indians were adept in the art
and science of war.
 One has to keep the context in mind that the ancient Indian literature
refers to a period dating back to thousands of years, and during this
time period most of the civilizations were either barbaric or non-
existent.
 Many descriptions of weapons of war may appear today as Myths but
these are infact futuristic invention ideas.
 During the last 50 years , scientists of developed counties like USA,
USSR, China, North Korea , Germany and Israel have developed war
materials such as missiles, biological weapons, spacecrafts vividly
mentioned in ancient India literature.
 India never faught any war to expand its geographical boundary but
always professed the ethics of war and importance of peace. But such
principles are not palatable to terrorists and merchants of war
materials.
Review the Past with modern perspective - Kautilya

***.***

E1
Aircrafts in ancient India
Edited English translation of the article entitled “Aircrafts in
ancient India” written by P. H. Thatte and published in Vedic Magazine
Gurukul Samachar, Lahore, Vol.21, No.7,Dec.1923, and reprinted in
magazine Shilpa Sansar Vol.20,23 April 1955,Pages 246 to 250.
Introduction:
1.0 The article mostly deals with information in Agastya Samhita.
Positive and negative energies are two invisible energies produced in
clean earthen pot and are well known amongst Gods (Rigved).
Ref.SV1.
सम्राजा या घृतयोसन समत्रशोभा वरुणश्च ।

छे वा दे वेषु प्रशस्ता: ॥ ऋग्वेद
1 - Positive and negative energies
2. The News paper, Times of India, Dated 3rd July 1922 mentioned
that “Many people who have not remotest commercial interest in aero
planes, just out of curiosity read hand-books on their construction and
if they have a mechanical turn of mind, theoretically they become
capable of constructing an aero plane. But of all kinds of practical
education of aero planes, useless unless it is put to the least practical.”
3. History: The author had written an illustrated work in Marathi on
the subject of ancient and modern “Akasha-Yanas” or Sky vehicles.
(Note – The book remained unpublished and is now preserved by the
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, with the authors other
unpublished books). In the supplement to that work, author had given,
an evidence about the existence of the said vehicles in India., a
description of the travels of our hero, Rama, from Shri Lanka to
Ayodhya in the vanquished Ravana’s Pushpak Vimana and alluded to

Shalvas attacks through Vimanas in our philosopher king Krishna’s
capital Dwaraka- facts noted in our well-known epic Ramayana and
Hari Vansha. But that evidence all points to their outward shape;
author was not able to give an iota of evidence about their internal
construction. To our great delight author’s friend Raoshaheb K.V.Vaze,
L.C.E. , from his collection of Sanskrit books on Engineering, gave an
entirely new evidence as to their construction. This gave material to
write a new supplement to the book. This evidence is from Agastya
Samhita which was copied by Shri Vaze from old manuscripts obtained
from Ujjain (M.P.). Ujjain was capital of King Vikramaditya.
The book is divided into two parts. The first part “Abdhiyan” deals
with navigation and the second part “Agniyan” deals with
construction and management of aircrafts. The book also describes
production of hydrogen gas, (produced by electricity), to fill up
balloons. The author of the book is Agastya Muni (also known as
Kumbhodhwa (meaning one who was born in earthen pot).
Agastya Muni was contemporary of Lord Rama (5000 B.C.). He killed
demon brothers Atapi (kite like) and Vatapa (flag like), who had
played havoc with their kite or flag like planes in Aryan colonies. There
are some pages of Sage Bharadwaja book VimanadhikaraN in the well-
known Gaikwad Sanskrit library at Vadodara (Gujarat). It is an oblong
manuscript which contains references following Sanskrit books on this
subject -
1. Vimanchandrika by Swami Narayana
2. Vyomyanatantra by Sage Shounaka
3. Kalpayantra by Sage Garga
4. Yanbindu by Vachaspati
5. Khetyana pradeep by Chakrayana
6. Vyomayanarkprakash by Dhundinath

Names – There are many names given to these Vimanas in Agastya
Samhita. It therefore appears that the vehicles were common in
Agastya period. Ref. SV2.
दयोमयानं ववमानं स्यादव्ग्नयानं तदे वदह । अगस्त
संदहता
SV2 – Common names of aero planes

Wood-The wood used in the construction of these vehicles used to be
top class with properties such as light in weight, flexible and easy to
work (soft). The lighter it was better. Ref. SV3.
लघुयत्सुघिं काष्ठं कोमलंब्रम्हजासत तद ।
ववमानो सववदाग्राह्यं लघुत्वादत्त

ु मं स्मृतं ॥
SV3 – Wood for construction

Cloth – The cloth used for it was silken. It was broad and soft. It was
called “Kousheya (made from cells of silk worms). Ref. SV4.
कृ मीकोषसमुद्भत
ू कौषेयसमसतगद्यते ॥
सूक्ष्मासूक्ष्मौ मृदस्
ु थूलौ ओतप्रोतौ यथाक्रमं ।
वैतानत्व च लघुता च कौषेयस्य गुणसंग्रहः
SV4- Cloth used for construction

Balloons: The balloon must have the following five properties like a
ship. It must be; Divided; Flexible; Balanced; or Clean . .Ref. SV5.
ववशीणवता कोमलता उच्चता समता तथा ।

स्वच्छता चेसत नौकेव ववमाने गुणपंचकं ॥
SV5- Desired properties of Hot air Balloons

Seat: The seat of the aero naught was made of wood of certain trees.
1. Palash tree (Flame of forest) for good appearance.
2. Chandan tree (Sandal wood ) for happiness
3. Bakul tree (Molesery tree)for good luck
4. Panas tree (Jack fruit tree) for smooth floating Ref. SV6.
पलाशो राजकः प्रोक्तचांदनः सुख उच्चते ।
बाकुलस्तया शुभः प्रोक्तः पानसस्तारकः स्मृतः ॥
SV6-Wood for seats of f Hot air Balloons

Umbrella: The umbrella in it was made of silk cloth. It was inflatable
and conical in shape. It was fixed lengthwise and it was double in
dimensions than those of the balloon. Ref. SV7.
कौषेयछत्रं कतवदयं सारणसकुचनात्मकं ।
छ्त्त्रं ववमानाव््ददगुणं आयामादौप्रसतष्ठतं ॥
SV7- Umbrella for Balloons

Ropes: A sutra was made of nine threads; a GuN was made of nine
sutras; a pash was made of 9 Gunas; a Rashmi was made of 9 pashas;
a Rajju was made of 9, 8, 7 or 6 Rashmis. Such ropes were used in
construction of Indian balloons Ref. SV8.
नवसमस्तंतुः सूत्रं सूत्रेस्तु नवसमगुण

व ः ।
गुणैस्तुयसभः पाशो रव्श्मस्तैनव

व समभववेत ॥
नवाष्टसप्तषि संख्यै व्श्म सभज्जववः स्मृताः ।
SV8 – Making of Ropes

Air –Tight (Air proof) Cloth: In order to make the silk cloth air-
proof, it was thrice soaked in the saps of certain trees (Fig, Jack-fruit,
Mango, Aksha, Kadamb) and three Myrabolams and the decoction of
Mash (black gram) and pressed down in water of Shell lime and sugar.
Finally it was thrashed and dried. Ref. SV9.
क्षीरद्रम
ु कदं बाम्रा भयाक्षत्वग्जलैव्स्त्रभी ।
वत्रफलोदै स्त्तस्त्ब्दं पाषयूषैस्ततस्ततः ॥
स्यंम्य शकवराशुवक्त चूणसव मसित वररणा ।
सुरसं कुट्गिनं क्रुत्वा वासांसस स्त्रवयेत्सुधो ॥
अगत्स्य संदहता
SV9- Air –Tight (Air proof) Cloth

Electro-plating: Gilding electricity covers copper with gold or silver
when contact with acidulated water and solution of metal salts i.e.
contains metal full of Yavakshara’ copper covered with gold was called
‘Shat Kumbha’. This gilding by means of gold or silver is called
electroplating. It is enumerated as an art as per Shukraniti. Ref.SV10
यवक्षारमयो धानौ सुशुक्तकजलसव्न्नधौ ।

आच्छदयसत तत्तम्रं स््णेनरजते नवा ॥
स्वणवसलप्तं तत्ताम्रं शातकुंभसमसत स्मृतं । अगत्स्य संदहता
कृ वत्रमस्वणवरजतलेपः संस्कृ सतरुच्चते ।
सलप्तस्वणवपुतेन तम्ररजतं तत शतकुंभस्मृतं ॥ अगत्स्यमत
कृ वत्रमस्वणवरजतकलददलेपादद सव्त्क्रया । शुक्रनीसत
SV10- Electro-plating

Note –Sage Agastya invented the art of gilding copper with either gold
or silver by means of batteries and therefore his contemporaries
honored him with the title of ‘Kumbhaodbhava (Battery borne).
Hydrogen –By the foregoing process of producing electricity and
acidulated water was divided into its constituents, Oxygen and
Hydrogen (PraN and Udan) gases. Earlier name of Hydrogen gas was
Udan Vayu. It is interesting to know for what purpose it was used.
Flying: That hydrogen being light was poured up in the varnished
silken cloth bound fast to the top of the vehicle which was thus floated
up in the atmosphere. Ref. SV11
वायुबंधकवस्त्रेण सुबर्धदोतानमस्तके ।
उदानस्यलघुत्वेण ववभत्याकावशयानकं
॥
SV11- Flying the balloons
Note: From these facts the conclusion is forced upon us that ‘Udan
Vayu which was used for inflating our Indian balloons and the
hydrogen which is now used for inflating modern ones, specially the
German Zeppelins, is one and same.
Driving: The ballon was generally called”Viman”. People in those
times used to yoke to it birds (Eagle,Swan, Vulures or others) for
driving. The science of traing of birds is called “ShakuntVidya”. Ref.
SV12
गरुडत्महं सैः कंकालैरन्यैः पव्क्षगणैरवप ।
आकाशे वाहयेद्यानं ववमानसमसत सव्ज्ञतम॥ अव्ग्नयान
SV12 -Driving: The ballon

Result: from this evidence any one will agree with the author in
thinking that our forefathers knew the construction and management

of air craft theoretically and practically, both from Rama’s time (5000
B.C.) if not from Vedic time and as we do not know any trace of the
indigenous art in India, we have forgotten it in the downfall of our
nation and though it has disappeared from India, it has struck roots.
Germany and other European countries face Christianity. We can make
it revive. We make an earnest attempts for its Indianization because
the growth of things is subject to the principles understanding the
following sentences:-
(1) Theories and dogmas are all very well in their own way but they
will not carry you far if you reduce them to earth” –Times of India.
(2) The Science of Engineering grows by actual operating conditions,
rather than from the four walls of the lecture room or the laboratories.
(3) Indians would not consent to have a navy or air service from which
Indians were excluded.Otherwise, this aircraft trade will naturally be
the monopoly of forigners like our shipping trade, as they are sure to
be the first in the field-Mr.Shastri (Bombay cronicle dt.27-5-21).
Conclusion: Taking full advantage of these facilities, Author therefore
ardently hopes that very soon in India, inflating type air-crafts would
be constructed. These crafts would use helium instead of hydrogen.
Following two principles should be kept in mind.
(1) “A state was made up of hearts and alters. Those men, when they
crossed the seas, would found hearts, but would they found alter?
Upon the answer to that, depended the greatness not only of the
British Empire, but of humanity”.
2.” No risk no gain” and that too in numbers so great that some
Divankas (Sky-abode of god) of us shall have occasions to declare with
a proud air that they are born to live and die in the pure air of their
aircrafts in the sky like boatmen, of another countries like China,
Thailand or Myanmar, who are born and brought up to live and die on

their ships with an eye on their historical truth in one of the following
words in Amara’s couplet. Ref. SV13
अमरा सनजवरा दे वा वत्रदशा ववबुधा: सुरा: ।

सुपवावण: सुमनस: वत्रददवेशा ददवौकस: ॥ अमरकोश
SV13 - Amara’s couplet
Because everything visible or invisible like Divowkus, Nawoukus is
cyclically found subject to the rule of evolution and involution or in
other words birth, growth, death and rebirth etc.
****

E2
Alchemy in ancient India
English translation of part 4, Chapter 63 of Maanasollas
Introduction: Alchemy was an ancient Indian science to convert

cheap metal into valuable metals such as Gold and silver with the help
of mercury and certain herbs. Alchemy was the origional part of Indian
Chemistry. Modern scientist disapproves Alchemy outrightly. However
scientific investigations are necessary to varify the information
available in ancient Indian Sanskrit text. This translation may help
modern research workers to perform laboratory tests and to varify
the truth or Myth of Indian Alchemy.
4.63.377 -With the help of alchemy wealth can be earned. Copper can
be converted into gold and Tin can be converted into silver.
4.63.378 -Crush completely dried flowers of Palash (flame of forest),
mix with milk of she-goat and apply it for three days to complete the
process.
4.63.379- Smear the Tin surface with the powder (one-sixth in
proportion and the heat it till it becomes beautiful like silver.
4.63.380- Apply a juice of white lotus on Tin for thirty-two day
4.63.381- Heat the smeared Tin or lead and heat it till the black color
and smell is removed and it becomes silver like.
4.63.382- Smear an oil (of seeds of white lotus) and sulphur seven
times to copper surface.
4.63.383- Copper is then heated. With such process copper becomes
gold and it can be heated and cut for further applications
4.63.384- The oil (mentioned above) can be mixed with vermilion,
sulphur or mercury .The decoction can be used for rubbing the metals.

4.63.385- The decoction should be applied on tin plates and should be
fired again and again for thirty-two days (by wise person).
4.63.386- The Tin becomes gold which is soft and can be further used
for different purposes.
4.63.387- Filter with fine cloth powdered resin of teak tree also the dry
powder of drumstick roots.
4.63.388- Coat a copper plate with such powder and heat it for five
times so that it becomes gold.
4.63.389- Mix the juice of teak tree with Manjisha.
4.63.390- Apply the mixture on copper and heat it till the copper
becomes gold.
4.63.391- Crush barks of teak to get juice of it and mix with juice of
roots of oleander (Karveer) and apply to copper plate.
4.63.392- The copper becomes silver by smearing of mixture and
becomes workable for other works
4.63.393- Such are the processes mentioned in alchemy books to
increase the wealth with gold and silver
4.63.394- A king increases his wealth in treasury by gold, silver and
precious stone etc.
4.63.395- Here Ends of description of process of Alchemy

धातुवादप्रयोगैश्च ववववधैववधय
व ेद् धनम ् ।
ताम्रेण साधयेत ् स्वणं रौप्यं वंगेन साधयेत ् ॥३७७॥
शुष्कपुष्पपलाशस्य पुष्पं संशोष्य चूणय

व ेत ् ।
छागदग्ु धेन तच्चूणं त्रीन ् वारान ् पररभावयेत ् ॥३७८॥
वंगषष्ठांशचूणन
े वपष्टेनैतत ् पलेपयेत ् ।
पुिपाकेन तद् दग्धं तारं भवेसत शोभनंम ् ॥३७९॥
श्वेतब्रम्हतरो: पुष्पं स्वरसेन ववभावयेत ् ।
तालं ददावत्रंशतं वारान ् तेन वंग प्रलेपयेत ् ॥३८०॥
पुिपाकेन तद् दग्धं वंगं र्व्जसत तारताम ।
मादव वं कासलमां गंधं वंगं त्यजसत सनव्श्चतम ् ॥३८१॥
श्वेतब्रम्हतरोबीजतैलेन पररभावयेत ् ।
गंधकं सप्तकृ त्वोऽय तेन ताम्रदलासन च ॥३८२॥
लेवपतं तत्पुिे दग्धं शुल्बं कांचनतां र्व्जेत ् ।
दाहच्छे दसनघषावददकमवयोग्यं भवेत ् तत: ॥३८३॥
तस्य तैलेन दरदं गंधकं पारदं तथा ।
मदव येत स्वल्पपाषाणे यावत ् तत ् कल्कतां र्व्जेत ॥३८४॥
लेपयेत ् तेन कल्केन वंगपत्राव्ण सववत: ।
दग्र्धवा दग्र्धवा पुनसलवम्पेद् वारान ् ददावत्रंशतं बुध: ॥३८५॥
ततो वंग भवेत स्वणं रव्ज्जतं सरदाददसभ: ।
दयवहारक्षमं कमवयोग्यं भवेच्च तत ् ॥३८६॥
सनयावसं शाकवृक्षस्य श्लक्ष्णवस्त्रेन. गालयेत ।

समूलसशग्रुचण
ू न
े सनयावससदहतेन च ॥३८७॥
पररतस्ताम्रपत्राव्ण दग्र्धवा दग्र्धवा ववलेपयेत ।
दाहै : पंचसभरे ततू कांचनं जायते शुभम ् ॥३८८॥
फलासन शाकवृक्षस्य पक्वान्यादाय भावयेत ् ।
तद्रसेन रसेनावप मंव्जष्ठासदहतेन च ॥३८९॥
तेन कल्केन पत्राव्ण शुल्कजासन प्रलेपयेत ् ।
दहे च्च पुिपाकेन यावद् भवसत कांचनम ् ॥३९०॥
सऽचूण्यव वल्कं शाकीयं तद्रसेन ववभाववतम ् ।
करवीररसैयक्त
ुव ् तेन पत्रं ववलेवपतम ् ॥३९१॥
ताम्रं तज्जायते तारं पुिपाके प्रतावपतम ् ।
गारोत्तरं भवेत ् सम्यग्दयवहारदक्रयोसचतम ॥३९२॥
एवमाददसभरन्यैश्च वादग्रंथदक्रयाक्रमै: ।
कारयेत ् कनकं तारं धनवृर्धदयै नरसधप: ॥३९३॥
सुवणै रजतै रत्नैवस्त्र

व ैराभरणैस्तथा ।
पूणो दययसह: कायव: कोशो सनत्यं महीभुजा ॥३९४॥
इसत धातुवाद-रसायनम ्॥३९५॥
Glossary of terms used in Dhatuwad (Alchemy)

Sanskrit English Sanskrit English
धातुवाद alchemy पक्वान्यादाय For cooking
वंग tin or lead संशोष्य complete drying
छाग she-goat पररभावयेत ् Becomes or about
वपष्टेनैतत ् flour पलेपयेत ् smearing
It is not so.

पुिपाकेन subliming तारं shrill
Or a particular silver
method of preparing
drugs
शोभनंम ् beautiful श्वेतब्रम्हतरो: Flower of white lotus
ददावत्रंशतं thirty-two सप्तकृ त्वोऽय week
र्व्जसत undergo दाहच्छे द burning
amputation
शुल्बं copper दरदं red lead
vermilion
सनघषावदद rubbing सनयावसं juice
Or tree resin
सरदाददसभ: modest गारोत्तरं swallowing
ववलेपयेत smear or anoint with महीभुजा
King, earth- enjoyer
मंव्जष्ठ A creeper (roots) करववर Oleanders

Rubia cordofolia
***.***

E3
Ancient Indian references on Alkalis Salts from
Vegetables
Available on Web
Kautilya in his book “Arthashastra” has mentioned about organic

alkalis and their preparations.
Glossary of terms
Ingredient of softening solution
Yava Barley Peelu Walnut
Maash Black gram Kadali Banana
Til Sesame Vajrakand Yam
Palaash Flame of forest Prativap Solution
tree
KiNv Yeast
Sour
Aamra Mango Kol Pomegranate
Vidalaa Tamarind Badar Jujube
Malak Lemon Souvarik Wild berry
Maaturlung Goose berry Purushak Falsa
Ingredients for Sour Solution
Dadhi Curd Dravyaamla Vinegar
Ingredients for pungent solution
Pippali Kastumburu Coriander seeds
Marich Black pepper Chorak Mace/Nutmeg
flower
Shrugiberaj Large Jujube Damanak Artemisia
pallens,
Jikirat Cumin seeds Maruvak Marjoram
Tikta Red chili Shigru common rue,
Bramhi
Sasharpa White Mustard Kand pencil cactus
Ingredients for Oily substances
Sarpi Clarified Vasa Animal Fat
butter/ghee
Tail Vegetable oil Majja Bone marrow

Salts
Saidhav Rock salt Samudra Sea salt
Bid Black salt Javakhar
Sovarch Soda ash Lobhedaj Ash of tree
barks
Sweet syrup
Madhu Honey Madhuk Grape sugar
The Table below describes the names of alkalis extracted from ashes
of vegetables.
Sanskrit English
Yavakshaar a salt of nitric acid, Saltpeter
Maashkshaar salts of sulfuric acid
Tilkshaar salt of carbonic acid
Palashakshaar Clorets-
Peelukshaar salt or of phosphoric acid,
Kadalikshaar Sodium hydroxide
SV 01-Description Vegetable Alkalis
यवमाषसतलपलाश्पीलुक्षारै : गोक्षीराजक्षीरै वाव कदलीवज्रकं्प्रतीवापोमादव वकर: |

वृक्षाम्लकरमदव म्र ववदला ,मलक, मातुलंग
ृ , कोल, बदर, सौवीरक, पुरुषकादद:
फलाम्लवगव: दसधधान्याम्लदद: द्रवाम्लवगव:|
वपप्पली, मररच, शृंसगबेराज, व्जदकरत,सतक्त,गौर, सषपव,कस्तुंबुरु, चोरक, दमनक,
मरुवक, सशग्रु, कांडादद किु कवगव: |
सवपव, तैल, वसा, मज्जान:, स्नेहा: |
संधवसामुद्रावबडयवक्षासौवचवलोभ्दे दजा लवणवगाव: |
क्षौद्रं माव्ददव कंमधु | कौदिल्य अथवशास्त्र
SV 02-Ingredients for Vegetable Alkalis
Leather rejuvenation: Ancient text mentions a preparation made by
mixing wine, goat milk, oil, ghee, yeast and juice of banana tree sap.
If this mixture is applied to old cracked leather for three times the
leather becomes soft and rejuvenated. (There are many patented
products available in U.S.A. A mixture of olive oil and vinegar, in equal
proportion, can be used for the same purpose.)

मधुमधुक्भजापय: सतैलं घृतगुव्ड्कण्दयुतंस कंदलीकं |
यदावप शतसहस्त्रधा ववसभन्न भवसत मृद ु
वत्रसमरे वतव्न्नषेकै:॥
गोदं त शृंग प्रसतवापो मृद ु स्तंभन:
SV 03- Leather rejuvenation
***.***

E4
Introduction to Amshubodhini Shastra by Maharshi Bharadwaja
Published in the Journal of Boudhik Sampada, Nagpur vol 2012
Synopsis: This short note presents the contents of ancient text

“Amshubodhini”(Knowledge of ray of Light)
The work of Maharshi Bharadwaja was edited and reproduced by
Pandit Subbaraya Shashtri of Bangalore in 1931. The first edition of
this rare ancient Indian text was printed by M/s V.B. Subbiah of
Bangalore and published by M/s F.K. Dadacharji and R.R. Mody of
Mumbai.
The subject of the book can be briefly described as “Crystals, Mirrors
and Solar Energy in ancient India”. The Introduction by the editor
(Pandit Subbaraya Shashtri) is very informative and inspiring. In this
he has described in detail calculation of time and units of
measurements, starting from “Nimisha (time taken for one winking of
eyelids of human beings) to a year. He has also described the time
spans of different Yugas totaling to 4320,000 years. He also
mentioned an ancient text by Sage Agastya “Shakti Tantra “ which
describes 32 types of electricity and many machines which could be
developed. Editor mentions name of 24 ancient texts by Sages
like,Parashara, Somanatha, Angiras, Ashwalayana,Vashitha, Jaimini,
Atri, Narad and others. He stresses that “All creations take place in
Sun rays and therefore the text is about solar properties”.
Shri G. Venkatachala Sarma, the translator of the text has mentioned
the limitations of translation (Sanskrit to English). He mentions that
ancient Indian sages were mainly bent on spiritual pursuits and

physical, chemical, medicinal and other branches of science were so
blended that it was not possible to draw a clear line of demarcation.
This text contains 50 Sutras (Aphorism).The most significant feature of
the text is the description of Spectrometer given in the text from
pages 69-77.
Bodhanada in his commentary on Amshubodhini has mentioned that
description of Chhayaprakasharna Yantra (also known as
Dhvantapramapaka Yantra) appearing in 17th Aphorism.
Based on the description Shri Dongre (Ref. 2&3) developed a
spectrometer and presented his work in two research papers. Author
concluded that,
 The nature and properties of ultraviolet, visible and infrared
radiations were well known in ancient India.
 They knew the properties and method of preparation of
materials useful in such radiation studies and,
 presumably also knew the theory and practice of this and other
four types of spectrometers,
 Above all the instruments is an entirely new design of
spectrometer not prevalent in modern scientific world.
Shri Didolkar (Ref.4) and his team at VNIT Nagpur developed an
infrared transparent glass ceramic as per Amshubodhini, 24th
Aphorism. The material was tested by scientists of CG&CRI Kolkata.
Author based on test results has concluded that this glass can be used
in any environment.
24th Aphorism of Amshubodhini describes five basic elements (Panch
Mahabhutas). It further mentions 10 powers of Aakash (Sky), 13
powers of Vayu (Air), 8 powers of Agni (Fire ),10 powers of Aap
(Water) and 15 powers of Pruthwi (Earth).a

8th Aphorism of Amshubodhini describes many types of materials and
related ancient reference texts. This information would be very useful
for future research on materials such as glass, prism and mirrors etc.
The table 1 below shows the extent of 8th Aphorism.
Table 1- Substances used for preparation of glass,

prism and mirrors etc
Sn Material Types Reference (Text)
1 Oils 64 Unknown
2 Water 100 Apatwaprakasika
3 Mirror(Darpan) 1914 Darpana Prakaran
4 Glass (Kach) 407 Kach
KalaKoushalya
5 Crystals (Mani) 6 Manikalpataru
6 Stone 12 Shilodaya
Prakaran
7 Metals 7 Loharatna by
Shakatayana
8 Trees 12
9 Vegetable Wax(Lakh) 3
Agatatwa Lahari
10 Leaves 6
by Aswalayana
11 Flowers 7
12 Fruits 8
13 Pearls 8 Vajrakalpa
14 Precious Stones 9 Ratnakara
15 Cloth 12 Patakalpa
Mahadadhi
16 Hides(Skins) 5 Charma Shastra
17 Mica 3 Abhraka kalpa
Pandit Subbaraya Shashtri, in his preface to this book, has mentioned

24 other ancient texts which may help in understanding the subject of
the present book. These texts are listed in table 2.
Table 2- List of ancient texts

Sn Title Author (Sage) Sn Title Author
(Sage)
1 Shakti tantra Agastya 13 Yantra Bharadwaja
Sarwaswa
2 Soudamini Unknown 14 Laharatna Shakatayana
Kala
3 Sudha Vidya Aswalayana 15 Kheta Jaimini
Kalpa Sarwaswa
4 Shrusti Vilas Unknown 16 Karmabdhi Apastambha
Sara
5 Amshubodhini Bharadwaja 17 Vastu Boudhayana
Sanskar
Kalpa
6 Anda Parashara 18 Righrudayam Atri
Kaustubham
7 Koumudi Somanatha 19 Namartha Atri
Kalp
8 Meghotpatti Angirasa 20 Vayatatwam Shakatayana
Prakarana
9 Akasha Tantra Bharadwaja
21 Vaishwanara Narada
Tantra
10 Loka Sangraha Vivaranacharya 22 Dhooma Narada
Prakarana
11 Agatatwa Aswalayana 23 Oushadhi Atri
Lahari Kalpa
12 Prapancha Vashashtha 24 Karaka Angiras
Lahari Prakaran
Conclusion: More research is necessary to verify the information

available in the ancient Indian text “Amshubodhini of Maharshi
Bharadwaja.
References
 Anshubodhini Shastra by Maharshi Bharadwaja,(1931), Edited by
Pandit Subbaray Shashtri, Printed by M/s V.B.subbiah of
Bangalore ,Published by M/s F.K.Dadacharji and R.R. Mody of
Mumbai.
 Dongre,N.G.(1994),” Dhvantapramapaka Yantra of Maharshi
Bharadwaja”, Indian Journal of History of Science,29(4), pp 611-
627.
 Dongre,N.G.(1998),”Spectroscopy in ancient India, an
application of Spectroscopy to Astrophysics”, Indian Journal of
History of Science,33(3), pp 229-238.

 Didolkar,V.K.(2012),” Infrared transparent glass ceramic as per
ancient Indian text “ Amshubodhini”,Jr. of Bharatiya Boudhik
Sampada” May 2012 ,pp 28-32.
***.***

E5
Chemistry of ancient India
Available on Web
Introduction: The Sanskrit name for ‘chemistry’ is Rasayan shastra.
Rasa means a liquid or mercury, which is the only metal available in
liquid state. If powdered mica is mixed with mercury and rolled into a
ball, it is converted into solid form. Such material is sold in market as
Paarada-maNi or Paarada-shivaling.
Dhatuvad or Kimaya (Alcemy) is a secret process of converting certain
cheap metals such as copper, tin or zinc into silver or gold. But
modern scientist do not believe in this theory and term it as
unscientific.
Except Kolar mine, there is no gold mine that exists in India. The total
annual production of gold in India is less than 0.2 % of annual
worldwide gold production. But the total gold stock in India is around
30 % of the total gold stock in the world.
The gold in India is available as Streedhan (gold possessed by women)
or the gold in the treasury of rich temples of Balaji, Sai Baba or lord
Padmanabha. For the last 100 years annual import of gold (mostly
from England) was not more than 1.5 tons.
Therefore a question arises that how and when India produced the
huge quantity of gold. The answer to the question may be the alchemy
science of India.
The word Kimaya is an Arabic word for alchemy. During 16th and 17th
centuries, it was believed that, Yogis (ascetic persons) of India knew
this art. Therefore hundreds of travelers (especially from Arab
countries) visited India to acquire the secret of this art but could

succeed. The origin of ancient Indian chemistry might be in Dhatuvad
(Alchemy) or a curiosity of transformation of metals.
Dr.P.C.Ray was first to trace the origin of ancient Indian chemistry. In
1910 Dr. Ray edited Vagbhatta’s book entitled” RasarNav”.
Chemistry: It is a science of elements and changes in them. Articles
of iron, copper and gold were made since Vedic period. The progress of
the science of chemistry was mainly through Ayurveda during 5th
century B.C. to 5th century A.D. Ayurveda texts such as Charaka and
Sushrut Samhita also contains information about chemistry.
Subsequently Chemistry was developed as an independent science.
Major Sanskrit texts: The list of major Sanskrit texts on Rasayan
shastra is shown in a table below.
Siddhayog Chakradutt Rasaratnakar
Rasavrudaya Kakachandeshvarimat Rasaprabhakarsudhakar
RasarNav RasachintamaNi Rasaratnasamuchchyay
Rasakalpa Rasarajalaxmi Rasaratnamalika
Rasapradeep Dhaturatnamala Dhatukriya
Found in Tibet
Sarveshwarrasayan Dhatuvad Rasayanshastraodhdati
The period of the above texts is 1st to 12th century A.D. Nagarjuna was
a famous Buddhist chemistry scholar. Vagbhatta (of 12th century)
was another famous authority on Ayurveda.
Archeological evidences: Artifacts of Mohenjo-Daro and Hadadappa
civilization (3000 to 4000 B.C.) were found in archeological
excavations. It was proved that clay pottery articles were made from
chemically stabilized soils from different places. Different shades of red
and yellow colors were due to copper, nickel and zinc minerals present
in the pottery clays. Art pottery was advanced in that period. Open or

closed kilns, capable of producing 700 degree temperature, were in
use. Use of iron, manganese, silica and lime was common in Sindhu
civilization (3000 to 4000A.D.). Artifacts of this period, such as
daggers, chisels, spears and sewing needles were found. Similarly
articles like swords, copper, axes arrows etc were in various
excavation projects throughout India and are available in various state
museums.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra: It is world renowned book (of 4th century
B.C.): on Political sciences. It contains lot of information on mining,
metallurgy, chemistry etc. Purification and extraction of metallic ores
like gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc and iron etc is described in this text.
It mentions about metal alloys for minting of coins, alkalis and acids of
different types to be prepared from organic substances. Preparation of
soft wines by fermentation of rice and other flours or from fruits and
sugarcane is described in details.
Chemistry in Ayurveda and other texts:
Charak Samhita mentions five types of common salt and 84 types of
wines.
Vagbhatta’s Astangrhudaya contains uses of various chemicals such as
copper sulphate, cinnabar, lead oxide-mercury combination for surma
(eye powder).
Bruhat Samhita of Varahamihir (1st century A.D.) mentions cosmetic
items and perfumes and various types of cementing materials and
procedures of their preparation.
Glass manufacture: It was part of chemistry. The products were rich
in qualities such as transparency, uniform density and color and
smooth finish. Glass products of 18 types of 5th century were found in
archeological excavations in Uttar Pradesh ,Bihar and Bengal and
Karnataka. The chemical analysis of the artifacts indicated that these

contain Silica, Alumina, ferric and titanium oxides, lime, manganese
etc, which are used in modern glass industry.
RasarNav: Description of ancient Indian chemistry would be
incomplete without information on classic text Rasarnav (RSRN) in
brief. The author of the text is unknown but its period of earliest
manuscript is 12th century A.D. The entire text is in a form of dialogue
between lord Shiva and his wife Parvati and contains 18 chapters. The
main subjects covered in the text are, metals, precious stones, soils,
sands etc used in making various chemical, colors, medicines cements
etc. The chapter number, title and its contents of the book are given
below.
No. Title Contents
1 Tantravtar Introduction, Tantric traditions.
2 Dikshavidhan Who should teach and whom
3 Mantranyas Selection of proper Mantra, selection of
place
4 Yantamooshagni Equipments, crucibles, colors of flames,
varNan checking of purity of metals.
5 Aushadha NirmanN Types of ingredients, oils,
poisons,liquids, color based classification
6 Abhrakadi lakshyaN Origin and types of mica, their properties
7 Maharas& UparaS 8 types of mercury,6 types of sulphur
and 6 types of metals.
8 Beejasadhan Purifiacation of metals (other than
mercury)
9 Vidakathan Purification and culturing of mercury
10 Rasashodhan Purification of ingredients by different
processes.
11 BalajaraN Curing /preservation of ingredients
12 Rasabandhan Mixing of ingredients, calcinations and
division
13 Drutibandhan Mixing of liquids and suspensions
14 Vajrabandha Preparation of adamantine glues for
joining stones etc.
15 Loharasabandhan Casting of metals,
maharas & uparas
16 Rasaranjan Mixing of colors for metals of different
colors.

17 Lohavedha Welding of iron and other metals
18 Dehaveda Effects of medicines on different parts of
body, precautions etc.
Glossary of terms: The text contains very specific Sanskrit terms
related to chemistry. The terms are shown in a table below.
The glossary of terms
Alkali Coal of bamboo Load stone

Alkali of Mandar plant Cow dung cakes Nine precious stones
Bee wax Crucible Potassium Carbonate
Black mica Decoction (of herbs) Roofing clay tile
Black pepper Five herbs for red color Secondary metals
Cast iron Asafetida/ Hing Slag of mercury
Clay bricks Jute plant Five types of salts
Conclusions: The science of Indian chemistry progressed with use
more and more metals, herbs, precious stones, new extraction
processes. It had many applications in Vastushastra (building
construction and Ayurveda (Medicines). The technical terminology was
rich. It had clear well drafted specifications for various processes. New
containers instruments and machines were developed. Various
Gurukuls (schools) with qualified and experienced teacher were
available. There was no caste or class barrier for students. This science
was considered as important and practicable.
***.***

E6
Geography and Geology of Ancient India
Uploaded and available on Web
Vedic literature includes the Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmans,

Aranyakas, Puranas, epics and Shilpa samhitas etc.
It is now proved that these are encyclopedias full of scientific and
technical information.
India was called as Jambudweep (Iceland , shape of which is like a
guava) . India has gigantic rivers such as Sindhu, Ganga and
Bramhaputra in the northern part and Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and
Indian Ocean on other sides.
The ancient names for Arabia and Mesopotamia were Shalmali Dweep
and Shak Dweep respectively.
Ancient Indian sages have described “Bharatavarsh or Bharatakhand”
as the land between Himalaya and Kanyakumari. The land of India was
formed in three different periods and under different geological
conditions.
Description of Ancient India
दहमादद्रकन्योरं तगवतो दे शस्तु भारत: ॥

सोऽवप दे शव्स्त्रधासभन्नस्तत्तदे शभवैगुणै: ॥
वत्रगुणं तव्त्त्रचक्रं च वत्रवणंच क्रमातस्मृतं ॥ सशल्परत्न अ १६
Ancient text “Shilparatna” describes these three rock formations as

shown in Map 1.

The entire time span was divided into four Yugas namely Tretayuga,
Krutayuga, Dwaparyuga and Kaliyuga. Modern geologists call these as
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Recent respectively.
This land can be classified into three types according to the three time
spans, three stages or three colors. Due the different conditions of
formation, the rocks, minerals, climate, flora and fauna are also of
three types.
1. Land between Himalaya and Vindhya mountains is formed by
sedimentation of soil particles.
2. Land between Vindhya Mountain and Tungabhandra River is
formed of igneous rocks as a result of cooling of molten magma.
3. Land to the south of Tungabhandra River is formed of
metamorphic rocks.
Ancient texts designate these three land zones as Saatwik, Raajas and
Taamas The texts describe these zones as below.
आग्नेयाववंर्धयसह्याद्या: सौम्यो दहमसगरे स्तत: ।

अतस्तदोषधासन स्यु: अनुरूपाव्ण हे तुसभ: ॥
भृगुसंदहतादहमवव्ददं र्धययोमवर्धयं साव्त्वकं भूतलं स्मृतं ॥

ववंर्धयशैलाददकृ ष्णांतं रजस पररकीसतवतं ।
पुन: कृ ष्णाददकन्यांतं तामसं भूतलं भवेद्॥
नागरं साव्त्वके दे शे , रजसे द्राववडं भवेद्।
वेसरं तामसे दे शे, क्रमेण पररकीसतवता: ॥ सशल्परत्न अ १६
A-Saatwik land: The hilly area between Himalaya and Sahyadri

mountains comprises of igneous rocks. The climate in this area is hot
or cold and fruits are dry or juicy. The rocks do contain fossils. This
land is suitable for Nagar style of planning and Kashyapa type
architecture,
B-Rajas Land: The area between Vindhya Mountain to Krishna River is
termed as “Rajas” or “Raja sampanna” (which means made of fire and
ash). This land is suitable for Nagar style of planning and Bhrugu type
architecture.
C-Tamas land: The land below Krishna River is termed as “Tamas” (a
Shadow forming land).
This land is suitable for Nagar style of planning and Maya type
architecture.
Ancient Indian lexicon “Bruhan Nighantoo” also mentions the
characteristics of these zones .
Aagneya Zone:
 The ground is plane, with little vegetation,
 Terrain is Hilly with boulders,
 Common trees are Shmee, Karir, Bel ,Pilu, Ber etc,
 Common animals are Deers, Bears, Tigers, and Bison etc.
 Fruits are sweet and juicy,
 Land is full of forests, Windy area.
 It is full of oasis, dusty, dry lakes,
 Irrigation mainly depends on well water,
 There is scarcity of grass hence scarcity of milk.

 Rice as main crop, People with angry mood etc.
Soumya region:
 Land is full of rivers, lakes, hills,
 Lakes are full of lotus plants,
 Common birds are swans, Saras, Karandav,Chakrawak etc,
 Common animals are rabbits, pigs, buffalo etc.
 Trees are green and full of leaves, flowers and fruits ,
 Common crops are rice and sugarcane.
 Rivers are with abundant water,
 People suffer from cough or acidity,
 Such land is a reclaimed marshy land.
आकाशशुभ्र उच्च्श्च ल्पपानायपादप:।

शमीकरीरवबल्वाकवपीलुककंधुसंकुल: ॥
हररनैणक्षवपष
ृ तगोकणवखरसंकुल: ।
सुस्वादफ
ु लवांदेशो वातलो जांगल: स्मृत: ॥
खरपुरुषववशाला: पववता: कंिकीणाव: ।
ददसश ददसश मृगतृष्णा भूरूहा: शीणवपणाव: ॥
असतखररववरव्श्मपांसुसंपूणवभूसम: ।
सरसस रसववदहन: कूपकारं भकषव: ॥१॥
तदनुववरससस्याहाररणो गोमदहष्य:।
प्रभवसतरसमांसे रुक्षभावश्च सम्यक् ॥
पुनवपव दहमवाहं शासलसस्यं न चेक्षु:।
भवसत रुसधरवपत्तं कोषमाशु द्युपसत॥२॥ बृहव्न्नघंिु
Taamas or SadhaaraN land:

This land is of mixed properties. The soil is neither too wet nor too dry
and non silty soil. Trees are without thorns trees,
There is adequate ground water. Climate is neither to hot nor cold,
Main crops are wheat, black gram, Bengal gram and maize. The land is
plain and comfortable. Physicians term it as average land.

नदीपल्वलशैलाढ्य: फुल्लोत्पलकुलैयुक्त
व :।
हं ससारसकारं डच्क्रवाकाददसेववत: ॥
शशवराहव्म्हषरुरुरोदहकुलाकुल: ।
Some ancient Indian Sages have classified the land of India into five
types. The description is as below;
North part: 1-Hilly (Tejas) and 2-Plain (Yayas)
Central part: 3-Hilly (Aapya) and 4-Plain (Parthiv)
South Part: 5-Common (Aakashy).
Table 1-Land characteristics
Sn 1 2 3 4 5
Name Parthiv- Aagneya Taijas Vayaveey Aakaashy or
Muddy Aapya Antarikshya
Land
Ground Sandy/ Boulders Red rocks- Black With hills or
gravelly Gravels laterite stones mountains
(Trap)/soil
Water Big Big Medium Medium Delta region

bodies lakes rivers rivers rivers formed by
rivers
Soil square Semi Triangular Hexagonal Round or flat,
particles circular crystals white
Trees Yellow Catechu/ Babul
flowers Bamboo /non juicy
fruits
Animals Small
dears
Example Malawa Himalaya Belgaon or Dharwad. Puri,Kathewad,
foothills/ Konkan Bijapur, Rajastan,
Kolkata area Solapur Tamilnadu
(places of
pilgrimage)
..
.उभयगुणयुतं वा नासतरुक्षं न व्स्नग्धं ।
न च खरबहुलं वा नासभत: कंिकाढ्यं ॥
भवसत जलववकीणं नासतशीतं न चोष्णं ।

समप्रकृ सतसमेतं ववव्र्धद साधरणं तत॥
यत्रददयोरवप च लक्षणयोसनववश: ।
गोधूममाषचणासभधयावनालै: ।
यो राव्जत: समजलो जनसौख्यदायी ।
साधारण: सा गददतो ऽव्खलवैद्यराजै: ॥१॥
बृहव्न्नघंिु
Description SadhaaraN land
१-पासथववप्रदे श
पीतस्फुरददलयशकवररलाश्मरम्यं । पीतं यदत्त
ु ममृगं चतुरस्त्रभूतं ॥
प्रायश्च पीतकुसुमाव्न्नतवीरुदादद।तत्पासथववं कदिनमुद्यदशेषततस्तु ॥१॥
२-आग्नेय प्रदे श
ं ाकृ सतश्वेतकमलाभट्गट्गषव्च्चतं । नदीनदजलाकीणं आप्यं तत्क्षेत्रभुच्चते ॥
३-तैजस प्रदे श
खददरदददृमाकीणं भुररसचत्रकवेणुकं । वत्रकोणरक्तपाषाणं क्षेत्रं तैजसमुच्चते ॥
४-वायवीय प्रदे श
धूम्रस्थलं धूम्रदृषत्परीतं । षिकोणकं तूणम
व ग
ृ ावकीणं ॥
शाकैस्तृणैरंदकतरुवृक्षकं । प्रकारयेत्तत्खलु वायवीयं ॥
५-आकाश्य प्रदे श
नानावणं वतुल
व ं तत्प्रशस्तं । प्राय: शुभ्रं पववताकीणवमुच्च्यै: ॥
यच्च स्थानं पावनं दे वतानां । प्राह: क्षेत्रं वत्रक्षणं त्वांतररक्षं ॥
Comparison of ancient and modern geography
A-Kruta Yug is the period in which large geological transformations
took place. The southern part of India was formed in this period. It
never went under water.
B- Treta Yug was the period in which mountains and hills were formed
due volcanic eruptions. Land of Maharashtra and Vindhya region was
developed in this period.

C-Dwapar Yug was the periods in which sedimentary rocks were
formed. River basins of Sindhu, Ganges and Yamuna were formed in
this period.
D- Kali Yug is the present period in which no major geological activities
are occurring.
कलि: शयानो भवलि संलिहानस्िु व्दापर: ।

उलिष्ठंस्त्रेिा भवलि कृ ि: संपद्यत्र चरन्॥
.
Table 1-Age or Yuga
English Sanskrit term
Age Yuga
Primary or Arkian Kruta Yug
1.Ratnachakra (Precious stone era)
2.Hem Chakra (Gold era)
3.Loh Chakra (Iron era)
Secondary Iron Era Treta Yug
Tertiary Dwapar Yug
Recent Kali Yug*
* This has no relation to Kaliyuga mentioned in the epic Mahabharata.

The growth of vegetation and animals depends upon the land and the
climate thereof. The customs of people also depend upon local
conditions. The construction practices too depend upon available
building materials of the land. Eighteen styles of architecture were
evolved based on eighteen regions of ancient India.
Table 2 - Eighteen Kingdoms (states) of ancient India
Sn State Mountain River Tree Ores
1 Yaihik Hemakut Vipasha Peepal Gold
2 Souvir Pariyatra Sindhu Shak Mercury
3 Kaikay Himalaya Shatadru Oudumbar Silver
4 Magadh Gandhamadan Ganga Vat Copper
5 Malav Chitrakut Kalindi Plaksha Lead

6 Anga Uday Gandaki Bilwa Tin
…
7 Vanga Malyawan Sarayu Tulsi Bairunt*
8 Kalinga Nishadh Shona Amalaksha Iron
9 Kamboj Lokalok Irawati Palash Karkut *
10 Viarbha Vindhya Narmad Shirish Tin
11 Lat Satpuda Tapti Parijat Bell metal
12 Surashtra Raiwatak Gomati Aamla Lead
..
13 Aarat Sahyadri Godawari Wood Lodhra *
apple
14 Ramsrushti Asta Bhimarathi Ber Blue iron
15 Vishwamitra Shriparwat Krushna Bakul White

Srushti iron
16 Padya Nilgiri Kaveri Patli Gold
17 Chola Malay Tamraparni Chandan Red iron
18 Madra Trikut Dhrutmala Tamarind Gems
A Sanskrit text BruhaNighantu (Worlds first lexicon) describes the

animals, trees and minerals found in these three lands.
Subsequently the thee lands were divided into five lands as below
Thirty-one major rivers of south Asia are mentioned in Nadi-stuti
(praise of rivers) of Rig Veda. The epic Mahabharata contains a
separate chapter devoted to geography of Indian subcontinent and
adjacent countries in central India
Purana means old. One finds mention about Nile River in Skanda
Purana. Puranas which are historical accounts of traditions,
personalities, and their achievements, evolution of crafts, cosmology,
cosmogony, cosmography, regions and people living therein.

Geology: Arthshastra is the earliest Indian text dealing with the
mineralogical characteristics of metallic ores and other mineral-
aggregate rocks. It recognizes ores in the earth, in rocks, or in liquid
form, with excessive color, heaviness and often-strong smell and
taste. The Arthshastra also mentions several subsidiary types of gems
named after their color, luster or place of origin i.e. Vimalaka,
jyotirasaka, lohitaksa, sasyaka etc. It is surprising that even in the I
Millennium BC; Indians had developed an elaborate terminology for
different metals, minerals and alloys.
Earthquakes
Many ancient Indian texts contain references related to earthquakes.
Most of the references contain myths about the phenomenon of
earthquake. But Brihat Samhita of Varaha Mihira (5–6th century AD)
and Adbhuta Sagara of Ballala Sena (10–11th century AD) are the only
texts which contain some technical information on earthquakes.
Myths about earthquakes:
Some myths about earthquakes are listed below.
1. Kashyapa: The earth floats over a big ocean. It moves or shakes
due to the movements of big aquatic creatures.
2. Garga: There are four "Quarter-elephants (Dig-gajas) supporting
the earth on four sides. When they get exhausted, they heaive a
heavy sigh of relief. Hence the earthquakes and strong devastating
winds blow over the earth.
3. Vasistha: When two powerful atmospheric currents collide and dash
against the earth, there is earthquake.
4. Vrddha Garga: The earthquakes are due to some unseen (adrusta)
cause.
5. Parashar: Earthquakes are caused by the solar and lunar eclipses
and by the unnatural changes in plants.

Precursors of earthquakes:
Bhishnaparwa of epic Mahabharata contains information on Animal
behavior which may be precursors of earthquakes.
Hawks and vultures, and crows and herons, together with cranes, are
alighting on the tops of trees and gathering in flocks.
These birds, delighted at the prospect of battle, are looking down (on
the field) before them.
Carnivorous beasts will feed on the flesh of elephants and steeds.
Fierce herons, foreboding terror, and uttering merciless cries, are
wheeling across the centre towards the southern region
Kokilas, wood-peckers, water-cocks, parrots, crows and peacocks utter
terrible cries.
At sun-rise flights of insects by hundreds are seen.
The animals are all weeping and their tears are falling fast.
The 32nd chapter of Brihat Samhita is devoted to signs of earthquakes
and correlates earthquakes with cosmic and planetary influences,
underground water and undersea activities, unusual cloud formations,
and the abnormal behavior of animals. Varahmihir analyzed and
arranged the details about the earthquakes on the following points:
• Time of the day. (Muhurta)
• Presiding deity of that period (Devta)
• The asterism assigned to the deity (Nakshyatra)
• Prognostic symptoms of the quake (Yuti of planets)
• Earthquake prediction using earthquake clouds:
Ancient References: Varahmihir categorizes earthquakes into
different kinds and says that the indications of one particular kind will
appear in the form of unusual cloud formations a week before its
occurrence. Following are the, indications appearing a week.
• "Huge clouds resembling blue lily, bees and collyrium in color,
rumbling pleasantly, and shining with flashes of lightning, will pour

down slender lines of water resembling sharp clouds. An earthquake of
this circle will kill those that are dependent on the seas and rivers; and
it will lead to excessive rains."
Modern References: Over the last ten years, Zhonghao Shou, a
retired chemist based near Caltech in California, has been using
satellite imagery and other scientific tools to fine-tune his theory of
"earthquake clouds" as precursors to earthquakes. According to Shou,
earthquake clouds are formed when underground water is converted
into water vapors by the heat generated in the epicenter area of a
fault rock, which is undergoing constant stress and friction.
Zhou says that earthquake prediction is possible by identifying such
clouds as "an earthquake generally occurs within 49 days of the first
appearance of the cloud. Details of Zhous work are available on web.
References –Ancient
• Adbhuta Sagara by Ballal Sen,ed. Murlidhar Sen,pub. By
Prabhakari & co. Benars.
• Arthshastra by Kautilya, Eng.Translation by R.P.Kangle, Pub.
Motilal Banarasi das , New Delhi.
• Brihat Samhita (of Varah Mihir),Pub. By Khemraj
Shrikrishnadas Mumbai (1945)
• BrihanNighantu (2011) Ed.D.S.Mathur, Pub. By Khemraj
Shrikrishnadas Mumbai (1945)
• Shilparatna (by Shivkumar ) part 1 and 2,Pub. By Gaikwad
Oriental series, Baroda (1924)
Modern References
• Ali, S.M. (1966),”The geography of India from Puranas”
• Sircar,(1960),”Studies in geography of ancient and medieval
India” Varanasi.
• Iyengar, R.N (1999),”Earthquakes in ancient India”, Jr . History
of Sciences, New Delhi.

• Nene, A.S.(2011) “Geotechnical Engineering in ancient India,
Pub. Pune Vidyatrhi gruha prakashan, Pune.
• Vaze.K.V.(1953),”Prachin Hindi Shilpa Shastra (Marathi), Book
published by Varada prakashan, Pune.
Appendix
• Eighteen States of Ancient India: Puranas describe various features of
the 18 Kingdoms (states) of ancient India. Shri K.V.Vaze (1924), in his
book "Prachin Hindi Shilpashastra", compiled these features, such as
mountains, rivers, trees, grains, rainfalls, roof slopes / types, metal
ores, tools etc.
Maps of ancient India
Map 1-Wind Map

Map 2- Eighteen states of ancient India
Map 3- Rainfall map
***.****

E7
Significant Aspects of Indian Vastu Shastra
https://www.scribd.com/document/337304714/Significant-Aspects-of-
Indian-Vastu-Shastra?secret_password=PVKFfz0JRe7VwNN8NSAt
“Whatever sphere of the human mind may be selected for

special study, whether language, religion, mythology, or
philosophy, whether laws, customs, primitive art or primitive
science, we must go to India, because some of the most
valuable and most instructive materials in the history of man
are treasured up there and there only.”
Max-Muller-“ India and what we can learn from it”
The science of creation is termed as “Engineering”. The appropriate

Indian word for it is “Shilpashastra”. Evolution of this science took
place with the needs of a primitive man. At present there are many
braches of engineering, such as, Civil, Mechanical, Electrical,
Automobile, Aeronautical engineering etc. More or less similar to
these, few branches were included in ancient Shilpashastra. Sage
Bhrugu grouped entire engineering sciences into ten Shastras, thirty-
two Vidyas (Techniques) and sixty-four Kala (arts). The ten Shastras
are;
1. Krushee Shastra - Biological Sciences.
2. Jala Shastra-Water Resources Engineering
3. Khani Shastra-Mining and Metallurgy
4. Nauka Shastra –Water transportation
5. Ratha Shastra- Surface transportation
6. Viman Shastra- Air or space transportation
7. Vastu shastra –Habitation
8. Praakaar Shastra- Forts and Castles

9. Nagar Rachana Shastra- Town planning
10. Yantra Shastra- Mechanics and machines
Vastushastra deals with construction of houses. This includes tents to
palaces, deities, temple construction, construction of pyres and
cremation grounds. The umbrella term for all such aspects is “Vastu”.
The word is derived from a Sanskrit root “Vas” meaning to dwell.
The place in which someone can stay is called vastu.
अमत्यावश्चैव मत्यावश्च यत्र यत्र वसंसत दह ।
तददव्स्त्थसत मतं तज्वैवानी वश्म तदे व दह॥
प्रासादादीसन वस्तुसन वस्तुवादस्तु सियाद्।
वस्तुसभसनवसमतत्वाच्च प्रोक्तान्येय पुरातनै: ॥ मयमत
The most ordinary thing in Vastushastra is “Shaalaa” or one room

shelter. In Rig-Veda there is a separate sukta (Hymn) on this topic.
Vedas contain some information on Vastu. Subsequently a separate
“Shilpa Veda “was composed. Details of this Veda is available in a
hand written manuscript “Yamalastaka tantramu”. It includes two
chapters “Upaveda paTal” and “Angaveda PaTal”. The Shaalaavastu
may contain two, three or even four rooms. Sutradhar Mandan , in his
text “Vasturaj Vallabha” has given details of these types. The names of
the types are meaningful. Around 300 astonishing types are
mentioned. This text was very popular in Maharashtra but Marathi
translation is not available.
In ancient time the owner “Yajaman” used to go to the architect cum
engineer (Sthapati) to finalize the structure.
The owner used to describe the requirements, his financial limit and
local conditions to the architect. Then the architect used to plan and
construct the Vastu, taking into consideration main six principles.
These six principles are described below.
१.भोगो यज्ञानुसारी स्याद्।
The utilities and comforts of a house depend upon the amount spent
on it. The engineer should consider the financial limit and requirement
of the owner. A house should be planned for minimum five persons.
असतथीबासलक: पव्त्न जननी जनक: तथा: ।
पयंते गृदहण:पोल्या इतरे च स्वशवक्तत: ॥
Five persons include a guest, children, wife, mother and father. It is

worth observing, whether the modern apartments are constructed as
per this consideration.
२-कालस्य कुदिला गसत:
Time is always changing; hence the construction should be appropriate

with the changes in time. In other words the habitat should be
comfortable in all seasons.
३-धाता यथा पुबमकल्पयत ्।
The building material should be used as it is created in nature. The

bottom part of a tree should be used for bottom part and top part of
the tree should be used for top part.
४- शुभाशुभ पररग्रह ।
Learn from failure. Consider the reasons which lead to defects and the
things lead to improvement.
५- संवधवनं च वास्तुनां तथा संवरणासन च ।
मानहीन न कतवदयं मानवधवनं ॥
There should be always a scope for alteration or improvement.
६- अल्पदोषं बहुगुणं कायव कमव प्रयत्नत: ।

Within the available resources and conditions, try to achieve maximum
possible. Name of one ancient text itself is “NirdoshVastu” – (Free
from defects). Sthapati means engineer in chief in modern sense.
Ancient team of construction workers used to comprise of
1. Sthapati -Architect /Engineer
2. Sutragrahi –Overseer
3. Takshak -Carpentor
4. Vardhaki -Mason
5. Karmi –Skilled or unskilled labor.
The last class need not have any education or his own tools. He should
be strong even to do manual work. The worker under fourth class
knows any one skill. The worker of third class should know at least on
technique. The Sutragrahi should know one science. The Sthapati
should be well versed with all Shilpashastra. The essential qualities of
Sthapati, as per Shilpashastra, are as below;
स्थपती:स्थापनाहव : स्यात ् सववशास्त्र ववशारद: ।
न हीनांगोऽसतररक्तांगो धासमवकश्च दयापर:॥
अमात्सयोनसुयशाच्यातंदद्रतस्त्वसभजातवान ्।
गव्णतज्ञ: पुराणज्ञ: सत्यवादी व्जतंदद्रय: ॥
The Sthapati should be master of all sciences, expert in laying

foundation, neither deficient in anything nor excessive. He should be
religious, generous, mathematical, non-jealous, non lazy and free from
all bad habits (wine, woman, gambling, abusing or money
embezzlement)
सुशीलश्चतुरो दक्ष: सशल्पशस्त्रस्य तत्वववद्।
सुत्राणां धारणे ज्ञाता सूत्रधार: स उच्चते ॥

Sutradhaar should have good character, he should be alert, inelegant
and knowledgeable about the engineering tools. This information
indicates how the workers used to be selected. The selection used to
be through a contract ceremony. Five such ceremonies are mentioned.
1. First ceremony was to take permission from King, forest officer, city
mayor. It was some sort of land recording.
2. Section of land was second ceremony. Section of Sthapati by owner
and selection of Sutragrahi by Sthapati and or owner. All the work till
end was to be executed by these two. In case of death of any one his
son or student used to take over the work.
3. Erection of frame of main door: This was third ceremony.
4. Forth ceremony was section of Takshyak (carpenter) to erect the
wooden pillar of the house.
5. The last ceremony was Vastushantee or house warming ceremony to
get acquainted with neighbors.
In second ceremony the plan of house is handed over to Sthapati

along with some token (lock and key). In the last ceremony the
Sthapati used to handover the lock and key to the owner. Owner, in
turn, used to honor the Sthapati with suitable gifts.
The suitable building materials, such as soil, lime, stone, timber,
steel etc have to be selected meticulously. These materials were
selected on the basis of its class, gender (trademark), and age and
modified appropriately. The selection was done on basis of its
color, smell, taste, shape, touch and sound. The ancient sages
classified the materials into four classes. Let us classify these
according to their qualities and denote as class I, Class II, class III
and Class IV. The material under class I to IV were called as
“BramhaN, Kshyatriya, Vaishya and Shudra” respectively. This
system of classification has no relation to caste system in India. To
explain further let us take an example of “Soil”.

श्वेता चोत्तमभूसमका सुघत
ृ वग्दं धा शुभस्वाददनी ।
रक्ता शोव्णतगंददनी नृपसतभु: स्वादे कषायाच सा ॥
स्वादे म्ला सतलतैलगंसधरुददता पीता च वैश्या महो ।
कृ ष्णा मत्स्यसुगंसधनी च किु का शुद्रेसतभुलक्षणम॥
-सशल्पदीपक
The soil in the foundation stratum should be white in color, smelling
like clarified butter and good in taste. Such soil is the best. Soil red in
color, smelling like blood and with sour taste was considered as
ordinary. Soil yellow in color, smelling like sesame oil and sour in taste
was considered as medium, The soil black in color, smelling like fish
and with pungent taste was considered as bad or unsuitable. The
materials were also classified according to their gender. The gender
may be considered as a sign indicating its property.
Masculine: The Masculine material is which is strong in compression,
which has same density throughout, hard inside and soft outside.
Feminine: The Feminine material is, which is strong in tension or
bending, is made up of layers, hard outside but soft inside, with one
side broader than other. Neuter: The Neuter material is one which can
sustain any type of load, which is mixture of many and has no useful
quality.
At the end, the house should not have following defects,
 The sound of foot step should not be audible anywhere in the house.
 There should not be free access to outsider. The boundary should be
well marked. (English proverb- Good fences make good neighbors.)
 The tree giving shelter to owls, vultures or bad birds etc should not be
allowed to grow near the house.
 There should not be polluted water spots near the house.
Considering the climatic conditions in India, an open courtyard

(Chouk) is provided in the house. Such houses remain warm in winter

and cool in summer. Number of such open spaces was increased as
per requirements. Palaces used to have fourteen such open spaces.
Acknowledgement: This article is based on a Marathi article by late
G.G. Joshi, published in a local souvenir, page 9-14.
***.***

E8
Introduction to Yantrarnav
“Yantrashastra or Ancient Indian Mechanical Engineering”
Published in Journal of boudhik Sampada, Nagpur, Vol.
Abstract: The paper introduces an ancient Indian text known as

Yantrarnav. The text is not available now in India. The author and the
period of publication of this text Yantrarnav (Nectar of mechanisms) is
also unknown. However when this book would be available in future, it
would be a boon to students of Yantrashstra.
1- Introduction: Late K.V. Vaze was the first to find six torn out
pages of the text. Vaze used the available text to add a separate
chapter on Yantrashastra, in his Marathi book “Prachin Hindi
Shilpshastrasaar – Essence of ancient Indian Shilpashastra”. Vaze has
quoted many original Sanskrit verses from the ancient texts such as
Bhrugusamhita and Yantrarnav in this chapter.
This article is a brief translation of the chapter, and suitably edited for
clarity and continuity.
2. Mantra, Tantra and Yantra: These are common words found in
most of the ancient Indian texts. But Yantrarnav gives the definitions
of these terms.
All actions (or reactions) are of two types namely Savitri or Srushti.
The prime mover of any action is termed as Savitri and the work done
by the prime mover is termed as Srushti. (Ref. SV1).
दक्रयातु व्ददववधादज्ञेया साववत्री सृष्टीरे वच।

मानवी पाशवी वावप शवक्तस्तंत्रसमसतस्मृतं॥ यंत्राणवव
SV1- Savitri and Srushti

Mantra- Mantra means control of physical elements (wind, water, fire
etc) to get the work done. The person who has the knowledge of
Mantra is known as Matradnya. Such knowledge was compiled in
poetic forms known as Chanda. Therefore the compilers were known
as Chandarshi.Ref. SV2.
मंत्रज्ञा ब्राम्हणाः पूवे जल वालवाददस्तंभनैः।

शक्तेरुत्पादनं चकृ स्तन्मंत्रसनसमसत दद्यते ॥
यंत्राणवव
पुराकृ तंतु यत्तज्ञैस्तद् ब्रम्हसत प्रचक्षते।
सनव्च्ित्य मनसा ब्रम्हतपोसमबहुसभवः स्वयं॥
छं दसस वतवयन्येते छं दऋषीत्वंकीसतवताः।
भृगुसव्न्हता
SV2- Matradbya
Tantra- The physical energy of all living things is termed as Tantra
(technique). The person who gets the work done with his own hands is
called Swatantra (Independent).
Yantra- Yantras are mechanical contrivances to get the work with less
effort and in less time.
3. The five basic physical elements (Panchmahabhutas):
According to Yantrarnav each machine
(Yantra) is associated with one or more of the following five basic
physical elements.
Pruthwi (Earth) - Gravitational force.
Jala (Water) – Hydraulic power.
Vayu (Air/ Wind) –Wind power
Tej (Fire) – Heat/ light energy
Aakash (Space/Ether )
4. Basic parts of a machine: The five basic components of any
Yantra (machine) are listed below. Ref. SV3.
I. Danda- Lever /Rod
II. Chakra- Wheel/pulley
III. Danta- Toothed wheel ( gear)
IV. Sarani- Inclined plane)
V. Bharan-Screw
दं डैश्चक्रैश्च दं तैश्च सरव्णभ्रमणाददसभः।
शवक्तरुत्पादनं दकं वा चालनं यंत्रमुच्चते॥
यंत्राणवव
SV3- Five basic components of machine
The text Yantrarnav further describes details of these components.

Ref. SV4.
आधाराघेय न्यायेन दं डानसंकल्पयेत्सुधी:। मेरेरारोहणंतावद भ्रमसभत्युच्यते बुधःै ।

आधारमर्धय वृत्तयद्दे डस्य पररवतवनं ॥ चक्रानुलंबीयः पाशौ मालाकारो सयंवत्रतः॥
तच्चक्रसमसत ववज्ञेयं यथा दं डस्तथैवतद। अनंतत्वास्तु सप्राक्तो ब्रम्हपाशइसत स्मृतः।
चक्रादददहसनवः सृताये परस्परसमासिताः॥ अनंतभ्रमशीलोयः चक्रदं तानुसारतः॥
तेदंताःकीसतवता स्तज्ञैतथ
व ा दं डस्तथैवते। ब्रम्हभ्रमंतु तत्प्राहुह यंत्रशास्त्रववशारदाः।
गच्छन्नधोयो यत्सत्वं कषवयत्यासितंवसु॥ दं डसूत्रप्रपाज्ञो यंवत्रकः प्रोच्यतेबुधःै ॥
उच्छे य यत्समफलं तदाहुः सरव्णबुध
व ाः। मंत्रज्ञोमांवत्रकप्रोक्तः तंत्रज्ञः कमवकृत्स्मृतः ।
घंिापथानुसारे ण सरणेः पररवतवनं॥ यंत्राणवव
SV4- Details of basic components
4.1 Danda (Lever): To use lever (rod) there must be a strong

support. The force is applied at the end of lever. The machines based
on this element are discussed below.
Bhu-yantras- (related to earth) are of four types
Rhuju –Bhagna (Straight –Bent): a crow bar is straight but pick axe is
bent.
Yugma-Ayugma (pair or single): Nut cracker, nose-pliers scissors etc
consist of pair of levers joined at the end or at middle. Handles of
many appliances or a walking stick contain a single (Ayugma) liver.
Sama-Vishama (Equal-Unequal): Pans of a balance are equidistant
from centre of beam. But some balances such as compound balance
the levers are not of same length.

Bhu-yantras- (machines related to earth)
Jala-yantras- (related to water) are;

 Aritra (Oar) - for navigation of a boat. Number of oars may be 1 to
100 (boats used in boat race).
 Matsya-danda (Fishing rod/line) for catching fish
 Lat (cranes) – used on ships for loading or unloading cargo.
 Tari (Rafts) - used for water transport.
All the above jalayantras are base on lever principle.
Jala-yantras- (machines related to water)
4.2- Chakra (wheel): A wheel rotates about an axis at centre or

away from centre. Wheels were grouped under three heads;
I. Chala-Achala (Moving-stationary)- two wheels of flour grinding
wheels are the examples of these types.
II. Sama-Visham (Equal-unequal) – Sama wheel rotates around its
concentric axis but Vishama wheel rotates around its non-centric axis.
III. Abheda-Putabheda (Pliner-Non-plainer) –Abheda wheels rotates in
a single plane but Putabhedana wheels rotate in two different planes.
Lime grinding mill is a good example of Putabhedan wheels.

Wheels
4.3- Danta (Geared wheel /Gear): Such wheels work in pairs. The
diameters of these wheels may be same or different. In some
machines the gears are connected with chain.
Gears
4.4. Sarani (inclined plane): Sarani is a device in which one part goes
upward and another part goes down by same distance. In ancient
water lifting device water bucket was attached to a rope pulled by
oxen moving on a sloping ground to reduce the load. Same principle is
used in rope and pulley system in which load is lifted by inclined rope
moving around a pulley.
Rope & Pulley

4.5.Bramani –Screw: In such device load is applied by a plate attached
to a screw to move the plate towards or away from objects. The
common examples of Bramani are screw jack (for changing the car
wheel), screw press used by book binder or table vice used in a
workshop.
Screws
5. Conclusion: The contents of the ancient text “Vatrarnav” are
presented in this article and the article is based on Late Vaze’s book.
Many quotations from YantrarNava were published by Vaze in a series
of five articles in the Vedic Magazine (Lahore) under the heading
“Story of Mechanics from Indian Engineering Books”.
Appendix: Table from Vaze’s another book “Aryashilpa Yantrashastra”
Table: Yantras and their associations
Element Earth Water Air Light Space
Property Densenes Fluidity Unsteadines Heat Incompressibilit

s s y
Function Expel Control Storage Concentrate Killing
/Extract
Sage Kashyapa Vashishht Agasyta Vishvamitra Bharadwaj
a Patanjali
Bhrugu
God Indra VaruN Vayu sun Bramha
Vidyut
Techniqu Animal Fish Bird Men Shani Yini

e
Sense Feet Hands Wings Eyes Mind Brain

Vehicle Lever Wheel Gear Chain Screw
Machine Chariot Boat Aeroplane Binocular Knowledge
Mantra Explosive Attraction Storage Concentratio Expansion

n
Use Mixing Stirring Rotation Firing Killing
Examples Arches Water Fans Lenses Inner

cocks Knowledge
References:
 Vaze, K.V. (1924),”Pracin Hindi shilpshashtrasar-Marathi, chapter 14-
Yantrshashtra.
 Vaze, K.V. (1924),”Aryashilpa-Hindi Yantrashastra-Marathi,pages 46,
Published by
 Balashshtri Kshirsagar, Kalika Prasd printing press, Ganesh
Peth,Pune,price 6 anna.
 Vaze, K.V. (1923),”Study of Mechanics from Indian Engineering Books,
Vedic Magazine Lahore,
 Vaze, K.V. (1925),”Physics in ancient India, Vedic Magazine Lahore,
 Vaze, K.V. (1955),”Unpublished articles-parts published in
Shilpasansar magazine,19
 Vaze, K.V. (1929),”Hindi Shilpashastra Part 1-chapter 8 & 9 –
Engineering tools.
 Vaze, K.V. (1926),”Machines and Unemployment-Marathi,Uddyam
Magazine, Nagpur,December 1926.
***.***

E9
Medical Sciences of Ancient India
Available on Web
Part 1: Ayurveda- Charak Samhita
Ancient Indian Medical Sciences deal with healthcare of all men and
animals. But the paper deals with human health only. This was
considered as another Veda because it is as important as basic four
Vedas. From time unknown the knowledge contained in this science
remained intact and grew continuously. The science had three main
branches namely;
 Diagnosis and medication- Charak Samhita by Sage Charak
 Surgery –Sushrut Samhita by Sage Sushrut
 Preparation of medicines-.
Gurukul of Takshyashila had a professor “Aatreya Punarvasu”. Based

on his teachings Charak compiled a book commonly known as Charak
Samhita, which subsequently edited by a physician “Dhrudabal” during
Kanishka dynasty. Charak Samhita, in addition to medical science,
contains many philosophical thoughts, references of Vedic deities and
Vedic verses. The text was first published in book form in the middle of
19th century. The second edition and commentary was published in
1881 by Kaviraj Ganagadhar of Kolkata. Many more commentaries
were published. The latest one is the one edited by Vaidya Acharya of
Jamanagar in 1941.
There are about 12 manuscripts available in Indological libraries in
India. In addition to 10 Indian languages the book has been translated
into English, Arabic and Persian and Tibeti languages also. The book
contains astonishing scientific terminology. For example;
 Thirteen names of water based on it origin or place.
 Six types of sugar based on its origin.

 Hundreds of human anatomical terms.
According to Charak Ayurveda has eight distinct branches namely;

1. Kaayaa Chikitsa: General Medicine.
2. Shakya- Ear, Nose and Throat ENT.
3. Shalyahartuk – Surgery.
4. Visha-Pramashan- Poisons and their antidotes.
5. Bhoot Vidya –Sociology.
6. Koumarabhrutya- Pediatrics
7. Rasayan –Medicine.
8. Baajeekaran –Body rejuvenation.
The text has 150 chapters. Dhrudabal has great contribution in

arranging systematically. According to Charak Samhita the human
body is a micro model of the universe. It contains all the five physical
elements and mind (Bramha), intelligence (Buddhee) and ego
(Ahankar). It deals in its first part science of genetics, birth, growth
and death stages of human. It describes the month wise physical
changes, in a pregnant woman. The human body contains three
elements (Dosha –imbalances) namely Vaat, Pitta and Kafa. Right
from the conception of fetus one of these three dominates. Disease is
a result of prominence of any one of these element and polluted air or
water. The parts of body affected by these causes are;
 Vaat (Gas): Urinary tract, lever, waist, bones of feet and small
intestine.
 Pitta (Acidity): Blood, sweat and Stomach.
 Kaf (Cough): Head, neck, body joints, chest and obesity.
According to Charak Samhita there are eight types of memory, seven

causes of dreams. Charak had his own philosophy about re-birth.
Body heat is source of human life. Energy, skin complexion, muscle
power etc are dependent on it. This heat depends upon the food intake

and its digestion. Useful part of the intake is supplied to blood, flesh,
tissues, bones etc. and waste part is thrown out through urine and
excreta.
The body has different tracks for circulation of oxygen, water and
nutrients etc.
The text mentions six main types of tastes and 57 complex types of
tastes. Each taste induces certain type of action such as heaviness,
lightness, coolness, hotness, oiliness or tastelessness.
For sound health Charak recommends, eye ointment, medicated
smoking, nasal& ear drops, brushing of teeth, gargling, head and hair
massage with oil, cutting of nails and hair, use of clean clothes,
footwear, regular exercise and proper diet. The daily routine has to be
modified according to the season.
Physical health depends upon geographical conditions, climate and
food. A change in these factors can lead to a disease.
Diet is a major part of Charak Samhita. It mentions many items such
as Cereals, green vegetables, meat, fish, eggs, fruits, milk, milk
products, oils. But Charak is against non-vegetarian food and liquor.
It also groups them into complementary and non-complementary
items.
According to Charak rejuvenation of body is possible with certain
medicines provided these are taken at some sanatorium, under the
guidance of an expert. For public health, polluted water, unhygienic
food, urination etc at public places has to be strictly avoided.
Importance pure ,un-adulterated water is stressed again and again.
Charak has mentioned certain ethics for practicing physicians and pre-
requisites for the students. Non-addiction and celibacy was most
essential for all.

In ancient time a student and his parents had full freedom to select
the teacher and the branch of Ayurveda. The teacher on the other
hand had a responsibility to select a proper student, by judging mental
ability, personality and devotion. The education was free but the
student had to live with the family of teacher as son, devotee or
dependent. Medical practice was considered as social service. Four
essential qualities of a physician were friendship with all, compassion
towards the patients, professional devotion and service without
expectation. Most important thing was, a physician had to provide (not
prescribe) medicines and other services. The text provides detailed
information on types of diseases, symptoms, treatment there of etc.
The text mentions that fever is a precursor of disease or ailment. The
doctor should note down the history of a patient and his family (age,
physical structure, nature of his work and nature etc).It also mentions
the restrictions about diet and various methods of taking the medicine,
such as
Oral, ointments for eye, skin, Gargling, smoking, with dressing
bandages, the types of enema and washes, artificial sweating, tying of
veins with cloth or wooden stick.
The text has separate chapter on poisons, their types and antidotes.
It also mentions certain clinical processes such as flame test,
sterilization, freezing, vaporization etc, which are followed in modern
pathology laboratories. Charak Samhita includes various zoological
classifications systems, based on birth, physical features etc.
The text enlists 177 medicines derived from animals, 241 from herbs
and 64 from minerals, 33 types of bones, and 103 technical terms.
Part 2: Sushrut and Sushrut Samhita

As proper diagnosis and medicines are essential to control and cure
any disease, surgery is also an important option. The earliest reference
on surgery is found in Veda and PuraNas. These are as below,
 Ashvini kumars (divine physicians of gods) provided a wooden leg of
Vishpal, who lost his leg during a war. –Rig-Veda 1-112-10.
 God Indra cured a wound on the neck of Etasha, without oozing of
blood- Rig-Veda 8-1-12.
Similarly names of various inner parts of a human body are mentioned in

Rig-Veda 10-163. This seems impossible without the knowledge of
human anatomy and surgery. Similar references can be found in
Upanishadas and PuraNas. But the most authentic reference is Sushrut
Samhita.
The exact period of Sushrut is not yet established. Shalihotra
was his father’s name. Shalihotra was a great veterinary doctor and
author of Shalihotra Samhita, which mentions that Dhanvantaree
taught surgery to Sushrut.
There as five main parts of Sushrut Samhita and the sixth part is
a sort of summary cum appendix of additional information. The first
five parts has 120 chapters and 66 chapters in the sixth part. The first
printed version dates back to1835.
Only salient parts of the text are briefly described below.
Part 1-Sutrasthan (16 chapters).
 Six types of instruments of a surgeon, most significant were
Nadi yantra (Stethoscope) and shalaka yantra (injection
syringe)- Chapter 7.
 Operation theater details- Chapter 10.
 KarNachedan –piercing of ears-Chapter 16.
 Plantation of medicinal trees, plants and herbs-Chapter 37.
 Wounds are their dressings- Chapter 18&19

 Identification and collection of five parts odf medicinal trees-
Chapter 39.
Part 2-NidanSthan –diagnosis (16 chapters). Titles of few

important chapters are, Piles, Kidney stone, Eczema etc.
Part 3-SharirSthan -Physiology (10 chapters). Titles of few
important chapters are conception, veins and nerves, pregnancy etc.
Part 4-ChikitsaSthan –Treatment (40 chapters). Titles of few
important chapters are, Treatment of piles, fistula, diabetes etc.
Part 5-KalpaSthan-Treatment of poisons (8 chapters).
Part –UttarTantra - summary cum appendix(66 chapters).-
Various types of diseases .
Though the period of Sushrut is known, the language of his text is
simple. Sushrut had knowledge of plastic surgery and cataract
surgery. He has mentioned about 100 surgical instruments. A Chinese
traveler had witnessed a plastic surgery operation and mentioned it his
diary written 2000 years ago.
It can be concluded that Sushrut Samhita is not restricted to
surgery alone. It contains other valuable information on ancient Indian
medical science also.
***.***

E10
Panchangas in ancient Indian lexicons
Available on Web
Introduction: The Sanskrit word Panchanga means five (Panch)
limbs/components (Anga). Man since ancient times started counting
with the help of his five fingers and also remembering by bending
these five fingers. Many things are grouped into fives. There are many
such groups which are easy to remember. Few such Panchanga as
described briefly;
1. Almanac: Panchanga mean "five attributes" of the day. They are:
 Tithi - Ending Moment (EM) of elongation of the Moon, the lunar
day, the angular relationship between Sun and Moon (Apparent
Moon minus Apparent Sun). One Tithi equals 12 degree
difference between Moon and Sun.
 Nakshatra - Ending Moment (EM) of asterism of the day, that is,
the stellar mansion in which Moon is located for an observer at
the center of the Earth. One Nakshatra equals 13 degrees: 20
minutes. There are 27 Nakshatra in 360 degrees.
 Yoga - EM of the angular relationship between Sun and Moon(

Apparent Moon plus Apparent Sun). One Yoga equals 13
degrees: 20 minutes. There are 27 Yogas in 360 degrees.
 Karana - EM of half of a Tithi. One Karaṇa equals 6 degree

difference between Moon and Sun.
 Var –day of week- the seven weekdays. (Monday to Sunday)
2. Botany: Panchanga or Five components of a plant or trees are ;

Root, Stem, Flower, Fruit and Seed. Knowledge of properties of these
parts is essensial for study of Botany or Ayurveda.

3. Salts-PanchlavaNs are the five types of salts
 Samudra Lavana: This is common sea salt.
 Saindhava Lavana: This salt is variously known as rock salt,
 Sauvarchala Lavana: Often known by its Hindi name, kala

namak, this is also called black salt and sochal salt. It has a
slightly sulphurous taste and smell.
 Romaka Lavana: Also known as Sambar salt, it is harvested from

salt flats on the shores of Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan.
 Audbhida Lavana: This is an earthen salt, prepared from salty,

alkaline soil. According to Ayurveda each salt has its own
medicinal value.
4. Cow products –Panchgauvya –Milk, curd, Ghee, cow urine and
cow dung are called Panchagauvya are taken orally on particular day
in a religious ceremony (Shravanee).
5. Soils –Panch mrud – These are five types of soils i.e. fertile soil,
ant-hill soil, red ochre (Geru), Chalk and saline soil. These were used
making crucible or idol.
6. Physical Elements – Panchamahabhootas – Earth, Water,
Fire,Wind,and space (Pruthwee, Aap,Vayu, Agnee and Askash). These
elements were worshiped as gods or goddess in Vedic period and there
are Vedic hymns to praise these elements. These elements control the
world ecology and manmade disturbances in these lead to pollution.
7-Senses – Dnyanendriya or Panchendriyas-The five senses of
perception are, Eye, Ear, Nose, Mouth, and Skin . Child right from the
birth starts identifying things with the help of these senses. Birds and
animals communicate with these senses. Particular sense of few
animals/birds/plants is far more powerful than that in human i.e.
smelling power of dogs, eye sight of birds, hearing of ultrasound by
owls, touch me not plant (lajjalu) etc.

8- Organs of action- The five karmendriyas or organs of action are:
Vāk(speech), Pāṇi(hands), Pāda(feet), Pāyu(excretory organ) and
Upastha ( organ of reproduction).
These have been called “karmendriyas‟ because they are the organs
responsible for karma or action. Every human being is endowed with
eleven indriyas or sense-organs. These organs are five Dnyanendriya,
five karmendriyas and a mind.
9-Rivers –Punch aab – Punjab (Land of five rivers) is named after five
rivers flowing through the state of Punjab. These are Jhelum, Chenab,
Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas (or Vyas).
10. Panchaloha : This alloy consists of gold, silver, lead, copper and
iron. Silpashastras prescribe the composition of the alloy to be chosen
for casting sacred icons. The percentage of metals used is 4 portions of
silver, 1 portion of gold, 8 portions of lead, 8 portions of copper and a
small quantity of iron, though this percentage might vary from region
to region and considered to be a highly auspicious composition and is
still used for icons cast for worship.
11. Gems –Pancharatna- According to Indian metallurgy, these are
five types of metals or precious stones, i.e. i) gold, ii) diamond, iii)
emerald ,iv)ruby and pearl.
12. Acids- Panchamla- These are five acidic fruits, i.e. Badar (jujube),
Dadim (pomegranate), Tintidi (tamarind), Chullak (lemon) and
Amlavetus (country sorrel).
13. Liquefiers –Panchadravak- These are organic material which help
in melting of metals. These are i) Gunj (Abrus precatorius, ii) TankaN
(Borax), iii) Madhu (Honey),iv) Ghrut (Clarified butter) and Gud
(molasses)
14. Panch Vayus -Five gases or winds : The yoga tradition describes
five movements or functions of prana known as the vayus (literally

“winds”).Our life force, prana, divides itself into five vayus, each
governing different functions and aspects of being.
Vayu Area of Governing Function
Body
Prana Chest, head intake, inspiration, propulsion, forward
momentum
Apana Pelvis elimination, downward and outward
movement
Samana Navel assimilation, discernment, inner
absorption, consolidation
Udana Throat growth, speech, expression, ascension,
upward movement
Vyana Whole body circulation on all levels, expansiveness,
pervasiveness
References
 The Concise Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Swami Harshananda, Ram
Krishna Math, Bangalore.
 RasarNav (2001) (Alchemy book), ed. by Indradev Tripathi ,
Chaukhaba publications, Varanasi.
 Nadkarni,K.M. Indian Materia Medica, Dhootapapeshwar Prakashan
Ltd. Panvel, Popular Book Depot, Mumbai 7
***.***

E11
Introduction to ancient text “Rasarnava” and its relevance to
Modern Metallurgy and Chemical Engineering
Presented in Pune conference
Keywords: Ancient Indian Technology, Metallurgy, Chemical

engineering.
Abstract: The paper presents introduction to ancient Indian text
“Rasarnava”. This text was considered as oldest tantric book on
Alchemy (Kimaya). But it is relevant to ancient Indian Metallurgy and
Chemical Engineering also.
1-Introduction: Ancient Shilpashastra (Engineering philosophy of
ancient India) includes ten sciences, thirty-two techniques and sixty-
four skills. The paper describes an ancient text which deals with a skill
”Dhatwoushadhisanyog” which means combination of metals ,herbs
and fire, with the object of purification of metals and preparation of
rejuvenation medicines.
Chemistry in ancient India was known as Rasayan Shastra,
Rasatantra, Rasa Kriya or Rasa Vidya roughly translating to ‘Science of
Liquids’.
Indian Alchemy texts show the use of number of organic and inorganic
substances. These rasas or minerals were divided into Subsidiary (
Upa) and Superior (Maha Rasas).
2-History of Medieval Alchemy: In this period (9th to 14th centuries

AD.) Gold making and elixir synthesis were the two main
characteristic streams of Alchemy. These two faces depicting the
metallurgical and the physico-religious were used to convert base
metals into nobler ones and also internally for rejuvenating and

purifying the body and leading it to an immortal and imperishable
state. Though the original ancient texts on alchemy are in Sanskrit,
number of texts are available in Tamil, Bengali, Hindi, Kannada,
Telugu and Oriya also. Numerous Indian texts have been written on
alchemy. Out of these some sixteen texts are easily available.
3-Mercury: In the Rasashastra texts mercury (Parad) is referred to as

the King of Rasas though it is a metal. It was considered to possess
divine properties and the most potent of all substances due to its
heavy weight, fluidity, silvery shining appearance and its property of
combining with other substances readily. Before it could transform
human body or metals, Mercury had to undergo 18
processes(samaskaras). These samaskaras were,
 Steaming or heating using water bath (Svedana)

 Grinding (Mardana)
 Swooning or making mercury lose its form (Murchana)
 Revival of form (Utthapana)
 Sublimation or distillation (Patana)
 Potentiation (Rodhana)
 Restraining (Niyamana)
 Stimulation or kindling (Sandipana)
 Consumption of essence of mica (Gaganabhaksana)
 Amalgamation (Carana)
 Internal liquefaction (Garbhadruti)
 External liquefaction (Bahyadruti)
 Calcinations (Jarana:
 Dyeing (Ranjana)
 Blending for transformation (Sarana)
 Acquiring power of transformation or penetration (Sankramana)
 Transmutation (Vedhana)
 Becoming fit for internal use (Sevana).
4-RasarNava: RasarNava is an ancient Indian Sanskrit

text,belonging to 10th century. It comprises of eighteen chapters. The

text describes various minerals and metals. It also mentions some 154
botanical species , parts of which are needed for chemical reactions.
The text contains detailed descriptions of various complex

metallurgical processes, and descriptions of how to set up and equip a
laboratory and other topics concerning Indian alchemy. It is a work
that synthesises the writings and opinions of several earlier authors
and presents a coherent account of medieval Indian alchemy.
5-Terminology used in RasarNav: The text mentions hundreds of

terms for metals, minerals, alloys, crucibles, implements,botanical
species and natural polymers used in Rasayanshastra. Only few terms
, shown in below, indicate the high level of technical knowledge of
ancient Indian Sages.
Sanskrit English
Metals
Hem,Hiranya, Kanak Gold
Chandra, Rajat, Taar Silver
Naag/ Sees /Ahi/UraN Lead
Jasad, Tutth, Yashad Zinc
Tamra /Shulb Copper
Shyamamayaloh , Shyam , Iron
Krushnaloha , Ayas, Loh
Paarad, Ras, Chapal, Soot, Mercury
Harbeej
Trap/ Kuteel/Vangl Tin
Ayaskanti Mangenese
RiTi / Bhandranjan Cobalt
Chapal Bismuth

Alloys
Aar/ Pittal/Riti Brass
KasyakrushN /Kantloh Cast Iron
GhoSh krushN Bell metal
Minerals/Ores
Abhrak/Gagan Mica, Four types
Gairik Red ochure
Mruddarshrungee Cymmema Sylvstre
Nagagarbha / Sindur Lead Oxide PbO
Neelanjan Galena, Sulphide of
lead, PbS
Raktagandhpaarad Cinnabar- Mercuric
Sulphide
Surma / Varnag, Antimony
TruNkanT Amber -a fossil resin
6-Relevance of RasarNav : RasarNav includes information which is
relevant to modern sciences also. The Table below briefly shows the
information.
Chapter , Information
Verses
4, 43 Preparationof crucibles for purificatio
of gold and siver.
4,49-51 Metal identification based on color of
flame.
6, 126-129 Vaikrant (precious stone, inferior to
diamond) -types and properties.
7,67-73 Sulphur –its types and purification
7, 96-98 classifies metals into four classes
1. Lohvarg –Gold, silver, copper,

Tin, steel, Lead,
2. Saarloh - Gold, silver,
3. SaadharaN loh –Copper and iron,
4. Pootikaloh –Tin and Lead.
7,57-73 Sulphur, properties and purifiaction
method
9,9 Acids to disolve every thing –aqua
regia
10, 32-37 Weights and measures used in
Rasashastra
11,1-10 mercury,purification
12,259 -265 Medicinal properties of water of hot
water spring (Matapur Geysor,MS)
16,16 Liquification of precious stones
7-Remarkable statements: Only two statements are produced below
to highlight the importance of the text, RasarNava chapter 4 ,verses
49-52, contains two remarkable statements as shown below,
 “When metals , pre-coated (with herbs), are heated in a crucible, it

emits different shades of color. Gold, Silver, Copper, tin, Lead and
steel yields yellow, white, blue , pigeon grey, smokey grey and black
shades of color respectively” . Modern flame photometer gives the
same results.
 “A pure metal is that which, when melted in a crucible, does not give
off sparks, nor bubbles, nor spurts, nor emits any sound nor shows
any lines on the surface but is tranquil as a gem”. Modern metallugists
agree with this statement.
Conclusions
 Ancient Indian Alchemy encompassed physics, medicine, astrology,
mysticism, spiritualism, and art.

 By the late 18th century, the field of chemistry had fully separated
from traditional alchemy and focused on questions relating to the
composition of matter.
 In the context of modern sciences many parts of information given in
the text is relevant even today,
 The mythical (Ununderstood) procedures mentioned in the text need
further reseach by team of Sanskrit scholars, botanist, chemical and
metallurgical engineers
References
 Tripathi Indra Dev (1978),”RasarNava(10th century AD),Hindi

translation, pub.by by Chaukhamba Sanskrit office, Varanasi.
 Rasayan shastra in ancient india,
http://www.indianscriptures.com/vedic-knowledge/contribution-to-the-
world/chemistry/rasayan-shastra-in-ancient-india
 Tripathi Indra Dev (2006),” Rasaratna Samuchchaya of
Vagbhatacharya”, Published by Chaukhamba Sanskrit office,
Varanasi.
 Satpute ,Ashok,(1990),”Rasaratna Samuchchaya: Text with
English Translation.
 Rasaratna Samuchaya,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasaratna_Samuchaya
 Desai, W.G.(1928),Bharatiya Rasashastra
(Marathi),Pub.Ayurvediya Granthmala, 366 Laxminivas,Kalbadevi
Road, Mumbai.
****.***

E12
Introduction to ancient text “Sakaladhikara and its relevance to
Modern Ground Improvement and Soil Stabilization
Paper presented at Pune Conference 2017
Keywords: Ancient Indian Technology, Ground Improvement,

Microsoft Word.
ABSTRACT: The paper presents an ancient Indian text
“Sakaladhikara”. The text mainly deals with clay iconography. It deals
with three skills (out of total 64) mentioned in ancient engineering
philosophy (Shilpashastra). The three skills or arts are a) Collection of
soils for a specific purpose (Mrutsadhan), b) Soil conditioning
(Mrutkarm) and c) Wood working (Daroo karm).
The first to skills are also related to modern science of “Soil Mechanics
and ground improvement in particular. The chapter on clay molding
contains world’s first ancient reference on Geosynthetics. The chapter
mentions use of coir rope for mud iconography. The information refers
to coir threads representing human veins as mentioned in modern
anatomy. More information from texts such as Shatapath BramhaN
and Kapi Samhita is also presented in the paper. The information in
these texts has scientific background and can be very useful to
modern scientists and engineers.
Introduction: Iconography is one of the innumerable arts of India. This
art is based on amusement and philosophy. Though there are many
ancient texts, Sakaladhikar is the only text which deals with all
aspects of iconography. Two manuscripts of the Sanskrit text are
available at Tanjore and Adyyar libraries. Tamil, Hindi and English
commentaries are now available in print book form. The text contains

23 chapters and subject wise this information can be grouped under
following heads;
1. Units of measurements -Chapter 1
2. Specifications part for different idols , chapter 2 to 5
3. Idols of Shiva –Chapters 6 to 18
4. Materials for idol making, Chapters 19 to 21
5. Painting of the idol, chapter 22
6. Painting of eyes , Chapter 23
1-Units of measurements: The height of idol depends upon the

height of temple in which the idol is to be installed. The dimensions
of idol are described in this part. ANu was the smallest unit
(0.00715 mm).The table below shows units of linear
measurements.
Table 1- Units of linear measurements
8 ANu =1 RajakaN 8 RajakaN= 1 Baalaagra
8 Baalaagra= 1 Liksha 8 Liksha = 1 Uka
8 Uka = 1 Yav 8 Yava =1 Angul (18.75 mm)
24 Angul = 1 Hasta (45 cm) 4 Hasta = 1 Dand (1.8 m)
In addition to these 8 basic units there are many other units and
are mentioned in Vayu PuraN.
2- Specifications part for different idols: As per the ancient Indian
iconography different idols are sculptures for male and female deities (
gods, goddesses, Yakshya , Kinnar etc). Dimensional proportions,
weapons , vehicles and postures of each deity is different. Details
3- Idols of Shiva: The text describes 16 types of idols of Lord Shiva
as listed in a table below. Each type has its own significant features.
Table 1-16 types of idols of Lord Shiva
Somaskandheshwa Chandrashekha Vrushvahan Nateshwar
r r
Gangadhar Tripurantak KalyaNsunde Ardhanaishwar

r
Pashupat Kankalmurti Harihar Bhikshatanmurti
Chandeshnugrah DakshiNeshwar Kalavinashan Lingodbhavmurt
i
Such description is also available in other texts such as Mayamatam,
Kashyapashilp and Agam granthas.
4-Materials for idol making: The text describes various materials
such as wood, stone, lime, precious stones and metals (Copper,
Bronze, cast Iron and Silver). In also describes the after effects of the
metallic idols.
a) Wood is used to make skeleton (Shool) of the clay idol. The trees
suitable for the skeleton are also described. The skeleton is made of
ten parts (similar to a human body). This part is known as
“DaroosangrahaparikshyaN –selection of timber and its testing”
b) Coir threads are tied to the wooden skeleton for reinforcement. These
threads represent the main arbitraries of a human body. This process
is known as “Rajjubandhan -tying of threads”.
c) Clayey soil is used impart mass and shape of idol. The skeleton is
plastered with a special type of clay. Details of preparation of the clay
plaster material are described. This part is known as “Mrutsanskar –
selection and preparation of molding clay”
5-Painting of the idol: The clay idol is further coated with cotton
cloth and base coat of white color is applied. This part is known as
“VarNasanskaar –Coloring of the idol”.
6 - Painting of eyes: The eyes and the expressions of any idol is the
most important part of the idol. This final part is assigned to a special
artisan. This part is known as “AkshyimokshyaN – opening of eyes”.
After this work is idol is installed with specific religious worships and
then it is made open for devotees.

Relevance of Sakaladhikara: Relevance of Sakaladhikara in the
context of modern science and technology is discussed in the following
paragraphs.
1. There was a systematic measurement system for linear dimension,
mass and time in ancient India.
2. As per chapter 19, only selective trees are used in preparation of
wooden skeleton. The names of suitable trees are listed below,
Sandalwo Teak Cecheko Black tree
od (Saag) (Khadir) (Shishamp
(Chandan) )
Butter Ebony (Dhanwa (Saptapar

tree (Padma k) N)
(Madhuk) k)
Timber of all these trees is very durable and not attacked by white
ants. For protection of ecology following trees are declared unsuitable,
 which supports nests of birds,
 partially grown up trees,
 Situated on road sides or near religious places,
 Grown in polluted ground.
Unlike modern botany, which classifies all tress into two categories,
ancient Indian botany classified the trees according the hard core,
gender, age and color. The chapter 19 mentions three genders (male,
female and neural)band their symptoms.
***.***

E13
Sanskrit Lexicons of Ancient India
Available on Web
Introduction: Shabdakosh or lexicons are encyclopedias of words.

The first Shabdakosh or lexicon known as Nighantu was compiled in a
period 2000 B.C approximately. This text, referred by many composers
of lexicons, is not available now.
The Nighantus are the glossaries or lists of rare and obscure words
occurring in the Vedic hymns. According to Yaska Muni they were
collected and classified by the descendants of ancient sages for the
easier understanding of the Vedic texts.
The Nirukta is a famous work of Yaska. It is the oldest Indian Treatise
on Etymology, Philology and Semantics. This being a commentary on
the Nighantus, collection of obscure words which tradition ascribes also
to Yaska, follows the three-fold division of the contents of the
Nighantus.
Subsequently the word Nighantu became equivalent word to lexicon.
The nature of lexicons changed from time to time. The noun, verb,
adjective, proper noun related to a specific word were included. The
work of compilation of a lexicon was considered as an art and was
included in sixty-four art of engineering. This art was named as
Abhdhiyan Shastra. The ancient lexicons were arranged alphabetically
as these are arranged in present times.
Un-available Lexicons: There were many lexicons which were
referred by next generation but are not available now. Authors of such
lexicons are;
1-Bhaguri ,2-Bopalit ,3-Durgasingh (Hugga ,4-Katya ,5-Rabhas ,
6-Rantidev, 7-Vachaspati (ShabdarNav),
8-Vararuchi,9-Vikramaditya (Sansaravart) and 10-Vyadi (Utpalini),

 The names in bracket are the titles of the lexicons.
Available Lexicons: The oldest available lexicon is

“Namalinganushasan or Amarakosh” of Amar Simha. He belonged to
the period of King Vikramaditya of 7th century. There are 80
commentaries available on the text. No other Sanskrit text has
received such attention. The book Amarkosha comprises of three
volumes and each volume has numerous chapters.
The first volume “Heaven and others” has words pertaining to gods
and heavens. The second volume, "Earth and others" deals with words
about earth, towns, animals and humans. The third volume "Common"
has words related to grammar and other miscellaneous words.
The text was basically composed for the use by poets or writers. Most
of the verses are in a specific poetic meter (Anushtupa Chanda).
The lexicon “Anekarth Samucchyaya (Different name of same word)
was composed by Shashwat. This text is based on “Amar Kosh”.
The authors and titles of other lexicons, compiled during 10 th to 17th
century, are given in a table below.
10th Century
Author Title & Brief Description
MahakshyapaNak Anekartha Dhwanimanjiri
Halayudh Abhidhan Ratnamala
Dhanapal Prakrutlakshmi
Yadavprakash Vaijayanti consists of 43 chapters and 3500
words
11th Century
Raja Bhja Bhojan Nighantu
Ajaypal Nanartha Sangraha

Mankh Anekarthkosh
12th Century
DharaNidas Anekartha Saar
Dhananjaya 1 Namamala or Nighantusamay.
Dhananjaya 2 Paryay Shabdaratna Sanskrut with Talagu
script.
Maheshvara Vishvaprakash –mentions exact year of
composition i.e. 1112
PurushottamDeo 1. Trikandkosh
2. Haravali
3. Ekaksharkosh
4. Dwirupkosh
5. VarNadeshna
Hemachandra (A Jain 1. Abhidhan ChitamaNi
Muni) 2. Anekarth Sangraha

3. Deshinam Mala
4. Nighantushash on Botanical terms.
13th to 15th Century
Keshavswami NanartharNavsamkshepa
Medinikar Nanarthashabdakosh
Shridhar Sen Viswalochan or Muktavali
Padmanath Datta Bhuriprayoga
Mahip Shabdaratnakar and Anekarthtilak
Erugapa Nanartharatnamala
Raghav Nanarthamanjiri
Vamanbhatt BaNa Shabdaratnakar and Shabdachandrika
Makarand Das Paramandiya Namamala
Harshkirti 1. Sharadiyakhyanmala
2. Anekarth-Namamala
3. Shabdanekarth

16th Century
Appyadikshit Namasangrahmala
16th Century
Shahaji Raje of Shabdaratna Samanvaya and Shabdarth

Tanjore Sangraha
Mahadev Ekaksharkosh and Avyayakosh
Shriharsha Dwirupakosha and Sankhyakosh
unknown authors Vastuvidyankosh (on Physics)
Vaidyakiya Kosh (Medical- 25 in numbers)
Jyotishyakosh ( Astrology -5 in numbers)
Bi-lingual lexicons by Sanskrit to Kannada- 2Nos.
unknown authors Persian to Sanskrit - 4Nos.
Sanskrit to Nepali
Sanskrit to Tibetan
17th Century
Raghunath Pandit Rajavyavharkosh Marathi,Farsi and Telagu
minister of Shiwaji equivalent words of Sanskrit.
Raje
Conclusion: The ancient Indian lexicons are essential tools of study of

the Sanskrit language. Composing a lexicon was considered as an art
and was patronized by various rulers of India.
Acknowledgement: This article is based on chapter 21 of the book

by Velankar.(Ref.5)
References
1. Amarakosha, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarakosha

2. Claus Vogel, (1979),”Indian lexicography -A History of Indian
literature; Vol. 5. Scientific and Technical Literature. Fasc. 4.) Viii, pp.
303–401. DM 48, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz
3. Hemchandracharya , “Abhidhan Chintamani Kosh” published by
Devchand Lalbhai Jain Pustakoddhar Samstha , Jain eLibrary Website –
www.jainelibrary.org , Folder No. 016087.
4. Lakshman Sarup, The Nighantu and The Nirukta (London, H.
Milford 1920-29), Repr. Motilal Banarsidass 2002, ISBN 81-208-
1381-2.
5. Velankar, S.B.(1985), “Physical Sciences of ancient India”, a Marathi
book published by Ms K.B. Dhavle, Girgaon Mumbai, chapter 21,pp
114-117.
**

F1
Gadi soils –A case study of soil stabilization with natural polymers
Article based on local visit and Newspaper cutting Dated 18 Aug.2003
Introduction: Gadi is a local name for small mud forts existing in many
parts of Maharashtra. Such mud forts were constructed using locally
available soil after stabilizing it with natural polymers as organic
additives. Mud constructions with such soils, have a distinctive color-
whitish-grey, different from that of a local soil. These stabilized soils
have a time hardening property like that of cement. The paper
presents engineering properties of
Gadi soils collected from different parts of the state. Paper also
presents case studies of such soils. This ancient technique, if
scientifically developed, may help in low cost rural housing involving
adobe construction.
Chemical stabilization of soil includes soil selection, treatment
with additives.
Such soil is used for brick earth, mud walls, bricks, plastering, and
outer coat of idols, pottery and other objects.
Functions of soil plasticizers are;
• Increase the workability with minimum water content
• Increase the water repellent property
• Increase the strength by increasing the density
• Impart glazing to pottery products.
Ancient plasticizers can be grouped as
 Extracts of herbs, fruits and tree barks: Trifala- Aamla, Hirda
and Behada, Wood apple, Holy tree fruit, Barks- Khadir, Arjun
trees.
 Natural fibers: Cotton, coir, wool, silk cotton or jute.

 Natural polymers : Cow Dung, Jiggery, Coconut water, Eggs,
Green Algae, rice husk, burnt coconut shell.
Mud Forts
The ancient Indian texts on Vastushastra mention six types of forts.
One of these six types is Mahi Durg or the mud fort. In rural parts of
Maharashtra one can find many mud forts or Gadi. These were mainly
constructed for protection against dacoits or aggression. The height
and size of such construction is much more than normal structures.
Gadis were constructed to last few centuries without any major
repairs. The soil for mortar or plastering was specially prepared at the
site.
Preparation of Gadi Soil
The locally available soil is stabilized by addition of organic additives.
The constituents and proportions of the mud are shown in the table 1
below. The proportions however may vary from place to place.
Table 1- The constituents and proportions of
Gadi soil
Constituents Proportion by
volume weight
Local soil * 10 Gamelans 50 kg

Fine sand 1 Gamela 5.5 kg
Cow dung 1 Gamela 5.3 kg
Paddy straw 0.5 Gamela 1.8 kg

Hemp or Jute fibers 0.1 Gamela 0.1 kg
Pulp of Belphal ** 2 No. 0.2 kg
Water# 20-25 liters 20-25 kg
* Free from gravels ,** Fruit of Holy tree (Aegle
marmelos -Bilva tree),
# Adequate amount of water to roll the soil into a
plastic mass.

The mixture is allowed to mature for a minimum period of 30 days and
kneaded every day. A small lump of matured soil is rolled into a ball
and immersed in water, if the clay ball does not disintegrate then it is
assumed that the process is complete, otherwise the processes is
continued for few more days. Such 150-200 year old mud forts still
exist in many parts of India. Villagers use the soil for plastering the
walls and floors of their mud houses.
Case Studies
Dhamangaon (Gadi):
A strong white mud fort exists at Dhamangaon (Gadi), district
Achalpur. The fort has (boundary walls on all four sides. The walls are
constructed using white soil. The crest of the wall is wide enough to
ply a bullock cart on its top. The fort has a history of 250 years. The
walls are so thick that elephant used to sit in the hollow portion of the
wall. The fort has tower (Burj) and moat to attack the outside enemy.
Now the structure is in dilapidated state. Only thick and tall mud wall
still exist. The ruminant parts are the witnesses of old glory of the fort.
The white soil of the dilapidated fort is very useful and many water
wells in 10 km area are constructed using this soil. The walls are
stronger that cement walls. Many houses are constructed with this soil.
The soil used to be sold by cart loads.
The soil of Dhamangaon (Gadi) has surpassed cement. Wells
constructed with this soil 35 years ago are still intact. A strong white
mud fort exists at Dhamangaon (Gadi), district Achalpur. The fort has
parkot (boundary walls) on all four sides. The walls are constructed
using white soil. The crest of the wall is wide enough to ply a bullock
cart on its top. The fort has a history of 250 years. The fort was
inhabited by a family named “Phatkar”

The fort is deserted and no person stays there. There was place for
elephants. The walls are so thick that elephant used to sit in the hollow
portion of the wall. There were arrangements of steal chains and
wooden logs for tying the elephants. Now the structure is in
dilapidated state. Only thick and tall mud wall still exist.
The fort has burj and moat to attack the outside enemy. The site is
now inhabited by bats. the dilapidated fort is known as Gadi. The
ruminant parts are the witnesses of old glory of the fort. The owner of
the fort is Dadarao Phatkar is physically tired old person.
The white soil of the dilapidated fort is very useful and many water
wells in 50 km area are constructed using this soil. The walls are
stronger that cement walls. Many houses are constructed with this soil.
The soil used to be sold by cart loads.
Initially the cost of soil was half a rupee for a cart load soil. But
subsequently the cost increased from two to twelve rupee. For last
fifteen years the sale of Gadi soil is closed but it has a posed a
challenge to big cement companies.
Mud Temple at Mhavshi:
A village Pargaon-Khandala is situated at 8 km from Shirwal. A small
village Mhavshi is 3 km from Pargaon-Khandala. A mud temple (100-
200 A.D. period.) exits in this village. According to experts it was a
constructed as granary which was subsequently converted into a
temple. The structure has underground rooms with arch doors. The
entire structure is constructed with sun baked mud bricks. The soil
used for molding mud brick is scattered in surrounding area. The color
of brick earth
is whitish grey and different from that of agricultural soil. The special
feature

of this granary is its conical shape with an opening at the top for air
circulation for the underground rooms. The mud temple has two
underground entrances of 2 m height. There are twelve conical
structures with an approximate height of 2.5 m. In one such structure
a deity of goddess Hingalai is installed. Historical documents do not
mention the name of this Mhavshi village. The ancient structure is
survived mainly because it was converted into a temple. But unless
this heritage structure is maintained properly, it would collapse in
future.
Mud fort at Dhamgaon(Gadi) Ancient Mud granary
Laboratory Investigations
Laboratory investigation involving tests to ascertain engineering
properties of Gadi on soil samples from different parts of the state is
necessary.
References
1. Mud fort at Dhamgaon (Gadi)-News paper article Daily Tarun Bharat
Dated 18 Aug.2003.
2. The wonderful Mud Temple at Mhavshi-An article published in daily
Sakal, Pune, dated 22 July 2007.
3. Nene, A.S. (2009), Building Materials and Construction Techniques
of ancient India, E –Book published on web site of BookGanga.com.

F2
Ground Improvement and Soil Stabilization Techniques
of Ancient India
National Conference on Recent Advances in Ground Improvement
Techniques, February 24-25, 2011, CBRI Roorkee, India.
ABSTRACT: The paper presents ancient Indian techniques of ground

improvement and soil stabilization as depicted in ancient texts such as
Veda, Puranas, and Shilpa Samhitas etc. These techniques may be
irrelevant and impracticable in modern era but one must appreciate
the wisdom of ancient Indian engineers.
Keywords: Ancient Indian Technology, Ground Improvement,
Microsoft Word.
1. INTRODUCTION
Engineering sciences were very advanced in India in ancient period
(5,000 BC – 1500 AD). More than thousand texts (Shilpasamhitas) can
be mentioned on the various engineering sciences. Approximately five
hundred such texts are preserved, in the form of manuscript on palm
leaves, tree barks, etc in some of the libraries of oriental research
institutes and museums.
The information in these texts has scientific background and can be
very useful to modern scientists and engineers. Unfortunately modern
engineers and scientists, ,have not paid proper attention to this
ancient literature mainly due to lack of knowledge of the language
(Sanskrit) or due to improper translation and interpretation of this
information by non-technical academicians.
One must know certain frequently used Sanskrit terms which are
related to the subject. Sanskrit names and words are shown in italics.
• Shilpa - The Sanskrit word Shilpa has a very wide meaning, other

than
sculpture or idol. Shilpa includes many articles (things), machines,
innovations, metals, and artificial means. The word Shilpa is derived
from
words Sheel samadhou which mean anything that pleases the mind.
Sage
Bhrugu has given a definition of Shilpa.
• Shilpashastra means a science which deals with creation of a Shilpa
• Shilpasamhita means compilation of rules and procedures related to
a
particular Shilpa. The exact period in which Shilpa-Samhitas i.e.
compilations
were made is not known.
• Vidya means a specific technique. One must have both theoretical
and
practical knowledge of that subject. There are 32 Vidyas related to
Shilpashashtra.
• Kala means an art which can be acquired by practice and
observation. Even a handicapped person can be expert in a particular
art without any theoretical knowledge.
Sage Bhrugu has divided all sciences into ten Shastras, thirty-two
Vidyas and sixtyfour Kalas. The Vidyas and Kalas related to soil
stabilization are shown in a table below. (Ref.18)
Table 1- Vidyas and Kalas related to soil stabilization
Vidyas 8.Bhasmikaran(Calcinations)
Kalas 27. Estikadibhajan- Making of bricks, roof tiles etc
48. Mrutsadhan- Collection of soils for a specific purpose
53. Mrutkarm- Soil conditioning

Soil stabilization practices, mentioned in the ancient texts are based of
vast
experience; close observation and knowledge of properties of materials
.The
references from ancient Indian literature also confirm this. These
references on this subject can be grouped under two heads, namely
Ground improvement and Soil stabilization.
2. GROUND IMPROVEMENT
Earliest reference on sol stabilization can be found in ancient texts.
Shatapatha Brahman, Chapter 21(Ref.9) mentions that "Then the
ground was stabilized (by Gods) using gravels and boulders, as a
cobbler stretches the leather by driving nails". Kapi Samhita, chapter
6 (Ref.5) also states “The marshy land was stabilized by gods using
sands ”Vishwakarma Vastushashtra (Ref.14) describes procedures and
materials for ground improvement. It describes in detail the method of
compaction of foundation pits using rammers of the size of elephant's
foot and use of brick-bats, boulders, sand and clay in proper
proportion in combination with water. In ancient period towns were
protected by constructing huge and thick peripheral walls (Moat).
Archeological investigations at Harappa confirm the existence of such
walls. A deep trench outside the proposed wall was excavated. The
excavated soil was loaded on elephants and the soil was dumped at
the wall site. The soil was watered
and compacted by feet of elephants or wooden rammer of the size of
elephant's foot.
Samarangana Sutradhara, (Ref.8) and Shilpa Prakash (Ref.10)
mentions a procedure of excavation of foundation pits and filling by

gravels and sand, saturating and compacted by rammer. The soil used
to be compacted in layers and not as whole.
Ancient Indians knew about quick sand condition. Amarkosha of Raja
Amar Singh (Ref.2), an ancient lexicon (dictionary type text) gives
thirty-eight names of different types of land. The quicksand is termed
as “Bandhoudak" or water which holds a person or animal. Such soils
were stabilized by draining excess water through sand drains
connected to river etc.
Bhrugusamhita (Ref.4) has a mention about stabilization of marshy
land by
dewatering. Anup lands (lands where ground water table is high) are
usually marshy.
Series of parallel drains in perpendicular directions are to be
excavated. These excavated drains are filled with stones and
connected to streams. Such drains dewater and help in soil
stabilization.
In ancient days suitable sites were in abundance. Unsuitable
construction sites were totally rejected. Most of the eighteen Puranas
(Agni Purana Ref.1 etc) contain a separate chapter entitled as Desh
Nirnaya or Bhumi Pariksha which means site selection and site
investigations. Author has described the ancient soil investigation
practices elsewhere (Ref .17 and 18).
3. SOIL STABILIZATION
In this method soil is excavated, treated and transported to
construction site. The stabilized soils were mainly used for adobe
construction (mud walls, bricks, pottery, plastering, and flooring).Such
soils were also used for outer coats of idols and other objects. Many
references, from Vedic period (5000 BC) to 15th century AD, about soil
stabilization methods are available.

3.1 Natural soil plasticizers: Nowadays Concrete plasticizers are
used to increase workability of a concrete. Natural soil plasticizers
were similarly used in ancient India to improve the quality of soil to be
used for different purposes. The functions of these natural soil
plasticizers were to,
• Increase the plasticity with the same water content
• Increase the strength by increasing the density.
The various types of ancient plasticizers can be grouped as;
 Herbal extracts -Decoction of certain herbs such as Trifala were
used. Trifala is mixture of equal quantity of dry powdered Aamla
(Emblica fficinalis) Hirda (Teminalia chebula) and Behada
(Teminalia Billerica) The decoction (or kwath) is prepared by
boiling the solution of Trifala in water, till the volume of liquid is
reduced to one-fourth of its original volume. The solution is
cooled before application. (Shilpa Ratna Ref.11)
 Fruit extracts- The pulp of certain Indian fruits, such as Wood
apple (KapitthaLimonia acidissima), Holy tree (Bilwa-Aegle
marmelos) Tendu (Tinduk Dioscoreo peniculata) etc is highly
sticky. The pulp of such fruits is added to soil and allowed for
maturation for a minimum period on 30 days and the mixture
has to be thoroughly kneaded frequently (once a day).
Aparajitpruccha ,Ref.3
 Barks of tress- Dry barks of certain milky trees, such
Shrivruksha (Turpentine tree) or Palash (Flame of forest tree-
Butea frondosa) etc as are boiled in water to prepare a
decoction. Vastu Vidya Savyakhya, Ref.13

 Natural fibers - Natural fibers were added to soil. The fibers were
obtained from flowers and fruits of Shalmali (silk cotton tree),
coir, jute, flax etc. Sakaladhikar,Ref.7
 Natural polymers - Various natural polymers used to be added to
ancient construction materials (mud, lime, mortars paints etc).
These polymers were green algae, moss, coconut water, cow-
dung, pastes of black gram, Jaggaery solution etc.
Tantrasamuchhyaya Ref.12
3.2 Brick making: Yajur Veda, Chapter 13 mentions a name of Sage

Medhatithi as a designer of bricks (Eshtika) which were used to
construct Yajna Kund (sacrificial fire tank). Yajurvedsamhita (Ref.15,
ch.11) mentions about method of preparation bricks and a special type
of pot (Ukha). The soil was stabilized by adding hairs of goat, fine
sand, iron slag and stone dust. This soil is used for making square
bricks. More details are available in Ref.16 (Kulkarni, R.P.) 3.3
Stabilization of fire clays
Soil crucibles were used for melting metals like copper, silver or gold
and casts for molding the idols. Soils were stabilized for such uses so
that it can sustain very high temperatures of molten metal. Manasollas
(Ref.6) describes the stabilization of outer coat of soil. As per this text
for casting idols of copper, gold or silver, a good soil is mixed with rice
husk, cotton fibers and salts and the mixture is grinded. After three
days the cast is coated with this mixture for first layer. The second and
third coat is applied after two days and drying of previous coat.
3.3 Mud plasters- Two ancient texts namely Sakaladhikar Ref. 7 and
hilparatna Ref.11 gives details of mud plastering. Each contains a
separate chapter is devoted on mudplasters. Sakaladhikar is the first
ancient reference on natural geo-textiles. Use of coir strings and
cotton fibers, to strengthen the mud plaster, is discussed in detail in

this
text. It recommends that the water content of the soil for plastering
should be such that when a wet clay ball rolled on the palm, the lines
of palm are printed on the clay ball ( may be called as Palm Line Limit-
PLL) As per author’s experience this water content, PLL corresponds to
liquidity index of 0.35 to 0.45. It indicates that ancient Indian
sculptors had the practical knowledge of consistency limits of clays.
3.4 Adobe floors :Floors made from poured and toweled mud, are
softer and warmer to the touch than tiles or cement, and carry the rich
colors of natural earth. Various additives have been tested to make
adobe floors easy to create and maintain. One additive is made from
psyllium hulls, a commonly known as Isabgol. This additive makes the
mud easy to work and acts as a binder when the floor dries. It reduces
cracking and increases strength.
3.5 Case Studies
Two case studies are presented to explain ancient stabilization
methods.
A. Gadi soils: These are special types artificially stabilized soil. Such
soils were mainly used for construction of Gadhis or Havelis of rich
persons. Such Gadis still exist in many parts of Maharashtra (India).
The soils from such abandoned building are now commonly used by
poor persons for mud plastering. Such soils possess some thixotropic
properties and impart great strength on drying. The constituents and
procedures of preparations were secrets till recent times. The main
constituents of Gadi soil are local soil, fine sand, cow dung, lime,
extracts of Belphal (Holy tree fruit-Aegle marmelos), fibers of jute and
water for mixing. The mixture is allowed to
mature for a minimum period of 30 days and kneaded every day. If a
clay ball of prepared soil does not does not disintegrate when

immersed in water, then the procedure is considered successful.
Recent at Latur earthquake showed that houses constructed with
Gadhi soils were more earthquake resistant.
B. Mud flooring : The Padmanabhapurum palace in Kerala was
constructed around 1601 A.D by Kulasekhara Perumal. It has unique
flooring. The black lustrous floors of the palace are still so shiny that
one can see one’s reflection in them. But it is not the glitter of mosaic,
granite or marble. The floors were made of a material that is unique
blend of burnt coconut shells, lime, palm toddy, the whites of eggs and
crushed extracts of certain barks of trees and nuts. Modern engineers
and artisans are
still unable to replicate the flooring. (Fig.1)
Fig.1-Flooring of Padmanabhapurum palace in Kerala
4. CONCLUSIONS
From the review of ancient Indian literature presented herein, it can be
concluded that,
 Ancient Indian engineers and artisans had deep knowledge
about ground
improvement and stabilization techniques.
 Many of the ancient Indian techniques may not be relevant as
modern methods and materials are more cost effective. But
one must appreciate the ancient Indian knowledge which was
centauries ahead of that available in rest of the world.
 Kautilya (350 B.C - 283 B.C) has advised that "One should
review the past with modern perspective-Navam Anaven
Shodhayet". Hence there is a need to preserve this treasure
of ancient Indian traditions.
REFERENCES
1. Agnipuran - Pub. Anandashram Sanskrit Granthawali, No. 41.
Poona
2. Amarkosha- (11th Century) Edited by G.C. Deo, Published by
Sharada Krida Press, Mumbai (1905).
3. Aparajitprichha (12th to 13th Century A.D.), Bhuvana Dev
Acharya, Gaikkwad Oriental Series No. 65.
4. Bhrugusamhita, Ed by K.V. Vaze Unpublished, Another version
"Bhrugu Sutra" Pub. By V.R. Shashtralu & Sons, Madras.
5. Kapisamhita- Pub. Chaukhamba Series New Delhi.
6. Manasollas -1113 AD text, edited by Shri G K Shrigondekar,
Published by Gaikkwad Oriental Series No. 28, Baroda.
7. Sakaladhikar- - Ed by V.G. Iyengar, Published by Saraswati
Mahal Library, TSM Series No. 141(1973), Thanjavur.
8. Samarangana Sutradhara, Samarangana Sutradhara- (11th
Century A.D.), Gaikkwad OrientalSeries No. 25, Baroda.
9. Shatapatha Brahman (1400 BC) - Pub. By Prachin
Vaidyanikadhyan Anusandhan, Institute New Delhi,
10. Shilpa Prakash - Editor Alice Boner and Sadashiv Ratha
Sharma, Publisher, E. Jabriel, Leaden,Netherlands 11.
Shilparatna (16 Century A.D.) - Pub. by Gaikkwad oriental series
No. 23 Baroda.

11. Tantrasamuchhyaya-(1428 A.D.) Anantha Shayana
Sanskrit Series No. 151
12. Vastu Vidya Savyakhya - Pub. By Trivendrum Sanskrit
Series No. 142, Trivendrum.
13. Vishwakarma Vastushashtra (Vishwakarma), Edited by K.
Vasudevan Shastri, Thanjavur Saraswati Mahal Series No. 85,
1971,
14. Yajurved Samhita (B.C.2500), Published by M/s Khemraja
Krishnadas New Delhi.
15. Kulkarni, R.P (1973), "Bharatiya Shilpa Sastra aur mitti ka
sthirikaran", Journal of Institution of Engineers Hindi section, Vol
.53.
16. Nene, A.S. (1986) "Environmental Geotechnology as
Depicted in Ancient Indian Literature" Proc. International
Symposium on Environmental Geotechnology, Allentown
(U.S.A.), April 21-
23 1986, Vol. 2.11
17. Nene, A.S. (2010) "Hindi Shilpa shastra", Marathi book
Published by Nachiket Prakashan, Nagpur, ISBN-978-93-80232-
13-3.
***.***

F3
Soil Stabilization for Mud sculpture
Kashyap Shilpa -Chapter 83, Verses 1 to 26
There are three types of soils (lands) namely
 Jangal,Sammishra and Anup.
 Jangal- The land is difficult to dig even 20mm.
 Anup –The land is soft to dig a pit of 1 m depth. The soil has less
content of sand.
 Sammishra- The land which is medium hard.
 The soil deposited on a river bank should be collected. The color
of the soil can be of white, red, yellow or black .The wet soil
should be stored in a pot for draining of water. The moist and
soft soil is taken out and mixed with decoction of barks of milky
trees and lac and mixed thoroughly and small lumps (clay balls)
should be prepared. Decoction is prepared mixing one part of
tree barks and eight parts of water. The mixture is boiled till it
reduces to one part. This decoction is called Kwaath. Another
Sanskrit text Shilparatna (part 2,19.6) mentions that adequate
quantity of decoction of barks of Khadir and Arjun trees should
be mixed with moist soil to form stiff mixture and further
decoction of Trifala should be added to make soft lumps of soil
and rolled to make plastic soil mass ,
 The consistency of soil mass should be such that lines of palms
make imprint on it and it can be rolled into thread of 20 mm (8
Barley seeds).
 Boulders of size 20 cm size should be crushed to fine powder.
Fine sand (one fourth of the crushed boulders) should be added.
Decoction of Trifala (Dry seeds of three fruits, Amalaki, Haritaki

and Behda) should be added and such mixture should be
kneaded for ten, eight of seven days.
 The mixture should be added powder of flour of barley, wheat,
black gram and leaves of linseed plant (one eight part). The
mixture should be kneaded for seven or eight days. The mixture
should be added with resins (Shreeveshtak, Guggul and Kundruk
). The proportion should ne one fifteenth and further kneaded for
ten days.
 The mixture should be added with dry ginger, Pippali, Pepper
and turmeric in equal part (one tenth part)
 The mixture should be added with honey, milk and ghee. Further
resins of wood apple (Kapith) and Holy tree (Bilva) and oil. The
proportion should be one-fifteenth. Minerals such as red ochre
and orpiment should be also added. Equal parts of Sandal wood
powder, Agaru and Gorochan should be then added (proportion
one-thirtieth )
 The mixture should be added with soils of different directions of
agricultural land, small quantity of powder of gold, silver and
pearls.
 Fibers of coconut husk should be added (one-fourth part).
 The wooden skeleton should be covered with mud plaster. The
thickness can be 2 to 6 cm.
 Additional coat should be applied only after previous coat is dried
completely
 The thickness of mud plaster depends upon the width of wooden
skeleton.
 Three or four coats of mud plaster may be applied.
 Thickness of layer of mud plaster may be less or more. After
some time for drying forth layer should be covered by tree barks

and remaining outer most portion should be completed with
decoction containing cotton fibers.
 Here ends the chapter 83 on Soil Stabilization. Next chapter is
on preparation of decoctions
***.***
Glossary of terms
Agaru Kapittha Elephant
apple(fruit)
Amalaki Khadir
Arjun Kundruk
Behda Kwaath Decoction
Bilva Pippali
Gorochan Shreeveshtak
Guggul Trifala Dry seeds of
three fruits
Haritaki
***.***

G1
Secrets of Endurance of Ancient Indian Cave Paintings
Paper presented in Pune conference December 2016
Keywords: Ancient Indian Technology, Herbal Paints, Natural
polymers, cave paintings.
Abstract: The paper presents the secrets of endurance of cave
paintings of India. Shilpashatra is an umbrella term for engineering
philosophy of ancient India. It consists of ten Shastras, thirty-two
Vidyas and sixty-four Kalas. “Chitradyalekhan” or painting is one of
these skills. Vishnudharmottar PuraN is the most authentic text on art
of painting. Shilparatna and Manasollas are most important texts on
painting. All these texts describe basic and composite colors, method
of preparation of vegetable colors, brushes etc.
These texts also describe the various natural polymers and mortars to
be used in the preparation of base surface of the cave paintings.
Research worker associated with restoration of cave painting have
tried the various formulae mentioned in these ancient texts and have
obtained successful results. The paper presents few case studies also.
1. Introduction

The main purpose of painting is to enhance the aesthetics of any
structure. It also improves the durability by protecting from natural
weathering agents and insects etc.
The ancient Indian text Vishnudharmottara Purana is a supplement or
an appendix to the Vishnu-purana. It is generally believed to be a later
insertion into Vishnu Purana. The part three of the Vishnudharmottara
gives an account of the theories, methods, practices and ideals of
Indian paintings. Chitrasutra is that part of the Vishnudharmottara
which deals with the art of painting including preparation of pure and
composite colors and preparation of brushes for painting.
2. Basic Colors
Basic Colors - White, yellow, red, black and blue are five basic (pure)
colors. All other composite colors are made from these colors. Ref .
Vishnudharmottar PuraN.

yellow color.
with water. Vermillion is mixed in water and stirred for 12 hours.
Manashil is dry pulverized by pounding in mortar with pestle. All these
colors are mixed with resin of Neem.
mud pot is smeared with powder of dry cow dung. This pot is placed
on the first pot such that lamp black is coated inside the top pot. The
lamp black is cleaned with water before application.
or indigo and resin of wood apple.
polished with horn (of an ox or swine).
Glue- Abhilashitartha Chitamani describes preparation of hide glue.
Hide glue (Sirus or Shirus or hide glue) is prepared from fresh skin of
a buffalo cooked in water till it becomes soft as butter. Water is

sunlight. When needed the dried piece is boiled in water. This is a
substitute for resins of tree.
Brushes - Brushes (Kunchali) used for painting are of three types,
broad, medium and fine. These three types of brushes are made from
hairs of ears of calf, stomach part of sheep or tail of squirrel
respectively. A set of three brushes are required for each color.
3. Composite Colors
Composite colors were made by mixing two or more basic (pure)
colors. Table below shows how composite colors were made in ancient
time.
Table 1– Composite colors

Composite colors Basic colors to be
mixed
light Pink White + Red Gour
Shar color White + Black +Yellow
color of Elephant’s White + Black
skin
color of Bakul Red+Yellow
flower
color of flame 2 parts Red+1 part
Yellow
Fire color Dark Red+Yellow
gray color 2 parts Yellow +1 part
white

aqua color 2 parts Yellow +1 part
black
color of human skin White +Yellow
Parrot’s green color Yellow +Blue
Dark Red Shellac+Hingul
Purple color Shellac+black
Hair color Blue+black
4. Base coat for Paintings
Ancient text “Shilparatna” mentions different material and techniques
for preparing base coats . Many natural polymers are mentioned in
this text. Table below gives the list of ingredients for base coat.
Table 2-Natural Polymers for base coats

1 Ash 9 Cow dung 17 Mahuwa flowers
2 Bark of Neem 10 Egg white 18 Milk, curd or ghee
3 Bark of Pakar tree 11 Flowers of Silk 19 Mustard cake
4 Bee wax cotton tree 20 Linseed oil
5 Belgiri (aegle pulp) 12 Green gram (Moog) 21 Powder of Cattle
6 Black gram (Udad) 13 Guggul horn
7 Brick powder 14 Hemp fiber 22 Resin of Sal tree
8 Clay 15 Jaggery 23 Rice husk
16 Juice of Cactus 24 Saaf flower oil
Sample forula mentioned in Shilparatna -Mix 3 parts of slaked lime
and 1 part of powder of dry raw/unripe banana. Add water to make

butter like mixture. Such leveling coat gives a marble finish to the wall
surface. Repeat the procedure .
It was found by research that the base coat materials for cave
paintings were;
 Ajanta caves: Clay, cow dung, stone powder, rise husk and lime.
 Sirgirea caves: Tempered kaolin clay, rice husk, Coconut shell
fibers and lime.
 Bagh caves: Red clay, green gram, lime and jute. Mansoullas
recommends use of powder of conchs, katha, pulses, molasses,
and boiled bananas.
5. Case Studies
Out of more than 125 world heritage sites declared by UNESCO, there
are 35 sites located in in India. Two cave paintings are among these
site and some ten more are in waiting list.
All early painting in India survived in caves only. Very few buildings
from ancient India with painting on walls or roofs have survived. The
history of cave paintings in India or rock art range from drawings and
paintings from prehistoric times, beginning around 3,000 BCE. The
highest achievements of this time are Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka,
caves of Ajanta, Kailasanatha temple in Ellora Caves etc.

5a-Ajanta frescoes: Frescoes are paintings which are done on wet
plaster in which colours become fixed as the plaster dries. The Ajanta
Frescoes have a special importance of their own. They are found on
the walls and ceilings at Ajanta. Pre-historic paintings were actually
engraved in caves. Ajanta Caves Maharashtra, India (2nd century BC
to the 6th century AD) are Buddhist caves The caves depict richly
decorated paintings, frescoes.
5b -Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka: It is a magnificent repository of
rock paintings within natural rock shelters. The rock shelters,
discovered only in 1957, comprise a group of "five clusters of rock
shelters" with paintings painted some 3,000 years ago.
6- Restoration challenges: Archeological Society of India (ASI)
maintains all these cave paintings. Many precautionary measures such
as banning flash lights during shooting etc are taken. Restoration is
done with the help of skilled technicians. Ancient techniques
mentioned in Shilparatna were successfully used for restoration of
Ajantha paintings. Ref. Satish chandra
Research workers in different parts of world conducted experimental
studies on natural polymers and found positive results as claimed in
ancient Indian literature. (Ref. Satishchandra 2003).
Conclusions: From the information available , it can be concluded
that the secrets of endurance of cave painting are ;

1- The sites were far away from habitation and caves were
protected from direct exposure of light, rains and other
weathering agencies.
2- The base surface was pre-coated with certain base coat
materials using organic polymers.
3- The paints and pigments were meticulously prepared. Basic and
composite colors were prepared out of organic materials and
some minerals.
4- Special tools and brushes of different types were prepared as per
ancient techniques.
5- For restoration of such heritage paintings adequate knowledge
about ancient Indian techniques is essential.
References
• Manasollas of King Someshwara,Ed. By Shirgondekar, G.K.,Pub.
Central Library, Vadodara, 1925. Mansoullas - also known as
AbhilisharthachintamaNi (6 century text), English translation by
P.Arundhati,pub.by Sandeep Prakashan New Delhi.
 Nene, A.S. (2012),”Building materials and construction
techniques of ancient India”,E book ,uploaded on
Bookganga.com.

 Nene, A.S. (2008),” Bharatiya Shilpashastre (Marathi book),
Published by Nachiket Prakashan, Nagpur.
 Satish Chandra (2003),” History of Architecture and Ancient
Building Materials in India”, pub. Technip Books International,
New Delhi.
• Shilpratna by Shrikumar, Ed. T.Ganapati
Shastri,Pub.Anantshayan Sanskrit Granthmala,No.75,(1929).
• Vishnu-dharmottara Pooran of Ved Vyas, Ed.Madhusadna
Sharma,Pub. Khemraj krushnadas Mumbai(1911)
***.***

G2
Indian Pottery Industry of Nineteenth Century
[Article uploaded and available on web. ]
Synopsis: The paper presents brief summary of five reports on

pottery industry in British India. The reports are very scholarly drafted
and gives an idea of various aspects related to the industry. Some
reports are supplemented by sketches. Local names and terminology is
maintained in all these reports.
The reports are summarized under following heads and duplication of
information is avoided.
Origin of Industry: The world’s first pot was made by Vishwakarma
(the celestial artificer) by taking little spirit (Kala) from various gods
and molding into a pot (Kalash).The potters now call themselves
Rudrapal. At any rate manufacture of earthen ware was practiced in
India from a time quite beyond the memory of man. Little importance
was given to potters. A proverb in Bihar says” The potters sleep
secure, for none will steal his clay” (Nichint soye Kumbhar,maati na
lejaye chor).
Caste system: Assam-People of certain castes such as Kalita, Kewat
and Koch castes by heredity deal with pottery. These people are
known as Hiras and Kumaars. The Kumar is derived from ‘Kumbhakar’
and means maker of pots. In Tezpur ‘Dom” is the caste of potters who
make large cooking pots. In central India the Kumhar caste has the
monopoly of pottery manufacture and forms eight percent of the
population. True kumbars are naturally Hindus.
Divisions of Pottery Trade: The pottery trade is divided into five
branches;
 rude red pottery,

 rude glazed pottery,
 Painted and unglazed pottery,
 Ornamental pottery,
 Painted and glazed pottery.
3. Earth used: In Assam, people use soil of different colors such as

dark-blue ,grey, dark black or ant-hill soil. The local names for pottery
clay are; Kumar mitti, Hira mitti, murha,athali mati, kali mati,
khudew-iong and khyndew-khluid, haaphalu etc. The potters of Bengal
uses generally use two kinds of clay: Black earth or Alluvial sand /silt
from river. Glazing – Potters of Bengal do not know the art of glazing.
For CP the main material is clay in the neighborhood, which is
available free of cost. Clay is of two types 1) red or 2) kali mitti. Red
clay is obtained at shallow depths, from site near to the base of hill.
The kali mitti is obtained from beds of tanks, nalas, rivers or
streamlets. The clay requires a good deal of preparation before it is
ready for use.
Process of preparation: The process of preparation of the earth for
use includes following steps;
 Pounding the clay by immersing into a vessel full of water.
 Removal of impurities.
 Decanting the excess water after 3 to 4 hours, covering the
settled clay with ash to remove excess moisture.
 Mixing of some materials (Plasticizers) to improve the quality of
clay. Admixture of sand and salts or powdered bulrushes;
 Keeping the soil aside for 3 to 5 days for maturation.
The plasticizers commonly used are a) horse dung, b) charcoal ash
and c) some salts to increase permeability.
Method of manufacture:

The process includes following steps;
 Placing the lump on potter’s wheel
 Rotating the wheel and shaping the clay lump into desired
size and shape.
 Cutting the excess part of the lump.
 Sun drying the product.
 Polishing or coloring the surface.(Decoction made from
wild date pine)
Implements: Implements used are; a) Potter’s wheel, b) the rolling
board, c) Moulds, d) Mallets, e) Polishers and kiln . List of
Earthenware articles, local names and brief description is given in the
appendix.1
The potters’ Wheel
Majority of articles, except larger vessels, are handmade and molded
upon a revolving wheel or ‘Chak’. The Chak is either -
i) A circular disc cut out of a single piece of stone about 1
m. in diameter, or
ii) An ordinary wooden wheel with two spokes forming two
diameters at right angles. The rim is thickened by the
addition of mud coating strengthened with fiber.
The wheel is supported on iron pivot fixed in the ground. The wheel is
rotated by a stick ‘Chakrait’.
The other instruments required by the potters are:-

 Thapa or Pitni - a wooden mallet used for beating vessels into
shae while still moist.
 Suriya or Pindi – A stone flat on one side and convex on other
side used to support the blows of mallet.
 Dora or Chhin” –A String for separating the molded vessel from
the rest of clay.

 Ptyamati or Pota – A piece of cloth for smoothing the surface of
mould while it is on the wheel.
 Chakora – A dish of water in which the potter constantly
moistens his hands.
 Thapia – A scraper used for sharpening the edges of pots. Also
known as Chilni , Wacha or Saira.
Pottery Centers of India: Sawan- Sawan pottery.
 Khulna- Khulna Black pottery, highly polished and with elegant
shapes.
 Dinapur -Water pots, oil / ink pots incense burners.
 Birbhum, Nawada, and Raniganj are also well known.
Local names of products: Following list gives the local names of
household pottery in Bengal.
 Water vessels- Jala, Kalsi, Kunja or Surahi, Gamala.
 Cooking pots – Hawri, Tijel, Malsa, Sard, Kard, Chatu, Khuli etc.
 Eating and drinking vessels – Thal, Shanak, Badna, Gelas, Bati
and khuri etc.
 Articles used in Worship – Ghat, shankh, Aarati, Dhunachi and
idols.
 Miscellaneous articles- Keure, Bhanr, Pradip, Delko, hukka,
Chilim etc.
Coloring and ornamentation: Before baking the pottery has to be
colored. Gairu or red ochre is used to give it a red and chalk to give a
white tinge. Black is obtained by putting goat’s or sheep’s dung in the
kiln and completely stopping all outlets. The ware is impregnated by
the smokes and turns a dull black. A coating of yellow clay is put on
the vessels previous to baking to give them a glaze. The yellow is
soaked in water for eight days and then strained and thickened by
boiling. A decoction made from a bark of Tinsa tree and applied to the

pot to give a gloss to the vessel. Red color is made from read lead,
yellow from arsenic, green from mixing arsenic and blue indigo and
black from lamp black or charred rice or reeds. The colors before
application are mixed with mucilage obtained from kernel of tamarind
seed or the gum adhering on the seed of Bel fruits. After painting the
pots are varnished with wood oil (Garjan) or white of ducks’ eggs.
Images of deities are further improved with mica powder.
Post burning colors- Various colors are applied.
Ornamental wares- Pottery of Chunar, Azamgarh, Lucknow are
famous;
References
1. Hallifax, C.J. (1892.),” Monograph on The Pottery and Glassware
Industries of the Punjab -1890-91”, Civil and Military Gazette
Press, Lahore
2. Gait, E.A.,(1895),” Note on the manufacture of Pottery in
Assam”,Pub. Director of Land Records and Agriculture, Assam.
3. Mukherji, Trailoka Nath (1895),” Pottery and Glassware of
Bengal”,Printed by Government Printing Press, Kolkata.
4. Unknown,(1895),” Industrial Monograph on The Pottery and
Glassware of Central Provinces”, Printed at Education Society
Steam Press, Byculla, Mumbai.
5. Dobbs, H.R.C.( 1895)” A Monograph on The Pottery and Glass
Industries Of The North western Provinces and Oudh”,
Government Press , Allahabad
***.***

G3
Pottery Science in ancient India

Article uploaded and available on web.
Abstract: The paper deals with ancient Indian pottery. Pottery was
one of the 64 arts of Shilpa Shasta. More than 80 pottery products
were produced in India. Many references about brick earth, moulds for
bricks, brick kiln, and fire word for kilns etc are available in Vedic
literature. Different types of bricks, their dimensions, curing etc are
mentioned in Shilpa Samhitas. Mudra or Seals made of fired bricks,
used by various kings, are found in archeological excavations.
Techniques of producing floating bricks were known to village potters.
Coloring and glazing of pottery products using herbs and minerals was
common. First part deals with ancient Indian pottery and the second
part deals with bricks making and bricks as construction material.
Three case histories of ancient bricks are also presented.
Introduction: It is believed that the world’s first pot was made by
Vishwakarma, (the celestial architect) by taking little skills (Kala) from
various gods and molding into a pot (Kalash or Kumbh). In India
people of certain castes such as Kalita, Kewat and Koch by heredity
deal with pottery. These people are known as Hiras and Kumaars. The
Kumar is derived from ‘Kumbhakar’ and means maker of pots.
PART A -ANCIENT INDIAN POTTERY
Potters Earth: Potters use local soils of different colors such as red,
dark-blue, grey, or ant-hill soil. The local names for pottery clay are;
Kumar mitti, Hira mitti, and murha, etc. The potters generally use
alluvial sandy or silty soil from river banks. They also use red clay is
obtained at shallow depths from site near to the base of hill.

Process of preparation: The process of preparation of the earth for
use includes following steps;
 Pounding the clay by immersing into a vessel full of water.
 Removal of impurities.
 Decanting the excess water after 3 to 4 hours, covering the
settled clay with ash to remove excess moisture.
 Mixing of some materials (Plasticizers) to improve the quality of
clay.
 Keeping the soil aside for 3 to 5 days for maturation.
The plasticizers commonly used were a) horse dung, b) charcoal ash
and c) some sea salt to increase permeability.
Method of manufacture: The process includes following steps;
 Placing the lump on potter’s wheel
 Rotating the wheel and shaping the clay lump into desired
size and shape.
 Cutting the excess part of the lump.
 Sun drying the product.
 Polishing or coloring the surface.(Decoction made from
wild date or pine)
Implements: Implements used are; a) Potter’s wheel, b) the rolling
board, c) Moulds, d) Mallets, e) Polishers and kiln .
Potters’ Wheel: Majority of articles, except larger vessels, are
handmade and molded upon a revolving wheel or ‘Chaak’. The wheel is
either -
iii) A circular disc cut out of a single piece of stone about 1
m. in diameter, or
iv) An ordinary wooden wheel with two spokes forming two
diameters at right angles. The rim is thickened by the
addition of mud coating strengthened with fiber.

The wheel is supported on iron pivot fixed in the ground. The wheel is
rotated by a stick ‘Chakrait’.
The other instruments required by the potters are:-
 Thapa or Pitni - a wooden mallet used for beating vessels into
shape while still moist.
 Suriya or Pindi – A stone flat on one side and convex on other
side used to support the blows of mallet.
 Dora or Chhin” –A String for separating the molded vessel from
the rest of clay.
 Ptyamati or Pota – A piece of cloth for smoothing the surface of
mould while it is on the wheel.
 Chakora – A dish of water in which the potter constantly
moistens his hands.
 Thapia – A scraper used for sharpening the edges of pots. Also
known as Chilni , Wacha or Saira.
Local names of products: Following list gives the local names of
household pottery in India.
 Water vessels- Mataki , Kalsi, Kunja or Surahi,etc.
 Cooking pots – Handi, Tijel, Malsa, Sard, Kard, Chatu, Khuli etc.
 Eating and drinking vessels – Thali, Shanak, Badna, Gelas, Bati
and khuri etc.
 Articles used in Worship – Ghat, shankh, Aarati, Dhunachi and
idols.
 Miscellaneous articles- clay toys, Delko, hukka, Chilim (smoking
pipes) etc.
Coloring and ornamentation: Before baking the pottery has to be
colored. Red ochre is used to give it a red and chalk to give a white
tinge. Black color is obtained by putting goat’s or sheep’s dung in the
kiln and completely stopping all outlets. A coating of yellow clay is put

on the vessels prior to baking to give them a glaze. The yellow clay is
soaked in water for eight days and then strained and thickened by
boiling. A decoction made from a bark of Tinsa tree and applied to the
pot to give a gloss to the vessel. Red color is made from red lead,
yellow from arsenic, green from mixing arsenic and blue indigo and
black from lamp black or charred rice or reeds. Before application the
colors are mixed with mucilage obtained from kernel of tamarind seed
or the gum adhering on the seed of Bel fruits. After painting the pots
are varnished with white of ducks’ eggs. Images of deities are further
improved with mica powder. Various colors are applied post burning.
Ornamental Pottery wares of Chunar, Azamgarh, Lucknow are famous.
Ancient References: Many references are available in Shilparantra
and quoted below.
 Earthen pots: Mix floor of Satu, powder of Amaksh ,Tatwasi and
coconut water to clay in a proportion of 8 parts of clay and 1
part of admixtures.
मृदेष्टांशंसमायोज्य नाररकेरफ़लोदकैः ॥२॥

िवेष्टग
ं ुग्गलंचव
ै कुंदरु
ु ष्कं तथैवच।
सशल्परत्न २-१९-१२
 Ceramic pots: Prepare a mixture of Swesha, Guggul and Kunda
grass (one sixteenth of clay) and curd (one eleventh of clay).
Apply this mixture to clay pot before baking in a kiln.
तथासजवरसाचूणं मृत्कलाशं सशवांशकं।

पात्रे मृदासमायोज्यं दसधना मदव येतसुधीः ॥३॥
चूणीचसमष्पली मरीची रसनी तथा ॥
सशल्परत्न २-१९-१३
 Glazing of earthen pots: Apply a mixture of Ghee, honey and
Herb powders (Kapittha, Bilwa and Niryas) to clay pots. This
process imparts glazing to the glazed clay pots.

मधुक्षीरघृतेनैवं मृदपात्रेण योजयेद्॥
कवपत्थवबल्वं सनयावसं चूणौ ददौ समभासगनौ ॥१६॥
सशल्परत्न २-१९-१६
 Coloring of Clay pots: Mix sesame powder and resins of Kapittha
and Beal trees. Add desired coloring agent (Kushta, Red ochre,
orpiment etc). Polish the pot with the mixture to impart suitable
color. Alternatively take equal parts of Sandal wood, Karpur,
Gorochan and Agaru. Add clay parts to the mixture in linseed oil.
Apply this mixture to earthen pots.
मृदे पंचदशांशेवा सतलचूणं समंववत ॥

मदव येत्क्रमसाम्याकव कुष्ठगेररकतालकं ॥
चंदनागरुकपूरव गोषुगोरोचनंसमं ॥
सुण्मचूणत
ं ुकदयं गोषुगोरोचनंसमं ॥
अतसीस्नेहसंयुक्तं मद्येद्देसशकोत्तमः ॥
सशल्परत्न २-१९-१८
Part B - BRICKS AND ROOF TILES

Introduction: The Sanskrit word for brick is "Istika" meaning comfort
giving or well being. According to Shatapatha Brahman the tired god
Prajapati was rejuvenated by other gods by offering him as a sacrifice
to the fire. On being burnt, the mud blocks of fire place (Yadnya kund)
turned into a baked brick. From the various Vedic texts it can be said
that Sage Angirus was an authority on brick making. Yajurveda (c,13)
mentions the name of Medhatithi as brick designer.
A brick is a cheap and durable building material which can be used
very easily. Bricks are easy to mould and fire. All over the world the
material is being used for thousands of years.
Processes of Brick making: The process of making bricks is
mentioned in Shilparatna (c14, v48-51). Various stages involved in
brick making are discussed below,

 Selection of site for brick earth and collection of soil.
 Wetting & Kneading the brick earth, mixing of additives.
 Hand molding of bricks
 Sun dying of bricks
 Kiln Preparation and firing the bricks
 Cooling and quenching of bricks
 Rejecting damaged or non standard bricks
 Testing of bricks
 Classification & qualities
Selection of soil for brick making: Soil should be selected from
sites which are inhabited by humans. The excavated soil should be sun
dried and mixed with water full of algae and kneaded to make soft
lump.
Colors of brick earths are different but soils of four basic colors such as
white, red, yellow or black are common. As per Vishnudharmottar
Purana (Vol. 3 Chp.91), Vastu Vidya (Chp.16) and Mayamat (Chp.15),
white soil is considered as best and black soil is the worst.
Additives for brick earth: Texts such as Shilparatna (C14, V48.) and
Mayamat (C17, V 17) recommends following additives be added to
improve the quality of brick earth,
 Green algae,hairs of animals,
 Extracts of barks of milky trees and fruit extracts
 Fine sand and ferrous soils
 Decoction of Trifala ( three fruits-Amala, Hirida and Behada)
2. Brick Earth
Bricks and Roofing tiles: Mix extracts of barks of trees (Pipal and
Agar) in wet clay. Knead the clay daily for 30 day and the use for
bricks or roofing tiles. Ref. SV2
ततःक्षीरागरै रीषत्वकक्क्कथवत्रफलांबुसभः ।

मदव येन्मासमात्रंतु तत्कमवकुशलैनरै ः॥
वयगोत्राममाक्षंच तत्वसीचूणस
व ंव्ज्ञतं।
वास्तुववद्या १९-६ , सशल्परत्न १-१४-४८
Moulds and Molding of bricks: The bricks were made in the wooden
moulds of the required sizes. The moulds were made in such a way
that the wooden planks on all the four sides and the bottom could be
separated. Vastu Vidya recommends that wooden moulds for bricks
should have minimum thickness of 20 mm. Aapstamb Shulbsutra has
mentions the dimensions of moulds instead of the bricks. Many texts
describe the procedure for hand molding of clay bricks and drying of
bricks.
Special shaped bricks: Vastu Vidya (c.19) mentions some special
shaped bricks are prepared by cutting the corners of partially dry
bricks.
Firing of bricks: In ancient times, bricks or tiles were baked in closed
Kilns. Detailed description is given in Shilparatna (c14.v51-54),
Vastuvidya (c6.v20-32) and Shilpadipak (c10v20) about construction
of kiln, type of fire wood, smoke vents etc.
The bricks were allowed to bake for ten to fifteen days. After the fire
extinvished , bricks or tiles were taken out.
Cooling and quenching of bricks: The fire should be extinguished
after 15 days and bricks should be immersed in water for a period of
six to twelve months before these are used for construction. Ref.SV3.2
Quality Control for standard bricks: Bauddhayan Shalbsutra gives
information about the measurement of bricks to be used in
constructing Holy pyre (Yadnya). It is also noteworthy that bricks
were used as per requirements for constructing a circular firepot,
bricks were used that could fit into the surface of the circle. The
description of Hansmukhi (pentagonal) and Choukoni (four sided)

bricks is also found in Boudhyayan Shulbasutra. Such bricks were used
to construct altar (Holy pyre).
Brick Classification: Shilparatna (c14.v55-57) , Kashyap-Shilpam(c
4.24 ) and Ishan Shivgurudev paddhati (c27.v70) gives gender
classification. It is based on the shape of the bricks. The qualities of
the bricks are not considered here.
Baked bricks were classified in three types as under,
 Masculine - Bricks with the same width at the front and the back
and having parallel edges were classified as masculine.
Masculine bricks are the best and are recommended for buildings
palaces from their foundations to the tops.
 Feminine - Bricks with lesser width at the front than at the back
and having curved but parallel edges were classified as feminine.
Feminine bricks may be used for building temples of Goddesses.
 Neuter - bricks with greater width at the front and having curved
but non parallel edges were neuter. Neuter bricks are to be
discarded but such bricks are broken into pieces and used for
other purposes. Ref. Shilparatna part 1.v48 and
Vishnudharmottar Puran
Essential qualities of bricks: In Shatpath Brahman, a black brick is
termed as a bad brick. There are also instructions not to use broken
bricks or pieces. In Bandhayan Shulbsutra, It is mentioned that
broken, cracked, old black bricks and bricks bearing marks of wood or
stone should not be used. Ishan Shivgurudev Paddhati (c27.v69) and
Hayashirsh, Panchratra, (c2.v19-23) mentions unsuitable bricks and
the defects as below,
 without specific dimensions
 Non-uniformly baked
 Different color inside and outside.

 with broken corners, containing pieces of stone pebbles and coal
The essential qualities of a good brick as specified by the Indian
Standards Bureau are the same as those mentioned in aforesaid text.
I.S. 2117-1967,
Roof Tiles: There is no mention of roof tiles in the Vedas, Brahmans
or Strantsutra. Only Shilparatna and Vastuvidya contain some
information about roof tiles. The clay which was used for making bricks
was also used for making tiles.
The processes of baking tiles and the Kilns were similar to those used
for bricks. Tiles are classified into ten types according to their shapes.
Vastu Vidya (c16.v6-12) contains information about these nine types
of roofing tiles.
1. Neevraloshta 2. Urdhwaloshta 3. Turyakloshta
4. Kroorloshta 5. Dhwathloshta 5. Agraloshta
7. Gartakonaloshta 8. Konaloshta 9. Putloshta
10.Keelloshta
Construction with bricks: In ancient times, walls were constructed
by arranging bricks in Toda or Patti mode, which is termed as ‘bond’ in
English. Even in those days ‘Sahul’ -plumb bob’ was used to check the
verticalness or perpendicularity of the wall.
Baudhayan Shulbsutra has given two rules for fixing (arranging)
bricks. The joints between bricks should not be exactly on top of one
another, so that in the joint between two bricks in the next layer
should not be above the joint in lower layer but on the surface of the
bricks. The bricks should be arranged in a straight line, i.e. in a
perpendicular manner. Care was also taken to see that the surface of
the bricks was plane and not uneven (Shilparatna c12.v20).
As per Mayamat Chp.12, bricks should be immersed in water, taken
out and then used for construction.

Vasturatnakar cautions that new and old bricks or sun baked and fired
bricks should not be used together. New bricks should be used before
old ones are used.
Brick bonds: At present many methods are used for fixing bricks like
English, Flemish and American bonds. In pre historic times also, there
were many methods of fixing bricks, which in many ways were similar
to the present methods. If the joints in the bricks in third layer come
exactly above the joints in the first layer, the arrangement is called
‘Mallaleel’ If the joints in the bricks in fourth, fifth, seventh, ninth,
twelfth and fourteenth layers come exactly above the joints in the first
layer, the arrangements are called Brahmraj , Panchparva , Poogparva
, Devsandhi , Swana and Dandak respectively. The second is stronger
than the first, the third stronger than the second and so on.
Case Studies:
A -Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa Civilization
Archaeologists discovered two 4000-year-old cities, Mohenjo-Daro and
Harappa 400 miles apart, along the banks of the Indus River in
Pakistan. The foundations of many houses were constructed on top of
massive mud brick platforms. The size of large mud bricks used for the
construction of such platforms is 10 x 20 x 40 cm (a ratio of 1:2:4).
The people of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa lived in sturdy brick houses
that had as many as three floors. The houses had bathrooms that were
connected to sewers. Their elaborate drainage system was centuries
ahead of their time.
B-Bricks of Maharashtra during 10th to 17th centaury
Names of saint Gora kumbhar (1267 to 1317 AD) and Guru Ramdas
swami are associated with bricks. Saint Gora kumbhar was potter by
profession. He was resident of a town Tera doki (near Kurduwadi). The
special feature of this town is that bricks used for ancient temples, are

light weight and float on water for few hours (3 to 48 hours). These
temples are 800 to 1200 years old. The sizes of bricks vary from
350x175x75 mm to 450x225x150mm. The bricks from this town were
sent for laboratory testing and the results are as below,
 Bricks are properly fired (not sun dried)
 Bricks are older than 1000 years
 Lighter by 2 to 10 times compared to modern bricks
 Bricks contains micro pore partially interconnected
Swami Ramadas was guru of Shivaji Maharaj and used to advise him
time to time and he had given written instructions about various
aspects of bricks and brick construction.
The contents of his instructions can summarized as below,
 Bricks should be of uniform size and with square corners
 Size should be 9x7x3 tasu.(1 tasu = 37.5 mm)
 Brick earth should be prepared by proper mixing of red clayey
soil, ash, dung of cow or horse.
 Soil mixed with water should be kneaded frequently
 The soil should be free from gravels
 Moulds should be used for casting bricks. Sides should be fixed
by driving nails.
 Bricks should be sun dried and then fired in kilns. The fire wood
should be dried of medium size.
C-Lakshmana Temple, Sirpur
The Lakshamana temple is located in the village Sirpur in Mahasmand
district of Chattisgarh at a distance of 90 km from the state capital of
Raipur. The archaeological remains in and around Sirpur consists of
both Hindu and Buddhist monuments in the form of temples and
monasteries. Among them, the most well preserved magnificent

temple is the east facing Lakshmana temple built by Vasata, the
mother of Mahasivagupta Balarjuna in 7th century AD.
Dedicated to Lord Vishnu, this brick temple stands on a high massive
platform accessible by steps in the north and the south. The plan of
the temple consists of a garbagriha, antarala and a mandapa. The
exquisitely carved doorframe depicts figures of Seshasayi Vishnu along
with his other incarnations. This temple is one among the best
examples of brick temples of ancient India.
Lakshamana temple
Concluding remarks
 In ancient times brick walls were constructed using sun burnt or
burnt bricks joined together with mud or lime mortar.
 Thin bricks were used for roofs and ceiling.
 Sizes of ancient bricks were quite different than those of present
bricks.
 Shapes and sizes were governed by its function.
 Process of preparation of brick earth was different than present
one.
 Herbal additives were used.
 Process of hand molding of bricks is still followed in rural areas.
References
(For part A)

6. Hallifax, C.J. (1892.),” Monograph on The Pottery and Glassware
Industries of the Punjab -1890-91”, Civil and Military Gazette
Press, Lahore
7. Gait, E.A.,(1895),” Note on the manufacture of Pottery in
Assam”, Pub. Director of Land Records and Agriculture, Assam.
8. Mukherji, T.N.(1895),” Pottery and Glassware of Bengal”, Printed
by Government Printing Press, Kolkata.
(For part B)
 Bandhayan Shulbsutra,
 Hayashirsh, Panchratra, (c2.v19-23)
 Ishan Shivgurudev Paddhati (c27.v69 &70)
 Kashyap-Shilpam(c 4.24 )
 Mayamat (C17, V 17) (C15) C12
 Shilpadipak (c10v20)
 Shulbsutra (Aapstamb)
 Vastu Vidya
 Vastu Vidya (c.19),C16,v 6-12 ,v 20-32
 Vasturatnakar
 Vishnudharmottar Purana (Vol. 3 Chp.91),
***.***
Appendix 1 -Earthenware Articles

Bramhaputra Valley
Name Description
Adkalai Small Kalash
Akarabdtt Lamps used in marrriages and on othe
festivals
Akachta Cooking pot for rice curry
Divarci Pots for sugar or curd
Ishcrcki Small pot for storing gram
Chakali or Vessel used for cooking curry
Paticharu
Chriki Earthen lamp with open mouth with more
wicks

Charaadin A hollow cylinder to hold candle
Chaam Cheeleem and hukka (used for smoking
tobacco
Charu Medium size pot for cooking rice
Dama or Earthen ring for preparing drums
Daba
Daskathaa Pot for cooking rice for small family
Ghacha A lamp stand
Ghat Water pots used in puja
Handi or A wide mouthed pot for cooking rice
Hari
Janga A larger pot for storing water
Juidhara Fire stove
Khampati Drum shaped pot for cooking rice –steam
Haria cooker
Kalash Pot for holding water, oil , milk etc
Kholi Pot with wider mouth and nake, used for
cooking rice.
Mala A small charm used in religious ceremonies
Mala charu Small trays for eatables
Mathia Large ovel sized pot for grains
Mridanga Drums
or khol
Nid pat Well ring
Nadia A basin
Nagara A small drum
Fuldin Flower pot
Pidla Curd pot
Sitar Food pot for single person
Sarai Presentationtray
Tekeli Small pot
Thili Big pots for water of cooking food
Surma Valley and Garo Hills
Bhadka Same as lota

Bheturi Small cooking pot
Begni Stand for chata
Chaita Small lamp
Chilim Smoke pipe
Dhakana Dish to cover
Galas A cup to drink

Ghat Small pot for water
Hachi Small kalash
Kalas A large jar for carrying water
Kasla or Dema Big earthen pot used for cooking and
other purposes
kaisi or Kai A large plate
Khidi A kind of cup
Pat Well Ring
Palad A small pot used for cooking and other
purposes
Piala Cup
Sharah A kind of plate used as cover
Sdnak a kind of plateused chiefly by Mulslims to
eat rice.
Ndran A kind of jug for holding water
Lari A small plate
Naga Hills
Ik This is the same in shape as likmma but larger used for
cooking rice
Likphu This resembles a vase in shape with long concentrated neck,
used for carrying water 15 in to 24 inches in height.
Liki This is of same shape as Likphas but larger used for
preparing rice beer or za
Likuno This is about the size and shape of ordinary brass loti, but
having proportionately a large mouth, used for cooking
vegetables.
Setuli A kind of earthen karli used for roasting seeds 10 to 20 in
diameter.
Talseli This is of same shape as Ni only larger in size
Khasi and Jaintia Hills

Khewranei Chattis or gharas
Kheu syntiw Flower pots
Kum Gharos
Summary-Various articles are made by potters

Category Local names
Water Pots Mat, mator or big matka, kunr or kowari,
surahi,jhanjar,kuza

Cooking pots Handi,hauriya, tandur, kapari, karkeiya
Vessels for eating Rakabi, tashtati
out
Vessels for storing Matka and matki, martaban amritbans
grains and dry
goods
Vessels for storing Dahara, dudhhandi, dohani, maliya, maheri,
milk products mihariya
Gariya.
Vessels used by Khujua or khujji, burka
wine sellers
Smoking pipes Huqqa, chillum,
Agriculture vessels Kund, Kalsi , nand
Miscellaneous Chiragh or diya, dawait, gamla, nagara, nagaria.
articles
***.***

Appendix 2- Figures and Sketches
Sketches
.
…

.
Vessels
..
..
..

..
***.***

G4
Sixty-four Arts of ancient India
Article uploaded and available on web.

The scope of education was very wide in ancient India. Knowledge of
arts or
skills was important part of it. There are many references about arts in
texts
like Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas and poetry. One can find very
interesting description of arts in a text Nitisaar of Sage Shukracharya.
According to him there are infinite numbers of arts but there are main
sixty-four arts. The art can be mastered even by a dumb person.
शक्तो मूकोऽवप यत ् कतुव कलासंज्ञं तु तत ् स्मृतम ्| नीतीसार
These sixty-four arts are described in details in a text “Shivtatva

Ratnakar” composed by Keldi Shri Basavrajendra. The list below
describes the Sanskrit
name of the art and its brief description.
1 Itihas-History
2 Aagam - Rituals
3 Kavya -Poetry
4 Alankar- Grammar of poetry
5 Natak- Dramatics
6 Gayaktva – Singing
7 kavitva – Composition of poems
8 Kamashastra – Sex
9 Durohar / Dyuta – Gambling
10 Deshbhasha Lipidynan -Knowledge of scripts and languages of
different countries.

11 Lipikarma -Script deciphering
12 Vachan -Reading
13 GaNak - Computation
14 Vyavahar –Behavioral etiquette
15 Swardynana -Phonetics
16 Shakun -Knowledge of Auspicious time and events
17 Samudrik - Palmistry
18 Ratnashastra - Gemology
19 GajaAshvaratha Kaushalya - Horse/Elephant riding
20 Mallashastra- Wrestling
21 Soopakarma -Cookery
22 Bhuhdohad -Gardening
23 Gandhavada- Perfumery
24 Dhatuvad -Metal purification
25 Rasasambandha –Khanivad-Chemical mining
26 Bilwad-
27 AgniSanstambha-Fire control
28 JalaSanstambha-Water control
29 Vachahstambhan- voice control
30 Vayahstambhan-Age control
31 VashikaraN- Hypnotism
32 AakarshaN - Attraction
33 Mohan -
34 Viddveshan -
35 Uchattan -Extraction (thorn)
36 MaraN - Killing
37 Kalavanjan-
38 unknown-
39 Parakayapravesh-To enter into another person’s body

40 Padukasidhhi -
41 Vaksidhhi -Oretory
42 Gutikasidhhi-
43 Endrajalik-
44 Anjan - Ointment making
45 Pardrushtivanjan -
46 Swaraivanjan -
47 Manimantra Aushadik Sidhhi-
48 Chorkarm -Theft/ Stealing
49 Chitrakriya- Drawing
50 Lohakriya- Iron smithy
51 Ashmakriya- Stone working
52 Mrutkriya - Soil conditioning
53 Darukriya- Wood working
54 Venukriya- Bamboo works
55 Charmakriya- Leather works
56 Ambarkriya -Umbrella making
57 AddrushyakaraN -Vanishing things
58 DantikaraN -
59 Mrugayavidhi -Animal hunting
60 Vanijya - Commerce
61 Pashupalya- Animal keeping
62 Krushi- Agriculture
63 Asavkarma - Distillation
64 Lavkukkutameshadiyudhakarak kaushalya - Bird/Animal fighting
According to Jayamangal all arts can be grouped under two
categories.
The first category is arts related to sexology and other is arts
related to techniques. Each category comprises of 64 arts. Many arts

in both categories are same. The arts under first category can be
divided into four groups.
A. Karmashraya- Work based- 24 arts
B. Dyutashraya – Gambling based – 20 arts
C. Shayanopacharika –Sleeping posture based -16 arts
D. Uttarkala- Miscellaneous- 4 arts.
A- Karmashraya (Work based group)-The twenty-four arts under
this group are listed below.
1 Geet - Singing
2 Nrutya -Dancing
3 Vadya- Playing musical instruments
4 Kaushal Lipidyan -Reading different scripts
5 Udarvachan -Give blessings
6 Chitravidhi - Painting
7 Pustakarm -Book binding
8 Patrachheda -Making leaf plates or cones for meals
9 Malyavidhi - Prepare garlands
10 Gandhayutsya swadavidhan -Cookery
11 Ratnapariksha - Gemology
12 Sivan – Sewing
13 Rangaparidyan- Colors
14 UpakaraNkriya – Making instruments
15 –Manavidhi -Measurements
16 -Ajivdyana
17 –Tiryagyonichikikitsit -
18 -Mayakrutapashandparidyana
19 -Kridakaushal
20-Lokadyana -
21 -VaichkshyaN

22 –Samvahan -
23 –Sharirsanskar -
24 –Vishesh Kaushalya
B-Dyutashraya (Gambling based group) – 20 arts. First 15 arts
are Visual and remaining 5 are real arts.
1-Auuhprapti -Longevity
2 –Akshavidhan-
3-Roopsankhya
4-KriyamargaN-
5-BeejgrahaN-
6-Nayadynan-
7-KaraNadynan-
8- Chitrachitravidhi -
9- Gudharashi -
10 –Tulyabhihar-
11-KshipragrahaN
12 -Anupraptilekhsmruti
13 –Agnikarm-
14-Chalvyamohan-
15-Grahadan-
16-Upasthanvidhi-
17- Yuddha-War
18-Ruta
19-Gata-
20-Nrutta
C-Shayanopacharika(Sleeping posture based group) -16 arts
1-Purush BhavkaraN-
2-Swaragaprakashan-
3-Pratyangdan-

4-Nakhadantvichar-
5-Nivistansan-
6-Guhyang Sansparshnanulomya
7-Parmartha Kaushal-
8-HarshaN
9-Samanarthakrutarthata
10-Anuprotsahan
11-Mrudukrodhapravartan-
13- Kruddhaprasadan
14-Suptaparityaga
15-Charamswapavidhi
16-Guhyadohan
D- Uttarkala (Misc) group – four arts
1-Sashrupat shapdan
2-Swashapathkriya
3-Prasthitanugaman
4-Punah PunrnirishyaN
Shridharswami in his text “Bhagwat,(part 10, chapter 45 and verse
64) has mentioned more arts. But According to Nitisaar of
Shukracharya
1-Geet -Singing
2- Vadya –Playing musical instruments
3-Nrutya- Dancing
4- Visheshakchhadya- Forhead decoration with paper, leaves etc.
6-Tandul-kusumabalivikar-use of colored rice grains and flower for
worship.
7-PushpastaraN- Floral carpets
8-Dashnavsanangrag- Decaration of nails and body

9- Manibhumika karma-Floor decoration with pearls or precious
stones.
10- Shayanrachana –Bed arrangement.
11-Udakvadya- Jalataranga-Series of water pots for creating music.
12-Udakaghat- Sprinkling with water cannons.
13-Chitrashycha yoga – Herbal preparations for weakening of enemy
14- Malyagranthanvikalpa-Preparation of floral garlands and hair
bands
15-Shekarkapidyojan –Ladies hair styling.
16-Nepathyaprayog- Body make-up with cloth, ornaments and flowers.
17-KarNapatrabhanga- Ear ornaments preparation.
18- Gandhayukti- Making scented dhupa.
19-BhushaNyojan-Ornamental make-up
20- Endrajal – Magic / mesmerism.
21-Kauchumaryog - Preparation of sex tonics.
22- Hastlaghav- Hand magic.
23- Vichitrashakayushbhakshyavikar kriya- Culinary preparations-
sweets etc.
24-Panakrasa Ragasav yojan- Making sharbat or syrups.
25- Suchivan Karm –Needle work-Embroidery
26-Sutra krida –Hand puppets show
27- Veenadamruvadya-Playing musical instruments like veena or
damru
28-Pahelika - Solving riddles.
29- Pratimala- An interesting style of reading text or poem.
30-Durvachakyog - Reciting text which is difficult to pronounce and
understand.
31- Pustak Vachan –Book reading
32- Natakakhyalika darshan -Dramatics

33-Kavya Samasyapurti – Solving riddles.
34-Pattikavetrayanvikalpa - Furniture making.
35-Takshyakarm –Cutting wood to proper size and shape.
36-TakshyaN - Carpentry.
37- Vastuvidya - Civil engineering / architecture.
38-Roopyaratna Pariksha - Valuations of gems and coins.
39-Dhatuwad- Mixing of metals like brass.
40-Maniragakar Dyana- Identification of pearls and gems.
41- Vrukshaurveda- knowledge of Botany.
42- Meshkukkutlavakyuddhavidhi – Knowledge of bird/ animal fighting
for gambling.
43-Shukasarika Pralapan - training of bird to speak.
44-Utsadan-Samvahan-Keshmardankaushal- Body massage and hair
care.
45-Akshyarmushti kathan-Secret word codes for communication or
Mushti sanket - Secret communication through fingers (used by
traders in auctions).
46- Mlenchhit Vikalpa- Secret communication through gestures.
47- Deshbhasha vidyan –Knowledge of foreign languages.
48 - Pushpashakatika- Decoration of vehicles with flowers.
49 - Nimittadyana – Knowledge of auspicious date and time for a
particular work.
50 – Yantramatruka- Knowledge of instruments or machines
51-DharaNmatruka- Remembering heard sentences.
52-Sampathya-
53-Manasi Kavya Kriya – To complete incomplete poem or its part.
54- Abhidhankosha-
55-Chandodyan
56-Kriyakalpa –Poetry forms

57- Chalitak Yog –Conceal body or speech.
58- Vastragopan – covering parts of body with cloth.
59-Dhyutavishesh-
60 -Aakarsh kriya - Playing with dices.
61- Balakridanak
62- Vainayiki dyna – Behavior with known and unknown persons.
63- Vaijayiki Dynan –Knowledge of victory.
64-Vyayam –Physical exercise.
Jaymangal has described these arts in details.
According to sage Shukracharya the various arts are known not by its
name but its expression. The cast name is sometimes associated with
the art of artist. The first art is dancing. This contains physical
expressions with motion.
1-Dancing- This art is of two types i.e. Natya and Anatya. Behavioral
representation of men and women is termed as Natya and other form
is Anatya. The art of dancing was very advanced. Tandavnrutya of God
Shankara is famous. Dancing of peacocks during rainy season is worth
seeing. Dancing is natural expression when one is overwhelmed with
some sort pleasure. This art was developed into different forms by the
experts.
Dancing is common in both civilized and un-civilized societies. In
western countries the art has a social status.
In ancient day knowledge of this art was considered essential for price
or princess. This art is maintained in South India in its original form.
Artists like
Shri Udayshankar are trying to revive this art. Dance teaching by
Arjuna to princess Uttara (daughter of king Virata) is mentioned in the
epic Mahabharata.

2-Vadan- The knowledge of playing a musical instrument is an art.
There are four types of musical instruments.
1. Tat – String instruments-VeeNa, Tambora, Sarangi, Bela, Sarod etc
2. Sushir- Instrument with hallow part inside-Flute, Shahnai,
Harmonium, Conch etc.
3. Avanaddha- Instrument clad with leather-Dhol,Nagara, Mrudang,
Daf,Khanjari etc
4. Ghan-Instruments with striking parts- Zhanz, Manjira, Clapping etc
Musical instruments enhance the singing music. VeeNa was main
instrument in ancient India. Ancient texts mention playing of VeeNa by
Goddess Saraswati and Sage Narada, Flute of God Shrikrishna, and
Damaru of God Mahadeo. There are many Sanskrit texts related to
musical instruments describing preparation and maintenance and
standard dimensions. Musical instruments were played during
auspicious occasions and festivals.
Instruments were also played for marching army.
3- Dresses and ornaments - To assist men and women with proper
dress and ornaments is an art.
4-Costumes and make up – To change the personal appearance by
suitable costumes is also an art. Hanuman met Sita in the attire of a
Brahmin.
5- Setting and decorating the bed- In this art the bed is decorated
with different bed sheets and covered with flowers and garlands.
6- Gambling - This art was for entertainment of men. The gambling
was of different types and played with dices. As per Mahabharata Nala,
Yudhishtir and Shakuni was expert in this art.
7-Sex play – According to Gandharva Veda knowledge of different
positions is also an art.
8- Distillation –Preparation of wines or medicinal liquids was an art.

9- Surgery -extraction of thorn etc, dressing of wounds was an art.
10-Cookery- Use of various spices for food preparation is art. King
Nakul and Bhim were experts in this art.
11-Horticulture- The art involves plantation of trees creepers etc for
fruits
and flowers. Ancient texts like Vishnudharmottar puraN, AgnipuraN
and Nitisaar gives detailed information on this art.
12- Mining- Extraction for stones, metal, separation of metals,
preparation
of metallic powders etc is an art.
13- Sugar making – Making sugar from juice of sugar cane, beet root
is an
art. The product can be in different form such as jiggery, raw sugar,
crystalline sugar etc.
14- Gold smithy –Preparation of gold and silver ornaments is an art.
15 – PruthakkaraN (Analysis) – Art to separate different metals.
16-Apurva vidynan – Making alloys by combination of different
metals.
17-LavaN kriya –Salt making – Art of making salt from water from
sea,
lakes or rock etc.
The last ten arts are related to modern Botany, Mining, Metallurgy and
Chemistry.
18-Marshal arts-It involves balancing of legs and use of weapons in
dual fight.
19- Mallayudhha- Wrestling – In wresting the person attacks on
hands or

legs of the opponent. This art was very famous in India. Ancient texts
mention the famous wrestlers such as Jarasnadha, Bhim, Kans and
Shrikrushna etc.
According to sage Shukracharya, on who is defeated in wrestling goes
to hell
and war should continue till the end of enemy. Ancient text
Sapatashati (1-
92 to 84) describes a sea war between lord Vishnu and demon
Madhukaitabha, which lasts for 5000 years.
20-Nipidan-Physical attacking – It involves sudden attack on the
un-alert
enemy. It is also used in self defense.
21-Astra – Throwing weapons on enemy- In modern wars guns and
missiles are used.
22-Yuddha- Strategic planning – It involves movement of army laid
on horses and elephants. Five arts numbered from 18 to 22 are related
to Dhanurveda (Archery).
23 Hastamudra- Arrangement of hand fingers- This art was to please
gods and also to attain physical and mental power and treatment of
body ailments. There are as many 32 arrangement described in
Sanskrit texts on
Tantra and Aagams. Modern hypnotists also use some such
arrangement of fingers.
24-Sarathhya- Driving the horse driven chariots was an art. Driving
horse or elephant was essential for princes. Mahabharat describes Lord
Krishna driving chariot of Arjuna and King Shalya driving chariot of
KarNa.

25-Pot Making- Artisans of ancient period were expert in making
pots from clay, wood and brass etc. Museums display such artifacts
found during archeological excavations from various sites.
26- Drawing and Painting –Paintings at ancient temples and
Buddhist caves indicate the high level of skill developed by the
painters. The paints used appear as still fresh. These paintings attract
large foreign tourists. To decorate walls of house, use of paintings was
very common. Women too were expert in paining on wall and floors.
Chitralekha, the friend of princess
Usha (daughter BaNasur) used to draw portrait of person seen only
once.
There are six things involved in this art namely;
i. Roopbhed-Mixing of colors to get the correct shade.
Page14
ii. PramaN- Use of a scale to show depth and distances within a
painting.
iii. Bhav- Expression on face.
iv. Sadrushhya –Similarity.
v. VarNika- Color composition and
vi. Bhang –The posture (to enhance the figure).
The texts “Samarangan Sutradhar” and other describe this art in
details.
27-Levelling of ground –For construction of Temples, palaces, lakes
etc,
the ground has to be leveled.
28 Preparation of time measuring instruments- In ancient period
time was measured with Jalayantra, Sand clock, sun-dial etc. With the
invention of mechanical clocks earlier ancient types have become

obsolete. Only few astrologers use for special occasions such as
marriages or know sunrise and sun set times.
29- Preparation of musical instruments-
30-Rangakarma- Dyeing of cloth-This art was a house hold art
earlier but nowadays dyeing is done by dyers. Many expert dyers of
Rajasthan can dye the two sides of a fine cloth with different colors.
Tie and dye work (Bandhani) is a skillful art mastered by dyers of
Rajasthan .
31-Jalavayuagni Sanyog - Combination of water, air and fire to
control steam- Ancient text Samarangan Sutradhar by King Bhoja
contains a chapter 31 entitled as Yantravidhan (Machines). The
chapter contains 224 verses describing various machines. This
indicates that Indians in ancient period were using various machines
for day to day works.
32–Ratha Nauka NirmaN –Initially the means of transport was
carts.
Subsequently boats and ships were made for water transport. Use of
ships is mentioned in Veda. Water transport to various countries was
popular but with the rise of British Empire in India this art vanished.
33 - RajjukaraN – Rope making with the fibers of hemp jute etc.
34-Patbandha- Cloth weaving –This art was very advanced in India.
Prior to East India company’s arrival, weaving of extra fine cloth was
known to
local weavers. But foreign traders destroyed this art to promote their
industries.
35-Ratnaparikshya- Gemology- Identification of various gems,
polishing
and making holes is a art. People in India wear precious stones in rings
or

bracelet to protect themselves from bad effects of some planets as per
astrology.
36- Gold smithy –This art involves assessment of purity of gold or
silver.
37-Artificial jewelry making- an art of making ornaments using
artificial
metals and stones.
38-SwarNadyalankarkruti –Gold smithy involving making gold and
silver ornaments and gold plating on other metals.
39 -Mardavadikriya- It is an art of softening of raw leather for
further uses.
40- Pashucharmangnirharkriyadynan- It is an art of separating
skin of a
dead animal without damage.
41-Dairy work -Making curd , butter and Ghee from milk is also an
art.
42-Kanchukadi siwan – Tailoring or stitching the cloth is an art.
43-JalataraN- Swimming also includes life saving of drowning person.
44-Bandasamarjan – Cleaning the household utensils used in
cooking or for serving food.
45-Vastrasamarjan –Washing clothes and repairing.
46 –Khurkarm – Shaving and hair cutting.
47-Oil extraction- Extraction of oil from oil seeds and fatty oil from
animal flesh.
48- Palaung - an agricultural land is an art.
49 –Tree climbing – It needs a skill to climb high trees for collecting
fruits.
50-Manokul sewa- It is an art to serve other persons with pleasing
manners. Servants and students should know this skill.

51-VenutruNadi Kriya-Bamboo works- Bamboo and grass are
abundantly available natural material. To make baskets, mats, roof
covers from bamboo and grass is an art.
52- Glassware making – To make glass articles such as bangles,
lamp shades is art.
53-Sanchetan –It deals with irrigation of agriculture fields.
54-SamharaN- It deals with drainage of excessive water from fields.
55- Iron smithy- It deals with fabrication of iron implements for
agricultural or domestic uses.
56-PalyaN kriya- It deals with saddle making for horse or elephant
riding.
57 Samrakshyan and 58 Poshan - Baby care- To look after the
physical and mental growth of a child.
59-Toy making – This art involves preparation of toys considering the
age of the child.
60-Sayuktatadan- Punishing the guilty persons with appropriate
punishment is also an art.
61- Handwriting – Ancient texts were copied by manual hand
writing.
Huge texts such as Mahabharata, with more than 125000 verses, are
written in same size of letters without any correction and the pages
are free from dirty spots. With modern discovery of type writers and
printing presses, people are neglecting this art.
62-Presevation of beetle leaves - Experts can preserve leaves for
months by reshuffling daily.
63-Aadan –It is an art doing a job quickly
64-Pratidan- It is an art doing a job for a long period with the same
quality. The last two arts are very important in present era.

Authors concluding remarks- Sixty-four ancient Indian arts are
described in this article. The extent of this subject is very wide. It
should also include 32 Vidyas (techniques) described in a separate
article in the same issue of this magazine. The aim of education should
be increase of knowledge, betterment of personal relations and more
earning for the livelihood. The ancient education system was to fulfill
the four basic duties of a person, Dharma (Religion), Artha (Earning),
Kama (Family life) and Mokshya (Attainment of eternal peace). Lord
Krishna was master of all the sixty-four arts. Arjun in Dance, Bhim in
cookery and Parshram and Dronacharya were expert in archery. Due
to modern education system a person has to perform any job available
to him. This leads to class struggle and unemployment. All human are
not same. Some people are inclined to some particular subject.
Sage Shuracharya mentions that “It is easy to learn and master
traditional
(family) skill than acquire new skill”.
यां यां कलां समासित्य सनपुक्षो यो दह मानव: |

नैपुण्यकरणे सम्यक् तं तां कुयावत२ स एव दह॥
A son of a carpenter is able the learn carpentry skill much better than
other person because he is familiar since childhood the intricacies of
the trade.
Ancient education system was base on this psychological
principle.Modern educationists are realizing the lacuna of modern
education system.
But we are blindly following their system which creates a hatred
towards own trade. Sons of artisans are after low salary office jobs. It
would be
better if we follow our ancient system of education.
***.***
G5
Visual arts as depicted in ancient Indian texts

Technical paper published in Conference on Raja Bhoj, held at Bhopal ,
December 2017.
0-Abstract: The paper deals with Visual arts of ancient India. Sage
Bhrugu classified all subjects, under science and technology, into ten
sciences (Shashtras), thirty-two techniques (Vidyas) and sixty-four
arts or skills (Kalas).
Visual arts belong to three techniques, namely, Manunshya
Vidya, Vastu Vidya and Devalaya Vidya. The visual arts were named as
white washing (ChuNopalepaa), preparation of paints and pigments
(VarNakarm), soil conditioning (Mrutkarm), wood craft (Daru karm),
drawing & painting (Chitradyalekhan) and sculpture (PartimakaraN)
Drawing and painting is most important visual art. Many ancient
texts deal with visual arts such as painting, sculpture, textile printing,
rock painting etc. Vishnu Dharmottar puraN is the world’s oldest and
most authentic reference on painting and referred by archeologists.
Ancient iconography texts such as Sakaladhikar of Sage Agastya deals
clay iconography.
An attempt has been made to review ancient Indian literature on
drawing and painting, origin of various styles and to find its relevance
in modern era.
1-Introduction: Different Sages such as Bhrugu (Bhugu, Samhita),
Shukracharya (Nitisaar), or Vatsyayan (Kamasutra) have mentioned
sixty-four arts in their Samhitas. Few are common also. Sage
Shukracharya has defined an art is that which can be acquired or
mastered even by blind or deaf person.
शक्तो मूकोवप यत ् कतुव कलासंज्ञं तु तत ् स्मृतम ॥ नीतीसार

Arts are infinite. Arts are grouped under visual arts and performing
arts.Indian arts consists of a variety of art forms, including plastic arts
(e.g., pottery sculpture), visual arts (e.g., paintings), and textile arts
(e.g., woven silk).
2-Chitrasutra the bible of visual arts: Chitrasutra is that part of the
Vishnudharmottara which deals with the art of
painting. Vishnudharmottara is dated around sixth century AD, The
Chitrasutra commences with a request by king Vajra to sage
Markandeya seeking knowledge about image-making.
Chitrakarma mentions certain rules about the method of drawing and
painting. An artist should start his work at a calm place and in non
humid climate. The surroundings should be clean and dust free. Artist
should first remember all aspects of drawing and then start drawing
outline with charcoal pencil, and using a new cloth for erasing or
correcting. Finally the drawing should be painted.
आसलखेव्त्कट्गिलेव्खन्या सुमुहुते शुभस्थले ।

स्वस्थसचत्तः सुखाससनः स्मृत्वा स्मृत्वा पुनः पुनः॥
यत्र लेखागता वामं तत्र तां नव वाससा।
सन्माज्यव सम्यगासलख्य युक्ताकारं समुभयेद ॥
माजवयेव्त्कट्गिलेखांनां पुनः सुदयक्तमासलखेद।
3-Types of paintings: Paintings can be one of the four types.

 Dhulichitra or Rangolee – It is made by using dry colored
powders and drawn on flat surface or on water and lasts for
small period.
 Pushpachitra – It is made by using leaves and flowers.
 Rasachitra - It is made by using oil or water paints and drawn on

paper, cloth wall or ceiling.

 Maya or illusion created by colored rays focused through lenses.
Magic lantern or movie is the example of such type.
नानाचूणैः स्थंदडलादौ क्षव्णकासन ववलेपयेद।

धुसल सचत्रसमसतख्यातं सचत्रकारै ः पुरातनैः॥
पत्रैः पुष्पैश्च ववववधैजल
व ादौ रसचतंच यद्।
पुष्पसचत्रसमसतख्यात ् तदावप क्षव्णकं भवेद्॥
शृंगारदद रसोयत्र दशवनादवगम्यते।
रसासलप्तं सचरस्थासय रससचत्रसमसतस्मृतं॥
मयेन सनसमवता माया सचत्राभाससमसत िुता।
Different forms of drawings: Chitra (drawing) is a medium to show
all creature or things which are present on earth or in water and sky.
Chitra gives experience about things.
जंगमा: स्थावरा वावप ये संसत भुवनत्रये ।

तत्तत्स्वभावततेषां करणं सचत्रमुच्चते ॥ भ्रुगुसंदहता अ. २५
सवांगदृश्यकरणं सचत्रसमत्यसभधीते: ॥ सचत्रकमव
Lekhan means engraving or sculpture. These have three dimensions.

Stone, wood, earth etc are used for sculpture.
सशलया दारुणा वावप लोहै मवृ त्तकायावप वा ।

तत्तद्रदयै: प्रकुवीत यथा दृष्टं यथा िुतम ्॥
यथायुवक्त यथाशोभं नानावणैश्च भूषयवततम ्। सचत्रकमव
Ardhachita are two dimensional such as wall painting, mural or fresco.
सभत्यादौ लग्नभावेन चाधं यत्र प्रदृश्यते ।

तदधवसचत्रसमत्युक्तं यत्ततेषा ववलेखनम ्॥
ऋज्वाददपरतस्त्स्मात्परावृतं चतुवववधम ्॥ सचत्रकमव
Chitrabhas (Chitralapan) is like a image in mirror , which can be seen

but not felt by hands.
सादृश्यं दृश्यते यव्स्मंदपवणे प्रसतवबंबवत ्।

सचत्राभाससमसत प्रोक्तं आलेख्यं सचत्रलेपनं ॥ सचत्रकमव
Painting – chitra kala- was recognized as an essential part of the

curriculum in the upbringing of children of “good families”. Paintings
were classified as
 those drawn on the ground- like rangoli, floor decorations etc
(bhumika);
 those on the wall- like murals and frescos (bhitthi); and
 portrait (bhava chitra).The first two were fixed (achala) and the
third was portable
4- The posture: The various positions and perspectives are achieved
by what the Chitrasutra called as – kshaya and vridhi, decrease and
increase, which is the art and skill of drawing. The positions are:
i. front view (rivagata);
ii. back view (anrju);
iii. bent position – in profile view (sat-chikrat-sarira);
iv. face in profile and body in three quarter profile (ardha-

vilochana);
v. side view proper (paravagata);
vi. with head and shoulder-belt turned backwards (paravritta);
vii. back view with upper part of the body partly visible in profile
(prastagata);
viii. with body turned back from the waist upwards (parivrtta); and
ix. The back view in squatting position with head bent (samanata).
ऋजुः स्यात्संमुखं कतुरव न्यदव धज

ु स
ुव ंज्ञकं।
तृसतयं सासचकं प्रोक्त तुपम
व धावव्क्ष संदितं॥
पंचमं सभवत्तकं प्राहुः पृष्ठंदृश्यं भजेददह।
ऋज्जादद परतस्तस्मात्परावृतं चतुवववध॥
ं

एवं नवैन स्थानादद प्रवदं सत मनीवषणः।
A combination three views is called Tribhanga(Sankar) and used by

painters showing feminine objects. Face, neck to waist portion and
portion below waist are shown as front elevation, isometric view
and side elevation respectively.
ऋजुस्थानं मुखं यत्र, यत्रान्यत्कंितो ऽप्यधः।

तत्रावप कियधस्लन्यद् इसत संकरपर्धदसतः॥
5-Colors and Paints: The main purpose of colors and paints is to

enhance the aesthetics of any structure. It also improves the durability
by protecting from natural weathering agents and insects etc.
5a-Primary colors and their derivatives: Chitrasutra, in chapter 27,
mentions five primary colors: white (svetha), yellow (pitha),
black(krshna), green (harita) and red (raktha). At another place
(ch.40) it mentions white, yellow, black, blue (shyama) and the color
of myrobalan (the dried fruit of a bush that resembles a plum) as the
five principal colors.
The text mentions that it would be impossible to enumerate the mixed
colors in the world created by the dexterous mixing of various colors
and their derivatives; the combinations are limited only by ones
imagination and logic. The mixing of the colors, in various shades and
tones, is a mark of artist’s ingenuity. There is no limit to the numerous
finer varieties of tints that can be produced. Coloring should be
natural.
It appears, the range of colors employed by the ancient artists was
wide enough to render with subtlety the local colors of the objects.
Chitrasutra classifies the application of colors into four categories : as
those that are employed to depict (i) the faithful representations of
nature; (ii) the true proportions but largely exaggerated size of the
object ; (iii) artificial qualities and perspectives of objects; and, (iv)
an admixture of the three .
Basic Colors - White, yellow, red, black and blue are five basic (pure)
colors. All other composite colors are made from these colors. Colors
are described with examples i.e. white as snow, yellow as ripe leaves,
red as fire, blue as sky and black as lamp black etc.
yellow color
with water. Vermillion is mixed in water and stirred for 12 hours.
Manashil is dry pulverized by pounding in mortar with pestle. All these
colors are mixed with resin of Neem.
mud
pot is smeared with powder of dry cow dung. This pot is place on the
first pot such that lamp black is coated inside the top pot. The lamp
black is cleaned with water before application. .
or indigo and resin of wood apple.

polished with horn (of an ox or swine).
5b-Composite Colors: Composite colors were made by mixing two or
more basic (pure) colors. Table below shows how composite colors
were made in ancient time.
Table– Composite colors
Composite colors Basic colors to be mixed
light Pink White + Red Gour
Shar color White + Black +Yellow
color of Elephant’s skin White + Black
color of Bakul flower Red+Yellow
color of flame 2 parts Red+1 part Yellow
Fire color Dark Red+Yellow
gray color 2 parts Yellow +1 part white
aqua color 2 parts Yellow +1 part black
color of human skin White +Yellow
Parrot’s green color Yellow +Blue
Dark Red Shellac+Hingul
Purple color Shellac+black
Hair color Blue+black
5c-Preparation of colors: Ancient texts give detailed information about

preparation of colors. Different herbs and minerals and glue made
from tree resins were used for preparation of basic five colors. The
texts also describe 16 types of mixed colors for painting different
objects.
सनजवलं चूणय
व त्तत्र पेषण्याच मनःसशलां।
ददनमेकं पेषसयत्वा सम्यक्पात्रेषु संग्रहे त ्॥
एतेषां सनंबसनयावस तोयं संयोग्य युवक्ततः।
सन्मद्यव लेपसलखन प्रदक्रयाश्च समाचरे त ्॥
5d- Brushes and crayons: The text mentions the tools required for
drawing and sketching . Vartika was a general term used to denote

both a brush and a crayon or a pastel for drawing. It appears Tindu
was a crayon too , of carefully burnt ebony twig; while kitta was black
carbon prepared as a roll for sketching. Tulika was brush prepared ,
perhaps , out of animal hair like sable, squirrel and hog ; and , of bird
feathers.It is said , a painter used at least nine brushes for every
color.
The text says, “A painting firmly drawn with a tulika , a magnificant
hairy brush ,on a canvas , dipped in juice of the best Durva grass
cannot be destroyed ; and it remains intact for many years , thogh
washed by water."
Brushes (Kunchali) used for painting are of three types, broad,
medium and fine. These three types of brushes are made from hairs of
ears of calf, stomach part of sheep or tail of squirrel respectively. A set
of three brushes are required for each color.
5e- Hide Glue: Abhilashitartha Chitamani describes preparation of hide
glue. Hide glue (Sirus or Shirus or hide glue) is prepared from fresh
skin of a buffalo cooked in water till it becomes soft as butter. Water is
sunlight. When needed the dried piece is boiled in water. This is a
substitute for resins of tree. This glue is called Vajralep .
6- Opening of the eyes: Chitrasutra paid enormous importance to
the delicate painting of the soulful and expressive eyes that poured out
the essence of the subject. It describes five basic types of eyes. The
artist was told that the eyes are the windows to the soul; and it is
through their eyes the figures in the painting open up their heart and
speak eloquently to the viewer. The painting of the eyes called the
“opening of the eyes” was therefore the final and most important
detail to be painted. It was usually done in the guiding presence of the
Master or was completed by the Master himself.

The text describes five basic types of eyes. And, it says the eye could
be in the form of a bow (chapakara); or like the abdomen of a fish
(matsyodara); or like the petal of blue lotus (utpalaptrabha); or like a
white lotus (padmapatranibha) or like a counch (sankhakriti).
Human expressions are mostly expressed through the eyes. Ancient
references are available on facial expressions.
a) Ecstatic (Samadhi)- It is explained that the eye assumes the
shape of a bow when looking at the ground in meditation or
when lost in a thought
b) Feminine (Matsyodar) –The eye in the shape of fish should be

painted in the case of women and lovers.
c) Angry (Padmakamala)- Eyes of the shape of lotus . A conch like

eye suggests person is angry and woe stricken.
d) Emotionless (Nirvikar) - The eye in the shape of blue lotus is

said to be ever calm.
e) Weeping or painful (Sashush) – Rabbit eyed. The eye in the

shape of white lotus petal befits a damsel frightened and crying.
The eye in the shape of blue lotus is said to be ever calm and
look charming with red at the corners and with black pupils,
smiling, gentle and ending in long eye lashes sloping at its end.
चापाकारं भवेन्नेत्रं योगभूसम सनरीक्षणाद् ।

मत्स्योदरा कृ सतकायं नारीणां कामीनां तथा॥
नेत्रमुत्पलपत्राभं वववववकारस्य शस्तते ।
त्रस्तस्य रुदतश्चैवप्मपपत्रसनभं भवेद्॥
क्रुर्धदस्य वेदनातवस्य नेत्र सशुसम भवेद्।
..

Ecstatic Feminine Angry Emotionless painful
7-Surface preparation: The text details two methods. It assures that

if its recommendations are followed “it (the wall-surface) does not go
to ruins even at the end of hundred years.
A.The wall has to receive a thick coating of bricks , burnt conches

and the like , powdered and mixed with sand; the watery preparation
of molasses and drops of the decantation of mudga (phaseolus munga
–mung pulse) amounting to a fourth part of the mortar powder.
In to that, smashed ripe banana fruits have to be added, also a fourth
part of the amount of the mortar.After three months, when the
mixture is dried, it shall be ground again.
Then it must be mixed once more with molasses-water, until it gets a

touch of fresh butter.
In this stage, buffalo-hide has to to be boiled in water, until it becomes

soft like butter. The water then has to evaporate and sticks have to be
made of the paste and dried in the sunshine.
This hard plaster is called Vajra-lepa. If, then boiled in mud vessel with
water, it will make any color fast with which it is mixed. If mixed with
white mud, it has to be used as coating for the wall, in three layers,
each layer being allowed to dry before the application of the next.
The wall having been cleansed with coconut fibers and having
been sprinkled for some time with molasses- water, on this the

painting may be applied.
This is the two-fold process by which the wall is made ready for the
drawing and application of colors.
8-Measurement system: Ancient texts give detailed information

about height or width of various parts of images or icons. The unit was
‘angula or yava’. One angula was approximately 1.9 mm and 8 yavas
are equivalent to one angula.
9-Ethics of visual arts: Ancient texts clearly mention certain objects

or things, such as wars, death, dead or naked persons should not be
depicted in houses.
सचत्रं ववसचत्रफलदं भतुःव कतुश्च

व सववदा।
संगामं मरणं दःु खं दे वासूर कथास्यावप॥
नग्नं तपव्स्व लीलांच नकुयावन्मानुषालये।
एतसशुभसचत्रं तु ववपररत फलप्रदं ॥
न लेखयेन्न सलखेलोकददय सुखेच्छया।
10-Conclusions:

1. The scope of the subject of visual arts is too wide to explain. The
status of visual arts in ancient India was very high.
2. But such subjects are now taught in English without any

reference to ancient Indian texts. Traditional arts and artisans
are being neglected.
3. A time has come to rejuvenate the traditional arts by introducing

their studies in our curriculum.
4. Digitization of ancient texts (Samhitas), their translations and

modern interpretation of the subjects is necessary in
independent India.
11-References
 Mukherji, Parul Dave,” Citrasutra of the Visnudharmottara
Purana “
 Stella Kramrisch(1928), The Vishnudharmottara Part III: A
Treatise On Indian Painting And Image-Making. Second Revised
and Enlarged Edition (Calcutta University Press: 1928)
***.***

H1
Ancient Indian Myths or Futuristic Invention Ideas
Journal of Bharatiya Boudhik Sampada, Vol.42, July 2012
Abstract: The paper presents few futuristic invention ideas which are
hidden in ancient Indian texts and scriptures such as Veda, Purana,
and Shilpsamhita etc.
Introduction: At present one can notice two groups of intellectuals.
The first group claims that all the present inventions were known to
Indians and were recorded in ancient Indian texts or scriptures. But
the other group rejects this claim and according to this group all such
information is nothing but myths without any scientific or technical
background.
During compilation of information related Civil Engineering in ancient
India, many reference with futuristic invention potentials, were
located. Only few such references are presented in this paper.
Futuristic invention ideas: These ideas are grouped under three
heads.
1- Related to Botany
§ Silver or Gold shining liquid for metals: Trees of Palash (Flame of
forest- Butea frondosa) are abundantly present in India. Flowering of
the trees occur in summer months around Holi festival. Ancient text
Aushadhikalplata mentions that “if juice of flowers, treated with sulfur,
when rubbed on copper metal surface, the surface shines as gold.
Similarly, decoction of mixture of flowers juice and Hartal is used to
make silver like lead metal (Ref. Pade, pp.213).
 Herbal hair remover: Shami (Sprung tree - Prosopis spyicigers )
tree seed are enclosed in 30 cm long beans. Ancient texts

mention that “if a paste, of dry seed with milk, is applied on skin
it acts as hair remover. (Ref. Pade, pp 389).
 Herbal Algaecide: Water treatment process involves removal of
algae from raw water. Ancient texts mention that “if a wooden
block of Jamun (Java Plum- Syzygium Cumini) tree is placed in
raw water it kills algae within 24 hours”. (Ref. Pade, pp 170). If
this information is found correct, inorganic algaecides can be
replaced by organic one that will have no effects on human
health.
 De-plasticizer: The main difference between floors of wheat and
Jawar is their plasticity. Jawar floor cannot be rolled to make
chapattis. Ancient texts mention that “if juice of cucumber is
added to wheat floor, it looses its plasticity. (Ref. Pade, pp 81).
If such de-plasticizers are developed, it would be a boon to
agriculturists and civil engineers. Damages due expansion and
contraction of expansive soils (cracking of building on Black
cotton soils) can be controlled.
2- Related to Rock mechanics
The rock temples of south India are excellent examples of intricate
carving. One can see stone chains or moving stone earrings at such
temples. Such intricate carvings appear to be impossible, unless these
stones were softened first and re-hardened afterwards. Stone idols to
be used for idol making must be intact and free from micro-crack
invisible to eyes.
Detection of defects in rocks
The stones, to be used for idol preparation were carefully inspected.
Microscopic defects, which are invisible to eyes, were detected by
applying some herbal paints so that the defects are clearly visible. Dye

penetrate inspection (DPI), a modern technique is used to detect micro
cracks or other faults in metal casting.
Shilparatna Ch. 14 and Varahsamhita describe an ancient procedure
for preparation of four herbal paints, and is given below.
 Mix and grind equal parts of Ativish, Hirakas and Geru in milk,
apply this paint to stone and allow to dry overnight.
 Mix and grind equal parts of Hirakas and Chor in milk and apply
this paint to stone and dry for three days.
 Mix and grind equal parts of Jatamasi, Kusht, Gabha and Ratree
in decoction of Trifala, apply this paint to stone and dry for three
days.
 Mix and grind equal parts of Jatamasi, Rog and Ashwamari in
rainwater mixed with milk,
Apply one of above mentioned paint to stone and allow it to dry for
three days. Such paints were used to detect micro cracks or fissures.
ADAMANTINE GLUES
The subject of preparation of adamantine glue was closely connected
with construction of temples. A bonding agent was very essential for
fixing idols or in wall construction, when cement and other modern
materials were unknown.
Even now, these glues were known as Astabandha, are prepared in
temple premises for fixing or re-fixing images of gods. Four such glues
were described in ancient texts. One formula or method is described
below. Table [1] shows the ingredients for adamantine glue.
Table 1- Ingredients
Sn Sanskrit English/ Latin
1 Tinduka Fruits of Diospyros paniculata
2 Kapittaka Feronia elephantum
3 Shalmali Flowers of silk cotton

4 Sallaki Seeds of Boswellia serrata
5 Dhanavana Barks of Orris root
6 Vacha Barks of Orris root
7 Shrivasaka A tree resin used as incense
8 Raktabola Myrrh
9 Guggulu Commiphora roxburghii
10 Bhallataka Semecarpus anacardium
11 Kunduruka Deodar tree resin
12 Atasi Linum usikatissimum
13 Bilvaphal Fruits of Aegle marmelos
Ingredients (1-6) are boiled 256 parts of water until the decoction
reduces to an eighth of its original volume (i.e. 32 Parts).
The sediments were mixed with other substances (7-13). The resulting
paste is termed as adamantine glue. This glue is heated and then
used in construction of temples, mansions, walls and wells as well as
fixing Siva’s emblems and idols of gods. This mortar was expected to
last for a million years.
3 - Related to soil stabilization
The stabilized soils were mainly used for adobe construction (mud
walls, bricks, pottery, plastering, and flooring).Such soils were also
used for outer coats of idols and other objects. Many references, from
Vedic period (5000 BC) to 15th century AD, about soil stabilization
methods are available.
Natural soil plasticizers
Nowadays Concrete plasticizers are used to increase workability of a
concrete. Natural soil plasticizers were similarly used in ancient India
to improve the quality of soil to be used for different purposes. The
functions of these natural soil plasticizers were to,

• Herbal extracts -Decoction of certain herbs such as Trifala were
(Emblica officinalis) Hirda (Teminalia chebula) and Behada (Teminalia
Billerica) The decoction (or kwath) is prepared by boiling the solution
of Trifala in water, till the volume of liquid is reduced to one-forth of its
original volume. The solution is cooled before application. (Ref. Shilpa
Ratna)
• Fruit extracts- The pulp of certain Indian fruits, such as Wood apple
(Kapittha- Limonia acidissima), Holy tree (Bilwa-Aegle marmelos)
Tendu (Tinduk-Dioscoreo peniculata) etc is highly sticky. The pulp of
such fruits is added tosoil and allowed for maturation for a minimum
period on 30 days and the mixture has to be thoroughly kneaded
frequently (once a day). Ref Aparajitpruccha .
• Barks of tress- Dry barks of certain milky trees, such Shrivruksha
(Turpentine tree) or Palash (Flame of forest tree-Butea frondosa) etc
as are boiled in water to prepare a decoction. Vastu Vidya Savyakhya,
Ref.13
• Natural fibers - Natural fibers were added to soil. The fibers were
obtained
from flowers and fruits of Shalmali (silk cotton tree), coir, jute, flax
etc.
Sakaladhikar.
• Natural polymers - Various natural polymers used to be added to
ancient construction materials (mud, lime, mortars paints etc). These

polymers were green algae, moss, coconut water, cow-dung, pastes of
black gram, Jaggaery solution etc. Tantrasamuchhyaya
Brick making
Yajur Veda, Chapter 13 mentions a name of Sage Medhatithi as a
designer of bricks (Eshtika) which were used to construct Yajna Kund
(sacrificial fire tank). Yajurvedsamhita mentions about method of
preparation bricks and a special type of pot (Ukha). The soil was
stabilized by adding hairs of goat, fine sand, iron slag and stone dust.
This soil is used for making square bricks. More details are available in
Ref.16 (Kulkarni, R.P.)
§ Adobe floors
Floors made from poured and toweled mud, are softer and warmer to
the touch than tiles or cement, and carry the rich colors of natural
earth. Various additives have been tested to make adobe floors easy
to create and maintain. One additive is made from psyllium hulls, or
commonly known as Isabgol. This additive makes the mud easy to
work and acts as a binder when the floor dries. It reduces cracking and
increases strength.
Case Studies
methods.
A. Gadhi soils: These are special types artificially stabilized soil. Such
persons. Such Gadhis still exist in many parts of Maharashtra (India).
constituents of Gadhi soil are local soil, fine sand, cow dung, lime,

water for mixing.
The mixture is allowed to mature for a minimum period of 30 days and
kneaded everyday. If a clay ball of prepared soil does not does not
disintegrate when immersed in water, then the procedure is
considered successful. Recent at Latur earthquake showed that houses
constructed with Gadhi soils were more earthquake resistant.
B. Mud flooring. : The Padmanabhapurum palace in Kerala was
constructed
around 1601 A.D by Kulasekhara Perumal. It has unique flooring. The
black
lustrous floors of the palace are still so shiny that one can see one’s
reflection in them. But it is not the glitter of mosaic, granite or marble.
The floors were made of a material that is unique blend of burnt
coconut shells, lime, palm toddy, the whites of eggs and crushed
extracts of certain barks of trees and nuts. Modern engineers and
artisans are still unable to replicate the flooring.
CONCLUSIONS
concluded that,
1. All information available in Ancient Indian texts and scriptures
contain many hidden futuristic ideas. Such ideas should be verified
with modern research methodology and experimentations.
2. Many of the ancient Indian techniques may not be relevant as
modern methods and materials are more cost effective. But one must
appreciate the
ancient Indian knowledge which was centauries ahead of that available
in rest of the world.

3. Kautilya (350 B.C - 283 B.C) has advised that "One should review
the past with modern perspective-Naven Anaamn Shodhayet". Hence
there is a need to preserve this treasure of ancient Indian traditions.
REFERENCES
1. Aparajitprichha- (12th to 13th Century A.D.), Bhuvana Dev
Acharya,
Gaikwad Oriental Series ~No. 65 (51.28).
sthirikaran", Journal of Institution of Engineers Hindi section, Vol .53.
3. Manasollas -1113 AD text, edited by Shri G K Shrigondekar,
Published by
Gaikkwad Oriental Series No. 28, Baroda
4. Pade S.D. (1973), “Vanoushadhi Gunadarsh “ , Marathi book, Pub.
Rajesh
Prakashan, Pune.
5. Sakaladhikar, - Ed by V.G. Iyengar, Published by Saraswati Mahal
Library,
(1973), Thanjavur. TSM Series No. 141
6. Shilpratna-(16th Century, A.D.), Shrikumar, Gaikwad, Oriental
Series 23
Baroda.
7. Tantrasamuchhyaya-(1428 A.D.) Anantha Shayana Sanskrit Series
No. 151
8. Varahsamhita- Brihatsamhita (5000 BC) Pub. By Khemraj
Shrikrishnadas,
Bombay (1945).
9. Vastu Vidya Savyakhya - Pub. By Trivendrum Sanskrit Series No.
142,
Trivendrum.

10. Yajurved Samhita (B.C.2500), Published by M/s Khemraja
***.***

H2
Ancient Indian Myths or Futuristic Invention Ideas
Article on Web page
Abstract: The paper presents few futuristic invention ideas which are
hidden in ancient Indian texts and scriptures such as Veda, Purana,
and Shilpsamhita etc.
Introduction: At present one can notice two groups of intellectuals.
The first group claims that all the present inventions were known to
Indians and were recorded in ancient Indian texts or scriptures. But
the other group rejects this claim and according to this group all such
information is nothing but myths without any scientific or technical
background.
During compilation of information related Civil Engineering in ancient
India, many reference with futuristic invention potentials, were
located. Only few such references are presented in this paper.
Futuristic invention ideas: These ideas are grouped under 3 heads.
A- Related to Botany
1. Silver or Gold shining liquid for metals: Trees of Palash (Flame of
forest- Butea frondosa) are abundantly present in India.
Flowering of the trees occur in summer months around Holi
festival. Ancient text Aushadhikalplata mentions that “if juice of
flowers, treated with sulfur, when rubbed on copper metal
surface, the surface shines as gold. Similarly, decoction of
mixture of flowers juice and Hartal (Orpiment) is used to make
silver like lead metal (Ref. Pade, pp.213).
2. Herbal hair remover: Shami (Sprung tree - Prosopis spyicigers )
tree seed are enclosed in 30 cm long beans. Ancient texts
mention that “if a paste, of dry seed with milk, is applied on skin
it acts as hair remover. (Ref. Pade, pp 389).

3. Herbal Algaecide: Water treatment process involves removal of
algae from raw water. Ancient texts mention that “if a wooden
block of Jamun (Java Plum- Syzygium Cumini) tree is placed in
raw water it kills algae within 24 hours”. (Ref. Pade, pp 170). If
this information is found correct, inorganic algaecides can be
replaced by organic one which will have no effects on human
health.
4. De-plasticizer: The main difference between floors of wheat and
Jawar is their plasticity. Jawar floor cannot be rolled to make
chapattis. Ancient texts mention that “if juice of cucumber is
added to wheat floor, it looses its plasticity. (Ref. Pade, pp 81).
If such de-plasticizers are developed, it would be a boon to
agriculturists and civil engineers. Damages due expansion and
contraction of expansive soils (cracking of building on Black
cotton soils) can be controlled.
B- Related to Rock mechanics
The rock temples of south India are excellent examples of intricate
carving. One can see stone chains or moving stone earrings at such
temples. Such intricate carvings appear to be impossible, unless these
stones were softened first and re-hardened afterwards. Stone idols to
be used for idol making must be intact and free from micro-crack
invisible to eyes.
4. Stone softening
Following technique was used to soften the rock for ease of carving.
Mix and grind equal parts of Ativish, Hirakas and Geru in milk, apply
this paint to stone and allow to dry overnight.
5. Detection of defects

applying some herbal paints so that the defects are clearly visible. Dye
penetrate inspection (DPI), a modern technique is used to detect micro
cracks or other faults in metal casting. Shilparatna Ch.14, and
Varahsamhita describe an ancient procedure for preparation of four
herbal paints, and is given below.
 Mix and grind equal parts of Hirakas and Chor in milk and apply
this paint to stone and dry for three days.
 Mix and grind equal parts of Jatamasi, Kusht, Gabha and Ratree
in decoction of Trifala, apply this paint to stone and dry for
three days.
 Mix and grind equal parts of Jatamasi, Rog and Ashwamari in
rainwater mixed with milk,
Apply one of above mentioned paint to stone and allow it to dry for
three days. Such paints were used to detect micro cracks or fissures.
6. Stone hardening and preservations
Ancient reference Shilparatna Ch.14, mentions about a paint to be
applied to stone surface for re-hardening and preservation.
 Mix 4 parts of Shrivestak, 3 parts of Sala tree resin 8 parts of
Raal , 3 parts of red ochre in oil or ghee and boil the mixture in
an earthen pot. Then apply this paint to stone and dry for three
days.
7. ADAMANTINE GLUES
materials were unknown. Even now, these glues were known as
Astabandha, are prepared in temple premises for fixing or re-fixing
images of gods. Four such glues were described in ancient texts. One

formula or method is described below. Table [1] shows the ingredients
for adamantine glue.
Sn Sanskrit English/ Latin Sn Sanskrit English/
Latin
Seeds of
Linum Boswellia
1 Atasi usikatissimum 9 Sallaki serrata
Semecarpus Flowers of
2 Bhallataka anacardium 10 Shalmali silk cotton
A tree resin
Fruits of Aegle used as
3 Bilvaphal marmelos 11 Shrivasaka incense
Fruits of
Barks of Orris Diospyros
4 Dhanavana root 12 Tinduka paniculata
Commiphora
5 Guggulu roxburghii
Feronia Barks of
6 Kapittaka elephantum 13 Vacha Orris root
7 Kunduruka Deodar tree resin 14 Hartal Orpiment
8 Raktabola Myrrh
paste is termed as adamantine glue. This glue is heated and then used
in construction of temples, mansions, walls and wells as well as fixing
Siva’s emblems and idols of gods. This mortar was expected to last
for a million years.
C- Related to soil stabilization
The stabilized soils were mainly used for adobe construction (mud
walls, bricks, pottery, plastering, and flooring).Such soils were also
used for outer coats of idols and other objects. Many references, from
Vedic period (5000 BC) to 15th century AD, about soil stabilization
methods are available.

7. Natural soil plasticizers
Nowadays Concrete plasticizers are used to increase workability of a
concrete. Natural soil plasticizers were similarly used in ancient India
to improve the quality of soil to be used for different purposes. The
functions of these natural soil plasticizers were to,
• Herbal extracts -Decoction of certain herbs such as Trifala were
(Emblica officinalis) Hirda (Teminalia chebula) and Behada (Teminalia
Billerica) The decoction (or kwath) is prepared by boiling the solution
of Trifala in water, till the volume of liquid is reduced to one-forth of its
original volume. The solution is cooled before application. (Ref.Shilpa
Ratna)
• Fruit extracts- The pulp of certain Indian fruits, such as Wood apple
(Kapittha-Limonia acidissima), Holy tree (Bilwa-Aegle marmelos)
Tendu (Tinduk-Dioscoreo peniculata) etc is highly sticky. The pulp of
such fruits is added tosoil and allowed for maturation for a minimum
period on 30 days and the mixture has to be thoroughly kneaded
frequently (once a day). Ref Aparajitpruccha .
• Barks of tress- Dry barks of certain milky trees, such Shrivruksha
(Turpentine tree) or Palash (Flame of forest tree-Butea frondosa) etc
as are boiled in water to prepare a decoction. Vastu Vidya Savyakhya,
• Natural fibers - Natural fibers were added to soil. The fibers were
obtained from flowers and fruits of Shalmali (silk cotton tree), coir,
jute, flax etc. Sakaladhikar.

• Natural polymers - Various natural polymers used to be added to
ancient construction materials (mud, lime, mortars paints etc). These
polymers were green algae, moss, coconut water, cow-dung, pastes of
black gram, Jaggaery solution etc. Tantrasamuchhyaya
8. Brick making
Yajur Veda, Chapter 13 mentions a name of Sage Medhatithi as a
designer of bricks (Eshtika) which were used to construct Yajna Kund
(sacrificial fire tank). Yajurvedsamhita mentions about method of
preparation bricks and a special type of pot (Ukha). The soil was
stabilized by adding hairs of goat, fine sand, iron slag and stone dust.
This soil is used for making square bricks. More details are available in
Ref. Kulkarni.
9. Adobe floors
Floors made from poured and toweled mud, are softer and warmer to
the touch than tiles or cement, and carry the rich colors of natural
earth. Various additives have been tested to make adobe floors easy
to create and maintain. One additive is made from psyllium hulls, or
commonly known as Isabgol. This additive makes the mud easy to
work and acts as a binder when the floor dries. It reduces cracking and
increases strength.
Case Studies
methods.
A. Gadi soils: These are special types artificially stabilized soil. Such
persons. Such Gadhis ill exist in many parts of Maharashtra (India).

constituents of Gadhi soil are local soil, fine sand, cow dung, lime,
water for mixing. The mixture is allowed to mature for a minimum
period of 30 days and kneaded everyday. If a clay ball of prepared soil
does not does not disintegrate when immersed in water, then the
procedure is considered successful. Recent at Latur earthquake
showed that houses constructed with Gadhi soils were more
earthquake resistant.
B. Mud flooring: The Padmanabhapurum palace in Kerala was
constructed around 1601 A.D by Kulasekhara Perumal. It has unique
flooring. The black lustrous floors of the palace are still so shiny that
one can see one’s reflection in them. But it is not the glitter of mosaic,
granite or marble. The floors were made of a material that is unique
blend of burnt coconut shells, lime, palm toddy, the whites of eggs and
crushed extracts of certain barks of trees and nuts. Modern engineers
and artisans are still unable to replicate the flooring.
CONCLUSIONS
concluded that,
1. All information available in Ancient Indian texts and scriptures
contain many hidden futuristic ideas. Such ideas should be verified
with modern research methodology and experimentations.
2. Many of the ancient Indian techniques may not be relevant as
modern methods and materials are more cost effective. But one must
appreciate the ancient Indian knowledge which was centauries ahead
of that available in rest of the world.

3. Kautilya (350 B.C - 283 B.C) has advised that "One should review
the past with modern perspective-Navem Anavam Shodhayet". Hence
there is a need to preserve this treasure of ancient Indian traditions.
REFERENCES
1. Aparajitprichha- (12th to 13th Century A.D.), Bhuvana Dev
Acharya, Pub. By Gaikwad Oriental Series No. 65 (51.28).
sthirikaran", Journal of Institution of Engineers Hindi section,
Vol. .53.
3. Manasollas -1113 AD text, edited by Shri G K Shrigondekar, Pub.
by Gaikwad Oriental Series No. 28, Baroda
4. Pade S.D. (1973), “Vanoushadhi Gunadarsh “, Marathi book,
Pub. By Rajesh Prakashan, Pune.
5. Sakaladhikar, - Ed by V.G. Iyengar, Published by Saraswati
Mahal Library, (1973), Thanjavur. TSM Series No. 141
6. Shilpratna-(16th Century, A.D.), Shrikumar, Pub. by Gaikwad,
Oriental Series 23 Baroda.
7. Tantrasamuchhyaya-(1428 A.D.) Pub. by Anantha Shayana
Sanskrit Series No. 151
8. Varahsamhita- Brihatsamhita (5000 BC) Pub. By Khemraj
Shrikrishnadas, Bombay (1945).
9. Vastu Vidya Savyakhya - Pub. By Trivendrum Sanskrit Series No.
142, Trivendrum.
10. Yajurved Samhita (B.C.2500), Pub. By Khemraja
***.***

H3
Legendary Soils of Ancient India
1-Multani Mitti
Invited lecture at IGS chapter, Amrawati 2014
Abstract: The paper presents various aspects of legendary soils of

ancient India. The mythological, archeological, medicinal and
engineering aspects are discussed in this paper.
1. Introduction: Mulani Miiti is known all over world for its cosmetic
applications. But other properties and applications of this material are
not widely known. The mythological, archeological, medicinal and
engineering aspects are discussed below. The name is derived from a
name of a city Multan (Pakistan).But the name Multan is originated
from a Sanskrit word “Mulashtan” (original place).
2. Mythology: The city of Multan is more than 1200 years old. The 11
th Centaury Afghan historian and scholar Al-Burani has mentioned this
city in his book “Tarikh-E-Hind”. Multan city had a famous temple
named as Pralhad temple. This temple (Mulashtan) was supposed to
be original temple of Lord Narasinha in undivided India. One can find
names of Pralhad and Narsimha in many mythological books (Puranas)
of India. The popular legend states that this temple was got
constructed by Pralhada, a devotee of Lord Vishnu. Inside the temple,
there was an idol of Lord Vishnu in the incarnated form of Narasinha
(A half human and half lion form).The pillar through which Narasinha
(believed to be) emerged from to save Pralhada was existing till 1992.
The temple was built on a huge platform inside Multan Fort and was a
prominent landmark of Multan. The original idols of Lord Narasimha
were brought to India by Baba Narayandas from Multan at the time of
partition in 1947. These are now placed

in a temple at Hardwar. The temple is in ruins since its destruction by
mob in 1992.
2. Cosmetic applications: Multani Mitti is known for its cooling
effects on skin in prickly heat summers leaving the skin more soft,
moist and fresh. It also removes excess oil from skin and absorbs
bacteria & toxins and enhances the beauty of the skin. Moreover, this
powder also strengthens teeth, gums, fingernails and hairs and
reduces arthritic pain. Multani Mitti is very useful for skin & provides
many beauty benefits. It is available in market in both the form either
in power or stone form.
3. Preservations of Heritage Structures: The Archeological Survey
of India (ASI) uses multani mitti to give the Tajamahal a periodic
facelift. It is a time-tested method employed by the ASI’s chemical
wing in the Agra Fort. Ain-e-Akbari, a 16th century manuscript already
contains a reference to a simple method of cleaning marble. The mud
paste applied on structure is neither too acidic nor too alkaline (pH 6
to 8).This mud cover is later covered with a polythene sheet to ensure
that absorption process takes place properly.
3. Bentonite and Fuller's earth: In 19th centaury a particular kind
of clay was used for cleaning woolen cloth. The process of cleansing
and thickening cloth was known as “Fulling” and a person engaged in
its trade and practice is called a “Fuller”. Hence the term derived was
“Fuller’s Earth”.
The common properties of these two minerals are;
Both are naturally occurring clays possessing inherent bleaching
properties and called bleaching clays. They fall mainly under
Montmorillonite group containing a varying amount of Attapulgite.
These clays can be identified by chemical analysis, X-ray diffraction,
Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) and electron microscopic. The

main difference between bentonite and fuller's earth is in their modes
of occurrence and other physical properties.
Fuller's earth: Multani Mitti, also known as Indian Fullers Earth, is
similar to Kaolin clay.
 Fuller’s Earth is scientifically known as Calcium Montmorillonite.
 It is formed by the decomposition of volcanic ash.
 It has double water layer particles with Ca++ as the exchangeable
ion. It is called calcium bentonite or non-swelling type. Na+ or Ca++
is exchanged
by Mg++ or Fe++.
 Fuller's earth represents a Shale facie of Tertiary rock.
 Fuller's earth is non-plastic or semi-plastic in character. It has a
foliated
structure. Dry or dehydrated fuller's earth adheres strongly to the
tongue.
Conventional uses:
Since over a century and till date the major use of Fuller’s Earth is for
decolorizing animal, vegetable and petroleum oils, fats, greases,
waxes
and solvents. There are even accounts of Fuller’s Earth being used to
decolorize beer. Granular Fuller’s Earth is used to improve UV
spectrometer readings and PNC values of petroleum base oil distillates.
It is used in cosmetic creams and face packs. Pharmaceuticals and
Agricultural pesticide carriers. Manufacture of various catalysts used in
the petroleum and chemical industries.
Bentonite: One types of bentonite is called the swelling type or
sodium
bentonite, which has single water layer particles containing Na+ as the
exchangeable ion.

Bentonite is regarded to have been formed by the alteration of
volcanic ash
deposits, mostly in upper Cretaceous formations. Bentonites having
low iron
content have been found to be good catalytic agents in petroleum
refining. The swelling type bentonite when dispersed in water
separates into flakes which are all finer than 0.5 micron. Calcium
bentonite yields about 35% finer than 0.5 micron. The absorption of
water in sodium bentonite proceeds with a considerable increase in
volume (as much as 14 times its original volume)
creating an excellent gel and viscous material which is invaluable for
the
preparation of drilling muds and in grouting of dams, wells etc. Sodium
bentonite has an excellent thixotropic property, i.e. the gel becoming
stiff on
standing and reverting to fluidity when shaken. The difference in
bentonite and other clays lies in lattice structure. The sheets of atoms
in bentonite are much thinner and more easily separable in water.
That is why bentonite occupies more surface area than other clays.
This property is known as dispersibility, which is unique to swelling
type of bentonite.
Conclusion: The mythological, archeological, medicinal and
engineering aspects of Multani Mitti are discussed in this paper. The
purpose of this paper is to acquaint Indian students of Civil
engineering about legendary soils of India.
Reference: 1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History of Multan 2) News
article in “The Tribune” 15 th July 2006 3)News article in “Indian
Express” 5 th Jan 2011
***.***

H4
ROCK ENGINEERING IN ANCIENT INDIA
Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference,December 15-17,

2011, Kochi (Paper No. P-023)
ABSTRACT: Sage Bhrugu grouped all ancient engineering and

technological subjects into ten Shashtras (Engineering Sciences).
These Shashtras, were further sub-divided into 32 techniques (Vidyas)
and 64 skills /arts (Kalas). The paper presents status of rock
engineering in ancient India. References related to rock engineering
are available mainly in three Shashtras such as Surface transport,
Dwellings and Forts and Castles. Tunnel construction was an important
ancient art.
Construction of huge temples, palaces and forts and dams involves use
of stones. Information related to sources, classification, selection, and
identification of defects in building stones, mortars for stone masonry
and protective coats for stone idols etc are discussed in the paper.
INTRODUCTION
For ages, stones are used for construction in different forms for
different purposes. During the ancient period in India, stones were
used in making sculptures and in making blocks for building
construction. The strength and aesthetics of structures depends upon
the type of stone used in it. The beauty of Tajmahal lies more on the
type of marble stone used for construction than the architecture of the
building.
SOURCES FOR BUILDING STONES
Stones are obtained from two sources namely, from hills and from
underground mines. The stones obtained from hills (above ground)
were considered better than those obtained from underground were.
Stones obtained from mines get softer when exposed to weathering

agents such as rain, sunrays air etc. However, the stones obtained
from hills were
already exposed to weathering.
According to Kashyapashilpa [1] stones obtained only from hills,
riverbanks and forests are suitable. The stones obtained from barren
land, graveyard or those embedded in ground are unsuitable. Stones
obtained from sites unsuitable for habitation are also unsuitable.
CLASSIFICATION OF STONES
As per Kashyapshilpa [1], the stones were classified according to its
color, age and gender.
Color - The basic four colors in the order of priority for selection were
White, Red, Yellow and Black. Shades of each of these colors were
quoted by examples as given below.
 White- Milk, Jaya flower, Buffalo’s eye, Conch, Moon, Pearl
Crystal etc.
 Red - Indragop (insect), Rabbit’s blood or Pomegranate Flower
etc.
 Yellow - flowers like, Mallika or Korandi etc.
 Black- Kajal (eye ointment), Blue lotus, Wasp, Vest part of
peacock, black gram etc.
White stones were considered best, followed by red, yellow and black
stones [2, 4]. The color of the stone should be uniform. Stones, with
different colors or different shades of same color were considered
unsuitable. The color variations in a stone are due to weathering of
stones to different degree.
Hence, such stones were considered unsuitable [2].
Age - Based on age, stones were classified as child, young or old. The
age of stone is decided by the sound produced when it is hit with a
sludge hammer. This is classification is described below.

 Child- Sound Produced As un-burnt bricks, long or flat in shape
as a leaf [1, 3].
 Young- Long Ringing sound like bell, soft in touch, with good
smell, without pores [1, 2].
 Old- Non-ringing sound, highly porous, highly weathered [1, 2].
The stones of first or third category are unsuitable for construction [1,
2, 3].
Gender - Stones were classified as Male, Female, or Neutral. This type
of classification is explained below.
 Male- Big, rounded, which produces sparks when hit with chisel
[1, 2, 3].
 Female- Medium size, soft in touch, broad at base [1, 2, 3].
 Neutral- Small, broad at top, not sounding [2,3].
The masculine stones (of high compressive strength) were used for
columns and roofs, feminine stones (of high flexural strength) were
used as beams and neutral gender stones are used as aggregates in
foundations.
DEFECTS IN BUILDING STONES

The defects were described in details in many ancient texts. The
defects are lines (streaks), spots and cracks.
 Lines: The lines are of thee types, curvilinear (as thread),
straight (as sun rays) and parallel (as rains)
 Spots: The spots can be of three types depending upon the size.
Lemon fruit (15-20 mm), grape size (5-10 mm), less than 5
mm. The spots were further grouped under three heads, brown
(like black iron ore), gray (like Wasp) or black [1].
SELECTION OF BUILDING STONES

In addition to the above-mentioned specifications, some other
guidelines are available in the ancient texts. These are described
below.
 The stones, which are weathered and contains sand grains or
disintegrates on immersion in water are termed unsuitable [1,
3].
 Stones from unsuitable site, used stones, stones with inferior
minerals are termed unsuitable [2, 4].
 Stone, with one side very long compared to other sides should
not be used. [3].
 Brittle or porous stones, non-uniform colored stones are
unsuitable [3, 4].
 Stones with cavities inside or poisonous stones should not be
used. The ancient texts describe methods to check such defects
[2, 3].
SUITABILITY OF BUILDING STONES
The suitability of building stones was decided on the basis of color,
lines, spots or other defects. White lines on stones of any color are
acceptable but any line on white colored stone is not acceptable [1, 4].
The white lines are due quartz mineral, which is very hard, but lines of
other colors are formed due soft minerals. The stones should not
contain any spots [1].
The spots are due to soft mineral. “Black stones with white spots are
sailable. But stones with black or green spots are unsuitable, [4]. The
stones with excessive lines, spots and defects are unsuitable for
construction [2].
DETECTION OF DEFECTS IN ROCKS

applying some herbal paints so that the defects are clearly visible.
Similar modern techniques are used to detect faults in metal casting.
An ancient procedure for preparation of four herbal paints as described
in Mayamat. [2] is given below.
1. Mix and grind equal parts of Ativish, Hirakas and Geru in milk, apply
this paint to stone and allow to dry overnight.
2. Mix and grind equal parts of Hirakas and Chor in milk and apply this
paint to stone and dry for three days.
3. Mix and grind equal parts of Jatamasi, Kusht, Gabha and Ratree in
decoction of Trifala, apply this paint to stone and dry for three days.
4. Mix and grind equal parts of Jatamasi, Rog and Ashwamari in
rainwater mixed with milk, Apply one of above mentioned paint to
stone and allow it to dry for three days. Such paints were used to
detect micro cracks or fissures.
STONE SOFTENING
The modern Peruvians believe that the Incas employed certain
methods to make their stones fit so perfectly. They knew a plant
whose juices rendered the surface of a block so soft that the intricate
fittings were possible Fig.[1].
Huge stones were intricately carved to fit together without concrete,
mud, or mortar of any kind. Stones had 12-14 sides.
Some researchers claim to have identified the magic plants called as
‘jotcha’ or ‘punco-punco’ (Ephedra andina).
Fig. 1-Stone wall at Cuzco (Peru)

ADAMANTINE GLUES
materials were unknown. Even now, these glues were known as
Astabandha, are prepared in temple premises for fixing or re-fixing
images of gods. Four such glues were described in ancient texts. One
formula or method is described below [5].Table [1] shows the
ingredients for Adamantine glue.
Sn Sanskrit English/ Latin
1 Tinduka Fruits of Diospyros paniculata
2 Kapittaka Feronia elephantum
3 Shalmali Flowers of silk cotton
4 Sallaki Seeds of Boswellia serrata
5 Dhanavana Barks of Orris root
6 Vacha Barks of Orris root
7 Shrivasaka A tree resin used as incense
8 Raktabola Myrrh
9 Guggulu Commiphora roxburghii
10 Bhallataka Semecarpus anacardium
11 Kunduruka Deodar tree resin
12 Atasi Linum usikatissimum
13 Bilvaphal Fruits of Aegle marmelos
paste is termed as adamantine glue. This glue is heated and then used
in construction of temples, mansions, walls and wells as well as fixing
Siva’s emblems and idols of gods. This mortar was expected to last for
a million years.
BREAKING OF STONE BLOCKS

Brihat Samhita [6] contains information on procedure for breaking
stone blocks so that it can be used as building stones. The principle
involved in this process is "Heat and cool ". Rock is a bad conductor of
heat. When a preheated rock mass is cooled quickly the rock breaks,
along its cleavage planes due to unequal expansion and contraction.
Following methods are mentioned.
Heating: a pyre of wooden logs of Palash or Tinduk trees heats the
stone block. The heating is continued until the color of wooden logs
becomes bright red or orange.
Cooling: The fire is moved to adjacent area of rock surface. The
preheated surface is quickly cooled down by pouring certain types of
liquids listed below.
 Solution of quick lime in cold water;
 Solution prepared by mixing buttermilk with rice paste, ripe
berries.
 Solution prepared by boiling Neem leaves, some tree barks and
fruits of Tinduk tree. This is diluted with cow's urine and cold
water.
TEMPERING OR HARDENING OF TOOLS

Specially prepared tools such as chisels, crowbars, pickaxe etc are
necessary for breaking the stones. Brihat Samhita [6] describes some
methods of tempering of iron tools. The three steps are as below,
 Heating the tool in fire until it becomes red hot.
 Applications of pastes of certain materials and / or dipping the
red-hot tool in a specific solution.
 Sharpening the tools.
The materials used in step two were excreta of pigeon and rat, powder
of horns of a buffalo and milk extract of a Mandar plant. In another

method, a solution of buttermilk and ash of banana plant was used for
cooling the red-hot tool.
SURANGA –WATER TUNNELS
Suranga is a tunnels bored horizontally on the slopes of hills to get
clean drinking quality water. Suranga is best suited for the laterite
soils because this type of soil does not collapse while digging. These
`Surangas’ can be seen in many parts of Dakshina Kannada district of
Karnataka and Kasaragod district of Kerala
Fig. 2- Suranga-a water tunnel
Suranga digging is a craft, which require patience and some

knowledge of water flow. The suranga is dug such a way that the
seepage water is flown outside easily. ‘Quanat’ was a similar structure
used in Iran, Iraq and some other parts of Middle East for the purpose
of water. The history of ‘Quanat’ goes beyond 700 B.C.
BUILDING STONES
The Indian sub-continent’s architecture is well documented by stone
sculptures, which cover a period of more than five thousand years.
Different types of stones were used in different periods. Stones were
selected subject to the job requirements. Transport being a
cumbersome work the stones used, were from the vicinity of the job
site.

The oldest sculptures found in the two cities of Indus valley
civilization; were Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. It dates back to 3000
BC. The Indus valley civilization shows the use of tertiary limestone,
sandstones and Mesozoic steatite for stone statuary. Vindhyan
sandstones were very extensively used for carving the statues. Kaimur
and Bhandar sandstones remained the popular sculptural material in
the greater part of northern India.
Rock cut architecture made its beginning in the third century BC and
reached its acme in the land of Ajanta in Sixth century AD. India has
been a land of arts and crafts. Various art forms have evolved in
metallic and non-metallic materials here.
Stonework was also one of such wonderful crafts. India has a rich
tradition of stone craft. Guilds of masons and stone carvers have
existed here since the 7th century B.C. Different types of stones like,
marble, soapstone, sand stone were used by artisans in India. Stone
craft in India was not only restricted to ornate carvings on temples or
sculptures of deities, but it was also used in making items like carved
panels, tiles, paper weights, pen stands, models of historical buildings,
sculptures of animals and humans etc. The basic design is traced on
the stone and it is given a crude shape.
The final carving was then carried out and the items were polished.
Marble cutting achieved a remarkable level of sophistication, with the
intricate undercutting in the 11th and 12th century temples at Mt-Abu
approaching the level of filigree. The Taj Mahal at Agra is perhaps the
finest example of marble cutting
in the world.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on limited information available in ancient texts, following
conclusions can be made,

1. Different types of stones were used in the ancient period for making
sculptures, and as blocks for making buildings.
2. The stones were selected depending upon their availability and the
job requirement. Care was taken in selection of the stones specifically
looking into micro cracks, texture and strength.
3. The ancient Indian information on rock engineering is applicable
even in modern times.
4. Modern methods of testing were not known in ancient period and
hence more information on defects of rock was provided in ancient
texts.
REFERENCES
The titles shown in italics are ancient engineering texts or
Shilpasamhita.
1. Kashyapashilpa, Ed.by Vaze, Anandasrama Sanskrit Series No.
95.Pune.
2. Mayamat, Pub. By Saraswati Mahal Library Series, No.113, Thajavur
(1968).
3. Shilpratna, Ed. Shrikumar, Pub. Gaikwad Oriental Series, Baroda.
4. Vishnudharmottar Purana, Pub. By Khemraj Shrikrishnadas,
Mumbai.
5. Shilparatnakar, Ed. by Trivedi, Published by Chaukhamba Sanskrit
Series, Gaya.
6. Brihat Samhita (of Varahamihir), Pub. By Khemraj Shrikrishnadas,
Mumbai.
Appendix - Glossary of terms

Name Description
Amalaki Amala tree Emblica officinali
Ashwamari Yellow Oleander

Ativish Plant root Linum usikatissimum
Bibhitak behda tree - Terminalia bellirica
Chor Indian wormwood Davana

Gabha Sage herb Salvia officinalis
Geru Red ochre
Haritaki Hirda tree- Terminalia chebula
Hirakas Ferrous sulphate
Indragop Ladybird a kind of red beetle
Jatamasi A herb Nardostachyjatamasi
Korandi Yellow flower spiny barleria
Kusht Alpina galangal aromatic tuber
Mallika Yellow Jasmine flower
Mandar Blue cedar tree

Neem Neem tree azadirachta indica
Palash Tree- flame of forest
Ratree Night-Blooming Jasmine
Rog A herb
Tinduk Tendu tree Diospyros paniculata
Trifala A mixture of 3 dry powdered fruits -
Amalaki, Bibhitak and Haritaki
***.***

H5
THE SECRETS OF ENDURANCE OF INDIAN HERITAGE
STRUCTURES
Invited lecture at Ferguson College Pune 2013
ABSTRACT: The paper presents the secrets of endurance of heritage

structures, preservation and restoration aspects of structures. Case
studies of two Indian heritage structures are presented in this paper.
INTRODUCTION: UNESCO has declared till today 125 structures as
heritage structures and the responsibility of preservation and
maintenance of these structures lies with the respective country within
which these structures are located. 16 heritage structures in India are
being maintained by the Archeological Society of India (ASI).
THE SECRETS OF ENDURANCE: Proper selection of three things is
essential for durability of any heritage structure.
1. The Site
2. Construction materials and
3. Construction techniques.
These points are briefly described below.
1. Site: In ancient days availability of a good site was not a problem.
Most of the Puranas (ancient scriptures) have a separate chapter
called site selection (Deshnirnaya) or Site Investigations
(Bhumipariksha). Simple field tests on soils to determine their
suitability of a foundation are described. All such tests are based on
sound scientific principles. Site investigation was well known to ancient
India. Most of the texts discuss in detail about site selection and
investigations in their preliminary chapters. Matsyapoorana quotes
"First explore the site and then plan for the structure".

A site was considered unsuitable for a town or a building if it was
situated near a cremating ground, fissured, full of cracks, porous
because of tree roots, full of ant hills, dead bodies, hairs, bones, corn
husk, etc. Maya samhita describes a cone penetration test which is
similar to the one used by modern geotechnical engineers. As per the
ancient practice a wooden cone is driven into ground by striking with a
hammer. The markings on the cone indicate the amount of
penetration.
Smaller penetration indicates denseness of the stratum. The depths of
foundations were between 1.5 m to 7 m depending upon the height or
importance of the proposed structure. A simple thumb rule was to lay
foundation on rock or just at the water table.
2. Construction materials: The construction materials used for
heritage structures were stones, bricks, timber, lime mortars, paints
and pigments.
2.1 Stones- Ancient Indian texts mention classification of stones
according to color, age, gender.
The stones with high compressive strength (male) were used for
columns and the stones with high flexural strength (female) were used
for beams. Building stones were closely examined for defects by
applying herbal extracts to detect micro cracks and cleavage planes.
For very important monuments, stones were tested by immersing
them into boiling milk. There are religious traditions to apply
protective coatings (Vajralepa) to the idols after every 12 years.
Polishes made of coconut are applied frequently to impart shining of
stone surfaces. Mud packs made out of Multani mitti and rose water
are applied to white marbles to remove stains due to air pollution.
2.2 Bricks: Preparations of brick earth, molding and firing of bricks
was described in ancient Indian text, such as Rig Veda. Excavations at

Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Lothal clearly indicate that the ancient
bricks were far superior to modern bricks. Special organic additives
such asalgae, extracts of tree barks, decoctions of dry fruits, jute
fibers etc., were used in preparations of brick earths. These additives
enhance the quality of bricks (sharp edges, strength and distortion
free shape).Freshly burnt bricks were cured in water for six months
and only then were used for construction. Many quality control tests
such as sound test, water absorption and strength tests were
mentioned in ancient Indian texts. Bricks of specific shapes and
dimensions were developed taking into considerations the shape, form
and function of the superstructure. To stagger the vertical joints and
proper interlocking many types of bricks bonds were used in the
construction of brick masonry.
2.3 Timber: Ancient text Mayamat mentions 84 species of suitable
trees for wood work in superstructures. Ancient texts elaborately
describe various aspects of timber, such as tree selection,
preservation, wood defects and wood preservatives. One can find
description of various types of wood joints in such texts. Application of
wood polishes and oil based paints were essential parts of wood
constructions.
2.4 Lime and lime preparations: Lime was extensively used as
mortar for stone or brick masonry.
Quick lime was prepared from lime stone, sea shale, mother of pearls
etc. Quenching of lime was done using coconut water, Herbal
decoctions, etc.
Lime mortar was prepared at site, by grinding slaked lime and sands
of various sizes using lime grinding mill operated by bulls. Various
natural polymers were added during grinding. The natural polymers
comprised of eggshells, hairs of goats, animal blood, decoctions of

cereals (black gram) etc. Red lime mortar was prepared from saline
soils.
Plaster material was prepared by mixing lime with brick or marble
powder. Many plasticizers such as ripe bananas or pulp of ripe fruits
were used.
2.5 Colors and color pigments for walls were made out of natural
ingredients. Five basic colors, white, red, yellow, green and black were
prepared and then various shades of different colors were used with
combinations of two or three colors.
Technical studies revealed that three kinds of pigments were used by
the ancient painters;
a) Minerals - red lead, vermilion, yellow ochre, gold powder, Lapis
lazuli, Azurite (blue), Malachite (green), calcium sulphate, white lead,
silver powder, and zinc (white).
b) Vegetables -indigo blue and madder red (derived from plants,
considered suitable for textiles and not for paintings).
c) Artificial - lamp black, verdigris green and ivory black.
Most pigments were minerals available locally: red ochre, vivid red,
yellow ochre, indigo blue, chalk white, terracotta and green. Only Lapis
lazuli was imported. Lamp-black was the only non-mineral. Following
three ancient texts deal in details with colors and pigments. Secrets of
Ajanta and Ellora paintings can be traced out from these texts.
 Brihat-samhita (6th century)
 Vishnu-dharmottara (7th century)
 Samarangana-sutra-dhara Pooran (11th century)
3. Construction techniques: There were no time and cost
constraints for the construction of heritage structures. Indigenous
techniques were used to maintain the quality of construction. Few
techniques are discussed below;

a. Compaction of foundation stratum: Durability of the structure
depends upon proper compaction of foundation stratum. Well graded
materials (cobbles, gravels, sands and clays) were used and properly
compacted by rammers of the size of elephant foot.
b. Leveling of various layers: Very close quality control on levels and
verticality of surfaces, was maintained. Special tools were developed
to check the levels and heights of various components.
c. Proper load distribution: Structural loads were properly distributed
with series of columns and beams. Roofs were prepared by proper
interlocking of building elements (stones or bricks).
CASE STUDIES
1. Brick temple at Sirpur (Lat 21° 25' N 82° 10' E Long) First
discovered in 1872 by Lord Cunningham, the Lakshmana temple (7th
century A.D., 595- 625 A.D.) found at Sirpur is famous for its
interesting carvings. This brick temple and represents the beginnings
of temple architecture in ancient India. Sirpur is 78 kms away from
Raipur city in Chhatisgarh State in India on National Highway # 6. The
temple is located near the banks of the great river Mahanadi and was
built around ~ 1500 years ago. Hiuen-Tsang, seventh century Chinese
Buddhist pilgrim had also visited this place. It is being developed as a
world heritage site in India.
The magnificent temple is the east facing and this brick temple stands
on a high massive platform accessible by steps in the north and the
south. The exquisitely carved door frames depicts figures of Seshasayi
Vishnu along with his other incarnations. This temple is among the
best examples of brick temples of ancient India.

Front View Close-up of brick carvings
The temple inside is divided into three major segments, the shelter,
the Passage and the central hall. A museum at the site is maintained
to preserve the collected materials.
2. Kalaram Rock temple
The city of Nasik has a unique distinction of having three temples
constructed as per three different schools of architecture namely
Kashyap Samhita (Naroshankar temple), Bhrugu Samhita (Sunder
Narayan temple) and Maya Samhita (Kalaram temple). The largest and
simplest of the temples is Kalaram Mandir, built in 1790. This 70 feet
high temple is made by complete black stones, which has four doors
facing East, West, South and North and the apex made up of gold
dome. The building stands in the middle of a walled enclosure with 96
pillars and entered on the east through an arched portal. It took Rs. 23
lakhs and 2000 workers to build the temple in
12 years. The copper peak of the temple is gold-plated and looks
ravishing by day and night as well.

Front View Close-up of rock carvings
Conclusions
It can be concluded that;
1. The secrets of endurance of Indian heritage structure are proper
selection of site ,construction materials and appropriate construction
technology.
2. The ancient techniques may not be relevant in present time. But
one must appreciate the ancient Indian wisdom.
3. More research on ancient techniques is necessary to preserve such
heritage structures.
Ancient References
 Varahsamhita- Brihatsamhita (500 BC) ,Khemraj Shrikrishnadas,
Bombay (1945).
 Matsyapooran- Anandashram Sanskrit Series No. 54 (253.12-
13).
 Mayamat -Saraswati Mahal Library Series No.113, Thanjavur
(1968).
 Rig Veda - Chaukhambha Sanskrit Series, Gaya Ghat, Banaras
 Samarangana Sutradhara-,Gaikwad Oriental Series No. 25

 Vishnu-dharmottara Pooran (7th century) - Chaukhambha
Sanskrit Series, Gaya Ghat, Banaras
Modern References
 Mishra, T.N. (1997),” Ancient Indian Bricks and Brick Remains”,
South Asia Books Columbia, NO 65205, United States.
 Nene, A.S. (2012) “Building Materials & Construction Techniques
of ancient India”, E-Book, www.Bookganga.com
 Nene, A.S. (2011),” Rock engineering in ancient India”
Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical Conference, December 15-
17, 2011, Kochi (India)
***.***

H6
G.G. Joshi Memorial Shilpa Pratishan Library
[Rare treasure of knowledge related to ancient Indian science &
technology]
G.G. Joshi Memorial Shilpa Pratishan Library, started by Late
G.G. Joshi Sanshodhan Pratishan has more than 5000 ancient text
references related to Science and technology in ancient India. The
project is a brain child of Late G.G. Joshi who worked as an engineer
in Public Works Department in many districts of Maharashtra. He
worked extensively in search of ancient literature and collected rare
scriptures and kept unraveling the mysteries of ancient India.
Shri G.G. Joshi was born in Dhulia district in 1919 and came to
Nagpur to study Civil engineering in School of Engineering. After
completing education Joshi joined Public Works Department. When he
was pursuing his education, his Principal, who was an Englishman, told
Joshi about the work of Late K.V. Vaze. Vaze had deciphered many
texts of Shilpa Shashtra and delivered many lectures all over India on
this topic. Raosaheb passed in 1923.
When G.G. Joshi started work in this direction, to his utter
dismay, he found that literature produced by Rao saheb Vaze was
scattered all over India in libraries with Engineering and Indological
institutions, from Tanjore to Kashmir and Dacca to Lahore.

G.G. Joshi decided to collect all pieces of his literature without
giving a thought to how difficult it would be. Joshi just embarked
upon the mission and devoted his life, time and money for the cause.
He copied many texts which he was unable to bring to the city. He also
deciphered and translated many pieces of literature. He had collected
most of the works of Raosaheb Vaze. He continued his work till death
in 1992.He had collected some 2500 books and 2500 articles and
pictures related to Shilpa Shastra. After the death of G.G. Joshi
some likeminded persons of Nagpur, formed a trust to preserve the
ancient literature treasure. Both Vaze and Joshi wanted students and
scientific persons to examine the rationally and scientifically each of
the ancient tradition, understand real meaning and significance of
every traditional practice. Joshi believed that, once people recognize
the value of our tradition they would naturally feel proud of our
heritage. The library has collection of many rare books on the diverse
subjects such as Textiles, Paper technology, Hydraulics, Irrigation,
Metallurgy, Vastu shastra, Machines, aeronautics, Cookery, Gemology,
Astronomy, Astrology etc. Some manuscripts are hand written on Palm
leaves.
Efforts are being made to digitize the important and rare texts.
Dr. A.S. Nene, retired Professor of Civil Engineering, VNIT Nagpur, has
soft copies of many texts related to engineering and architecture,
which can be shared freely. Index of Digital library of G.G. Joshi Trust
is available on web.
Using the most of references available in the Library, Dr. Nene
has published four Print books and eleven E books on Shilpa shastra.
One of his Print books “Geotechnical Engineering in ancient India,
published by Pune Vidyarthi Gruh Prakashan, is included in a “Time
Capsule” at Paris, as India’s contribution on Geotechnical Engineering.

The other E book “ Engineering philosophy of ancient India –G.G. Joshi
memorial volume” consists of English translation of Hindi and Marathi
articles written by Joshi.
***.****

Books published by Dr. A.S. Nene
Print Books
Pride of India, Published by Sanskrit
P1 2006 Bharati, New Delhi.
Bharatiya Shilpashastre (Marathi book),
P2 2008 Published by Nachiket Prakashan, Nagpur.
Geotechnical Engineering , Published by
Pune Vidyarth Gruha Prakashan, Pune
(Included in Time capsule at Paris as India’s
P3 2011 contribution )
P4 2018 Vaimaanik Shashtra by Talapade (Hindi)
E Books
E1 2010 Transportation Engineering-May 2010
E2 2011 Geotechnical Engineering-April 2011
Water Resources Engineering-May
E3 2011 2011
Engineering & Technology of ancient
E4 2011 India-Dec 2011
E5 2012 Thirty-two Vidyas-March 2012
Building Materials of Ancient India-
E6 2012 March 2012
E7 2015 Botany of Ancient India-Jan 2015
E8 2015 Expansive soils of India-May 2015
Engineering Philosophy of ancient India
E9 2015 -Jun 2015
E10 2016 Bhrugu Shilpa Samhita May 2016
Forts & Castles of ancient India-Dec
E11 2017 2017
Khani Shastra –Mining and Metallurgy
E12 2018 of ancient India –October 2018
Compendium of Papers and Articles
E13 2018 onShilpashatra –December 2018
***.***

About the Author
 Name and Designation: Dr. A.S. Nene Retired Professor and Dean,
VNIT Nagpur.
 Date of Birth: 10th July 1942
 Name of the Institution: V.N.I.T. Nagpur (1972-2002)
 Department: Civil Engineering
 Field of Specialization: Geotechnical Engineering
 Academic Qualifications : B.E., M.E. Ph.D. ,MIGS,MSET
 Industrial Experience: Supervised more than 150 Consultancy projects
 Award: Khosla Memorial Award (1987) by Roorkee Universit
 Nomination: Nominated by Indian Geotechnical Society to Tech.
Committee TC-19 of International Society of Soil Mechanics &
Foundation Engineering ISSMFE on "Preservation of Historical Sites"
 Developed six CAL-CAD, Self learning Software packages for
undergraduate students of Civil Engineering.
 Patent on “Use of Geo-foam geo-synthetics for expansive soils”
Research Guidance:
 Three Ph.D. and Two M. Tech. Dissertations Completed.

 One Ph.D. dissertation under progress
Research Papers –More than 50 papers in National and International

journals and conference proceedings
E Mail - nene_ashok@yahoo.com OR prof.ashok.nene@gmail.com
***.***

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SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Ishaan Publications Nagpur

The word Shilpa is an enigmatic term. Different persons assume different

From 17th to 19th centaury Shilpashastra was almost neglected. The

Dr. A.S. Nene

Edited English translation of Hindi article by Shri G. G. Joshi published

Synopsis - The paper presents list of references on Ancient Agriculture.

1 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene

2 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene

3 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene

Conclusion: It can be concluded that there is a need to review the

4 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene

Abstract: Ancient texts on Indian engineering philosophy comprise of

5 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene

6 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene

7 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene

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Annexure 3- Constituents of this herbal paste

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19 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene

First International Conference on Environmental Geo-technology ,

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STABILIZATION AND COMPACTION

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National Conference on ‘Sustainable Development of Urban

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यस्यां समुद्र उत ससंधरु ांपो यस्यामन्न कृ ष्टयः

30 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene

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आपोव्ददष्टा मयो भुवस्तान उजे दधातन।महे रणाय

32 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene

कलौ दशसहत्रेषु हररस्यतासत मेददनीम ्।

Construction of bathing ghats, digging of wells, construction of water

Maintenance of water bodies

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Trees - Rig-Veda contains 23 hymns that praise the medical plants

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As per Vashishtasamhita (Ref.14) Rivers, roads, agricultural fields,

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नानाववधानां वस्तुनां यंत्राणां कल्पसंपदा ।

Sage Bhrugu classified all engineering science into ten shastra(s),

41 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene

42 Science & Technology of ancient India – Ashok Nene