Fundamentals of Communication Theory

Part 2
Fundamental of Communication Theory
2.1 Communication systems

2.2 Some mathematics tools
2.3 Mobile radio propagation
2.4 Four main effects of mobile communication
2.5 Analog communication system
2.6 Digital communication system and digital
modulation
1
What are Communication Systems?
From the point of data transmission procedure
source channel destination
Fig. 2.1 A Simple Communication System
 Information Collection (image, voice, video)
 Information Pre-processing (sampling, quantification,

denoise)
 Information Transmission (Modulation, encode, redundancy) System
 Information Receive (Demodulation, decode)
 Information Post-processing (quality)
2
What are Communication Systems?
From the point of function
 The mobile communication system includes:

 The base station,
 The terminal,
 The transmission subsystem,
 The billing subsystem,
 The authentication subsystem
……and so on
 collaborate and cooperate with each other 3
Antennas of basestation
Mobile Communication System

Infrastructure
Not “visible”, but comprise the

major part of the network (from
Base Stations
an investment point of view…)
Data bases
Management
Switching units Mobile Communication System

Classification of Signals and Systems
 According to the certainty of the signal,
 deterministic signal and random signal.
 According to whether the signal will be periodic

repeatedly,
 periodic signal and aperiodic signal.
 According to the continuity of the signal,

 continuous signal and discrete signal.
6
Classification of Signals and Systems
 According to whether the system is homogeneous,
 linear system and nonlinear system.
 According to whether the system model parameters are

constant,
 time-varying system and time-invariant system.
 According to the continuity of the system,

 continuous time system and discrete time system.
7
2.2 Some Math Tools
2.2.1 Fourier Series Analysis and Fourier Transform

2.2.2 Probability Theory
2.2.3 Stochastic Processes
2.2.4 Markov Processes
2.2.5 Queuing Theory
2.2.6 Shannon Theory
8
Fourier Series Analysis and Fourier
Transform
 The Fourier Series can be summarized as: any
function can be represented by a linear
combination of trigonometric functions with
different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases.
 Fourier Transform
Signals can be presented

in time domain and in
frequency domain
Fig. 2.4 Fourier Transform of Gate Function

9
Probability Theory--The Story of Dice
 Many performance analysis use probability theory
 Throughput
 Successful connection probability
 Packet loss ….
Let’s decide by
rolling the dice
10
Stochastic Processes
 Poisson distribution
 Access request e   k
p( x  k ) 
 Packet arrival…… k!
 Exponential distribution
1  e  x , x  0
F ( x)  
0, x  0
11
Markov Processes
From one state to another state
The probability
Fig. 2.5 A Simple Markov Chain
12
Queuing Theory—People stand in a
queue when they are crowded
 The resources are limited

 The discipline of arrival of
"customer/user"
 The rules of queuing
 Number of windows
 Time of service
 M/M/1
13
Shannon’s Law
 ≈ · · log2(1 + )
Capacity Spectrum Antennas Signal Quality
 More Spectrum and utilization
 More Antennas
 High Signal quality
14
2.3 Mobile Radio Propagation
Earth
2018/5/8 15 Mobile Communication System

Purpose
 To accurate characterization of the Mobile
Radio Propagation is important for
 Predict signal coverage
 Calculate achievable data rates
 Analysis the interference from different
systems
 choice the appropriate carrier frequency
 Determine the optimal location for installing
base station antennas.

 …
2018/5/8 16
Types of Waves
Sky wave
Ionosphere
(80 - 720 km)
Space wave
Mesosphere
(50 - 80 km)
Space wave Stratosphere

(12 - 50 km)
Ground wave
Troposphere
(0 - 12 km)
Earth
2018/5/8 17
Speed, Wavelength, Frequency
Light speed = Wavelength x Frequency=*f
= 3 x 108 m/s = 300,000 km/s
System Frequency f Wavelength 
AC current 60 Hz 5,000 km
FM radio 100 MHz 3m
Cellular ~1GHz ~30 cm
Ka band satellite 20 GHz 15 mm
Ultraviolet light 1015 Hz 10-7 m
2018/5/8 Mobile Communication System 18

Radio Frequency Bands
Classification Band Initials Frequency Range Propagation Mode
Extremely low ELF < 300 Hz
Infra low ILF 300 Hz - 3 kHz Ground wave
Very low VLF 3 kHz - 30 kHz
Low LF 30 kHz - 300 kHz
Medium MF 300 kHz - 3 MHz Ground/Sky wave
High HF 3 MHz - 30 MHz Sky wave
Very high VHF 30 MHz - 300 MHz
Ultra high UHF 300 MHz - 3 GHz
Super high SHF 3 GHz - 30 GHz Space wave
Extremely high EHF 30 GHz - 300 GHz
Tremendously high THF 300 GHz - 3000 GHz

Radio Propagation
 Reflection
 Propagation wave impinges on an object which is larger
as compared to wavelength reflection
 - e.g., the surface of the earth, buildings, walls, etc.
 Refraction
 Refraction is the change in direction of a wave due to a
change in its speed. This is most commonly observed refraction
when a wave passes from one medium to another.
 Diffraction
 Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed by
surface with sharp irregular edges
 Scattering diffraction
 When objects are smaller than the wavelength of the
propagation wave, the incoming signals is scattered into
several weaker signals
 - e.g. street signs, lamp posts
2018/5/8 scattering 20
Typical Propagation Effects
Building
Direct Signal
hb Reflected Signal
Diffracted
Signal hm
d
Transmitter Receiver
Here, hb is the height of antenna from the earth's surface at the BS, hm is the height of
antenna from the earth's surface at the MS, and d is the distance between BS and MS.
2018/5/8 21
Radio Propagation Classification
 Different scales
 Large scale (Path loss)
 Medium scale (Shadowing) slow fading
 Small scale (Fading)
 Different environmental characteristics
 Outdoor, indoor, land, sea, space, etc.
 Different application areas
 macrocell (2km), microcell(500m), picocell
2018/5/8 22
2018/5/8
Propagation Characteristics
 Three Main Losses of Mobile Communication

Channel
 Path Loss
 Slow Fading Loss
 Fast Fading Loss
23
Propagation Characteristics
• Path Loss ( because of the transmission media)
• Shadowing (due to obstructions) slow fading
– sunlight
– Shadowing is mainly caused by terrain and buildings. Each geographical
area has its own unique terrain, buildings, building shapes and density, as
well as different building materials.
• Multipath Fading
Slow
Fast
Pt Pr/Pt
Pr Very slow
v
d=vt
24
d=vt
Distance-Power Relationship

Pr  P0 d 
 2
 4
 2
 6
10 lg Pr  10 lg P0  10 lg d
L0  10 lg Pt  10 lg P0
Lp
L p  L0  10 lg(d )

2018/5/8
Path Loss Formula
 Simplest formula for path loss of land propagation:
L p  Ad 
 where
A and α: propagation constants
d : distance between transmitter and receiver
α : value of 3 ~ 4 in typical urban area
 Lp is directly proportional to the distance d.
 The propagation constants are obtained through
the practical measurements of propagation.
2018/5/8 26
Hata Model
 Urban area:
LPU (dB )  69.55  26.16 log10 f c ( MHz )  13.82 log10 hb (m)   hm (m)
 44.9  6.55 log10 hb (m)log10 d (km)
 where  hm (m )  is a correction factor for antenna height.
1.1 log10 f c ( MHz )  0.7hm (m)  1.56 log10 f c ( MHz )  0.8, for l arg e city

 hm (m)  8.29log10 1.54hm (m)2  1.1, for f c  300 MHz 
 , for small & medium city
3.2log10 11.75hm (m)  4.97, for f c  300 MHz 
2
 Suburban area: 2
 f ( MHz ) 
LPS (dB )  LPU (dB )  2 log10 c   5.4
 28 
 Open area:
LPO (dB)  LPU (dB)  4.78log10 f c ( MHz )  18.33 log10 f c ( MHz )  40.94
2
27
Path Loss
 Okumura-Hata model
L50  uptown（
 dB） 69.55  26.16lgfc 
?  hm    44.9  6.55lghb  lgd  K
13.82lghb 
Hata model
) dB） 46.3  33.9lgf c 
L50 (uptown（
13.82lghb ?  hm    44.9  6.55lghb  lgd  CM
 Indoor propagation model
28
Signal Coverage Calculation
 The coverage area of a radio transmitter determined
by
 the power of the transmitted signal;
 the path loss
 power sensitivity
 Each radio receiver has particular power sensitivity.it can only
detect and decode signals with a strength larger than this sensitivity.
 Using the transmitter power, the path-loss model, and
the sensitivity of the receiver, We can calculate the
signal coverage.
2018/5/8 Mobile Communication System

29
2018/5/8
Antenna Gain

Higher the frequency, higher the gain for the same size antenna

Path Loss (Free Space Propagation)
Path Loss in Free-space
2 2
Pt  4 d   4 f c d 
 
LP130   
P     c  fc=150MHz
Path Loss Lf (dB)
120 r
fc=200MHz
110
The equation above does not include any component for antenna gains.
fc=400MHz
100
Assume Gt=Gr=1 fc=800MHz
90
fc=1000MHz
80 fc=1500MHz
LPF70(dB)  32.45  20 log10 f c ( MHz )  20 log10 d (km),
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance d (km)
where fc is the carrier frequency.

This shows greater the fc , more is the path loss with the same distance.
31
Fading
 The term fading is used to describe rapid
fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio
signal over a short period of time or travel
distance(scale of ).
 Fading is caused by interference between
two or more versions of the transmitted
signal(multipath propagation) being
slightly out of phase due to the different
propagation time.
 The multipath waves merged at the
receiver’s antenna produce a composite
signal varying widely in amplitude and
phase. (or multipath loss)
32
2018/5/8 32
2018/5/8
Slow Fading and Fast Fading
Fast Fading
(Short-term fading)
Slow Fading
(Long-term fading)
Signal
Strength
(dB) Path Loss
2018/5/8 Distance Mobile Communication System

33
Slow Fading and Fast Fading
 Slow Fading
 The long-term variation in the mean level is known as slow fading
 Slow fading caused by movement over distance large enough to
produce gross variations in the overall path between MS and BS.
 Fast Fading
 The rapid fluctuations caused by the local multipath are known as
fast fading. (short-term fading)
 Fast fading usually observed over distances of about half a
wavelength.
 For VHF and UHF, a vehicle traveling at 30 miles per hour can
pass through several fast fades in a second.

34
Multipath Propagation
 Multipath propagation create small-scale fading effects.
 The three most important effects are:
 Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or
time interval.
 Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on
different multipath signals.
 Time dispersion caused by multipath propagation delays.
 Even when a mobile receiver is stationary, the received
signal may fade due to a non-stationary nature of the
channel (i.e. reflecting objects can be moving).
35
35
2018/5/8
2.4 Four Main Effects of Mobile
Communication
 Shadow Effect
 Near-Far Effect
 Multipath Effect
 Doppler Effect
36
Shadow Effect
 The shadow effect caused by the obstruction of
buildings and so on in mobile communications.
37
Near-Far Effect
 In CDMA, the center of the cell is closer to the
base station, and the signal of the base station
received by the user is stronger.
Signal is bad
Signal is good 38
Signal is general
Multipath Effect
 The signals arrive at the receiver via various paths,
with each signal of distinct amplitude, arrival time
and carrier phase.
39
Doppler Effect
 The moving speed of the mobile station is too fast,
and the effect of the frequency diffusion is the
Doppler shift.
40
Doppler Shift

2018/5/8 41
Delay Spread
 When a signal propagates from a transmitter to a receiver,
signal suffers one or more reflections. Each path has
different path length, so the time of arrival for each path is
different. This effect which spreads out the signal is called
“Delay Spread”.
2018/5/8 42
Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)
Transmission
signal 1 1
Time
0
Received signal
(short delay)
Time
Propagation time
Delayed signals
Received signal
(long delay)
Time
Second multipath is delayed and a part is received during next symbol 43

Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)


44
Example
 If the digital data rate is 10 kbps, with transmission in binary
form. The binary interval T is 0.1 msec and inter-symbol
interference would be expected to occur in an environment
with a delay spread of 0.02 msec or more. Such a large delay
spread is unlikely in practical environment. (d=2*10-
5*3*108 =6km)
 If the digital data rate is 54Mbps inter-symbol interference

would be expected to occur in an environment with a delay
spread of 3 nsec or more. Such delay spreads would be
encountered commonly. (d=3*10-9*3*108 =0.9m)

45
Summary
 Various waves
 Ground wave, Space wave, Sky wave
 Large-scale propagation model

 Free space, Two-ray and Okumura-Hata Model
 Small-scale propagation model

 multipath and Doppler fading
 multipath delay spread that causes errors in the detected
bit rates due to ISI ( Inter-Symbol interference)
46
46
2018/5/8
2.5 Analog Communication System
 In time domain, analog signal is continuous.
噪声
信源输入调制信道解调信宿接收
Fig. 2.6 Model of Analog Communication System
47
Modulation of Analog Signals
 What is modulation? What is the function?
 Move the analog signals from one frequency to
another frequency
 Always move from low frequency to high frequency
 Why?
 Why the signals should be modulated from low
frequency to high frequency?
Try to shout
48
 Why the signals should be modulated ?
1. High frequency signals could be transmitted far more away than low-
frequency signals
2. The size of the antenna is generally matched with the wave length of the
signal

= 3 x 108 m/s = 300,000 km/s
Antenna length=0.25 wave length, wave length & frequency

(inversely proportion )
3. The signals could be multiplexed (frequency division multiplexing, FDM)
49
Speed, Wavelength, Frequency

= 3 x 108 m/s = 300,000 km/s
System Frequency f Wavelength 
AC current 60 Hz 5,000 km
FM radio 100 MHz 3m
Cellular ~1GHz ~30 cm
Ka band satellite 20 GHz 15 mm
Ultraviolet light 1015 Hz 10-7 m
2018/5/8 50
 any function can be represented by a linear
combination of trigonometric functions with
different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases.
 Common modulation methods:

c(t )  Ac cos(2fct  c )
• Amplitude modulation(AM)
• Frequency modulation(FM) : radio FM
• Phase modulation (PM) 51

Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Message signal Time

x(t)
Carrier signal Time
AM signal
s(t) Time
Amplitude of carrier signal is varied as the message signal to be transmitted.

Frequency of carrier signal is kept constant.
52 2018/5/8
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Message signal Time

x(t)
Carrier signal Time
FM signal Time
s(t)
FM integrates message signal with carrier signal by varying the instantaneous

frequency.
Amplitude of carrier signal is kept constant.
53 2018/5/8
2.6 Digital Communication System
 What are the advantages of digital technology?
Error control (channel coding)
Security encrypt
Cost of implementation
Easy to be controlled
 The shortage of digital communication:
Low frequency band utilization
Require strict synchronization system
54
Analog and Digital Signals
 Analog Signal (Continuous signal)
Amplitude
S(t)
Time
0
 Digital Signal (Discrete signal)

Amplitude
1 0 1 1 0 1
+
0 Time
_
2018/5/8 Bit 55
The Conversion of Analog and Digital
Signals
 Sampling
 —sampling is popular used in many fields
 quantification
 coding
56
Original signal
Sampling frequency
Sampled signal
Recovered signal
Original signal
Sampling frequency
Sampled signal
Recovered signal
Digital Modulation
• Digital modulation offers a number of advantages

over analog modulation
– Higher data rates
– Powerful error correction techniques
– Resistance to channel impairments
– More efficient multiple access strategies
– Better security and privacy
59 2018/5/8
Digital Modulation Concept
• Bit rate and baud rate:

– The bit rate defines the rate at which information is passed.
– The baud (or signalling) rate defines the number of
symbols per second.
– Each symbol represents n bits, and has M signal states,
where M = 2n. This is called M-ary signalling.
60 2018/5/8
Nyquist Theory
 The maximum rate of information transfer through a
baseband channel is given by:
 Nyquist Theory: ideal condition, no noise ,no loss
• Capacity C = 2Wlog2M bits per second
• where W = bandwidth of modulating baseband
signal
• M: number of states or voltage levels
 Example：
No noise digital channel, the bandwidth is 3000Hz，the
signal is quaternary system, how about the capacity of the
channel?
C=2W*log2M=2*3000*log24=12000bit/s
61 2018/5/8
Shannon’s Theory
But, channel always exist noise.
The greater the noise is, the

louder we should speak
Signal/Noise
SNR means the ratio of signal
over noise
SNR is greater, the signal is
better, easier to be received
62 2018/5/8
Shannon’s Theory
C=W*log2 (1+S/N)
 Bandwidth（W ）or SNR is increased , the capacity could be
increased
 N0, S/N—>∞, C∞
 N ∞，S/N0， C0
63 2018/5/8
Categories of Digital Modulation
• Frequency/Phase modulation
– also called constant envelope modulation or nonlinear
modulation
• Amplitude modulation
– also called linear modulation.
• Linear vs Nonlinear
– Linear modulation generally has better spectral properties than
nonlinear modulation
– more sensitive to variations from fading and interference
64 2018/5/8
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Carrier signal
sin( 2f c t )
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
Message signal
x(t)
ASK signal
s(t)
65 2018/5/8
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

• 1/0 represented by two different frequencies offset from carrier frequency
Carrier signal 1 Time

for message signal ‘1’
Carrier signal 2
Time
for message signal ‘0’
1 0 1 1 0 1
Message signal
x(t) Time
FSK signal Time

s(t)
• FSK has high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) but low spectral efficiency due to
the spectral spreading.
• FSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple frequencies
66 as different states. 2018/5/8
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

• Use alternative sine wave phase to encode bits
1
Carrier signal
Time
sin( 2f c t )
0
Carrier signal
Time
sin( 2f c t   )
1 0 1 1 0 1
Message signal Time
x(t)
PSK signal Time
s(t)
67 2018/5/8
Compare of ASK,FSK,PSK
68 2018/5/8
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
• PSK has a perfect SNR but it must be demodulated synchronously. If

the carrier frequency is very high, it is hard to implement in real
system.
• PSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple phases
and amplitudes as different states.
•DPSK bn=an ⊕ bn-1
Absolute code
exclusive or
Differential code
Carrier
DPSK
69 2018/5/8
QPSK Signal Constellation

Signal Space Representation
Q Q
0,1
1 0 1,1 0,0
I I
1,0
(a) BPSK (b) QPSK

QPSK undergoes four changes in phase in one cycle and can represent four binary
bit patterns of data, it can double the bandwidth of the carrier than BPSK.
QPSK use 4 phase shifts to notate 4 different combinations of input bits.
For example, use π/2 phase shifts to notate 2 sequence bits 0,1
70 2018/5/8
8-PSK and /4 QPSK

8-PSK extend to 3 bits sequence,
all of the same amplitude but
differing in phase by π/4.
This 8-PSK signaling scheme

has, in fact, been adopted
for an enhanced bit-rate version
of GSM called EDGE .
Different with 8PSK, π /4 QPSK

is not encoded in the absolute
position, but in the relative
position (phase offset).
π /4 QPSK is popular in most second generation systems, such as North

American Digital Cellular and Japanese Digital Cellular.
71 2018/5/8
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Combination of AM and PSK Q
1000 1100 0100 0000
1001 1101 0101 0001

I
1011 1111 0111 0011
1010 1110 0110 0010
R ectangular constellation of 16Q A M
72 2018/5/8
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

Combination of AM and PSK
2 to L Lowpass
level filter LPF
coswct
Serial to
parallel ∑
Sinwct
2 to L Lowpass
level filter LPF
M-ary schemes are more bandwidth efficient, but more susceptible to noise.
It has been adopted for wireless local area networks(WLAN)
73 2018/5/8
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing

(OFDM)
• Multicarrier modulation(MCM) ,the data is divided into
several substream. The transmission rate is reduced.
• Guarantee Gap is needed to separate the different carrier.
– Solution-----Orthogonal Frequency
74 2018/5/8

(OFDM)
Message Sub Carrier Combination Demodulation
75 2018/5/8

(OFDM)
• OFDM was used in high-speed DSL modems over

copper-based telephone access lines. It has also been
standardized as part of the IEEE 802.11g and 802.11a for
high bit rate, 54 Mbps.
• OFDM has been proposed for 4G.
• The application of OFDM in wireless systems is due to
the increasing need for higher bit rate, higher bandwidth
transmission over wireless communication systems.
76 2018/5/8
OFDM
• Divides the signal
transmission spectrum
into narrow segments and
transmitting signals in
parallel.
• Baud rate is reduced to
R/N
• If the bandwidth of each
of these frequency
spectrum segments is
narrow enough, ISI will
be avoided.
B=N*∆f
∆f<1/2 d
77 2018/5/8
Example
• Consider the case of a 20 MHz-wide channel, the one adopted

for the high data rate IEEE 802.11g and 802.11a wireless LAN
standards. Without the use of OFDM, delay spreads (
greater than 8 nsec would result in ISI.
• With an OFDM subcarrier bandwidth Δf of 312.5 kHz, inter-
symbol interference is incurred with delay spreads greater
than 0.5 μsec.
78 2018/5/8

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Part 2

Fundamental of Communication Theory

2.1 Communication systems

source channel destination

Fig. 2.1 A Simple Communication System

 Information Collection (image, voice, video)

 Information Pre-processing (sampling, quantification,

 Information Post-processing (quality)

 The mobile communication system includes:

Mobile Communication System

Not “visible”, but comprise the

Switching units Mobile Communication System

 According to whether the signal will be periodic

 According to the continuity of the signal,

 According to whether the system model parameters are

 According to the continuity of the system,

2.2.1 Fourier Series Analysis and Fourier Transform

Signals can be presented

Fig. 2.4 Fourier Transform of Gate Function

Fig. 2.5 A Simple Markov Chain

 The resources are limited

 More Spectrum and utilization

 High Signal quality

2018/5/8 15 Mobile Communication System

 Analysis the interference from different

 Determine the optimal location for installing

base station antennas.

Space wave Stratosphere

FM radio 100 MHz 3m

Cellular ~1GHz ~30 cm

Ka band satellite 20 GHz 15 mm

Ultraviolet light 1015 Hz 10-7 m

2018/5/8 Mobile Communication System 18

2018/5/8 Mobile Communication System 19

 Three Main Losses of Mobile Communication

2018/5/8 Mobile Communication System 25

2018/5/8 Mobile Communication System

2018/5/8 Mobile Communication System 30

where fc is the carrier frequency.

2018/5/8 Distance Mobile Communication System

2018/5/8 Mobile Communication System

Second multipath is delayed and a part is received during next symbol 43

2018/5/8 Mobile Communication System

 If the digital data rate is 54Mbps inter-symbol interference

2018/5/8 Mobile Communication System

 Large-scale propagation model

 Small-scale propagation model

 multipath delay spread that causes errors in the detected

bit rates due to ISI ( Inter-Symbol interference)

 In time domain, analog signal is continuous.

Fig. 2.6 Model of Analog Communication System

Light speed = Wavelength x Frequency=*f

Antenna length=0.25 wave length, wave length & frequency

Light speed = Wavelength x Frequency=*f

FM radio 100 MHz 3m

Cellular ~1GHz ~30 cm

Ka band satellite 20 GHz 15 mm

Ultraviolet light 1015 Hz 10-7 m

 Common modulation methods:

• Frequency modulation(FM) : radio FM

• Phase modulation (PM) 51

Amplitude Modulation (AM)

Message signal Time