Dr.K.V.

Subba Reddy College of Engineering For Women :Kurnool

Antennas and wave propagation (AWP-15A04501)-R15 Syllabus
Prepared By : K Abdul Rahman, Asst Professor ECE Dept
Two marks Question with Answers
unit-1
1)Define a Hertzian dipole? (NOV-2007, Dec-2010)
Ans: Oscillating dipole or Hertzian dipole is a current carrying conductor in
which the charges at both the ends starts at oscillate. Its length is very small
compared to λ.
2) What is magnetic vector Potential?

P)
Ans: The vector potential is a quantity with magnitude and a direction. This has to do with
magnetism. The vector potential can be expressed as,
A = μ/4π ∫ (IdL/r)
Where, μ= Permeability W
IdL = current element r = distance between point P to the current
element.
(A
3) What is radiation resistance of a half wave dipole? (May-2006)
Ans : Rr = 80 π2 (dl/ λ) 2 ohms.
Where Rr = Radiation resistance
SW

dl = length of the current element

λ = Wavelength.
4) What do you meant by induction field and radiation field? (May-2008)
Ans : The radiated field which can be realized at short distance from an
antenna i.e. r<< λ is called as near field or induction field. The radiated field
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which can be realized at long distance r>> λ, from an antenna is called as far
field or radiation field.
5) Define isotropic radiators. (May-2010,Apr-2012)
Ans: A radiator which radiates uniformly in all the directions is called an isotropic radiator. It
is hypothetical antenna and is not physically reliable.
6)Define and explain Directivity?
Ans: Directivity is defined and maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation
intensity of the antenna.
In particular direction directivity D is constant.
maximum Radiation Intensity of test antenna
𝐷=
Average Radiation Intensity of test antenna
𝛷(𝜃,𝜑)𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷= both for test antenna
𝛷𝑎𝑣𝑔
 𝛷𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷=
𝛷𝑎𝑣𝑔
Directivity in terms of total radiated power.
It is ratio of total radiated power by the subject antenna to the power radiated by an isotropic
antenna for the same radiation intensity.
power radiated from test antenna
𝐷=
power radiated from an Isotropoc antenna
Since we that total power radiated from isotropic antenna is W/4𝞹
𝛷𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷=
𝑊 ⁄4𝜋
4𝜋𝛷
𝐷 = 𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥
4𝜋(maximum radiatio intenstiy)
𝐷=
Total radiated power

P)
The directivity in decibels is expressed as
(Directivity)𝑑𝑏 = 10 log10 𝐷
7)Define and explain Gain(G)?
W
Ans: The ability of the antenna to concentrate the radiated power in a given direction and
conversely to absorb effectively the incident power from that direction.
Definition: Gain of antenna without involving the antenna efficiency is defined as “the ratio
(A
of maximum radiation intensity in given direction to the maximum radiation intensity from a
reference antenna produced in the same direction with same input power”.
Gain(G)
SW

maximum Radiation Intensity from subject or test antenna

=
maximum Radiation Intensity from a reference antenna with same input power
When the refence antenna is taken as isotropic antenna, the gain of subject antenna is
denoted by G0
Gain(G0 )
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maximum Radiation Intensity from test antenna

=
maximum Radiation Intensity from Isotropic antenna with same power input
′
𝛷𝑚
Gain(G0 ) =
𝛷0
′
𝛷𝑚 = maximum Radiatio from test antenna
𝛷0 = Radiation Intensity from a loslles isotropic antenna
Further gain of the antenna is closely related to Directivity(D).
Gain is equal to directivity provided antenna efficiency is 100% .
When efficiency is cent percent , the gain(G) and directivity are interchangeably used.
Gain in terms of received power, maximum power received from given antennas(P1) to the
maximum power received form the reference antenna(P2).
maximum power received form given antennas(P1 )
Gain(G) =
maximum power received from refernce antenna(P2 )
For the same input power.
(P1 )
Gain(G) =
(P2 )
Gain in terms of Electric field intensity.
Field strength at a given distance from the practical antenna in its most favored direction is
say E1 and the field strength from an isotropic antenna at the same distance say E2

E1
Gain(G) =
E2
Gain expressed in db as
(Gain )𝑑𝑏 = 10 log10 𝐺
8)Define retarded vector potential? (R-15 supply -June -2018)
Ans: The retarded vector potential at a point P is defined time changing velocity or time
changing or acceleration and deacceleration of charges.

P)
𝑟
[I] = I𝑚 sinω(𝑡 − )
𝑐

Where 𝑟 is the distance travelled.

W
[I] =Retarded current and the bracket is added to indicate that it is retarded current.
𝑟
(A
𝑡 − 𝑐 =Retarded time as phase of the wave at point P is retarded w.r.t the phase of the current
in the elelment by and angle (𝟂 𝑟/c)
9) Calculate the physical height of a half wave dipole with antenna Q of 30 and bandwidth of 10MHz.?
SW

(R-15 supply -June -2018)

Ans: Given Δf=10 MHz, Q=30
f0 Resonant Frequency
Antenna Bandwidth =∆f = =
Q Q

∴ Frequency f0 = (∆f)(Q) = (10 × 106 )30 = 300 × 106 = 300MHz

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We know that velocity is defined as

c = f. 𝞴
c 3×108
wave length is given by λ = f = 300×106 = 1 meter
λ
Hence for half wave length dipole = 0.5 meter
2
10)Define effective area and effective length of an antenna?
Ans: Effective area: A transmitting antenna transmits electromagnetic waves and a
receiving antenna receives a fraction of the same.
It is defined as the ratio of power received at the antenna load terminal to the pointing vector
(power density) in watts/ sq.meters of the incident wave.
Effective area or Effective aperture or Capture area
power received 𝑊
𝐴𝑒 = = =𝐴
poynting vector of incident wave 𝑃
 𝑊 = 𝑃𝐴
Effective Length: The term ‘effective length ‘of an antenna represents the effectiveness of
an antenna as radiator or collector of electromagnetic energy.
Effective length indicates how for an antenna is effective in transmitting or receiving the
electromagnetic wave energy.
For receiving antenna, the effective length may be defined in terms of induced voltage v and
incident field. Effective length is nothing but the ratio of induced voltage at terminal of the
receiving antenna under open circuit condition to the incident electric field intensity E.
open circuited voltage
Effective lentth =
Incident field strength
𝑉
𝑙𝑒 = 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ
𝐸
11)Define Radiation Intensity?
Ans: Radiation intensity is a quantity which does not depend upon the distance from the

P)
radiator and is denoted is denoted by a letter U or 𝞥.
Radiation intensity is defined as “power per unit solid angle”
Since units of power and solid angle in S.I units are ‘Watts’ and ‘Steradian’
W
Hence radiation intensity in watts/steradian or Watts/sq. radians.
Solid angle is given by
(A
𝒅𝒔
d𝞨 =
𝒓𝟐
𝒅𝒔 = elemental surface area
SW

d𝞨 = differential solild angle

Thus there are 𝒓𝟐 metres of surface area per unit solid angle.
We know the relation between pointing vector and electric field
1 𝐸 2 (𝜃, 𝜑)
𝑃𝑟 =
2 𝜂0
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If now the magnitude of pointing vector is multiplied by square of the raidus r at which
radiation intensity is measured, then we get power per unit solid angle i.e the radiation
intensity.
∴ Radiation Intensity = Φ(θ, φ) = 𝑃𝑟 . 𝒓𝟐

Φ = 𝑃𝑟 . 𝒓𝟐
1 𝐸 2 (𝜃, 𝜑) 𝟐
Φ= 𝒓
2 𝜂0
12)Define aperture efficiency?
Ans: for antenna apertures 𝐴𝑒 < 𝐴𝑝
Where 𝐴𝑒 = effective aperture
𝐴𝑝 = Physical aperture
Now we can define the aperture efficiency as the ratio of effective aperture to the physical
aperture.
𝐴𝑒
Aperture efficiency = 𝜖𝑎𝑝 = (dimensionless)
𝐴𝑝
For horn and parabolic reflector antennas, aperture efficiencies are commonly in the range 50
to 80%(0.5 ≤ 𝜖𝑎𝑝 ≤ 0.8)
13)Define Resolution?
Ans: The resolution of an antenna may be defined as equal to half the beam width between
first nulls (FNBW)/2.
Half the beam width between first nulls is approximately equal to the half-power beam width
(HPBW) or
FNBW
≅ HPBW
2
The product of the FNBW/2 in the two principal planes of the antenna pattern is a measure of

P)
the antenna beam area.
FNBW FNBW
𝛺A = ( ) ( )
2 𝜃 2 𝛷
W
It then follows that the number N of radio transmitters or point sources of radiation
distributed uniformly over the sky which an antenna resolve is given.
4𝜋
𝑁=
(A
𝛺A
𝛺A = Beam area, Sr
4𝜋
𝐷=
SW

𝛺A
We may conclude that ideally the number of point sources an antenna can resolve is
numerically equal to the directivity of the antenna
𝐷=𝑁
Hence directivity is equal to the number of point sources in the sky that the antenna can
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resolve under the assumed ideal conditions of a uniform source distribution.

14)Define beam efficiency?
Ans: The (total)beam area 𝛺A (beam solid angle) consists of the main beam area (or solid
angle) 𝛺M plus the minor -lobe area (or solid angle) 𝛺m .
𝛺A = 𝛺M + 𝛺m
The ratio of the main beam area to the total beam area is called the (main)beam efficiency
𝜖𝑀 .
𝛺M
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜖𝑀 = 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝛺m
The ratio of the minor-lobe area (𝛺m ) to the (total) beam area is called the stray factor.
𝛺m
𝜖𝑚 =
𝛺A
It follows that
 𝜖𝑀 + 𝜖𝑚 = 1
15)what are fields zones or regions?
Ans: The fields around an antenna may be divided into two principal regions.
(a)Near field or Fresnel region
(b)Far field or Fraunhofer region
The region surrounding the antenna may be classified into radial distance.
The boundary between the two may be arbitrarily take as the radius.
2𝐿2
𝑅= (𝑚)
𝜆
Where L= maximum dimension of the antenna m
𝞴= wavelength, m
0.63𝐿3
The region up to distance 𝑅 = is the near field or Fresnel region.
𝜆1/2
2𝐿2

P)
The region after the distance 𝑅 = is called the far field region.
𝜆
16) Define antenna Temperature?
Ans: The antenna temperature is not so much an inherent property of the antenna as is a
W
parameter that depends on the temperature of the regions the antenna is “looking at”.
In this sense, a receiving antenna may be regarded as a remote sensing temperature-
measuring device.
(A
Both the antenna temperature (𝑇𝐴 ) and the radiation resistance(𝑅𝑟 ) are single valued scalar
quantities.
The noise power per unit bandwidth available at the terminals of a resistor of resistance R and
SW

temperature is given by
𝑃 = 𝑘T 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡⁄𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧
Where P= power per unit band width in watt/Hertz.
K=Boltzmann’s constant1.38 × 10−23 J⁄K
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T=Absolute temperature of the resistor in degree kelvin.

If the power per unit band width P is independent of frequency, the total power (P) is
obtained by multiplying by the band width(B) i.e.
𝑷 = 𝑘 𝑇𝐵
Where P= total power in watt,
B=Bandwidth in Hertz.
If the resistor R is replaced by a lossless antenna in an anechoic chamber then the temperature
is same as that of across resistor.
If that antenna is removed and pointed at a sky of temperature then the noise per unit is same
that above two cases.
17)Define antenna efficiency?
Ans: The efficiency of the antenna is defined as the ratio of power radiated to the total input
power supplied to the antenna and is denoted by 𝞰 or k.
 Power radiated
Antenna Efficiency =
Total input Power
𝑾𝒓 𝑾𝒓 𝑾𝒓 𝟒𝝅Φ(θ, φ)
𝞰= = = ×
𝑾𝑻 𝑾𝒓 + 𝑾𝒍 𝑾𝑻 𝟒𝝅Φ(θ, φ)

𝟒𝝅Φ(θ, φ) 𝑾𝒓
𝞰= ×
𝑾𝑻 𝟒𝝅Φ(θ, φ)
𝟏 𝑮𝒑
𝞰 = 𝑮𝒑 . =
𝑮𝒅 𝑮𝒅
𝑮𝒑 𝑾𝒓
𝞰= =
𝑮𝒅 𝑾𝒓 + 𝑾𝒍
Where 𝑾𝒓 = power radiated
𝑾𝒓 = ohmic losses

P)
If current I is flowing in the antenna then
𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝒓
𝞰=
𝑰𝟐 (𝑹𝒓 + 𝑹𝒍 )

𝞰% =
𝑹𝒓
(𝑹𝒓 + 𝑹𝒍 )
W
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎
(A
Where 𝑹𝒓 = Radiation resistance ; 𝑹𝒍 = Ohmic loss resistance ; (𝑹𝒓 + 𝑹𝒍 ) =
Total effective resistance
18)Define antenna radiation pattern?
SW

Ans: Radiation pattern of an antenna is nothing but a graph which shows the variation in
actual field strength if electromagnetic field at all points which are at equal distance from the
antenna.
In fact the graphical representation of radiation of an antenna as a function of direction is
given the name radiation pattern of antenna.
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If the radiation pattern is expressed in terms of field strength E(volts/metre), then the pattern
is called ‘field pattern’.
If the radiation pattern is expressed in terms of power per unit solid angle,then the resulting
pattern is called ‘power pattern’.
Since the radiation pattern is a three-dimensional figure usually spherical coordinates is used
to draw patterns.
The radiation field strength may have components 𝐸𝜃 and 𝐸𝜑 as well which may or may not
be in time phase or mathematically

`𝑬 = √ 𝐸𝜃 𝟐 + 𝐸𝜑 𝟐

Where E=Total electric field strength

𝐸𝜃 = amplitue of θ component
𝐸𝜑 = amplitue of φ component
Different parts of radiation pattern are called ‘Lobes’
This lobes are classified as major lobe, minor lobe, side lobe and back lobe.
Major lobe: Also called main beam and defined as the radiation lobe containing the direction
of maximum radiation
Minor Lobe: Any lobe except a major lobe i.e. all the lobes except the major lobe are called
minor lobe
Side lobes: A radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended lobe. Normally a side
lobe is adjacent to the main lobe.
Back lobe: A radiation lobe which is exactly opposite in direction to the major lobe is called
back lobe.
Minor lobes normally represent radiation in the undesired direction and they should be
minimized.
unit-2
1)Give the far field expressions of small loop antennas? (R-15 -Reg-Nov/Dec-2017)

P)
Ans: The radiation efficiency of closed loop antennas is low for transmission purposes
dimensions are made comparable to the wavelength.
120𝜋 2 [𝑰] sin 𝜃 𝑨
W
𝑬𝜑 =
𝑟𝜆2
𝜋[𝑰] sin 𝜃 𝑨
𝑯𝜽 =
(A
𝒓𝞴𝟐
2)Write short note on helical antenna and helical geometry? (R-15 -Sup-June-2018)
SW

Ans: Helical antenna radiator, it is simplest antenna to provide circularly polarized or nearly.
It is used in Extra-terrestrial communication which satellite relays.
It consists of thick copper wire or tubing wound in the shape of screw thread and used as an
antenna in conjunction with a flat metal plate called ground plate.
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The ground plate is simply made of sheet or of screen of radial concentric conductors.
The helix fed by a coaxial cable.
The one end of helix is connected to the centre conductor of the cable and outer conductor is
is connected to the ground plane.
The parameters on which the radiation pattern depends are the diameter D and turn spacing S
The geometric of helical antenna are
From helix geometry we can write
Circumference of the helix=C=𝞹D
𝑆 𝑆
Pitch angle 𝛼 = tan−1 (𝜋𝐷) = tan−1 (𝐶)

𝐿 = √𝑆 2 + 𝐶 2 = √𝑆 2 + πD2
Where D is the diameter of the helix
A=Axial length=NS
N=Number of turns
S=spacing between turns.
L=length of one turn.
3)why a short dipole is called elemental dipole? (R-15 -Sup-June-2018)
Ans: Any linear antenna may be considered as large number of very short conductors
connected in series.
Short means electrically we mean ‘’short compared to a half wave length.
A short linear conductor is so short that current may be assumed to be constant throughout its
length.

P)
A short linear conductor is often called as short dipole or Hertzian dipole.
Hertzian dipole is a hypothetical antenna and is defined as a short-isolated conductor carrying
uniform alternating current.
W
A short dipole that does have uniform current will be known as Elemental dipole.
Such a dipole will generally be considerably shorter than the one tenth wavelength maximum
(A
specified for a short dipole.
The other terms used for elementary dipoles are, elementary doublet and Hertzian dipole.
SW

4)what is parasitic element, list advantages of parasitic elements?

Ans: parasitic element is the element to which power is not given directly from the
transmission line.
Parasitic element get excitation from the nearby element i.e. driven element.
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Driven element is the element to which power is given directly from the transmission line.
Parasitic elements are used in Yagi-Uda array, as a reflector and director.
If the parasitic element length is 5% greater than that of driven element it works as reflector
in Yagi array.
If the parasitic element is 5% lesser than that of driven element it works as director in Yagi
array.
Parasitic element works as variable reactance, it can perform as capacitive or inductive
reactance depending upon its resonance length.
By varying the spacing and length of parasitic element we can vary the reactance of desired
value.
5)Define Horn antenna list some applications?
Ans: Horn antenna may be regarded as a flared-out (opened-out) waveguide.
The function of the horn is to produce a uniform phase fronts with a larger aperture than that
of the waveguide and hence greater directivity.
Horn antennas are used in military applications.
Simplest form of microwave antenna.
Advantages:
1)The advantage of exponential horns is that they have minimum level of internal reflections.
2)Almost constant impedance.
3)Since they don’t have resonant elements, they can operate over wide frequencies, a wide
bandwidth.
4)Gain of horn antennas up to 25 dBi.
5)moderate directivity, low SWR, broad bandwidth and simple construction and adjustment.

P)
Applications:
1)They are used as feeder (called as feed horn) for larger antennas) for lager antennas
structures such as parabolic antennas, as directive antennas for such as devices as radar guns,
automatic door openers, microwave radiometer.
2) A common element is phased arrays.
W
(A
3)satellite and microwave communications.
4)Used in the calibration, other high gain antennas.
SW

5)Used for making electromagnetic interference measurement.

6)Give some important features of Helical antenna?
Ans: The important features of Helical Antennas are as follows
1)Helical antenna is used for circular polarization
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2)The helical antenna is used most widely in VHF and UHF bands.
3)The axial mode of helical antenna is most widely used.
4) The antenna is axial mode has larger bandwidth but in normal mode bandwidth and
efficiency both are small.
7)Give some applications of Helical antenna?
Ans: some of the important applications of helical antennas are
1)The helical antennas are most extensively used in the satellite communication and space
probe communication.
2) A single helical antenna or an array of helical antenna are used in transmitting or receiving
VHF signals through the ionosphere.
3)The dimensions of the helix are critical in the normal mode and it limits the bandwidth of
antenna and also radiation efficiency is limited. But for axial mode , the helix dimensions are
not very critical . Hence the bandwidth and radiation efficiency, both are greater. Hence axial
mode helical antennas are used to achieve circularly polarized waves over extremely wide
bandwidth.
4)As the axial mode helical antennas have wide bandwidth, the directivity and gain are
greater . Also they are able to produce circularly polarized waves over greater bandwidth ,
they are extensively used in the space communication systems. Such as transmitting
telemetry data from moon to the earth.

8)Define Fermat’s principle?

P)
W
(A
SW
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Ans: To explain Fermat’s principle let us consider a dielectric lens (delayed lens) shown in
fig-a for transforming the spherical wave front from an isotropic point source or primary
antenna into a plane wave front.
The field over the plane surface can be made everywhere in phase by shaping the lens so that
all points from the source to the plane are of equal electrical length.
This is the principle of equality of electrical (or optical) path length (Fermat’s principle).
From fig-b, the electrical length of the path OPP’ must equal the electrical length of the path
OQ’Q’’,or simply OP must be equal OQ’.
Let OQ=L and OP=R, and let the medium surrounding the lens be air or vacuum.
𝑅 𝐿 𝑅 cos 𝜃 − 𝐿
= +
𝜆0 𝜆0 𝜆𝑑
Where 𝜆0 = wave length in free space(air or vacuum)

P)
𝜆0 = wave length in the lens
9)write few advantages of folded dipole?
Ans: Advantages: W
a) High input impedance and better impedance matching characteristics.
(A
b) Wide band in frequency.
c) Acts as built in reactance compensation network.
SW

d) light weight.
e) A folded dipole maximises the signal strength.
f) Reception of balanced signals.
g) Its construction is simple and is cheaper.
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10)Different types of Horn antennas?

Ans: There are different types of horn antennas.
The function of the horn is to produce a uniform phase fronts with a larger aperture than that
of the waveguide and hence greater directivity.
Several types of horns
 P)
W
(A
SW

Those in the left column are rectangular horns. All are energised from rectangular
waveguides.
Those in the right column are circular horns. All are energised from circular waveguides.
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To minimize reflections of the guided wave, the transition region or horn between the
waveguide at the throat and free space at the aperture could be given a gradual taper shown in
fig
11)write the advantages and disadvantages of Yagi-Uda antenna?
Ans: following are the advantages:
a) It has excellent sensitivity.
b) Its front to back ratio is excellent.
c) It is useful as transmitting antenna at high frequency for TV reception.
d) Is has almost unidirectional pattern.
e) Due to use of folded dipole, the yagi-uda antenna is broadband.
Disadvantages of Yagi-Uda:
a) Gain is limited.
b) Bandwidth is limited.
c) The gain of antenna increases with reflector and director.
12)what are the salient features of Yagi-Uda antenna?
Ans: a) The yagi-uda antenna consists folded dipole as driven element along with a reflector
one or more directors.
b) The directors and reflectors are parasitic elements, reflector is behind the driven element
and director is in front of driven element.
c)length of reflector is 5% greater than driven element and director length is 5% lesser than
driven element.

P)
d)The radiation pattern is almost unidirectional. There is a back lobe which can be reduced by
placing element close to each other.
e) The folded dipole element resonates at a frequency of resonance but reflector resonates at
W
frequency lower than resonant frequency while director resonates at greater frequency than
resonant frequency.
f) The current through director is leading current while that through reflector is lagging
(A
current.
13) What are the limiting cases of Helix?
SW

Ans: The radiation pattern of helix antenna in normal mode is the combination of the short
dipole and loop antenna placed on helix axis.
This condition is obtained for different pitch angle.
If the pitch angle 𝞪=0 and S→ 0 helix corresponds to loop type.
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If the pitch angle 𝞪=900 and D→ 0 helix corresponds to short dipole type.As shown in fig

14)Define axial ratio and different condition for in helical antenna?

Ans: The ratio of major axis to minor axis of polarization is known an axial ratio.
To get the axial ratio of elliptical polarization , we should take ratio of magnitude of the field
due to short dipole to that due to the loop .
Hence the axial ratio
𝑗60𝜋[𝐼] sin 𝜃. 𝑆
|𝐸𝜃 || | 𝑆𝜆 2𝑆𝜆
𝜆𝑟
𝐴𝑅 = = 2 = = 2 2
|𝐸𝜑 | |120𝜋 [𝐼] sin 𝜃𝐴| 2𝜋𝐴 𝜋 𝐷
𝑟𝜆2
𝜋𝐷 2
Where ∵ 𝐴 = 4

Now depending on values of AR , we get three conditions

Condition:1 when AR=0 , the elliptical polarization becomes linear horizontal polarization .
Condition:2 when AR=∞ , the elliptical polarization becomes linear vertical polarization.

P)
Condition:3 when AR=1 , the elliptical polarization becomes linear circular polarization.
Thus the condition for circular polarization is given by

𝐴𝑅 = 1 =
|𝐸𝜃 |
|𝐸𝜑 |
W
=
2𝑆𝜆
𝜋 2 𝐷2
(A
|𝐸𝜃 | = |𝐸𝜑 |

2𝑆𝜆 = 𝜋 2 𝐷2
SW

𝜋 2 𝐷2 C2
𝑆= =
2𝜆 2𝜆

𝜋2 𝐷2
𝑆 𝐶
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−1 −1
Hence pitch angle 𝞪 becomes 𝛼 = tan (𝜋𝐷) = tan ( 2𝜆
) = tan−1 (2𝜆)
𝜋𝐷

15)write the salient features of Horn antenna?

Ans: The salient features of horn antennas are as follow:
a) The horn antenna is used with waveguide and it is used as radiator.
b) It is generally used with paraboloidal antenna as a primary antenna.
c) The flare angle of horn is related to axial length. If the flare angle is smaller, the horn
becomes smaller. The radiation pattern is directive and the wave front is spherical. The
directivity is smaller and it is lower than that of paraboloid.
d)For pyramidal horn, the directivity increases if the flare of the horn is in more than one
direction.
16)Calculate the directivity of pyramidal horn antenna with an aperture of 12cmX12cm
operating with 3.2 cm wave length?
Ans: 𝜆 = wave length = 3.2cm = 3.2 × 10−2 m
A = Aperture Area = 12cm × 12cm = 12 × 10−2 × 12 × 10−2 m2
The directivity of the pyramidal horn with rectangular mouth is given by
7.5AP
D=
𝜆2
7.5[12 × 10−2 × 12 × 10−2 ]
D= = 105.468
(3.2 × 10−2 )2
The directivity if pyramidal horn is given by
(D)𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 D = 10 log10 105.468 = 20.23123

P)
17)write few applications of Loop Antennas?
Ans: The following are some of the advantages of loop antennas
a) A small loop antenna is used as a source for paraboloid in many applications.
W
b) Large loop antenna can be used as direction finder.
c)In many applications, loop mounted at the top of the towers and can be used as
(A
omnidirectional systems.
d)For line of sight communication, an array of loops with different dimensions are used.
SW

18)write the salient features of loop antenna?

Ans: The salient features of loop antenna are as follows
a) The loop antenna with circumference of loop less than 0.1𝞴 at highest frequency are called
small loop antennas. They can be used up to 30 MHz
KV

b) In practical applications, vertical loop antenna is most widely used for direction finding
applications. If it is not shielded it receives bidirectional signal. Due to electrostatic shielding
the directional characteristics are improved.
c) The loop antennas are mostly used in LF,MF,HF,VHF and UHF ranges and it shows
doublet shaped radiation pattern.
d) The loop antennas when used with ferrite core, effective diameter of a loop can be
increased and such loop antenna can be used as broadcast receiver.
e) When the loop circumferences is small and if current is uniform then the radiation pattern
of such loop antenna is similar to that of a magnetic dipole.
19) compare the far field expressions for small loop and short dipole?

Ans:
 Type of field Small Loop Antenna Short dipole

120 𝜋 2 [I]A sin 𝜃 60 𝜋[I]L sin 𝜃

Electric field E𝜑 = E𝜃 = j
𝜆2 𝑟 𝜆𝑟

𝜋[I]A sin 𝜃 [I]L sin 𝜃

Magnetic Field H𝜃 = H 𝜑 = j
𝜆2 𝑟 𝜆𝑟
Note that the expression for the far field of the short dipole consist j operator.
Hence, we can conclude that the far fields of short dipole at small loop are in phase
quadrature.
But the current is in phase for the loop as well as dipole.
Above expression gives accurate results for small loops up to 𝞴/10 diameter and short dipole
up to 𝞴/10 length long.

P)
UNIT-3
1)Give the advantages of microstrip antennas? (R-15 -Reg-Nov/Dec-2017)
W
Ans: The important advantages of microstrip antennas are as follows
a) The microstrip antennas are low profile antennas, they are small size, light weight antennas
(A
and occupies very less space.
b) They are conformable to planar and non-planar surfaces. They can be easily bolted or
laminated to the metallic surfaces.
SW

c) As the fabrication is simple and the manufacturing in easy and very cheap.
d) By mounting the MSA on a rigid surface, we get mechanically robust antenna.
e) MSA is able to produce variety of patterns and polarizations. MSA supports linear as well
as circular polarization.
KV

f) The main advantage of MSA is that it is possible to have dual or triple frequency
operations with MSA.
g) using adaptive elements such as PIN or varactor diode between patch and ground plane we
can vary the resonant frequency, impedance and polarization.
h) when MSA used in large arrays with spacing equal to 𝞴/2 or less than, so that
interconnection and feeding problems totally eliminated as the sheet is made of single cooper.
I) MSA array have very high performance because infinite quantity with variety of antenna
elements, power divider, matching sections, phasing sections can be added to PCB without
increasing cost of manufacturing.
2)Give the disadvantages of microstrip antennas?
Ans: compared with conventional antennas, MSA has following disadvantages.
a) The MSA’s have low gain and low efficiency antennas.
b) The MSA’s have narrow bandwidth operation. They have low power handling capacity.
c) The size of MSA is inversely proportional to frequency, they can be used for high
frequency only. Because for low frequencies their size is impractical.
f) The narrow bandwidth is major drawback of MSA. By inherent nature, the MSA’s are
r f
resonant in nature with high Q-factor values. AS Q = B.W t the bandwidth is narrow as Q is
higher.
g) increasing the bandwidth by using any suitable method increases the complexity of design
of MSA.
h) The MSA’s are poor end fire radiators.
i) Bandwidth can be increased by increasing the substrate thickness, thickness can’t be
increased up to beyond some values. Increased thickness of substrate causes spurious or

P)
surface waves. The surface wave causes power loss. Thus, excitation of surface waves is the
major limitation of MSA.
3)What are the different types losses in reflector antennas?
W
Ans: There are few losses seen in reflector antennas.
a) spill over: It is observed that some of the rays are not captured by reflector, such non-
(A
captured rays’ forms spill over.
b) Aperture Blockage: Also known as feed blockage, part of the feed energy is reflected into
the feed antenna and does not contribute to the main beam. This is sever in small aperture
SW

antennas.
c) Back lobe: from reflector antenna we have rays from source to reflector, reflector reflects
back, some direct rays from source combine with reflected rays and forms a noise.
d) Illumination taper (feed illumination reduced at the edges of the reflector).
KV

e) Reflector surface deviation.

f) cross polarization.
h) feed losses.
i) Antenna feed mismatch.
j) Non-uniform amplitude/phase distributions.
4)Explain different types of apertures?
Ans: we have many aperture antennas
a) Open waveguide and
b) Horn antenna.
(i) Rectangular Horn
(ii) Circular Horn.
b) Reflector antennas
(i) corner reflector
(ii)parabolic reflector
c) Slot antenna
d) microstrip antenna.
5)write about common features of MSA?
Ans: Microstrip antennas have some common features.
a) A thin, flat metallic region which is commonly called patch.
b) dielectric substrate.

P)
c) A ground plane which is much larger than patch than patch dimensions.
d) A feed network which supplies power to the antenna elements.
6)Write about important features of MSA?
W
Ans: MSA is constructed on a dielectric substrate similar to lithography.
a) MSA consist of a very thin (t << 𝜆0 ), ( where 𝜆0 is free space wavelength)
(A
b) The patch is placed over a height ((h << 𝜆0 usually 0.003𝜆0 ≤ h ≤ 0.05𝜆0 ) above the
ground plane.
SW

𝜆 𝜆
C) For rectangular patch length L of the element is usually ( 0⁄3 < L < 0⁄2)

d) To design substrate the dielectric substrate, i.e. dielectric constant is usually in the range
2.2 ≤ 𝜖𝑟 ≤ 12 .
e) Lower range dielectric constant substrate provides better efficiency, larger bandwidth,
KV

loosely bound fields.

F) Substrates with higher dielectric constant, provide tightly bound fields, minimize
undesired radiation, and coupling leads to smaller element sizes.
7) Write about flat sheet reflector?
Ans: A flat sheet reflector is the simplest form of the reflector antenna.
a) When the plane reflector is kept in front of the feed, the energy is radiated in the desired
direction.
b) To increase the directivity of the antenna, a large flat sheet can be kept as plane reflector in
front of a half wave dipole.
c) Hence only reflector element can be used to increase directivity.
 P)
d) From fig-d we can increase directivity by increasing the array of sources in front of
reflector. W
e) Hence the directivity is also maintained still shown in fig-e, here the reflector is small in
(A
size.
8) Write about corner reflector?
Ans: The disadvantage of flat sheet reflector there is radiation in back and side directions.
SW

a) In order these the shape of the reflector is changed.

b) By using the corner reflector, we can increase directivity compared to flat sheer reflector.
c) When two flat sheet reflectors are joined with corner angle 𝞪 then a corner reflector is
KV

formed.
d) In most of the practical applications, the angle 𝞪 is 900 .
e) if source is use in front of the reflector then it is called active corner reflector .
f) If source is not used in front of reflector then it is called passive corner reflector or
retroflector.
 P)
W
9)write about parabolic reflector antenna?
(A
Ans: parabolic reflector is a high gain antenna used for long distance communications
(satellite, radio relay links), high resolution radars, radio astronomy etc.
SW

a) Reflector are probably the most widely used high gain antennas.)
b) Parabolic reflector is designed on the principle of parabola equation.
c) source is kept at one of the focus of the parabola.
KV

d) In parabola all the spherical wave fronts are converted into plane wave fronts.
10)what are the different feed methods to parabolic reflector?
Ans There are three important and most widely used methods of feeding of parabolic
reflector are.
Rear feed:
a) pattern is asymmetrical as transmission is not at centre.
b) It gives compact system with reflector.
c) Line loss is minimized as length of transmission line is required is less.
Front Feed:
a) It obstructs aperture.
b) Results in impedance mismatch in feeds.
c) due to reflections in dish, standing waves are produced in line decreasing transmitter
performance.

P)
d) Using impedance matching and apex matching plates matching of impedance is done at the
cost of reduction in gain.
Offset Feed:
a) Only half portion of parabola is used.
W
b) Advantages are no aperture blocking and no impedance mismatch.
(A
c) Hog horns are preferred over pyramidal horn.
d) More difficult to scan.
SW

11) What are the different feed systems of paraboloidal reflector?

Ans: we can use various feed systems to a paraboloidal reflector.
a) A isotropic feed can be used to uniform illumination over the aperture, no wastage of
power, such type of isotropic are just ideal
KV

b) a dipole antenna is occasionally used, a dipole with a parasitic reflector which is fed with a
coaxial line. The spacing between driven and parasitic element is 0.25𝞴 to 0.4𝞴.
we can also use array of dipoles
c)a waveguide horn is is used as a feed to the parabolic reflector, the direct radiation from the
horn is minimum. If circular polarization is required conical or helix is used.
For getting maximum beam pattern, feed should be placed on the focus.
If the feed is moved the perpendicular to the axis the beam weakens. If the feed is moved to
perpendicular then pattern broadened.
d) Thus, important position of feed is the focus and for small reflector of short foal length the
position is shown in fig-c with wave support.
Fig:

12) what are the advantages of Cassegrain feed system?

Ans: The following are the advantages of Cassegrain feed system.
a) Reduction in spill over and minor lobes radiation.
b) Ability to get an equivalent focal length much greater than the physical length.
c) Ability to place the feed in convenient location.

P)
d) Capability for scanning or broadening of the beam by moving of the reflecting surfaces.
13)What are the disadvantages of Cassegrain feed system?
Ans:
W
a) The disadvantage of the Cassegrain feed is the some of the radiation from the paraboloid
(A
reflector is obstructed.
b) This is tolerable in greater dimension paraboloid but becomes problem with small
dimension paraboloid.
SW

C) This aperture blocking is avoided by using an offset reflector

14)what is F/D ratio or aperture number?
Ans: Paraboloid can be designed by keeping mouth diameter constant and vary the focal
length.
KV

a) Three possible cases are shown.

b) By geometry of parabola it can be shown that f=D/4 , focal length is equal to ¼ of the
mouth diameter of the parabola.
c) If F/D<1/4 then the focal point lie well inside the aperture. In this case it is difficult to get a
source giving adequately uniform illumination over such wide angle.
d) If F/D>1/4 , then the focal point lie outside the mouth of parabola, in this case it is difficult
to focus all radiation from source on the reflector.
e) If /D=1/4, this design provides maximum gain is compromise of two cases.
15) write about spill over problem in parabolic reflector?
Ans:
a) when the source is incident the rays towards the reflector, the parabolic reflector has to
capture all the incoming rays towards it.

P)
b) It is seen that some of the desired rays are not captured by the reflector and constitute spill
over.
c) while receiving spill over increases noise pick up which is particularly troublesome in
some ground stations. W
d) Some radiations from the primary radiators occur in the forward direction in addition to
the desired parallel beam.
(A
e) This is known as back lobe radiation as it is from the backlobe of the primary radiator.
f) Back lobe and spill over effect has to minimized to increase efficiency.
SW

Fig:
KV

16)What are the different types of lens antennas?

Ans Lens antenna can be divided into two distinct types.
1)Dielectric or H-Plane metal plate lens or Delayed Lens: Are those lenses in which the
travelling wave-fronts are retarded or delayed by lens media.
2) E-Plane Metal plate lens antenna: Are those in which the travelling wave fronts are
speeded up by the lens media
The dielectric lens antennas may be sub-divided into
a) Non- metallic dielectric type (Such as polystyrene n Lucite).
b) Metallic or Artificial dielectric type of lens.
Fig:

P)
17) What are the advantages of lens Antenna?
W
(A
Ans: The advantages of lens antennas are as follows.
a) In lens antenna, the rays are transmitted away from the feed system, hence the aperture is
not obstructed due to the feed and feed support.
SW

b) In lens antenna, as the waves enter from one side and leaves out form the other end, greater
extent of wrapping and twisting is possible without disturbing electrical path length.
c) Lens antenna can be used to feed at a point off the axis; so, it is most extensive used in the
applications where beam is needed to be moved angularly with respect to axis.
KV

18)What are the disadvantages of lens antenna?

Ans: The disadvantages of the lens antenna are as follows.
a) Lens antenna are bulkier.
b) The design of lens antennas is complicated.
c) compared with reflectors, the lens antennas are expensive for the same for the gain and
bandwidth requirements.
19) What are the applications of Lens antennas?
Ans: a) As Lens antenna is a microwave antenna, it is widely used at microwave frequencies
above 3000 MHz
b) for lager bandwidth, requirements, unstopped dielectric lens are used because its shape is
not dependent on wavelength. For narrow bandwidth applications, the dielectric lens antennas
are used.
20) What is zoning and what are the advantages and disadvantages of zoning?
Ans: The weight of the lens can be reduced by removing sections of lens, which is called
zoning.
In general, the zoning of lens is carried out in such a way that particular design frequency, the
performance of lens is not affected.
There are two types of zoning.
a) curved surface zoning b) plane surface zoning
Advantages:
a) The zoning of lens antenna reduces weight of an antenna and makes it comparatively
stronger.
b) The zoning of lens antenna makes sure that after emergence the signals are in phase.

P)
c) The zoned antenna shows less power dissipation compared with that in unzoned lens
antenna.
Disadvantages:
W
As compared with unzoned lens antenna, the zoned lens antenna are frequency sensitive.
21) What are differences between curved surface and plane surface zoning?
(A
Ans: The differences between plane surface and curved surface zoning as follows
S.No Curved surface Zoning Plane Surface Zoning
SW

As the zoning is done along the curved
1 surface of lens, it is called curved
surface zoning.
It is mechanically stronger than the
2 plane surface zoning.
KV
As the zoning is done along the plane surface
of lens, it is called plane surface zoning.
It is mechanically weaker than curve surface
zoning

It has less weight. It is comparatively bulkier.

3
The dissipation of curved surface The dissipation of curved surface zoning is
4 zoning is less. more.
The curved surface zoning is shown The plane surface zoning is shown below.
5 below

Fig:
Fig:
22) What are the feed systems of lens antenna?
Ans: we need a primary antenna for lens antenna as we have a primary antenna to feed the
parabolic reflector.
a) To have better performance of lens antenna, the aperture dimension of the horn is selected
equal to the focal length of a lens antenna.
b) Because of this, the feed becomes more directive as compared to that in the reflector
antennas.
c) For these equal dimensions, the flare angle of the horn is 53.
23) What are the applications Microstrip antennas?

P)
Ans: Various applications of MSA.
Military Application: The high velocity air crafts, space crafts, missiles, rockets require low
profile light weight antennas which can be conformally mounted to the exterior surfaces of
these vehicles. W
Other applications include areas such missile guiding, fuzing, telemetry, satellite
communication, radars, altimeters, GPS etc.
(A
Space Applications: MSA are used in the space programs such as Earth Limb Measurement
Satellite s(ELMS), International Sun Earth Explorer (ISEE), Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR)-
A,B,C series , Solar Mesospheric explorer(SME), Cosmic background Explorer,
SW

GEOSTAR,SEASAT and Mars path finder.

Commercial Applications. The MSA are used commercially in applications such mobile
satellite communications, direct broadcast satellite (DBS) services, GPS, Aeronautical and
marine radars and Earth remote sensing.
KV

UNIT-4
1) Differentiate broad side and end fire array?(R-15 sup-june-2018)
Ans: The Following are the differences between broad side and end fire.
Broad side Array (BSA) End Fire Array (EFA)
Here all the elements of the array placed The arrangement is same as broad side side
parallel to each other straight line drawn array.
perpendicular to their axis
All the elements are equally spaced on line All the elements are equally spaced on line
fed with current of equal in magnitude and fed with current of equal in magnitude 180
same phase out of phase
The maximum radiation direction is The maximum radiation direction is along
perpendicular to the axis of the array.ie the axis of the array.ie end fire
broad side
The radiation pattern is bidirectional. The radiation pattern is bidirectional.
 Its radiation pattern has a very narrow beam Its radiation pattern has wide beam width
width and higher gain. and lower gain.
2) Explain the principle of multiplication pattern?
Ans: Multiplication pattern states that “ the total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic
point sources but similar sources is the multiplication of individual source pattern and the
pattern of an array of isotropic point sources each located at the phase centre of individual
source having relative amplitude and phase, where s the total phase pattern is the addition of
the phase pattern of the individual sources and that of the array of isotropic point sources.

P)
Let E be the total field
E𝑖 (𝜃, 𝜑) = field pattern of individual source
E𝑎 (𝜃, 𝜑) = field pattern of array of isotropic point sources
W
Epi (𝜃, 𝜑) = phase pattern of individual source
(A
E𝑝a (𝜃, 𝜑) = phase pattern of individual source

E = {E𝑖 (𝜃, 𝜑) ∗ E𝑎 (𝜃, 𝜑)} × {Epi (𝜃, 𝜑) + E𝑝a (𝜃, 𝜑)}

SW

3) What are the advantages of Multiplication pattern?

Ans:
a) It gives a speedy method of sketching the pattern of complicated array just by inspection.
b) It proves to be a useful tool in designing antenna.
KV

c) speed of solving problem increases.

d) Accuracy increases.
4) What are the advantages of Binomial Array?
Ans: The following are the advantages if Binomial Array.
a) The secondary or minor lobes can be eliminated by using binomial array.
b)
5) what is the array of isotropic point sources?
Ans: Here the antenna is regarded as a point source or volume less radiator.
a) In other words, a hypothetical antenna or Isotropic or Omnidirectional or Non-directional
antenna which occupies zero volume.
b) It radiates uniformly in all directions over a sphere centred on the source.
c) Isotropic antenna is always taken as reference antenna to compare other antenna.
d) However isotropic antenna is partially not possible.
e) It has a doughnut-shaped show in fig-1 pattern viewed in 3D and figure-of-eight pattern
fig-2 when viewed in 2D
f) The gain of isotropic antenna is unity, in terms of dB it can be called as 0 dB gain(Zero
loss).

P)
6) What is uniform linear array?
W
Ans: A linear array is uniform if all the elements are fed with a current of equal magnitude
(A
with uniform progressive phase shift along the line.
a) In general, the element in the antenna array is Half-wave dipole.
SW

7) What is antenna array and various types of arrays?

Ans: Definition: Array of antennas is an arrangement in which several individual antennas so
spaced and phased that their individual contributions coming in one preferred direction and
cancel in all other directions, to get greater directivity(D).
Various forms of antenna arrays are as follows
KV

a) Broad Side Array (BSA).

b) End-Fire Array (EFA).
c) Collinear Array.
d) Parasitic Array.
8) What is the concept of Reciprocity in antenna measurement?
Ans: In antenna measurement, the AUT can be either a receiving antenna or transmitting
antenna. This is due to reciprocity.
Two important consequences of the principles from the antenna measurement point of view
are.
a) The transmitting and receiving patterns are same.
b) Power flow is the same either way.
Thus, it is clear that all radiation parameters of AUT can be measured in either in
transmission mode or reception mode.
9) what are the sources of errors?
Ans: In addition to common imperfection measurement range imperfections, there are other
possible sources of error.
a) Coupling to the reactive near field may be significant at low frequencies.
b) Antenna measurement are three-dimensional vector field measurements. Therefore, many
kinds of alignment errors are possible.
c) At large measurement distances, the effect of the atmosphere may be considerable.
d) Man-made interfering signals may couple to the sensitive receiver especially on outdoor
ranges.

P)
10) What are the typical sources of errors due to reflections?
Ans: a) Reflections from surroundings produce field variations (Amplitude and phase
W
ripples) in the test zone as the direct and reflected wave interference.
B) Even small reflected waves may cause large measurement errors, because the fields of the
waves are added, not the power.
(A
c) Reflections are especially harmful in measurement of low side lobes. A small reflection
coupled to the AUT through the main lobe may completely mask the direct wave coupled
through side lobe. Different ways to reduce reflections or their influence are studied.
SW

11)what are the drawbacks of measurement of antenna parameters?

Ans: following are the drawbacks in measurement of antenna parameters.
a) In many cases it is difficult to provide far field distance.
KV

b) During measurements of antennas parameters, ground reflections are unavoidable.

c) It is difficult to bring large antennas near measuring set up.
d) It is difficult to provide shielded chamber for large antennas.
e) The measurements carried at the open site are not accurate many times.
f) The cost of the measurement set up is considerably high.
12) what are the methods to overcome drawbacks in measurement of antenna
parameters?
Ans: The following are the some of the important methods to overcome drawbacks in the
measurement of antenna parameters.
a) The far field pattern of an antenna is determined from the measurements carried for near
fields.
b) The measurements are made using scale model.
c) The automated measuring instruments are used.
e) The computer techniques are used along with the advanced automated measuring
equipment.
13) what are the methods to measure gain?
Ans: The following are important methods to measure gain.
a) Gain- transfer (or Gain comparison) method or direct comparison method,
b) Absolute-gain method.
c) 3-Antenna method.
UNIT-5
1)What are the various modes of propagation?

P)
Ans: The radio waves from transmitting antenna may reach to the receiving antenna
following any of the following modes of propagation depending on several factors like
frequency of operation, distance between transmitting and receiving antennas.
W
a) Ground wave or surface wave propagation (Up to 2 MHz).
b) Sky Wave or Ionospheric Wave propagation (Between 2 to 30 MHz).
(A
c) Space Wave Propagation (above 30 MHz).
d) Tropospheric Scatter Propagation or Forward Scatter Propagation (UHF and microwaves
SW

i.e. above 300MHz)

2) Define gyro frequency? (R-15 sup-june-2018)
Ans It is defined as the frequency whose period of revolution of an electron in its orbit under
the influence of the earth’s magnetic field of the flux B.
KV

𝑒
𝜔g = 𝐵 (𝑚) or
𝑒
2𝜋𝑓𝑔 = 𝐵 ( )
𝑚
1 𝑒 𝐵𝑒
𝑓𝑔 = 𝐵( ) =
2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋𝑒𝑚
Putting the values of m,e,B we get,
𝐵 ≅ 0.5 × 10−4 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠⁄𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒 = 1.602 × 10−19 𝐶 𝑚 = 9.107 × 10−31
0.5 × 10−4 × 1.602 × 10−19
𝑓𝑔 = ≅ 1.4 MHz.
2 × 3.14 × 9.107 × 10−31
If the frequency(f) of the incident radio wave is equal or nearly equal to 𝑓𝑔 (gyro frequency)
then there is resonance phenomenon and the oscillating electrons receive more and more
energy form the incident wave.
3)Differentiate between optical horizon and radio horizon? (R-15-Nov-Dec-reg-2017)
Ans: The following are the differences between optical horizon and radio horizon.
S.NO Optical Horizon Radio Horizon
1 It is also called Line Of Sight (LOS), here The radio horizon is the locus of
the EM wave travels in direct path from points at which direct rays from an
source to the receiver. antenna are tangential to the surface
of the earth.
2 Here waves may be diffracted, refracted, Radio wave propagation is affected
reflected, or absorbed by the atmosphere by atmospheric conditions,
and obstructions with material and generally ionospheric absorption and presence
cannot travel over the horizon. of obstructions, for example
mountains, tress.
3

P)
4) Explain the concept of super refraction?
W
(A
Ans: It is also known as Duct propagation.
a) A normal or atmosphere is one where the dielectric constant is assumed to decrease
SW

uniformly with height to value of unity at a height where air density is essentially zero.
b) However, in actuality the condition of so-called standard atmosphere hardly exists.
c) The air is frequently turbulent and at other times there are often layers of air one above the
other having different temperatures and water vapour contents.
KV

d) These conditions besides giving phenomena scattering, reflection, and refraction, give a
new phenomenon called super refraction or duct propagation.
e) The higher frequencies or microwaves are thus continuously refracted in the duct and
refracted by the ground so that they propagate around the curvature for beyond the line of
sight, even up to a distance of 1000 km.
f) This special refraction of electromagnetic wave is called super refraction and the process is
called duct propagation.
Fig:
5) Explain the Skip distance?
Ans: a) The distance at which surface wave becomes negligible and the distance at which the
first wave returns to earth from the ionospheric layer, there is a zone which is not covered by
any wave.
b) This is called skip zone or area and the distance across it is called skip distance.

P)
Hence skip distance defined as
c) The minimum distance from the transmitter at which a sky wave of given frequency is
returned to earth by the ionosphere.
d) It is represented as D as in the figure below.
W
e) The minimum distance from the transmitter to a point where sky wave of a given
(A
frequency is first received, or.
f) The minimum distance within which sky wave of given frequency fails to be refracted
back, or.
SW

g) The minimum distance for which sky wave propagation just takes place and no sky wave
propagation is possible for points near than this distance.
2
𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓
𝐷𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑝 = 2ℎ√( ) −1
𝑓𝑐
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6) Define Maximum Usable frequency (MUF)?

Ans: a) The maximum usable frequency (MUF) is also a limiting frequency which can be
reflected back to earth but this time for some specific angle of incidence rather than the
vertical.
b) The maximum possible value of frequency for which reflections takes place for a given
distance of propagation, is called as the maximum usable frequency for that distance , and for
the given ionosphere layer.
For a sky wave to return to earth, angle of refraction i.e.∠𝑖 = 900 , which implies 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥
and 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 i.e. the maximum frequency.

sin 𝑖 81𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜇= = √1 −
sin 𝑟 𝑓2

sin 𝑖 81𝑁𝑚
𝜇= = √1 − 2
sin 900 𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓

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but 𝑓𝑐2 = 81𝑁𝑚

sin 𝑖 = √1 −
𝑓𝑐2
2
𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓
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𝑜𝑟 sin2 𝑖 = 1 −
𝑓𝑐2
2
𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓
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𝑓𝑐2
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2 = 1 − sin2 𝑖 = cos2 𝑖
𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓
2
𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐2 . sec 2 𝑖

𝑓𝑚𝑢𝑓 = sec 𝑖 𝑓𝑐
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This shows that muf for a layer is greater than 𝑓𝑐 by a factor sec 𝑖.
7) Define the virtual height?
Ans: a) Virtual height of an ionosphere layer may be defined as the height to which a short
pulse of energy sent vertically upward and travelling with speed light would reach taking the
same two ways travel time as does the actual pulse reflected from the layer.
b)In the measurement of virtual height the transmitting point(T) and receiving point (R ) are
usually placed very close together so that the wave sent nearly vertically upward.
c) The height OD is called the virtual height of the ionized layer as it is not the true height.
d) The true height Is the height show in fig-below.
e) Virtual height is always greater than the actual height.
f) If virtual height of layer is known then it is easy to calculate the angle of incidence required
for the wave to return to earth at a desired point.
 𝑐T
ℎ= = virtual height.
2

Fig:
8) Define critical frequency?
Ans: a) The critical frequency of an ionized layer of the ionosphere is defined as the highest
frequency which can be reflected by a particular layer at virtual incidence.
b) This highest frequency is called critical frequency for that particular layer and it is different

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for different layer.
c) It is usually denoted by 𝑓0 or 𝑓𝑐 .
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d) Critical frequency for the particular regular layer is proportional to the square root of the
maximum electron density in the layer as shown below.
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sin 𝑖 81𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜇= = √1 −
sin 𝑟 𝑓2
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By the definition at vertical incidence

Angle of incidence ∠𝑖 = 0 ; 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐
As the angle of incidence go on decreasing and reaches to zero the electron density go on
increasing and reaches to maximum electron density (𝑁𝑚 ). Then the highest frequency that
can be reflected back by the ionosphere is one for which refractive index 𝞵 becomes zero.
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sin 𝑖 81𝑁𝑚
𝜇= = √1 − =0
sin 𝑟 𝑓𝑐 2

81𝑁𝑚
1− =0
𝑓𝑐 2
81𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥
1= 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑐 = √81𝑁𝑚
𝑓𝑐 2

𝑓𝑐 = 9√𝑁𝑚

9) What is Line Of Sight Propagation (LOS)?

Ans: a) Line of Sight distance is that distance between the transmitter and receiver, in which
if a direct ray passes from the transmitter to the receiver without being intercepted by the
bulge in the earth’s surface, considering variation of effective index (𝞵) of earth’s atmosphere
with height, the transmitting antenna must see at least top of the receiving antenna.
b) Line of sight propagation is limited to about few tens of kilometres and the propagation
occurs in the troposphere-a region 16 km above earth’s surface.
c) The space wave propagation is practically limited to line of sight distance and is also
limited by the curvature of the earth.

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10) what and Day and Night frequency?
Ans: a) Since the wave of lower frequency is bent round more quickly than the wave of
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higher frequency and accordingly different frequencies are used for day (higher frequency)
and (lower frequency) working.
b) The increase in skip distance in the night due to increase in the vertical height of the layer
(A
in the night, is cancelled by use of lower frequency.
c) Typical frequencies for day and night are 6.450MHz and 5000MHz respectively.
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d) The practical frequency for day time is selected 15% to 20% lower than the average of
optimum frequency for entire of the day time.
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11) what are M-curves?

Ans: a) The excess refractive index N is related to the actual refractive index at a height h
must be replaced by modified refractive index.
𝒉
𝑁 =𝞵+
𝒓
b) Although N is always close to unity, yet in actual value is important and hence when
dealing with numerical values, it is convenient to introduce the excess modified index of
refractive modulus M, related to N
 ℎ
𝑁 − 1 = (𝜇 − 1 + )
𝑟
ℎ
(𝑁 − 1) × 106 = (𝜇 − 1 + ) × 106
𝑟
ℎ
𝑀 = (𝑁 − 1) × 106 = (𝜇 − 1 + ) × 106
𝑟
𝞵=Refractive index; ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 6370 𝐾𝑚
𝑑𝑀
c)The value of gradient i.e. and its sign both depends on the tropospheric conditions.
𝑑ℎ

d) From the measurement, if M is plotted against height h, the following different curves are
obtained.

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𝑑𝑀
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d) It is clear from the figure that duct is formed only when the value of gradient is
𝑑ℎ
negative i.e. M decreases with increase in height h.
e) The height for which this process of decreasing M continues from the inversion layer.
12) Explain the multi-Hop propagation?
Ans: a) The transmission path is limited by the skip distance and the curvature of the earth.
b) The longest single hop propagation is obtained when the transmitted ray is tangential at
the earth surface.
c) The maximum practical distance covered by a sky wave in single hop is 2000 km for E
layer and 4000km for F2 layer.
d) Since the semi-circumference of the earth is just over 20000 km , multi-hop propagation
paths are generally occurring
13) What is D region(Layer)?
Ans: a) D-region is the lower-most region of the ionosphere and is located in the height range
of 50 to 90 km.
b) This region is present only during the day light hours and disappear at night because the
recombination rate is highest.
c) The ionization density, is maximum at noon and its electron density is ranging form 1014
to 1016 per cubic centimetre.

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d) This D-region does not have the well-defined maximum as in other layer.
e) D-layer is known as absorbing layer for short wave signals (HF)
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f) Since the density of electrons in this region is not sufficient to effect appreciable bending
of radio waves and hence they suffer attenuation while passing.
(A
SW
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14) What is E region (Layer)?

Ans: a) This E-layer is also known as ‘Kennelly Heaviside region or layer’.
b) This layer occurs during day light hours and has its maximum density at the average
height 110 km which has appreciable effect on the direction of propagation of radio waves.
c) During night hours E-region remain weekly ionized and during day light hours its height
practically remains constant.
d) The electron density of E-region ranges from 105 to 4 × 1016 during day from 5 × 103 to
104 at night.
e) It is maximum at noon in summer and increased with increase in solar activity (solar spot
cycle).
f) Critical frequency of E-layer lies in the range of 3Mz to 5MHz at noon in low latitude and
it vary form day to day variations.
15) What is sporadic E region (Es) (Layer)?
Ans: a) Since the presence of sporadic E-region is very much irregular, hence it is termed as
sporadic E-layer.
b) Its presence in the form of clouds, varying in size from about one km several km across.
c)The occurrence of sporadic layer E-layer is quite unpredictable and it may be observed in
day and night hour, and in any season.
d) Es is a very thin layer of high ionization density and it may appear anywhere in the height
range of 90 to 130 km with normal E-layer.
e) Es also form due to meteoric ionization, vertical transport of ion clouds, thunder storms or
geomagnetic disturbances are also causing of Es layer.

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f) It is not important in long distance propagation but sometimes it allows unexpectedly good
reception.
g) mostly ionospheric reflections from Es and from higher F-region are absorbed
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simultaneously, if layers are smaller compared with wave length.
h) Es helps long distance scatter propagation V.H.F signals.
(A
i) Es region also sometimes produces M type reflection i.e. the signal path like letter M. Two
reflections are at F-layer and one at the top of the Es region shown below.
Fig:
SW

16) what is F-layer or F1 and F2 layers?

Ans: F-region or layer is also called Appleton regions.
a) The region of the ionosphere lying between 140km to 400 km from the earth surface is
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called as F-layer or region.

b) Its average height is around 270km.
c) It is the uppermost ionized region and is the only region which always remains ionized
irrespective of hours of day or seasons of the years.
d) The ionization persists throughout the dark hours of night and so the F-region is most
noticeable.
e) F-region facilitating long distance sky wave propagation of radio signals during night
hours.
f) Being topmost layer, it is highly ionized and hence some ionizations remain even after sun
set.
g) Although ionization density is high , the actual air density is not much and hence most of
molecules of this layer are ionized.
g) During day, sometimes after sunrise , the F-region is found to split into two layers called
F1 and F2 in low latitude stations throughout the year and in high latitude stations only in
summer

i)F1-layer is the upper most region situated height range of 140 to 250 km with average

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height 220 km.
j) Its electron density ranges from 2 × 105 𝑡𝑜 4.5 × 105 .F1 layer absorbs HF waves.
k) F2 layer is the uppermost region situated at a height range of 250km to 400km in day and
at night it combines with F1 layer
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l) The electron density ranges from 3 × 105 𝑡𝑜 2 × 106
(A
17) what is fading and what are the types of fading?
Ans: Fading is the fluctuation in the received signal strength at the receiver or a random
SW

variation received signal is known as fading.

a) Fading of radio wave is the name given to undesirable variations in the intensity or
loudness of the waves received at the receiver.
b) it is caused by the variation in the heights and density of ionization in the different layers
of the ionosphere.
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c) Fading is the common characteristic of the sky wave (HF or short wave) signals.
d) Fading may be slow, rapid, frequency selective or general but in each case, fading caused
due to inferences between two waves of path lengths.
i) selective fading ii) Interference fading iii) absorption fading iv) polarization fading v) Skip
fading.
18) What is selective fading?
Ans: Produces serious distortion of modulated signal.
a) Since the fading is frequency selective, it is just possible for adjacent portion of a signal to
fade independently, although their frequency separation is only few dozen hertz.
b) Selective fading is more prevalent at high frequencies for which sky wave propagation is
used.
c) AM signals being more distorted by selective fading rather than SSB signals.
d) Hence selective fading can be reduced by using Exalted Carrier Reception and also Single
Side Band (SSB system).
19) What is Interference Fading?
Ans: Inference fading is the most serious type of fading and it is produced by the interference
between upper and lower rays of a sky wave , between sky waves reaching the receiver by
different number of hops or different paths and even between a ground wave and a sky ,
particularly at the lower end of HF band.
a) Interference fading also occurs because of the fluctuations of heights in the ionospheric
layer, if a single sky wave frequency is in use.
20) What is Absorption Fading?
Ans: This type of fading occurs due to variations of signal strength with the different amount
of absorption of waves absorbed by the transmission medium.

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21) What is polarization Fading?
Ans: This type of fading occurs due to the change of polarization of the down coming sky
waves. W
a) The state of polarization of a down coming sky wave is constantly changing.
(A
b) This is caused by a superposition of the ordinary and extra-ordinary waves which are
oppositely polarized.
c) The polarization w.r.t antenna is constantly changing, giving rise to changes of amplitudes
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in the receiver and producing polarization fading.

22) What is skip fading?
Ans: This type of fading occurs at distance near the skip distance.
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a) Any variation in the height or density of an ionized layer may move the receiving point in
out of the skip zone.
b) The most common method to minimize fading is to use a automatic volume control (AVC
or AGC) in the receiver.
c) However, AVC is not the complete solution to the problems of fading because the signals
usually drop below the noise level and no amount of amplification will make the signal
usable.
23) what is optimum working frequency (OWF)?
Ans: Optimum frequencies are selected from the predication of MUF based on a monthly
average and in practice there is daily variations about 15% from this mean value.
Hence, it is normal to use a frequency 85% of the predicated MUF.
Therefore, there is a frequency called optimum working frequency or optimum traffic
frequency
Which is 50% to 85% of MUF is used to accommodate a number of channels i.e. OWF =
85% MUF.
24) what Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF)?
Ans: As the MUF limits the highest permissible frequency for sky wave propagation in a
given path, the LUF gives the lowest permissible frequency.
a) for a lower frequency of transmission, the received sky wav signals get lost in the
background noise and no communication is possible.
b) The LUF is limited by absorption in the D-layer during a light hour.
c) Where’s at night, it is primarily limited by increased noise at lower frequencies.
d) The value of day time LUF is normally much higher than the night time and further
increases during SID’s.
25) What is Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SID) or Mongel-Dillinger Effect?

P)
Ans: SID is caused due to sudden appearance of solar flares i.e. bright spots on the disc,
which are due to gigantic emissions of hydrogen from the sun.
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a) The solar flares are sudden and unpredictable but more likely during peak solar activity
than when sun is “quiet”.
b) The x-rays radiation following solar flares increases tremendously the ionization density
(A
right down to the D-layer.
c) As a result of intense increase in ionization density of the D-region, causes the increase in
the absorption of short-wave signals and increased reflections of atmospheric noise as well.
SW

d) consequently, the values of lowest usable frequency (LUF) increases beyond Maximum
Usable Frequency (MUF), resulting in completed black out of all high frequency sky wave
communication via ionosphere.
e) This type of SID may last form a few minutes to about an hour and take place
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simultaneously everywhere on the sunlight portions of the globe.

f) The phenomenon of complete black out is known as SID.
g) It may, however, noted that during SID the VLF propagation actually improves.
h) It does not occur in the night and also not in E, F1 and F2 layers where air density is
relatively low.

K ABDUL RAHMAN
Assistant Professor,
ECE,DEPT
For Quires, suggestions and mistakes please mail me :rahman394@gmail.com
For more material subjects like EMTL, AWP, MWE, VLSI can contact.
Contact :9966667400
All The Best

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(A
SW
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