Procaryotic Cell Architecture

At one time it was thought that bacteria and other procaryotes were essentially "bags of enzymes" with no
inherent cellular architecture. The development of the electron microscope in the 1950s revealed the distinct
anatomical features of bacteria and confirmed the suspicion that they lacked a nuclear
membrane. Procaryotes are cells of relatively simple construction, especially if compared to eucaryotes.
Whereas eucaryotic cells have a preponderance of organelles with separate cellular functions, procaryotes
carry out all cellular functions as individual units.

A procaryotic cell has five essential structural components: a nucleoid (DNA),ribosomes, cell
membrane, cell wall, and some sort of surface layer, which may or may not be an inherent part of the
wall.

Structurally, there are three architectural regions: appendages (attachments to the cell surface) in the
form of flagella and pili (or fimbriae); a cell envelopeconsisting of a capsule, cell wall and plasma
membrane; and a cytoplasmic region that contains the cell chromosome (DNA) and ribosomes and
various sorts of inclusions (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Cutaway drawing of a typical bacterial cell illustrating structural components. See Table 2 below for
chemical composition and function of the labeled components.

Table 2. Summary of characteristics of typical bacterial cell structures

Function(s) Predominant chemical composition

Structure
Flagella
Swimming movement Protein
Pili
Stabilizes mating bacteria during DNA transfer by
Sex pilus Protein
conjugation
Common pili or Attachment to surfaces; protection against
Protein
fimbriae phagotrophic engulfment
 Attachment to surfaces; protection against
Capsules (includes
phagocytic engulfment, occasionally killing or Usually polysaccharide;
"slime layers" and
digestion; reserve of nutrients or protection occasionally polypeptide
glycocalyx)
against desiccation
Cell wall
Gram-positive Prevents osmotic lysis of cell protoplast and Peptidoglycan (murein) complexed
bacteria confers rigidity and shape on cells with teichoic acids
Peptidoglycan prevents osmotic lysis and confers Peptidoglycan (murein) surrounded
Gram-negative rigidity and shape; outer membrane is by phospholipid protein-
bacteria permeability barrier; associated LPS and proteins lipopolysaccharide "outer
have various functions membrane"
Permeability barrier; transport of solutes; energy
Plasma membrane Phospholipid and protein
generation; location of numerous enzyme systems
Ribosomes Sites of translation (protein synthesis) RNA and protein
Often reserves of nutrients; additional specialized Highly variable; carbohydrate, lipid,
Inclusions
functions protein or inorganic
Chromosome Genetic material of cell DNA
Plasmid Extrachromosomal genetic material DNA

Figure 2 . Electron micrograph of an ultra-thin section of a dividing pair of group A streptococci (20,000X).
The cell surface fimbriae (fibrils) are evident. The bacterial cell wall is seen as the light staining region
between the fibrils and the dark staining cell interior. Cell division in progress is indicated by the new septum
formed between the two cells and by the indentation of the cell wall near the cell equator. The streptococcal
cell diameter is equal to approximately one micron. Electron micrograph of Streptococcus pyogenes by Maria
Fazio and Vincent A. Fischetti, Ph.D. with permission. The Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and
Immunology, Rockefeller University.
We all know that the cell is the most basic and the smallest unit of life. From the day life
came into existence, cells have been broadly classified as prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cells. The terms come from the Greek word "karyon" which means "nucleus"
wherein "pro" means "before" and "eu" means "true". Thus, prokaryotic cells have no
nucleus and are supposed to be primitive in nature which means that eukaryotic cells
have evolved from the former and show the presence of a nucleus.

Animal cell is a form of eukaryotic cell that makes up the body tissues and, thus, the
organs. This cell is pretty distinct from a plant cell. Cell wall and chloroplast are present
in plant cells, while animal cells do not have cell walls. All the animal cells are not of the
same shape, size, or function but the main cellular mechanism is the same which helps
in proper functioning of the body. There are various parts which make up an animal cell,
so let's get an insight into what they do. The labeled diagram given below depicts the
parts of an animal cell, which will help you in understanding the concept better.

Labeled Animal Cell Diagram

 What Are the Various Parts of an Animal Cell?
Cell Membrane: The cell membrane is the outermost part of the cell, which encloses all
the other cell organelles. This organ controls the influx of nutrients and minerals in and
out of the cell.
Cell Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is supposed to be the matrix or gel-like substance/fluid
present inside the cell. It is mainly made up of water and protein material. The
cytoplasm is the key site wherein all life processes occur.
Nucleus: Cell nucleus is supposed to be the brain or the control center of the cell and
thus one of the most important parts. It contains the genetic material, i.e., DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic acid) and the chromosomes. The DNA is made up of nucleotides,
which eventually help in protein formation by the process of transcription and
translation.
Nucleolus: Nucleolus is a dark stained area inside the nucleus, mainly responsible for
the protein formation using RNA (Ribonucleic acid).
Nuclear Membrane: This is the porous, protective sheath that covers the nucleus,
which allows influx of substances and is one of the distinctive characteristics of an
animal cell.
Nucleoplasm: This dense fluid inside the nucleus contains chromatin fibers, which
condenses to form chromosomes and genes, which carry hereditary information. The
nucleoplasm forms the nucleus of the animal cell.
Mitochondria: Mitochondria are among the largest cell organelles, also known as the
engine house of the cells. Oxygen combines with glucose to form energy (ATP), which
is required for metabolism and cellular activities in this organelle. It is an independent
organelle having its own mitochondrial DNA, RNA, and ribosomes, owing to self
replication and duplication.
Ribosomes: Protein synthesis (transcription and translation) takes place in ribosomes.
These organelles could be bound to the endoplasmic reticulum or free-floating in the
cytoplasm.
Lysosomes: These are membrane-bound sacs containing enzymes needed to break
down unnecessary parts of the cell for reuse. It mainly helps phagocytosis and
promotes intracellular digestion.
Centrosomes: These small organelles surrounded by the microtubules or the
centrosphere contain the centrioles, which are responsible for the initiation of cell
division.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): The diagram clearly suggests ER to be the second
largest cell organelle after mitochondria since these form a series of interconnecting
flattened tubular tunnels―rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER). The RER is mainly responsible for holding onto the proteins formed in
the ribosomes, thus being rough in appearance.
Golgi Apparatus: The proteins formed and bounded by the ER need to be processed
so as to perform normal functions. Golgi, membranous sacs associated chiefly with the
endoplasmic reticulum, do that to release the protein chains.
Vacuoles: Smaller gas and membrane vacuoles filled with fluids and water are present
in animal cells. Their main function is storage.

Basic Unit of Life: Plant Cell Structure

and Functions
 The cells in a plant are the most basic units of life that come together to form its different parts
such as the leaves, stems, roots etc. These plant parts, work together in coordination, to carry out
the normal physiological and biochemical processes of the plant.
BiologyWise Staff
Last Updated: Mar 19, 2018

Types and Functions

Plant cells are of three basic types namely, parenchyma, collenchyma and
sclerenchyma. These cells have different structures and perform varied roles in the
overall functioning of the plant.

The parenchyma cells are living and perform multiple functions including food storage,
light harvesting, and gas exchange. Some of them have the ability to differentiate and
re-differentiate into different types of cells (totipotent) as per the requirements of the
plant. Parenchyma cells are present in the leaves, tubers, and seeds.
Collenchyma cells are living only during maturity and possess two walls (primary and
secondary). Initially, they are similar to parenchyma cells, which later differentiates into
specific collenchyma cells. They are present in the vascular bundles and stems, and aid
in supporting the plant during the active growing phase.
Sclerenchyma cells are dead at maturity and have thick secondary walls with lignin
deposition. These cells function exclusively as mechanical support of the plant. A typical
example of sclerenchyma cells in plants is fiber.

Parts and Functions

The plant cell organelles play an essential role in carrying out the regular activities of
the cell. For example, photosynthesis which is a characteristic of the plants is performed
in the chloroplast; while synthesis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), a form of energy,
takes place in the mitochondria.
The outermost covering of the plant cell is the protective layer, the cell wall. Its main
function includes giving support, maintaining the cell shape, and controlling the growth
of the cell.
Next to the cell wall, lies the cell membrane that comprises a protein and lipid bilayer. Its
main function is selective transport of nutrients, wherein some are allowed to enter the
cell, while others are restricted.

Vacuoles are organelles whose shape and structure, alters with respect to the cell
requirements. They are filled with a water-like solution that contains enzymes, organic
and inorganic molecules.
The cell nucleus is simply the control center of the plant cell, as it contains hereditary
material, along with other essential cell components. Overall, the nucleus is responsible
for protein synthesis, cell growth, division, and development.
The portion of the plant cell excluding the nucleus is called cytoplasm, which is filled
with jelly-like cytoplasmic fluid and in which the majority of cell organelles are present.

These are the organelles which perform the function of photosynthesis and storage of
starch molecules. Plastids are of different types and contain photosynthetic pigments.
Mitochondria, also known as powerhouse of the cell, plays the crucial role of generating
chemical energy for proper functioning of the plant cell. They are present in many
numbers and contain hereditary material.
 Ribosomes are of two types, attached and free. The former is found attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum, while the latter is suspended freely in the cytoplasm. Both types
of ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.

Golgi bodies are made up of 4-8 stacks (called cisternae), and are useful for packaging
macromolecules that are synthesized by the cell. They are also responsible for
transportation of nutrients.

Peroxisomes have twofunctions: break down fatty acids to be used for forming membranes
and as fuel for respiration; and transfer hydrogen from compounds to oxygen to create
hydrogen peroxide and then convert hydrogen peroxide into water.

syn·the·sis

ˈsinTHəsəs/
noun
1. combination or composition, in particular.
This is the organelle that connects the nucleus and cytoplasm. It performs the function
of synthesizing and storing steroids and glycogen. Endoplasmic reticulum with attached
ribosomes are called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
These are microbodies of the plant cells that contain various degradation enzymes.
Peroxisomes play the major role of digesting complex fatty acids including aiding in
photosynthesis.
Thus, a plant cell functions smoothly with the help of its various structural components.
Though it is eukaryotic like that of animals, it differs significantly from an animal cell.
While there may be a few similarities between plant and animal cells, the key
distinguishing feature between the two is the presence of a cell wall and chloroplast in
plant cells, both of which are absent in animal cells. If viewed under the microscope,
one can see large, prominent vacuoles at the center of a plant cell, whereas an animal
cell comprises only a small, inconspicuous vacuole.

Centrosomes are structures found inside of cells. They are made from two centrioles.
Centrioles are microtubule rings. The main purpose of acentrosome is to organize microtubules
and provide structure for the cell, as well as work to pull chromatids apart during cell division.

In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms
are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that
all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also
the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time,
magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century.