The Body in Motion

How do anatomical structures influence the way the body moves?

Joint Structure and Joint Actions

Structures – ligaments, tendons, cartilage, synovial fluid
Actions – extension, flexion, abduction, adductions, inversion, eversion, rotation,
circumduction, pronation, supination, dorsiflexions, plantarflexion

Muscle actions
Agonists (prime movers) – the agonist muscle provides the main force that causes the
desired movement e.g. biceps when you flex
Antagonists (muscles that react) – the muscle that opposes or reverse a particular
movement e.g. triceps when you flex
Stabilisers (synergists and fixators) – aid agonists by promoting the same movement or
by reducing unnecessary movement of undesired action. When a synergist immobilizes
the head of the muscle of a bone, it is called a fixator

Muscle fibres are classified as either slow twitch (type 1) or fast twitch (type 2)
 Slow twitch fibres contract slowly and are more resistant to fatigue
 Fast twitch fibres contract more quickly and fatigue more quickly
 Most muscles have both fibre types

Types of contraction:
Isotonic contraction – the muscle length changes as tension develops as the muscle fibres
produce a force as they lift the load
Concentric contraction – the muscle shortens to pull on bones and bring them
closer together, like when you pick up a weight
Eccentric contraction – the muscle lengthens, as when you put the weight down
Isometric contraction – occurs when tension develops in the muscle but the length does
not change. E.g. holding a weight steady in one position

Types of Bones:
Long Bones – have a diaphysis, epiphyes and a hollow centre. Height, shoe size and
glove size depend on long bones
Short Bones – Spongy bone covered with a thin layer of compact bone. They are light
and very thin.
Flat Bones – Spongy bone between 2 layers of compact bone. They have a large surface
area.
Irregular Bones – These are spongy bone inside and outside compact bones. They are
specially shaped to suit the job they have to do
How does the cardio respiratory system respond to movement?
 The cardiovascular system consists of blood, blood vessels and the heart
 It’s function is the removal of waste product, circulation of blood, maintanence of
body temperature, assistance in the fight against disease, and the transport of
nutrients, oxygen and water to cells.
Circulation
Components of Blood:
 Liquid component of blood is PLASMA
 Makes up 55% of blood
 Yellow in colour (result of red and white cells being removed)
 Composed of: 90% water, nutrients (glucose, amino and fatty acids), enzymes and
hormones (testosterone and oestrogen), fibrinogen (essential for clotting), waste
products and electrolytes (sodium and potassium).
 Solid component of blood incl. red/white blood cells and platelets
 Makes up 45% of blood
 Red blood cells known as Erythrocytes
 Contain Haemoglobin (holding heme - responsible for red colour) which carries
oxygen to muscles and other body cells
 Haemoglobin also transports carbon dioxide to lungs to be released
 White blood cells known as Leucocytes
 Formed in bone marrow and lymph tissue
 Fight against infection
 Together with organs, responsible for formation of lymphatic system
 Platelets repair damaged blood vessels
 Essential to clotting process
Structure and Functions of –
Arteries:
 Carry blood at high pressure away from the heart
 Thick elastic walls which allow continuous blood flow – flow comes in surges in
time with heart contraction (beat), walls expand every beat = pulse
 Inner layer = Endothelium, Mid layer = Smooth (involuntary) muscle and elastic
tissue, Outer layer = Non-elastic
 Divide into arterioles then into capillaries; further from the heart the arteries are =
lower BP = lower blood flow speed
Capillaries:
 Microscopic vessel connected to arterioles and venules
 Found at almost every cell of body; occur greatest in places with most activity
 Thin walls; semi- permeable = exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients,
hormones and waste products between blood and tissue
Veins:
 Blood moves from capillary to venule to vein (losing pressure on route)
 Walls thin, not very elastic
 Returns blood to the heart
Heart:
 Four main chambers/cavities: right and left ventricles, right and left atriums
 Atriums separated by thin wall, ventricles separated by thick wall (septum)
 Atriums receive blood (outside heart), ventricles pump blood out of heart
 Walls of ventricles thicker than those of atriums (left ventricle wall thickest)
 Between R.V and R.A is a valve system (tricuspid) = prevents blood flowing back
from V to A
 Between L.V and L.A is valve system (bicuspid/mitral) = prevents blood flowing
back from V to A
 Major arteries from heart = aorta and pulmonary arteries
 Aorta carries oxygenated blood from heart
 Pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from R.V to lungs to get oxygen
 Beats an average of 70 times per minute

Pulmonary Circulation:
 Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the inferior and superior vena
caves  Right ventricle sends deoxygenated blood through pulmonary artery to
the lungs
 Left atrium receives oxygenated blood from pulmonary veins  Left ventricle
sends oxygenated blood through aorta to extremities of body

RESTING HEART RATES

 Average for adults = 78 BPM (70 BPM = male, 75 BPM =female)
 Average for infant/neonatal = 130-150 BPM
 Average for toddler = 100-130 BPM
 Average for older child = 90-110 BPM
 Average for adolescent = 80-100 BPM
 Reference range for adults = 60-100 BPM: under 60 = bradycardia, over 100 =
tachycardia
 Often determined by lifestyle
Blood Pressure
 Systolic: Pressure in arteries as result of contraction of L.V
 Diastolic: Pressure in arteries between each heart beat and when pressure drops to
minimum
 Can be measured two ways: Palpation = inflation of ‘cuff’ while radial pulse
taken  pulse disappears and systolic BP taken, auscultatory = inflation of
‘cuff’ while measures of korotkoff sounds (strongest and weakest pressures) taken
using stethoscope
FLUCTUATIONS IN BP DURING EXERCISE
 With aerobic exercise: as intensity rises  systolic BP increases 160-200 BPM
(stop IMMEDIATELY if there is no rise or if BP rises above 250 BPM)
 DBP also increases, but to smaller degree (stop if passes 120 BPM)
 Resistance training increases DBP depending on intensity
  Holding breathe during lifting (Valsalva manoeuvre) dramatically increases both
SBP and DBP

• Respiration
The Respiratory System is our apparatus for breathing. The major function of the
respiratory system is gas exchange. Breathing is the process by which oxygen in the air is
brought to the lungs and into contact with the blood. The blood absorbs it and carries it to
all parts of the body. At the same time the blood gives up waste matter (carbon dioxide),
which is carried out of the lungs with the air breathed out.

Nasal Passages:
This includes your nose and nasal cavity. You inhale air though your nose. As you inhale,
small specks of dirt are trapped by many tiny hairs in your nose, which cleans the air. The
hairs stop the dirt from going further in your body. The moist inside surface in your
nose traps even smaller pieces of dirt. The nasal cavity, the air passage behind the nose,
plays an important role in breathing. The nasal cavity is divided into a right and left
passageway. The tissue that covers the wall of your nasal cavity contains many blood
vessels. Heat from the blood in the vessels helps warm the air as you breath. Moisture is
added to the air you breath by special cells in the walls of the nasal cavity. The air is
warmed and moistened before it reaches your lungs.

Trachea and Bronchial Tree

 The trachea (windpipe) joins the the the upper respiratory tract to the lungs. *The
bottom of the trachea splits into two branches called bronchi.One enters the right
lung and one goes to the left lung. The bronchial tree's job is to spread the air
from the trachea over a very wide area as quickly as possible. The air passing
through the windpipe divides into two branches. These divide into twigs called
bronchioles. These twigs open into little bags called alveoli.
 The alveoli gives our lungs a huge surface for absorbing oxygen from the
air, and is surrounded by a capillary network.It is the site of oxygen and carbon
dioxide exchange.
Lungs:
The lungs are a network of millions of these air sacs (alveoli) and bronchioles. The lungs
fill our chest from the neck to the ribs. The lungs are protected by our ribs. The lungs are
where we take in oxygen and discard carbon dioxide. The lungs are always working,
breathing in oxygen and breathing out carbon dioxide. Blood is pumped into the lungs
from the heart through the pulmonary arteries. Blood with oxygen leaves the lungs
through the pulmonary veins and travels to the heart

• Lung Function
- Inspiration/Expiration:
− Controlled by the respiratory centre in the brain known as the medulla.
 − Intercostal muscles are stimulated by the medulla, causing them to contract and
relax
− Inspiration- diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract drawing air into the lungs
− Expiration- diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax forcing air out of the lungs
− 15-20 breaths occur every minute

- Gas Exchange (diffusion)

− Gas exchange occurs in the capillaries within the alveoli where the oxygen from
the air enters the blood and carbon dioxide from the blood enters the lungs
− Caused by differences in concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
blood and the air- gases move from high concentration areas to low concentration
areas.
− Air is high in oxygen, low in carbon dioxide
− Blood is high in carbon dioxide, low in oxygen
Air Blood Diffusion

Oxygen High Low Into blood and

returns to heart

Carbon Low High Into alveoli to

Dioxide be exhaled

- Immediate Effect of Exercise on Respiration

− Normal air intake is called the tidal volume and is around 0.5 litres.
− Lungs can hold 10 times the tidal volume when filled to capacity. This is known
as the vital capacity.
− While sitting, the average adult breathes 15 times per minute which is around 12
litres of air.
During exercise:
− oxygen consumption increases
− Carbon dioxide consumption increases
− Rate of breathing and the volume of each breath increases.
Immediate Effect of Exercise on Respiration
 − Small increase in respiration in anticipation of exercise
− Rapid increase within a few seconds of starting
− If exercise only reaches a sub-maximal level the rate of respiration will remain
constant
− If exercise reaches a maximal level, the rate continues to rise until exercise is
stopped
− When exercise stops there is an immediate decrease followed by a more constant
drop until resting respiration is reached

What aspects of physical fitness influence movement efficiency?

Components of physical fitness
Health related
Skill related

Measurements of health related physical fitness

Measurements of skill related physical fitness

How are biomechanical principles reflected in the way we move?

Biomechanics is concerned with external and internal forces that act on the body and the
movements these forces produce. It’s important in order to understand techniques used in
sport for efficient movement.

• Motion
− Linear motion – movement in a straight line e.g. running
− Angular motion – characterised by movement about an axis of rotation e.g. a
gymnast swinging round a bar
− General motion – a combination of linear and angular motion
− Projectile motion – paths of objects in flight
− Distance – the change in an objects location from one point to another
− Speed – the measure of the rate of change from one position to the next
− Acceleration – Acceleration is the rate an object develops speed
− Momentum – the amount of motion possessed by a moving object. A product
of the object’s mass and velocity
− Moment of inertia – the resistance to turn an object, dependant not only on the
mass of the object but the way the mass is distributed

• Force
- How the body applies force
The body produces forces primarily through the muscular system promoting movement
of the skeletal system in order to initiate movement. A number of forces generally
combine to form a desired movement in a principle known as the “summation of forces”

The body is faced with opposing forces such as gravity, air resistance, water resistance
and friction.
Newton’s laws of motion:
1) An object will not move or change unless a force acts upon it
2) The total force on a body is a product of the mass of the body and its acceleration.
3) For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

- How the body absorbs force

To absorb a force a player needs to increase the time over which a force is absorbed. In
other words decreasing the force of impact and increasing the time over which the impact
is absorbed
A force distributed over a large area has less than that applied to a smaller area
Changing the impact from direct to oblique will lessen the force
Distributing the force through flexing of joints

- Application of force on an object

The greater the force applied to an object, the great the speed and acceleration of that
object. As the mass of an object increases, so does the force required to move that object.

Balance and Stability

• There are two types of balance: static (standing still) and dynamic (moving)
• A stable position is one in a vertical line through which the centre of gravity
passes through the base of support
• Stability is affected by:
o Area of the base of support - Increasing your base of support can improve
performance in many activities e.g. wrestling
o Body mass – the heavier you are the more stable you are
o Height of the centre of gravity – by decreasing the height of the centre of
gravity improves stability

Linear Velocity = Angular Velocity x Radius (metres)

Factors which determine the height and range of a projectile at the moment of release or
take off:
• Initial velocity of the object
• Trajectory angle in relation to the ground
• Height of release
Speed = distance traveled in metres / time in seconds

Velocity is when speed has a direction of movement

Acceleration =

Final velocity – initial velocity

time
Momentum = Mass x Velocity