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Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
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This master’s thesis has evaluated different system designs for the hydraulic system on
an articulated hauler at Volvo Construction Equipment (CE). The current system suffers
from great losses when running on low pump displacement settings. This is due to large
installed displacements as a result of regulations and market demands. New system
concepts have been generated and simulations in Matlab and Amesim show that some
of the concepts can be implemented in order to increase energy efficiency up to 65%.
However, increasing efficiency does in most cases also increase cost, making some of the
concepts unrealistic to implement. The suggested solution for Volvo CE is to remove
one pump and allow for the fan pumps to supply oil to the steering and dumping,
as described in the Displacement reduction concept. They should also examine the
possibility to implement clutches further.
V
VI
Acknowledgements
May 2015
André Arana Escobedo & Oskar Gunnarsson
VII
VIII
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Problem Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Method 7
3 Hydraulic systems 9
3.1 Conventional Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.1 Constant Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.2 Constant Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Load Sensing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3 Clutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4 Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5 Digital Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.5.1 Linear actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.5.2 Angular actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.6 Individual Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.7 Hydraulic Accumulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.8 Valveless Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.8.1 Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.8.2 Pump Controlled Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.8.3 Electro Hydraulic Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4 Mathematical model 23
4.1 Simulation Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2.2 Current System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.2.3 Conventional Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
IX
4.2.4 Displacement Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2.5 Clutches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2.6 Flow control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2.7 Digital pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2.8 Individual Metering – Regenerative mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.2.9 Accumulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.2.10 Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5 Concepts 33
5.1 Conventional Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.2 Displacement Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3 Clutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.3.1 Current system with Clutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.3.2 Displacement Reduction with Clutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.4 Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.4.1 Current system with Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.4.2 Displacement Reduction with Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.4.3 Clutch and Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.5 Digital hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.5.1 Linear actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.5.2 Angular actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.6 Individual Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.7 Accumulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.7.1 Accumulator in constant pressure system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.7.2 Accumulator to reduce auxiliary steering pump . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.7.3 Dump using accumulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.8 Valveless Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.9 Fan Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6 Results 41
6.1 Current System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2 Simulation Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2.1 Constant Flow and Constant Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.2.2 Displacement reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.2.3 Clutches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.2.4 Flow control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.2.5 Digital Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.2.6 Individual Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.2.7 Accumulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.2.8 Fan Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.3 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
X
Bibliography 62
A Simulation models 65
B Displacement Variation 69
XI
XII
List of Figures
®
3.7 The principle of a multi camber cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.8 Artemis Digital Displacement Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.9 Mathers Fuel Saving Vane, FSV, Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.10 Different operational modes when using individual metering. . . . . . . . 18
3.11 Different type of hydraulic accumulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.12 A conventional hydraulic transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.13 Simplified schematic of a pump controlled actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.14 Principle sketch of an electro hydraulic actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
XIII
6.10 Distribution of inserted energy during a drive cycle using flow control. . . 51
6.11 Results with an Artemis Digital Displacement Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.12 Results with a Mathers Fuel Saving Vane Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.13 Piston rod diameter vs. Pressure and Pump Displacement . . . . . . . . . 53
XIV
List of Tables
XV
XVI
Nomenclature
$ Price SEK
D Displacement cc
E Energy kWh
L Cylinder length mm
P Power kW
R Ratio –
T Torque Nm
V Volume l
XVII
d Diameter mm
p Pressure bar
q Flow cm3/
s
t Time s
v Velocity km/
h
x Distance in x-direction mm
z Distance in z-direction mm
Subscripts
+ Positive direction
– Negative direction
E Combustion engine
b Trailer unit
ext External
f Pull unit
h Right
hm Hydromechanical
m Hydraulic Motor
XVIII
otc Length between dump cylinder attachment
p Hydraulic Pump
pi Cylinder
pr Piston rod
req Required
st Steering
v Left
vol Volymetric
XIX
Abbreviations
Acc Accumulator
CE Construction Equipment
LS Load Sensing
NA Not Applicable
cc Cubic Centimetres
XX
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
Volvo Construction Equipment, Volvo CE, manufactures a large variety of construction
machines. The product range includes wheel loaders, excavators, pipe layers and artic-
ulated haulers. This paper focuses on the haulers which are mainly developed in Braås
and Eskilstuna, Sweden. An articulated hauler is an all wheel drive off-road vehicle. The
assignment on a construction site is mostly to transport goods such as soil and gravel in
rough terrain from a working site to a dump site. The body that the soil and gravel is
loaded into, usually by wheel loaders or excavators, is connected to the frame through
a rotation linkage, usually at the rear end of the vehicle. Two hydraulic cylinders are
used to lift the front of the body when dumping the load, meaning unloading of the soil
and gravel. The hydraulic system also controls steering cylinders that make it possible
to turn with the hauler. It can also provide flow to fan motors, cooling systems and
the brake system. Controlling many functions with hydraulics gives rise to challenges,
such as how to dimension the hydraulic pumps to achieve an energy efficient system.
Functions that are not used often but require much power during a small period of time,
like dumping, can make the system over-dimensioned most of the time. The articulated
hauler used as reference in this project is the Volvo A40. The present Volvo haulers have
load sensing, LS, hydraulic systems installed. The LS system adapts the pump pressure
to the highest active load pressure. This will cause energy losses when simultaneously
using functions that requires widely different pressures, although this rarely occurs on
an articulated hauler. When no load is active there is a minimum pressure equal to
1
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
the system pressure margin. The losses existing in the system have previously been
identified and located in a master’s thesis carried out at Volvo CE [10].
1.2 Aims
The primary aim of this thesis is to generate new concepts for the hydraulic system on
an articulated hauler in order to increase energy efficiency. All concepts have to keep
the same functionality as in the existing system. The generated concepts also have to
be evaluated with respect to cost and safety.
Dumping time – The body has to be able to rise in less than 12 seconds in order
to be competitive on the market.
Steering time – A full turn has to be achieved in less than 3.5 seconds at 1200 rpm
on the diesel engine.
Power take-out at engine idle speed – The installed hydraulic power is higher than
what the diesel engine delivers when idling. Therefore stalling has to be prevented
in some way.
Dump modes – If the current dumping valve is removed all existing modes have
to be implemented in a new system. These includes the over center function, a
safety function when dumping downwards a slope. It prevents free fall of the body
when its center of mass move over the rotational point. The principle can be seen
in figure 1.1.
System cost – The cost of the system has to be equal or less than today’s system.
If the cost increases, the payback time has to be one year maximum.
2
Chapter 1. Introduction
Figure 1.1: Figure showing when the ”Over Center” function is needed.
1.4 Delimitations
Due to limited knowledge and the complexity of the system a complete Amesim1 model
will not be produced in this work. Only subsystems will be modelled in order to evaluate
concepts. The full suspension system, an extra feature available on the Volvo A35/A40,
will in no aspect be analysed in this thesis. The differences in dynamic characteristics,
such as stability or damping, between hydraulic concepts will not be analysed. Complete
control strategies for the systems will not be evaluated or produced. Further on the brake
system will not be analysed other than to decide which pump it should be supplied by.
There are no prototype machines built to verify the models of the generated concepts.
3
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
when the vehicle is moving. The dropbox is a transmission component whose purpose is
to distribute engine torque to the front and rear axles in all wheel drive vehicles. This
pump makes steering possible even if the engine malfunctions and disables the other
pumps.
Dumping cylinders
LS-block
3. 1.
Dumping valve
PWM
Steering valve
P
MTRV1
T
O
5. 6. 2.
PWM PWM
8.
9. 10.
MTRV2
Steering cylinders
Brake Coolant
System
A 63 cc pump, labelled pump 1, with both load sensing and electrical displacement
control exists in the system. The electrical displacement control has been implemented to
avoid stall of the engine. Stalling could otherwise be a problem at low engine speeds since
the hydraulic power demand can be greater than what the engine can deliver. This pump
and two 60 cc load sensing pumps, pump 2 and 3, provide the hydraulic power for the
steering and dumping. The steering 6/3-valve is of open-centre type enabling the steering
to always be functional, even during full dumping. The open-center valve also allows for
a quick steering response. The steering is given priority over the dumping by connecting
the flow through the open-centre steering valve to the inlet of the dumping valve. The
steering valve is mechanically controlled by the operator through the steering wheel. It
has a self compensating hydro-mechanical feedback meaning that a certain movement in
the steering wheel always corresponds to the same steer angle. The dumping 6/4-valve
can except for normal operations also be used to achieve float mode, meaning that the
body is lowered by its own weight without the use of the pumps. The motors in the
system are of an axial piston design with a fixed displacement. Pump 5 of size 28 cc
provides an 11 cc motor with flow to power an intercooler fan. An intercooler is used to
achieve higher engine efficiency by supplying cold air, which has a higher concentration
of oxygen. A radiator fan is powered by a 14 cc motor, receiving flow from pump 6, 45
cc. Pump 6 also supplies the brake cooling system as well as the brake circuit. Pump 5
and 6 are electronically controlled variable displacement pumps.
4
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.6 Contribution
This thesis will bring clearance to the energy efficiency and potential of new hydraulic
systems, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. Raising the knowledge of what
potential upcoming hydraulic systems have, will be of importance for future work in
the field of energy efficiency. There will also be an introduction of alternative ways to
manoeuvre the hydraulic functions. The results and analyses will show what possible
directions Volvo CE can take to further develop and improve their articulated haulers.
5
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
6
Chapter 2
Method
The purpose of this work is to generate hydraulic concepts that have higher energy
efficiency than the existing system, while in the same economic range. The existing
system will therefore be a point of reference from which all other concepts are compared.
A proper way of comparing one concept to another is crucial to the work. In order to
successfully carry out this project a structural method is needed.
The functionality of the existing system has to be preserved in any new system.
In order to fulfil this demand when generating new concepts it is first important to
understand the functionality of the existing LS-system and its hydraulic components.
This is achieved by studying hydraulic schematics and other material regarding the
functionality and configuration of a hauler, provided by Volvo CE, but also previous
master’s theses work done at Volvo CE [10]. The specifications in those documents are
the basis when creating a mathematical model of the existing system, made in Matlab1 .
This model will serve as the reference point from which the models for all other concepts
originate. The ongoing process after initial modelling is performed in the manner further
described below.
Concept generation To learn about new concepts, theses and publications from
academia are studied. When initially generating concepts no aspects on the func-
tionality is to be taken. This strategy is chosen to encourage new ideas to come
through without criticism stopping or limiting them.
Initial Evaluation All ideas are evaluated to ensure that there is a possibility to fulfil
all requirements. Simple calculations in Matlab and partial models in Amesim are
made to examine the plausibility of all ideas. Ideas found to be inadequate are
eliminated from further studies.
Concept Modelling All the remaining concepts are now to be modelled. The mathe-
matical model for the existing system will be modified according to the principal
differences of the concept, sections in the script are removed for some concepts
1
Matlab - A software and language code used for mathematical computations
7
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
while other sections are added on other concepts. This process will enable the con-
cepts to be accurately comparable. All models are verified individually to ensure
that they are mathematically correct, meaning that a change in parameter value
should give a predictable model behaviour. All models are verified with equations
found in [6]. Normally a validation of the model would be made. The point of
validating a model is to examine if the model is an accurate representation of a
specific concept. The non existing data of the generated concepts prevents valida-
tion of those models towards collected data. Therefore a validation is only possible
of the initial model. This is done by comparing it against other models previously
made at Volvo CE.
Result Evaluation The result from simulating the models are evaluated to see if they
fulfil the requirements and that the output parameters such as pumps displacement
setting and inserted power are reasonable. The final step in the evaluation is to
include the economical aspect of the concepts.
8
Chapter 3
Hydraulic systems
This section introduces new ways of controlling and design hydraulic systems that has
been researched in the academia. A deeper understanding of load sensing, individual
metering, flow control and valveless systems is to be achieved, as well as the digital
hydraulics. The knowledge of these theories are to form a base when generating new
concepts for the hydraulic system on an articulated hauler.
Removing losses such as the pressure margin, that is needed in a LS-system, and
idle losses are the main objectives when exploring other options. Idle losses, also known
as drag losses, occur when a pump’s displacement setting is turned to zero. The pump
pressure as well as pump speed and size affect how great the power loss is. If the speed
of the pump can be set to zero the idle losses can be fully removed. This since there can
be no losses without an energy input to the system.
9
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Figure 3.1: Principle sketch of a constant flow and constant pressure system.
10
Chapter 3. Hydraulic systems
valve opening on one function will affect the speed of the other [13]. Therefore a load
sensing system has high losses if active load pressures differs widely. A load sensing
system is what can be found in most of the articulated haulers on the market today.
3.3 Clutch
A clutch is a type of mechanical connector that allows for two axles to be connected or
disconnected to each other while rotating. Enabling this possibility in a system allows
for pumps to be disconnected when the flow is not required and thereby reduce losses.
There are several types of clutches available on the market such as friction clutches,
centrifugal clutches and non-slip clutches. Some clutches are internally controlled as for
example the centrifugal clutch. Others are externally controlled and can be controlled
using hydraulic, mechanic, pneumatic or electronic control. These clutches can be disc
clutches or non-slip clutches. The clutches can be seen in figure 3.3.
Friction Clutch A friction clutch, also called disc clutch, is basically two or more discs
that are forced against each other in order to transfer torque. This type of clutch
is allowed to slip and therefore a smooth engagement of the clutch is possible. A
friction clutch can either be wet or dry. A wet clutch can transfer more energy that
an equally sized dry. This is since the oil is forced in between the friction surfaces
enabling torque to be transferred via viscous shear forces [8]. Other advantages of
the wet clutch is that the oil reduces mechanical wear of the friction plates and
cools the clutch, allowing more energy to be absorbed [8].
Centrifugal Clutch Centrifugal clutches transmits higher torque while the speed of
the input axle increases. This forces the flyweights, held together by springs in
the clutch, to move outwards transferring torque to the output axle. This type
of clutch has no external engagement mechanism and is therefore hard to control
when the output speed should not depend on the input speed.
11
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Non-slip Clutch A non-slip clutch is also known as a dog clutch in the automotive
industry. An example of the non-slip clutch is the claw coupling where the claws
are inserted between each other and thereby transferring torque. As the name
implies, this clutch can not slip and therefore a smooth engagement under load is
hard to achieve.
(a) Multi disc friction clutch (b) Centrifugal clutch (c) Non-slip jaw clutch
12
Chapter 3. Hydraulic systems
Compensator Losses
Compensator Losses
Unnecessary Losses Energy Saved
pmargin
pmargin
Hose Losses Hose Losses
Flow Flow
Figure 3.4: Pump pressure margin as a function of the flow for a LS system (Left) and
a Flow control system (Right). The dashed red line indicates the margin.
are preferable since they do not require the same accuracy in system components and
control. The reason being that in a system containing more than one function, the flow
from the pump should be the sum of the demand from all functions. The speed of the
functions will be affected if there are deficiencies or excess flow. By using flow sharing
pressure compensators these deficiencies or excess will be split between all functions
affecting them equally. This since the pump pressure and the highest load pressure also
affects the valve position. The use of pressure compensators are however not desired,
since they reduce system efficiency due to added valve losses.
max load
PWM
pressure
13
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
for example by the use of on/off-valves with only discrete inputs. Digital solutions have
been presented for linear actuators as well as pumps and motors.
Figure 3.6: Principle for the force and pressure levels of a digital piston.
14
Chapter 3. Hydraulic systems
B
A
C
D
®
valve opens letting the oil into the system. In [16] Wadsley presents data with a total
efficiency over 90% when running the Digital Displacement pump on partial loads and
low speeds in a hydraulic transmission. This technology might prove useful and efficient
in a system that has to be dimensioned for a large flow demand that rarely is required.
15
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
®
Figure 3.8: The Artemis Digital Displacement Pump. ©Artemis Intelligent Power
Ltd. Used with permission of the copyright holder.
Figure 3.9: Mathers Fuel Saving Vane, FSV, pump. In the left figure the vanes are
retracted and the pump is turned off. In the right figure it is active, working as a regular
vane pump.
16
Chapter 3. Hydraulic systems
Normal mode
The pump and tank are connected to the meter-in valve and the meter-out valve,
respectively. This is the most common sort of operation since it is how a conven-
tional system operates [1].
Regenerative mode
Losses can be reduced by directing the output chamber to the pump-line, thus
increasing the flow to the actuator without increasing the pump flow. This function
is most useful when manoeuvring light and heavy loads simultaneously.
Floating mode
Also called Energy Neutral Operation is profitable when lowering a load. No pump
flow is delivered while in this mode, the oil to the actuators is moved from one
chamber to the other. The excessive oil is provided by the tank.
Recuperative mode
The cylinder is used as a pump in negative strokes, pressurizing the return oil and
directing it back to the pressure system, thereby producing energy that can be
used on other functions, or stored in an accumulator.
Introducing this concept in to the system will make the controller more complex,
because there must be an input signal for each valve. An additional input signal is
possible to add if an electronically controlled pump is implemented, resulting in more
flexibility. The valves and pump can be controlled either electronically or directly by the
operator. Usually the operator generates one input, for example desired cylinder speed,
pressure or flow. The ability to switch mode, i.e. change the flow direction, during
operations presents further challenges in the controller. Transition between modes must
be managed in a smooth manner. Also, a strategy for when to switch mode must be
made. The ability to divide the flow into several directions with individual metering can
reduce the number of pumps in the system.
17
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
PWM
PWM
PWM
(a) Normal mode (b) Regenerative mode
PWM
PWM
PWM
18
Chapter 3. Hydraulic systems
Figure 3.11: Different types of accumulators. From the left a Bladder accumulator
followed by the Diaphragm accumulator in the middle and a Piston accumulator to the
right.
19
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Bladder accumulators, where the gas is stored inside a balloon, bladder. The bladder
is compressed when oil enters the accumulator. This type typically has a fast
output flow and is often used for medium size volumes [14].
Diaphragm accumulators has a membrane that can move back and forth depending
on the pressure on each side. This type of accumulator is usually used when the
accumulator size is small and is often more robust than bladder accumulators.
Piston accumulators is the type of accumulator that can handle the largest volume.
It consists of a light weight piston that separates the gas from the liquid, and moves
inside a well defined cylinder depending on the pressures. The pressure ratio limit
between maximum pressure and pre-charge pressure can be very high [14] [9].
3.8.1 Transformers
A hydraulic transformer consists of two hydraulic machines mechanically connected to
each other, see figure 3.12. This allows for a linear actuator to be manoeuvred using
secondary control. A secondary controlled system can according to Heybroek [7] be
described as the hydraulic equivalent of an electric grid. Additional functions and com-
ponents are simple to attach to such a system. The transformer converts an input flow
at a certain pressure to a different output flow at the cost of a pressure change. Compare
with an electric circuit where the current is increased if the voltage is decreased and vice
versa. In order to implement this at least one of the machines must have variable dis-
placement, and therefore may experience low efficiency at certain operating conditions.
The disadvantage for this system is the number of machines used, requiring space and
increasing the system cost. The possibility to recuperate energy and the high efficiency
when operating several functions simultaneously is the advantage. In order to operate
in all four quadrants, that is positive and negative piston velocity and external force,
additional valves are needed causing additional losses.
20
Chapter 3. Hydraulic systems
21
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
22
Chapter 4
Mathematical model
The characteristics of a system and its efficiency must be examined in a manner that
provides accurate and reliable results. This is achieved by simulations of all concepts,
based on mathematical models. Provided data and calculations are presented in this
chapter.
23
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
4.2 Calculations
In this section the calculations for all concepts found in chapter 5 are presented. First
calculations for the current system are presented and later on the changes that were
made in the initial code to make it valid for the new concepts.
The calculation process can be described in a flow chart, as in figure 4.2, where the
the mathematical model is based on the hydraulic concepts. How the calculations are
made and what changes that are done between different concepts is described in this
chapter. The model is constructed in such a way that the measured data functions as
input and the result is the energy consumption. The result for different concepts can
then be further analysed and compared.
Measurement
Data
4.2.1 Geometry
The hauler geometry affects the model by influencing the flow demand caused by steering
and dumping during a test cycle. The specific purpose for the geometry calculations will
be to compute the length difference between every time step on both steering cylinders
and dumping cylinder. The geometries can be seen in figure 4.3.
Positive and negative stroke areas on the cylinders will affect the flow demand during
both steering and dumping. The pressurized area can be calculated as shown in equation
(4.1) and (4.2).
24
Chapter 4. Mathematical model
Load unit
bb
xotc
Lh lb rtipp
B α
µ γ
Lv b
β
Lc α2
lf A zotc β
α α1 ztl
a
xtl
bf
Pull unit
(a) Gemoetry for the steering (b) Geometry for the dumping
d2pi
Api = π (4.1)
4
d2pi − d2pr
Apr =π (4.2)
4
Steering
When calculating the steer angle the values of A and B are needed. They are calculated
according to
s 2
bf
A= + lf2 (4.3)
2
s 2
bb
B= + lb2 (4.4)
2
There is a slight non linearity between the lengths on the steering cylinders, meaning
that a certain change in length on one cylinder will not correspond to the same length
change on the other cylinder. This give rise to compute the right cylinder length from
measured data on the left cylinder length. Begins by calculating the steering angle, α,
which depends on the angle γ which in turn depends on parameters calculated in (4.3)
and (4.4).
arccos(A2 + B 2 − L2v )
γ= (4.5)
2AB
bf bb
α = π − γ − arctan − arctan (4.6)
2lf 2lb
25
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
The expression for the right steering cylinder length depends on the angle µ that in turn
depends on the previous calculated steering angle, α, (4.3) and (4.4).
bf bb
µ = π + α − arctan − arctan (4.7)
2lf 2lb
p
Lh = A2 + B 2 − 2AB cos(µ) (4.8)
Knowing both the right and left cylinder lengths throughout the test cycle, the flow to
or from the cylinders can be calculated. The flow calculations are further described in
section 4.2.2.
Dumping
The dumping cylinder length expression depends on the angle β, that is the angle be-
tween the upper and lower cylinder attachments measured at the body rotational point.
β is the sum of the tilt angle θ and β0 . Two other parameters used to calculate the
cylinder length is the distances a and b according to
ztl zotc − ztl
β0 = arctan + arctan (4.9)
xtl xtl − xotc
β = θ + β0 (4.10)
q
a = x2tl + ztl2 (4.11)
p
b = (xtl − xotc )2 + (zotc − ztl )2 (4.12)
s 2
ucw − lcw
Lc = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos(β) + (4.13)
2
The flow demand from steering and dumping depends on the difference in volume
between each time step, see equation (4.15). It is computed from the cylinder positions
and areas. A leakage flow is included in the model. If the calculated flow demand is
26
Chapter 4. Mathematical model
below the leakage flow value, the flow demand is set to the leakage flow.
dV
qst = (4.15)
dt
qst (qst 0 qleak ) = qleak (4.16)
The displacement setting, ε, calculations are made under the assumption that all LS
pumps and the auxiliary pump share the same setting. Based on what is known about
the system configuration this assumptions seems valid. The highest ideal flow from each
pump is calculated using (4.17) and setting ε = 1 and ηvol,p = 1. Knowing these flows
the displacement setting can be calculated using (4.18)
np
qp = εp Dp ηvol,p (4.17)
60
qst
ε= (4.18)
qIdeal,E · ηvol,E + qIdeal,G · ηvol,G
where qIdeal,E and qIdeal,G are the ideal flows from the engine mounted pumps and
the auxiliary steering pump respectively. Pump efficiency data provided by the pump
manufacturer serves as the base for interpolating an efficiency, η, for a specific running
condition. The efficiency depend on several parameters and can be described as a η =
η(p, ε, n). Since the displacement setting and the efficiency is a function of each other
the actual displacement setting is iterated to a precision of ∆ε = 1e−4 . If the calculated
displacement setting is greater than 1 the concept can not deliver the flow required.
Torque required by the pumps are calculated using equation (4.19). Knowing the
torque, the engine and vehicle speed the power consumption for each pump can be
calculated using equation (4.20).
εp D p 1
Tin = ∆p ·R (4.19)
2π ηhm,p
P =T ·ω
⇔ (4.20)
n
P = T · 2π
60
Fan circuit calculations require the flow demand from the fan motor to be calculated.
Since the motors have a fixed displacement this is done using equation (4.21).
nm 1
q m = εm D m (4.21)
60 ηvol,m
The flow calculations, resulting in the power consumption, are the same as described
above using equation (4.17)–(4.19).
Useful power is calculated by equation (4.22) with the stored data of the steering
pressure, pst , and the flow demand qst from equations (4.15) and (4.16).
Pusef ul = pst · qst (4.22)
27
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
The powers from equations (4.22) and (4.20) are thereafter used to calculate the energy
consumption in one test cycle. This makes comparison between simulations with different
time steps possible.
XZ
E= P (t)dt (4.23)
Constant Pressure
The current system is easily changed to a constant pressure system by modifying equa-
tion (4.14). The pump pressure, pp , is set to the constant pressure desired in the system.
4.2.5 Clutches
When implementing clutches into the system some changes to the initial code have to
be made. Now calculations are made to decide what each pump can deliver at all time.
The flow demand from the steering is then compared with these values in a predefined
order until the full required flow can be delivered. It is then known how many pumps
that are required. The check is made using an if-statement like the one presented below.
All other calculations are made in the same way as for the initial system.
28
Chapter 4. Mathematical model
else
NoP(n) = 1; % Only the Auxiliary steering pump
end
end
0 = F+ − F− − Fext (4.26)
F =p·A (4.27)
The cylinder area, A, is calculated using equation (4.1) and (4.2). Combining (4.26) and
(4.27) and replacing A with the corresponding area equation, the expression becomes
d2pi d2pi − d2pr
p+ · π − p− · π = Fext (4.28)
4 4
Since the external force has to be the same in the regenerative system as the current
system the force equation, (4.28), for both systems can be set equal to each other. For
29
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
the current system p is replaced with the known pressures. Assuming that the low
pressure ,p− , is zero. Breaking out the pressure in the regenerative system, preg , results
in
4.2.9 Accumulators
All systems that includes accumulators were made in co-simulation between Amesim and
Simulink. In these simulations the rest of the system was simplified so that the steering
was modeled as an ON/OFF-valve and only one pump component is used. Despite these
simplifications the model was found accurate. This is verified by comparing flow demand
to the flow in the model. The Amesim and Simulink models can be seen in appendix A.
When looking at replacing the auxiliary steering pump with accumulators as de-
scribed in section 5.7 the required accumulator volume is based on calculations described
in this section. The oil volume needed is calculated from the steering cylinders using
(4.1) and the total stroke length. This volume is then multiplied by the number of turns
that have to be made according to safety standards, resulting in
There is also a defined turning speed, κ, in degrees per second and vehicle speed, v,
used to calculate the time it takes to preform a full turn and the angular velocity of the
pump. With these numbers the volume from the pump can be calculated according to
90
Vp = qp N oT (4.31)
κ
Subtracting the flow delivered by the pump from the required flow yields the working
volume needed in the accumulator. Knowing the working volume and assuming the
highest and lowest working pressure needed, the accumulator volume is calculated ac-
cording to equation (4.33). In these calculation both the emptying and filling processes
are assumed to be adiabatic.
∆V = Vst − Vp (4.32)
∆V pp10
V0 = 1 (4.33)
1 − ( pp12 ) n
30
Chapter 4. Mathematical model
4.2.10 Cost
Cost is an important factor when constructing a system today. Since some systems
are cheap but do not improve the energy efficiency that much while others are more
expensive but improves the efficiency all the more. In order to get a fair comparison
between the concepts a payback time was calculated for each concept. The payback time
is based on the cost of the components and the energy consumption. Some constants
such as fuel price and diesel engine efficiency are also included in the calculation. The
amount of hours accepted as payback time during one year is 1400 hours. This is given
if there are 250 working days with eight hour shifts during one year and the hauler is
driven 70% of that time.
∆Cost
P ayback = (4.34)
∆EConcept 1
EDiesel ·ηEngine · tSimulation · $Diesel
31
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
32
Chapter 5
Concepts
During this project different concepts have been evaluated with respect to functionality,
cost and safety. The results of evaluating these concepts will be presented here. Con-
cepts which do not fulfil the requirements will be excluded from further evaluation and
modelling of system. The first concepts to be presented are the base concepts, some of
whom will thereafter be combined into different complete system concepts further down
in this section.
33
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
elimination of one pump, thereby reducing the losses in two ways. First the idle loss
for the removed pump would be eliminated, secondly the reduced displacement during
normal driving would increase the displacement setting on the remaining pumps hence
increasing their efficiency. This concept would work under the condition that the fan
pumps are over dimensioned so that the cooling can be shut off for some time, when they
are used for steering or dumping. The fact that the pump is over dimensioned allows for
a higher pump flow when turning the fans on again, resulting in a higher fan speed and
cooling effect. Looking at the measurement data this seems to be the case, see figure
6.2a. This concept would reduce the cost since one pump less is required, however some
extra valves are used to direct the flow from pump 5 and 6 to the main control valve.
The main downside of this concept is that if cooling is required at the same time as
those pumps are wanted for dumping the driver might feel that the function acts slowly.
In this concept the 63 cc pump is removed and the 45 cc fan pump is reduced to 28 cc.
This reduction can be done since the brake cooling is assumed to be removed from the
circuit.
5.3 Clutch
5.3.1 Current system with Clutch
The idle losses have been shown to be the greatest losses in an average driving cycle.
One way to eliminate these would be to add clutches between the PTO and the pumps,
as shown in figure 5.1. Since the clutches are implemented as an interface between the
mechanical and the hydraulic system, and therefore does not require any changes in the
hydraulic circuit, they can be introduced in different kind of systems such as constant
flow, constant pressure, LS or flow control. This would allow disconnection of pumps
during normal driving which would reduce the idle losses. The displacement setting
on the connected pumps would be higher and thus increasing efficiency. Centrifugal
clutches are obviously not applicable in this type of system since the timing of when
to connect a pump is of great importance. The controllability of friction and non-slip
clutches are more suited. Depending on the type of clutch, wet or dry, this would reduce
or completely eliminate the losses when the pumps are not used. As mentioned above
the clutch does not interfere in the hydraulic system. This allows for further system
development and improvements in other operation points. The clutches are assumed to
be ideal in all calculations. The clutches concept is only evaluated on the steering circuit
since it is the part where it will be most useful. They might also be implemented on
pumps in the fan circuits but since the fans are expected to run most of the time they
will not reduce the energy that much.
34
Chapter 5. Concepts
3. 1.
PWM
P
T
O
5. 6. 2.
PWM PWM
pump, pump 2, being 60 cc instead of 63 cc should only have a minor effect on the
improvement.
35
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
®
replace both a clutch and pump. The pumps evaluated here are the Artemis Digital
Displacement radial piston pump and Mathers vane pump. They are said to have
low idle losses, however no data was provided for the Artemis pump so all calculations
assume no idle loss and the efficiency is interpolated from graphs found in [16]. For the
Mathers pump an estimated idle loss was provided by the inventor for one pump size,
1 kW for a 90 cc pump. The digital pumps are implemented on the LS-system in the
evaluated concept. The fan circuits still have the current configurations.
5.7 Accumulator
Accumulators can be used to recover energy. Doing so on a hauler has previously been
evaluated in [10]. This has been further investigated at Volvo and internal reports [11]
shows energy savings no higher than 4%. The cost and weight of these systems are
expected to be too high for implementation.
36
Chapter 5. Concepts
37
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Steering valve
Steering cylinders
LS-block
(a) Alternative steering configuration. During normal driving the system
works as today but if the power to the valve is lost the flow demand is
reduced.
(b) Accumulator size requirement for a certain displacement on the auxiliary steering pump.
p1 = 150 bar, p2 = 250 bar and polytropic exponent is 1.4
38
Chapter 5. Concepts
increased cost, that is likely to follow, makes these systems low prioritized and no further
evaluation are made in this thesis.
39
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
40
Chapter 6
Results
The results aim to clarify which hydraulic systems that are most appropriate to imple-
ment with regard to energy efficiency and functionality, while keeping in mind that the
economical impact on the system also is of great importance. Modifications of concepts
and their difference among each other are presented below. When selecting different
displacement combinations the main objective is to use displacements known to exist
in the same series as the current pumps. In some cases the displacement of the largest
pump is calculated to fulfil given requirements.
Hydraulic Capacity
The total amount of energy that can be extracted from the PTO is calculated with
equation (4.20) from logged pressure and velocity data. The ratio between the total
amount of energy and the inserted energy for the current system is 7.17 %, meaning that
41
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
the hydraulics on the hauler stands for approximately 7.17% of the total vehicle energy
consumption. Using ideal waste energy with similar calculations gives a percentage of
5.57. This is the amount of the total consumption that can be improved by implementing
a new hydraulic concept.
42
Chapter 6. Results
43
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
In the constant flow system the energy consumption highly depends on the pump size
and number of pumps in use. Uncertain factors that have an impact on the efficiency of
this concept is the pressure drop in the system and the pressure at which the system is
assumed idling when below. For these two parameters, parameter F and G in equation
(4.24), a sensitivity analysis was made. The pressure limit is chosen based on visual
evaluation of the data. The pressure drop in the system is chosen arbitrarily and is
expected to be lower than the drop in the current system. The result can be seen in
table 6.1. Values on the parameters giving a good result are, based on the measurement
data, considered to be improbable in the system. Therefore it was decided that proper
values on the pressure drop and pressure limit should be 5 bar and 35 bar, respectively.
The distribution of energy when using this concept can be seen in figure 6.3a. The losses
deriving from steering has increased when comparing with the current system, this due
to that the pumps are now of a fixed displacement type. The consumed energy during
dumping, figure 6.3b, is also higher than the current system.
The results for this concept leaves room for improvements. This system was therefore
also tested with clutches as in section 5.3. The results did improve but it only reached
a similar level as the current system, see table 6.5. To see if further improvements
are possible different combinations of pump displacement were tested. The calculations
deciding what pump to connect are similar to the one presented in section 4.2.5. The
difference being that there is no specific order of engagement. The pumps that best suits
the current demand is the one engaged. The auxiliary pump size is held inactive in this
concept and is only activated as a last resort when the flow that the engine pumps can
provide is not enough. The best result for the steering data was achieved with the pump
displacements D1 = 10 cc, D2 = 18 cc and D3 = 35 cc, resulting in an energy reduction
of 51,82%. The results for other combinations can be seen in appendix B. This result is
however not better than running the current system with clutches, and it is not capable
of fulfilling the demand of dump time, requiring an additional pump to be installed.
The best pump displacement configuration that fulfils all given requirements is D1 =
10 cc, D2 = 28 cc and D3 = 92 cc which reduces the consumed energy with 48,09%.
Figure 6.4a displays how many pumps are in use while figure 6.4b shows which pump
44
Chapter 6. Results
(a) Drive cycle (b) Dump cycle. The useful energy is the same as
in the current system.
displacement configuration the controller has chosen. Observe that D3 is only activated
when combinations of D1 and D2 are insufficient.
45
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Figure 6.4: A constant flow concept with clutches implemented on a drive cycle. The
controller can choose the most suitable pumps for the moment.
46
Chapter 6. Results
Table 6.1: Sensitivity analysis of two unknown parameters in the constant flow system.
The pressure drop over the valve and pressure limit which the hydraulics are not used
below. The inserted energy for the fan system is excluded from these results.
Pressure Energy
Drop, F Limit, G Inserted Waste
bar bar % %
5 45 285,94 98,181
5 40 334,92 97,980
0,5 35 355,58 97,877
1 35 358,22 97,855
3 35 368,65 97,918
5 35 378,94 97,949
10 35 404,01 98,014
5 30 429,16 98,023
5 25 469,58 98,119
Constant Pressure
Applying only the constant pressure concept to the system has been shown to generate
great losses with an inserted energy of more than three times higher than the current
system, see figure 6.5a. The pie chart shows major losses occurring during steering.
This occurs because the provided system pressure that is needed to perform a dumping
highly exceeds the steering pressure demand. The inserted energy during, figure 6.5b
dumping is also higher than the current system. Clutches were implemented in an effort
to make the system more effective. The pumps not needed to fulfil the flow demand are
disconnected. Even doing so it was not possible to reduce the energy consumption to
a lower level than the current system. It is believed that the greatest reason for this
is the displacement of the primary active pump being the auxiliary pump. This is why
also this concept was tested with various pump displacements. The controller works as
previously explained where the best possible pump is chosen except for the auxiliary
pump which only activates as a last resort. A hydraulic system with a constant pressure
can achieve a better result than the current system as seen in table 6.5. The best result
is achieved by having the following pump sizes; D1 = 10 cc, D2 = 28 cc and D3 = 92 cc.
The improvement will show to not be more efficient than the Displacement Reduction
concept which are without clutches and therefore cheaper. The resulting reduction
achieved in inserted energy will probably not justify the increase in cost made by the
couplings.
47
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Figure 6.6: Distribution of inserted energy with the Displacement reduction concept
48
Chapter 6. Results
49
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
6.2.3 Clutches
Implementing clutches has proven to be an efficient way of reducing idle losses in the
steering circuit. Idle losses are not relevant when dumping since all pumps are set on
a high displacement setting. Simulations have been made with clutches on pump 1, 2
and 3. The results can be seen in 6.8a and 6.8b. The inserted energy is almost the
same when implementing clutches on the current system and the reduced displacement
system, the difference lies in the idle losses. It has been reduced on the displacement
reduction system due to reducing the size on the radiator fan pump. Implementing
clutches can further be seen to reduce the energy consumption with about 57 %.
On the reduced displacement version of this concept tests were made implementing
the alternative steering configuration, figure 5.2a, and changing the pump displacements.
The results on various sizes on pumps and different control strategies for when connecting
the clutches is presented in table B.3. The best combination of pump sizes is: D2 = 28 cc,
D3 = 100 cc and D8 = 71 cc. The auxiliary pump and the fan pumps have also been
implemented with clutches in this case. As seen when comparing figure 6.8b and 6.9
doing so reduced the losses another 4%. In all clutch simulations the clutches are assumed
ideal.
(a) Current system. Clutches on pump 1, 2 and 3. (b) Displacement Reduction. Clutches on pump 2
and 3.
Figure 6.8: Distribution of inserted energy during a drive cycle using clutches.
50
Chapter 6. Results
Figure 6.9: Energy distribution of the best Displacement reduction concept with clutches
implemented on a drive cycle.
A flow control approach is evaluated to see how much can be gained when changing
from a load sensing system. Changing to Flow Control and thus reducing the pressure
margin on the current system will result in a reduced energy of 10% seen in figure
6.10a. An additional 15 % is reduced when implementing Flow Control on the Reduced
Displacement concept, see figure 6.10b. Combining a system with both clutches and
flow control has naturally improved the system even more. 90% of the idle losses in a
steering cycle is eliminated when implementing it on the current system.
Figure 6.10: Distribution of inserted energy during a drive cycle using flow control.
51
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
(a) Energy distribution during a drive cycle (b) Pump displacement during a drive cycle
Implementing Mathers pumps decreases the energy consumption of the system, see
figure 6.12a due to their on/off properties. The chosen sizes for the pumps during these
simulations have been; D2 = 30 cc, D3 = 90 cc and D8 = 71 cc. The sum displacement
of those pumps is presented in figure 6.12b. The Mathers concept reduces the energy
with 27%.
(a) Energy distribution during a drive cycle (b) Pump displacement during a drive cycle
52
Chapter 6. Results
Figure 6.13: Dumping piston rod diameter vs. Required system pressure and displace-
ment of pumps.
6.2.7 Accumulators
Accumulator in constant pressure system
Simulations with accumulators where made in co-simulation using Amesim and Simulink.
This was done in order to get a sufficient model for the accumulator. Three different
cases of this concept were evaluated where the pump size and allowed pressure difference
were modified. They are presented in table 6.2. The size of the pump does not affect the
result as much as expected, instead the pressure difference has a more favourable impact.
However the pressure may not be allowed to drop that low in reality. This concept does
add expensive components to the system without increasing efficiency more than what
the Displacement Reduction does, making this an unsuitable concept to realize.
53
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Table 6.2: Results for simulation of the steering system with accumulators and pumps
with clutches. For the inserted energy the current system is used as a reference, repre-
senting 100 %. The waste is presented in % of the inserted energy.
Aiding the auxiliary steering pump with an accumulator has not given an satisfactory
result. The inserted energy is reduced to approximately 90% when replacing the 71 cc
pump with an 10 cc. Implementing a 10 cc pump roughly demands a 42 litre accumulator
with the current setup, seen in figure 5.2b. The alternative setup where the flow demand
is reduced requires about a 22 litre accumulator. Table 6.3 presents more results from
simulations with various sizes on the auxiliary pump. Downsizing the pump to a size of
45 cc reduces the inserted energy to 95.85%, 79.39 % of that part becomes waste. The
degree of improvement is not enough to justify the sizes of accumulators needed, in cost
and volume.
Table 6.3: The current system with different sizes of the auxiliary steering pump. For
the inserted energy the current system is used as a reference, representing 100 %. The
waste is presented in % of the inserted energy.
Pump Energy
size Inserted Waste
cc % %
10 90,43 78,15
18 91,59 78,43
28 93,17 78,79
35 94,21 79,04
45 95,85 79,39
60 98,24 79,89
71 100,00 80,24
54
Chapter 6. Results
Table 6.4: Power savings for different configurations of the fan circuits.
Displacement
Configuration Motor Pump Power Comment
cc cc %
Current 100,00
Separate 11 28 77,09 Two pumps
Separate 10 28 76,73 Two pumps
Parallel 11 45 66,46
Parallel 10 45 63,57
Parallel 10 28 57,98 Can not fulfil flow demand
Parallel 10 35 57,93 Can not fulfil flow demand
Series 11 28 56,96
Series 11 45 74,81
Series 10 45 74,62
Series 10 28 52,33
Series 10 35 58,79
6.3 Economy
When evaluating the cost of different concepts the prices are estimated and set to what
is considered achievable prices for Volvo CE. The prices can be seen in C.1. They have
been normalised with respect to the price of a variable axial piston pump. To clarify
how to read the table look at the membrane accumulator. The cost per litre is 8% of the
55
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
cost for a variable axial piston pump. If buying an accumulator with a volume of 12.5 l
the price would be equal to the price of the pump. For those concepts that are evaluated
with different displacements on the pump the best combination that fulfils all demands
have been chosen to be evaluated in a cost perspective. In table 6.5 the payback time
and cost change is in relation to the current system. All concepts do not give relevant
number on the payback time. If the system cost is lower than that of the current system
and the energy consumption is higher, the number would describe how many hours the
concept can be used before it becomes uneconomic. To avoid confusion these number
are replaced with NA. Another case is the negative payback time. This occurs when the
concept is better than the current system in all aspects, meaning that it is economically
feasible from the first hour of use. Since the Displacement reduction is seen as a simple
solution a table showing the payback time and cost reduction in relation to this concept
is also presented, table C.2.
56
Chapter 6. Results
Table 6.5: Cost for different concepts, where a maximum payback time of 1400 hours
is acceptable. Concepts containing a clutch assume claw coupling unless anything else
is said. Changes are calculated using the current system as a reference. * denotes that
the best possible combination of pump displacement where used to calculate energy
consumption.
57
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
58
Chapter 7
This master thesis concludes that the displacement reduction concept is an obvious
action. Beyond that there is great insecurity whether the cost per percent improvement
can motivate further exploration of the concepts. It is found that the hydraulic system on
the articulated hauler at Volvo CE is dimensioned to manage conditions rarely occurring.
This results in a low efficiency for the majority of time. Although the current system
was found poor it is hard to increase efficiency without increasing cost and complexity.
Noteworthy is that if looking at the total energy consumption of the hauler the
hydraulic stands for 7,17%. Of these 5,75 percentage points are losses that ideally could
be reduced. Knowing these limits and without further knowledge of the transmission
efficiency it might be a good idea to also evaluate what can be done to improve these
components. Another aspect that has to be considered for all concepts is the price
of complexity. Sure some concepts do improve energy efficiency and might have an
acceptable payback time but the system complexity is highly increased. For such a
system there might be necessary to put a price on the complexity as well. This price has
to cover for hidden costs such as development cost, customer support, education of service
technicians. Another downside of the increased complexity, affecting the customer, is
the increased downtime when troubleshooting that will most likely occur.
The two conventional concepts, constant flow and constant pressure, have some un-
certain parameters but it is clear that they can not compare with the efficiency of the
current system. Even if implementing clutches the constant pressure will never be a vi-
able concept to install. The constant flow concept with clutches performs better, but not
as good as the current system with clutches. Despite this it might be an option since it
might be easier to implement clutches on this system than in the LS-system. This is due
to the variable pumps construction. They do in most cases require a speed in order to
uphold the lubrication. If accelerating the pump fast without proper oil film to lubricate
components the pump might be damaged. Another positive aspect of the constant flow
system is the reduced system cost. When implementing clutches several problems might
evolve. If using wet disc clutches there might be losses of the same magnitude as the
idle losses in the pump, resulting in a more complex system with the same efficiency as
of today. Dog clutches have no losses when disengaged but the speed difference between
59
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
the shafts needs to be relatively low. To enable the use of jaw clutches when the speed
difference is higher it might be possible to use a wrap-spring clutch to accelerate the
pump shaft so that the jaw can engage.
The flow control concept does improve the energy efficiency of the system but in-
creases the complexity of the system. The payback time is acceptable according to Volvo
CE requirements however it is arguable whether this rather small improvement can be
motivated anyway.
The digital hydraulic technology is interesting and believed to be a reasonable al-
ternative in the future. However it is not developed enough to be implemented at the
current state. Further test by the producers and inventors are necessary to find out
accurate values on losses in the pumps and the reliability of the components. Volvo
CE should of course follow the development in this area of technology and, if it still
shows the same potential, consider implementing technology when it is found reliable
and economically feasible.
The individual metering is believed to be a good and efficient concept however not
on an articulated hauler. The volumes and forces in play on an hauler was to big to
give realistic system parameters. This concept could be implemented on other machines
such as wheel loaders where energy from the working hydraulics could be recovered or
redirected to another function used at the same time. This concept is the only one that
would potentially require a change of dumping valve if implemented. In which case,
consideration for all existing modes and the over center function must be taken into
account when creating the controller software.
All concepts including accumulators as a large energy storage are non-realistic to
implement due to the price and space that is required for such large accumulators.
The reduced energy consumption is not high enough to motivate that extreme rise in
price and weight added to the hauler. Another aspect against accumulators is that the
hydraulics of the hauler are not used that often and not in a well defined drive cycle.
Implementing accumulator requires dimensioning against a certain case but since the
articulated hauler is a versatile vehicle no such case exists. Therefore the accumulators
will be dimensioned to cover an extreme case, making them inefficient. They are more
suited for operations when several functions are used in sequence. The use of small
accumulators could be motivated to cover for instantaneous flow, pressure change when
engaging or disengaging clutches or to handle pressure spikes. They can also be used to
improve the dynamics of the system.
Looking at the fan circuits the current configuration with one pump for each motor is
luxurious and it could be possible to select displacements to make it more efficient than
today. For this purpose some alternative system configurations have been investigated
in this report. Of these the series connection is the one performing best, however it is
believed that this configuration will have a higher cost since several valves are needed if
only one fan is to be used at the time. Another problem seen in the series configuration
is that the pump pressure will be to high at full fan speed. Therefore the parallel concept
is seen preferable if considering a configuration with only one pump. Changes in the fan
circuits should not have highest priority when implementing new concepts.
60
Chapter 7. Conclusions and Discussion
The time requirements which have to be met, both dumping and steering time, are
successfully completed by most hydraulic systems in the concept chapter. This is the case
if the displacement setting in a simulation does not exceed 1. Both time requirements
are fulfilled at approximately the same pump displacement. Since the dumping cycle
requires the most displacement these two requirements are therefore fulfilled if a concept
successfully completes this cycle.
In the current system one pump has electric displacement control implemented. This
feature is needed to prevent stalling of the diesel engine. When removing the pump with
electronic control the hydraulic power is decreased and the engine will no longer stall due
to too high hydraulic demand. A precise limit for when the engine stalls have not been
calculated in this project but since the required displacement can be fulfilled with the
displacement reduction concept this should not be a problem with any of the concepts.
In some concepts rapid flow changes could occur, these have to be handled in some
way to avoid safety issues. Unpredictable rapid flow changes may also generate oscilla-
tions of the hauler. This can cause discomfort and stress for the driver. If this happens
regularly, it can cause sick leave and high staff turnover. Flow changes that occur at
the wrong time can cause an accident and potentially harm the driver or people in the
vicinity.
One of the core values in Volvo CE is environmental care. Therefore decreasing the
fuel consumption should always be strived for when developing new machines. Most of
the concepts presented in this thesis will reduce fuel consumption and thereof also the
environmental impact caused by Volvo CE machines worldwide.
Further Studies
All concepts generated in this thesis requires further studying and practical testing, some
more than other, before they can be implemented and the results can be correctly vali-
dated. The clutches should be investigated to see if it is possible to connect/disconnect
a pump with such a frequency and at such an axle speed difference needed. Different
strategies on how to engage the clutches also needs to be evaluated. This study should
be done carefully considering it can be critical to the safety of the machine, since rapid
flow changes can easily be caused using clutches. It is believed by the authors that a
wet clutch will have losses equal to the idle losses in the pump and is therefore not a
viable alternative. The most realistic option seen is a jaw coupling together with a valve
making it possible to connect the pump without any torque applied. The valve can be
of different types, some alternatives thought of by the authors are a 3/2-valve, directing
flow to tank. The valve could be either ON/OFF or proportional. An other option
could be a 2/2 valve that opens flow to tank. This is possible under the assumption
that there is a check valve installed preventing flow from the rest of the system to enter
this valve. The control strategies for when to engage a pump and what pump to engage
needs further exploring. The two simple strategies tested in this project did not result
in a clear answer to which is the better. It is believed that this highly depends on the
pump displacements and the rotational speed of the pump.
61
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Pump efficiencies used on simulations originate from data provided by the manufac-
turer. It would be of interest to examine and further evaluate pumps in-house, especially
in conditions typical for a hauler pump, low displacement setting and differential pres-
sure. This data would further improve and raise the credibility of simulations made on
the hauler.
62
Bibliography
[1] Mikael Axin. Fluid Power systems for Mobile Applications - With a Focus on Energy
Effieciency and Dynamic Characteristics. Licentiate thesis, Linköping University,
2013.
[2] Mikael Axin, Björn Eriksson, and Petter Krus. Flow versus pressure control of
pumps in mobile hydraulic systems. In Proceedings of the Institution of mechanical
engineers. Part I, journal of systems and control engineering, volume 228, pages
245–256, April 2014.
[3] Alessandro Dell’Amico, Marcus Carlsson, Erik Norlin, and Magnus Sethson. Inves-
tigation of a digital hydraulic actuation system on an excavator arm. In The 13th
Scandinavian International Conference on Fluid Power, SICFP2013, Linköping
Sweden, pages 505–511. Linköping University Electronic Press; Linköpings univer-
sitet, June 2013.
[4] Björn Eriksson. Mobile Fluid Power Systems Design - with a Focus on Energy
Efficiency. PhD thesis, Linköping University, 2010.
[5] Center for Compact & Efficient Fluid Power. Research overview. Presented for
Volvo CE, May 2014.
[6] Instutitionen för Konstruktions-och Produktionsteknik. Formelsamling i hydraulik
och pneumatik, 1995.
[7] Kim Heybroek. Saving Energy in Construction Machinery using Displacement Con-
trol hydraulics - Concept Realization and Validation. Licentiate thesis, Linköping
University, 2008.
[8] Christopher M. Hodge. Industrial wet clutches, fluid couplings and torque convert-
ers. Technical report, PT Tech.
[9] Hydraulic Piston Accumulators. Hydac.
[10] Erik Gustaf Liljebjörn and Robert Morelius. Energy study of the hydraulic system.
Master’s thesis, Linköping University, 2010.
[11] Erik Gustav Lilljebjörn. Articulated hauler hydraulic hybrid concept study. Internal
Clasified, Volvo CE.
63
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
[13] Olof Olsson and Karl-Erik Rydberg. Kompendium i Hydraulik. Institutionen för
konstruktions- & produktionsteknik, 1993.
[15] Dale Vanderlaan and Ralf Gomm. Velocity control of unbalanced hydraulic actuator
subject to over-center load conditions, Patent EP2318720, 2009.
[16] Luke Wadsley. Optimal system solutions enabled by digital pumps. Technical
report, Sauer-Danfoss (US) Company, 2011.
64
Appendix A
Simulation models
All models made in co-simulation between Amesim and Simulink uses a model similar to
the one seen in figure A.1. The principle behind these will be further described here. The
flow demand from steering have been previously calculated in Matlab. The proportional
2/2-valve is used to achieve the calculated flow in the simulation. The two pressure
sensors are used to calculate opening area of the valve and the flow sensor is used as a
feedback loop in the valve controller seen in figure A.2. The clutch engage/disengagement
is based on the system pressure and simulated using a trigger. The trigger is set to 1
when the pressure drops below a certain level and set to 0 when the maximum pressure
is reached. The gear between the power sensor and the angular velocity sensor models
the PTO gear ratio. In figure A.2 the Simulink controller for the valve can be seen. This
model is based on the flow equation (A.1) and has a feedback from the actual flow in
the Amesim model compensation for the offset error.
r
2
q = Cq A (p1 − p2 ) (A.1)
ρ
65
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Figure A.1: AMESim model of the steering circuit including an accumulator, a pump
and a clutch functionality modelled as trigger with a function of the system pressure as
an input.
66
Appendix A. Simulation models
Figure A.2: Simulink model to calculate the valve opening to achieve the correct flow.
67
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
68
Appendix B
Displacement Variation
The setup when performing test on different pump displacements in a constant flow
system with clutches is described further here. The constant parameters not presented
in table B.1 are the displacement of the auxiliary steering pump and the useful energy.
The displacement of the auxiliary steering pump is 71 cc and the useful energy is 191.9
Wh. The controller is constructed to select the most favourable pump at all time.
The pumps can connect and disconnect instantaneously. These simulations where made
on the steering data so most of the configurations do not have enough displacement
to be able to dump the load. There are two ways of solving this problem. Either
install an additional pump to use only for dumping or change one of the pumps in the
configuration so that the displacement is enough for dumping. Some of the concepts
with enough displacement to dump instead have an excessive displacement increasing
the system cost. These excessive combinations however performed no good in the tests.
69
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Table B.1: Different pump displacement and the corresponding energy consumption in
a constant flow system with clutches. The auxiliary steering pump is engaged only if
needed. The most efficient configuration is 10, 18 and 35 cc. If considering the ability
to dump the best combination is 10, 28 and 92 cc.
70
Appendix B. Displacement Variation
Table B.1: Different pump displacement and the corresponding energy consumption in
a constant flow system with clutches. The auxiliary steering pump is engaged only if
needed. The most efficient configuration is 10, 18 and 35 cc. If considering the ability
to dump the best combination is 10, 28 and 92 cc.
Similar tests where made on the constant pressure system. The best combination
considering the ability to dump would be 10, 28 and 92 cc. As seen in table B.2 the
result from this concept is more energy efficient than the current system but can not
reach the same level as the displacement reduction concept . Therefore this concept will
never be a viable option to use in the Volvo CE articulated haulers.
71
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Table B.2: Constant pressure system with clutches and various displacement combina-
tions. The size of the auxiliary steering pump is 71 cc and it is engaged only when
needed. The best combination considering the possibility to dump is 10, 28 and 92.
72
Appendix B. Displacement Variation
Table B.2: Constant pressure system with clutches and various displacement combina-
tions. The size of the auxiliary steering pump is 71 cc and it is engaged only when
needed. The best combination considering the possibility to dump is 10, 28 and 92.
Looking at the displacement reduction concept table B.4 and B.3 shows the result
for different combinations of pump displacement and two different order of engagement.
73
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Looking at table B.4 it can be seen that in this strategy the energy consumption is
independent of the displacement of the auxiliary steering pump. The two different
strategies regarding the engagement the pumps where simulated in order to see whether
a clutch on the auxiliary steering pump was favourable. No distinct pattern showing
when one or the other alternative is favourable could be found in these simulations.
74
Appendix B. Displacement Variation
Table B.3: Displacement reduction with clutches and various displacement combinations.
The auxiliary steering pump is always engaged. If additional flow is required first D2
and then D3 is connected.
Energy
Auxiliary Pump D2 D3 D8 Inserted Waste
cc cc cc % %
Always engaged 28 60 28 37,97 47,96
Always engaged 28 60 35 38,65 48,89
Always engaged 28 60 45 39,32 49,75
Always engaged 28 60 60 40,88 51,67
Always engaged 28 60 71 42,39 53,40
Always engaged 28 85 28 38,01 48,03
Always engaged 28 85 35 38,69 48,94
Always engaged 28 85 45 39,34 49,78
Always engaged 28 85 60 40,90 51,69
Always engaged 28 85 71 42,39 53,40
Always engaged 28 100 28 38,04 48,07
Always engaged 28 100 35 38,71 48,96
Always engaged 28 100 45 39,35 49,79
Always engaged 28 100 60 40,90 51,69
Always engaged 28 100 71 42,40 53,41
Always engaged 35 85 28 38,10 48,15
Always engaged 35 85 35 38,79 49,07
Always engaged 35 85 45 39,40 49,85
Always engaged 35 85 60 40,92 51,72
Always engaged 35 85 71 42,42 53,43
Always engaged 60 28 28 38,70 48,95
Always engaged 60 28 35 39,32 49,75
Always engaged 60 28 45 39,77 50,33
Always engaged 60 28 60 41,13 51,96
Always engaged 60 28 71 42,57 53,59
Always engaged 60 60 28 38,70 48,95
Always engaged 60 60 35 39,32 49,75
Always engaged 60 60 45 39,77 50,33
Always engaged 60 60 60 41,13 51,96
Always engaged 60 60 71 42,57 53,59
75
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Table B.4: Displacement reduction with clutches and various displacement combinations.
First the most efficient pump of D2 and D3 in selected. If the total flow from D2 and
D3 is insufficient the auxiliary steering pump is engaged to supply an additional flow.
Energy
Auxiliary Pump D2 D3 D8 Inserted Waste
cc cc cc % %
When required 28 60 28 39,41 49,87
When required 28 60 35 39,41 49,87
When required 28 60 45 39,41 49,87
When required 28 60 60 39,41 49,87
When required 28 60 71 39,41 49,87
When required 28 85 28 39,00 49,34
When required 28 85 35 39,00 49,34
When required 28 85 45 39,00 49,34
When required 28 85 60 39,00 49,34
When required 28 85 71 39,00 49,34
When required 28 100 71 38,99 49,33
When required 35 85 71 41,54 52,44
When required 60 60 71 49,50 60,09
76
Appendix C
Table C.1: Price in percent of the estimated cost for a variable axial piston pump
77
Hydraulic Energy Efficiency of Concepts on an Articulated Hauler
Table C.2: Cost for different concepts. Concepts containing a clutch assume claw cou-
pling unless anything else is said. Changes are calculated using the Displacement re-
duction concept as a reference. * denotes that the best possible combination of pump
displacement where used to calculate energy consumption
78