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Introduction 18.1
Discrimination 18.3
Examples 18.12
References 18.13
• 18 • Industrial and Commercial
Power System P rotection
18.1 INTRODUCTION
As industrial and commercial operations processes and
plants have become more complex and extensive (Figure
18.1), the requirement for improved reliability of
electrical power supplies has also increased. The
potential costs of outage time following a failure of the
power supply to a plant have risen dramatically as well.
The introduction of automation techniques into industry
and commerce has naturally led to a demand for the
deployment of more power system automation, to
improve reliability and efficiency.
110kV
NO
HV supply HV supply *
2 A B NC C
1 0.4kV
NO
A NO B 6kV
*
Transformer Transformer
1 2
NO
* NC B
2 out of 3 A C 0.4kV
mechanical or electrical NO
interlock
NO
*
• 18 • NC
C
0.4kV
A NO B
Bus section C - Essential supplies
EDG - Emergency generator
* - Two out of three interlock
Figure 18.2: Typical switchboard
configuration for an industrial plant Figure 18.3: Typical industrial power system
major and minor fuses are HRC devices of proper design 80A
10
and manufacture, this need not endanger personnel or 50A
35A
cables associated with the plant. 25A
16A
1.0 6A
18.4.1 Fuse Characteristics
2A
The time required for melting the fusible element
depends on the magnitude of current. This time is known
as the ‘pre-arcing’ time of the fuse. Vaporisation of the 0.1
element occurs on melting and there is fusion between 0.1 1.0 10 100 500
the vapour and the filling powder leading to rapid arc Prospective current (kA r.m.s. symmetrical)
extinction.
Fuses have a valuable characteristic known as ‘cut-off’, Figure 18.5: Typical fuse cut-off current
characteristics
each other at all current levels. Discrimination is must be selected to withstand the starting current
obtained when the larger (‘major’) fuse remains (possibly up to 8 times full load current), and also carry
unaffected by fault currents that are cleared by the the normal full load current continuously without
smaller (‘minor’) fuse. deterioration. Tables of recommended fuse sizes for both
The fuse operating time can be considered in two parts: ‘direct on line’ and ‘assisted start’ motor applications are
usually given. Examples of protection using fuses are
i. the time taken for fault current to melt the given in Section 18.12.1.
element, known as the ‘pre-arcing time’
ii. the time taken by the arc produced inside the fuse
to extinguish and isolate the circuit, known as the 18.5 INDUSTRIAL CIRCUIT BREAKERS
‘arcing time’ Some parts of an industrial power system are most
The total energy dissipated in a fuse during its operation effectively protected by HRC fuses, but the replacement
consists of ‘pre-arcing energy’ and ‘arc energy’. The of blown fuse links can be particularly inconvenient in
values are usually expressed in terms of I2t, where I is the others. In these locations, circuit breakers are used
current passing through the fuse and t is the time in instead, the requirement being for the breaker to
seconds. Expressing the quantities in this manner interrupt the maximum possible fault current
provides an assessment of the heating effect that the successfully without damage to itself. In addition to
fuse imposes on associated equipment during its fault current interruption, the breaker must quickly
operation under fault conditions. disperse the resulting ionised gas away from the breaker
contacts, to prevent re-striking of the arc, and away from
To obtain positive discrimination between fuses, the total other live parts of equipment to prevent breakdown. The
I2t value of the minor fuse must not exceed the pre- breaker, its cable or busbar connections, and the breaker
arcing I2t value of the major fuse. In practice, this means housing, must all be constructed to withstand the
that the major fuse will have to have a rating mechanical forces resulting from the magnetic fields and
• 18 • significantly higher than that of the minor fuse, and this internal arc gas pressure produced by the highest levels
may give rise to problems of discrimination. Typically, of fault current to be encountered.
the major fuse must have a rating of at least 160% of
The types of circuit breaker most frequently encountered
the minor fuse for discrimination to be obtained.
in industrial system are described in the following
sections.
18.4.3 Protection of Cables by Fuses
PVC cable is allowed to be loaded to its full nominal 18.5.1 Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB’s)
rating only if it has ‘close excess current protection’. This
MCB’s are small circuit breakers, both in physical size but
degree of protection can be given by means of a fuse link
more importantly, in ratings. The basic single pole unit is
having a ‘fusing factor’ not exceeding 1.5, where:
a small, manually closed, electrically or manually opened
Minimum Fusing Current switch housed in a moulded plastic casing. They are
Fusing factor = suitable for use on 230V a.c. single-phase/400V a.c.
Current Rating
three-phase systems and for d.c. auxiliary supply
Cables constructed using other insulating materials (e.g. systems, with current ratings of up to 125A. Contained
paper, XLPE) have no special requirements in this respect. within each unit is a thermal element, in which a bimetal
• 18 • 1000
18.5.5 Vacuum Circuit Breakers (VCB’s)
100 In recent years, this type of circuit breaker, along with
CB’s using SF6, has replaced OCB’s for new installations
10 in industrial/commercial systems at voltages of 3.3kV
and above.
Time (s)
Figure 18.6: Typical tripping characteristics In some countries, circuit breakers using SF6 gas as the
of an ACB arc-quenching medium are preferred to VCB’s as the
A B C
A B C
(i) Ph. - Ph.
(b) 3Ph. 3w (ii) Ph. - E*
* Earth-fault protection
only if earth-fault
A B C
A B C
Earth-fault settings
(e) 3Ph. 3w (i) Ph. - Ph.
may be less than full
(ii) Ph. - E
load
Earth-fault settings
(i) Ph. - Ph. may be less than full
(f) 3Ph. 4w (ii) Ph. - E load, but must be
(iii) Ph. - N greater than largest
Ph. - N load
A B C N
A B C N
protection relays are time-delayed overcurrent and earth deployment of low impedance electronic relays rather
fault relays. Chapter 9 provides details of the application than electromechanical earth fault relays which
of overcurrent relays. presented significant relay circuit impedance. Energising
Traditionally, for three wire systems, overcurrent relays a relay from a core balance type CT generally enables
have often been applied to two phases only for relay more sensitive settings to be obtained without the risk of
element economy. Even with modern multi-element nuisance tripping with residually connected phase CT’s.
relay designs, economy is still a consideration in terms of When this method is applied to a four-wire system, it is
the number of analogue current inputs that have to be essential that both the phase and neutral conductors are
provided. Two overcurrent elements will detect any passed through the core balance CT aperture. For a 3-
interphase fault, so it is conventional to apply two wire system, care must be taken with the arrangement of
elements on the same phases at all relay locations. The the cable sheath, otherwise cable faults involving the
phase CT residual current connections for an earth fault sheath may not result in relay operation (Figure 18.8).
relay element are unaffected by this convention. Figure
Cable gland
18.7 illustrates the possible relay connections and
limitations on settings. Cable box
protection. Placing a CT in the neutral earthing Figure 18.8: CBCT connection for
four-wire system
I >
Supply 1 Supply 2
E
F1
IF/2 IF/2
RE1 RE2
IF IF/2
I >
F2
RF
Supply 1 Supply 2
IF/2 Neutral busbar
Capacitor kvar
dip. With a voltage dip caused by a source system fault,
a group of motors could decelerate to such a degree that
their aggregate re-acceleration currents might keep the
recovery voltage depressed to a level where the machines
might stall. Modern numerical motor protection relays kW V
typically incorporate voltage protection functions, thus ϕ2
removing the need for discrete undervoltage relays for ϕ1 kVA lo
2 a
this purpose (see Chapter 19). Older installations may with co d current
kV mpensa
A tion
still utilise discrete undervoltage relays, but the setting 1 lo
co ad c
criteria remain the same. mp ur
en ren
sa t w
Compensating kvar
Industrial and Commercial Power System Protection
Magnetising kvar
tio
Reverse phase sequence voltage protection should be n itho
ut
applied where it may be dangerous for a motor to be
started with rotation in the opposite direction to that
intended. Incorrect rotation due to reverse phase
sequence might be set up following some error after
power system maintenance or repairs, e.g. to a supply
cable. Older motor control boards might have been fitted
Figure 18.12: Power factor correction principle
with discrete relays to detect this condition. Modern
motor protection relays may incorporate this function. If
The following may be deduced from this vector diagram:
reverse phase sequence is detected, motor starting can be
blocked. If reverse phase sequence voltage protection is kW
Uncorrected power factor =
not provided, the high-set negative phase sequence kVA 1
current protection in the relay would quickly detect the
condition once the starting device is closed – but initial = cos∠ϕ1
reverse rotation of the motor could not be prevented.
kW
Corrected power factor =
kVA 2
18.11 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
= cos∠ϕ2
AND PROTECTION OF CAPACITORS
Reduction in kVA = kVA1 - kVA2
Loads such as induction motors draw significant reactive
power from the supply system, and a poor overall power If the kW load and uncorrected power factors are known,
factor may result. The flow of reactive power increases then the capacitor rating in kvar to achieve a given
the voltage-drops through series reactances such as degree of correction may be calculated from:
transformers and reactors, it uses up some of the current
Capacitor kvar
• 18 • carrying capacity of power system plant and it increases
the resistive losses in the power system. = kW x (tan cos∠ϕ1-tan cos∠ϕ2)
To offset the losses and restrictions in plant capacity A spreadsheet can easily be constructed to calculate the
they incur and to assist with voltage regulation, Utilities required amount of compensation to achieve a desired
usually apply tariff penalties to large industrial or power factor.
commercial customers for running their plant at
excessively low power factor. The customer is thereby
induced to improve the power factor of his system and it 18.11.1 Capacitor Control
may be cost-effective to install fixed or variable power Where the plant load or the plant power factor varies
factor correction equipment to raise or regulate the considerably, it is necessary to control the power factor
plant power factor to an acceptable level. correction, since over-correction will result in excessive
Shunt capacitors are often used to improve power factor. system voltage and unnecessary losses. In a few
The basis for compensation is illustrated in Figure 18.12, industrial systems, capacitors are switched in manually
where ∠ϕ1 represents the uncorrected power factor when required, but automatic controllers are standard
angle and ∠ϕ2 the angle relating to the desired power practice. A controller provides automatic power factor
factor, after correction. correction, by comparing the running power factor with
Metering
11kV
Trip
Lockout
P1
I >> I >>
I> I >
Metering
PFC/V
U> U< Controller
Id>
P2
Capacitor bank
• 18 •
* * *
I>
I> Rating
Rating E 30A
400A each
Rating
A
1000A
Alarm Trip
(a)
I>
Rating
30A
B
F
I> (b) Correct layout and discrimination
of 40kA the fuse will operate in less than 0.01s and the
Auxiliary circuits MCCB operates in approximately 0.014s. Using a fixed
grading margin of 0.4s, the required relay operating time
Figure 18.17: Example of back-up protection becomes 0.4 + 0.014 = 0.414s. With a CT ratio of
2000/1A, a relay current setting of 100%, and a relay
18.12.2 Grading of Fuses/MCCB’s/ Overcurrent Relays TMS setting of 1.0, the extremely inverse curve gives a
relay operating time of 0.2s at a fault current of 40kA.
An example of an application involving a moulded case This is too fast to give adequate discrimination and
circuit breaker, fuse and a protection relay is shown in indicates that the EI curve is too severe for this
Figure 18.18. A 1MVA 3.3kV/400V transformer feeds the application. Turning to the VI relay characteristic, the
LV board via a circuit breaker, which is equipped with a relay operation time is found to be 0.71s at a TMS of 1.0.
MiCOM P141 numerical relay having a setting range of To obtain the required relay operating time of 0.414s:
8-400% of rated current and fed from 2000/1A CT’s.
0.414
TMS setting =
0.71
Fuse
= 0.583
1MVA
2000/1A 10.0
LV board fault
level = 30kA
3300/415V
I>> MCCB
I>
400A
Characteristic for relay
kVA
FLC =
kV x 3
0.01
1000 10,000 100,000
1000
= = 1443 A Operating current (A) to 415V base
0.4 × 3 Original relay characteristic Revised relay characteristic
2500/1 NO
time constant: 20 mins
A2 0.4kV
50kA rms Instantaneous element:
I >>
>> Trip current setting: 2.32kA
I>
Relay B
These are the only settings relevant to the upstream
I >>
> relays.
300/1 Relay A
18.12.3.3 Relay B settings
Motor cable
Relay B settings are derived from consideration of the
M loading and fault levels with the bus-section breaker
160kW between busbars A1 and A2 closed. No information is • 18 •
given about the load split between the two busbars, but
Figure 18.20: Relay grading example it can be assumed in the absence of definitive
for dual-fed switchboard information that each busbar is capable of supplying the
total load of 1.6MVA. With fixed tap transformers, the
The transformer impedance is to IEC standards. The LV
bus voltage may fall to 95% of nominal under these
switchgear and bus bars are fault rated at 50kA rms. To
conditions, leading to a load current of 2430A. The IDMT
simplify the analysis, only the phase-fault LV protection current setting must be greater than this, to avoid relay
is considered. operation on normal load currents and (ideally) with
aggregate starting/re-acceleration currents. If the entire
load on the busbar was motor load, an aggregate starting
18.12.3.1 General considerations
current in excess of 13kA would occur, but a current
Analysis of many substations configured as in Figure setting of this order would be excessively high and lead
18.20 shows that the maximum fault level and feeder to grading problems further upstream. It is unlikely that
load current is obtained with the bus-section circuit the entire load is motor load (though this does occur,
breaker closed and one of the infeeding CB’s open. This especially where a supply voltage of 690V is chosen for
applies so long as the switchboard has a significant motors – an increasingly common practice) or that all
longest operation time of Relay A, and the re- Relay C Relay B settingg
Relay C setting
acceleration conditions. A TMS value of 0.41 is found to
Value Parameter Value Value
provide satisfactory grading, being dictated by the motor Relay
lay A 300A Time const 1200s dinst 0
Relay
lay B I> TMS 0.175 dinst 0.32s
starting/re-acceleration transient. Adjustment of both Relay C I> 2750A TMS 0.25 I>> 15000 tdinst 0.62s
current and TMS settings may be required depending on (a) Relay settings
the exact re-acceleration conditions. Note that lower 1000
current and TMS settings could be used if motor 100
starting/re-acceleration did not need to be considered.
Time (s)
10
The high-set setting needs to be above the full load
1
current and motor starting/re-acceleration transient I> I>>
current, but less than the fault current by a suitable 0.1
margin. A setting of 12.5kA is initially selected. A time 0.01
I> I>>
delay of 0.3s has to used to ensure grading with relay A 100 1000 10000 100000
at high fault current levels; both relays A and B may see Current (A) referred to 0.4kV
(b) Grading curves
a current in excess of 25kA for faults on the cable side of
the CB feeding the 160kW motor. The relay curves are
illustrated in Figure 18.21. Figure 18.22: Final relay grading curves
10
there is probably a Utility infeed to consider, which will
1 involve a further set of relays and another stage of time
0.1 grading, and the fault clearance time at the utility infeed
will almost certainly be excessive. One solution is to
0.01
100 1000 10000 100000 accept a total loss of supply to the 0.4kV bus under
Current (A) referred to 0.4kV conditions of a single infeed and bus section CB closed.
This is achieved by setting relays C such that grading
Figure 18.21: Grading of relays A and B with relay B does not occur at all current levels, or
omitting relay B from the protection scheme. The
argument for this is that network operation policy is to
18.12.3.4 Relays C settings ensure loss of supply to both sections of the switchboard
The setting of the IDMT element of relays C1 and C2 has does not occur for single contingencies. As single infeed
to be suitable for protecting the busbar while grading operation is not normal, a contingency (whether fault or
with relay B. The limiting condition is grading with relay maintenance) has already occurred, so that a further
B, as this gives the longest operation time for relays C. fault causing total loss of supply to the switchboard
18.13 REFERENCES
• 18 •