54
2 Energy and momentum principles

8
M (ft3)
7 400
300
6
200
5

y (ft) 4 100

3 50

FIGURE 2.25 0
Discharge diagrams 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
for constant values of
specific momentum Q (cfs)

can pass a maximum of 145 cfs as seen from Figure 2.25. The depth
corresponding to 145 cfs is 2 ft, and the reader can confirm (by calculating the
Froude number) that at this depth the flow is in critical state. Indeed, we can
state that for a given specific momentum, a channel section passes the maximum
discharge at the critical depth.

2.3.4 HYDRAULIC JUMP

Flow in a channel can change from subcritical state to supercritical and vice versa
due to changes in the channel characteristics or boundary conditions, or the
presence of hydraulic structures. The changes from subcritical to supercritical
state usually occur rather smoothly via the critical depth. However, the change
from supercritical to subcritical state occurs abruptly through a hydraulic jump,
as shown in Figure 2.26. A hydraulic jump is highly turbulent, with complex
internal flow patterns, and it is accompanied by considerable energy loss. In
Figure 2.26, the flow is supercritical at depth yJ1 just before the jump, and it is
subcritical at depth yJ2 just after the jump.

In most open-channel flow problems involving hydraulic jumps, one of the two
depths yJ1 or yJ2 would be known, and we would need to calculate the second one.
Because the energy loss due the hydraulic jump is usually significant and
unknown, we cannot use the energy equation to determine the unknown depth.
However, usually the friction force between sections J1 and J2 is negligible. Also,
if the channel is nearly horizontal, the component of the weight in the flow
direction is negligible. Then, in the absence of any other external forces (other
than pressure forces), the momentum equation, Equation 2.18, can be written for
the situation of Figure 2.26 as
 2   2 
Q Q
þ YCJ1 AJ1 ¼ þ YCJ2 AJ2 ð2:20Þ
gAJ1 gAJ2
 2.3 Applications of momentum principle for steady flow
55

yJ2
Q

Q yJ 1
FIGURE 2.26
Hydraulic jump

y
y
FIGURE 2.27
Hydraulic jump and
specific energy and
momentum diagrams yJ2
(adopted from Mays hLJ
2001 with permission yJ1
John Wiley & Son,
Inc.) EJ2 EJ1 E MJ1 = MJ2 M

if the pressure distribution is hydrostatic at Sections J1 and J2. Recalling the

definition of the specific momentum (Equation 2.19), we can simplify Equation
2.20 as

MJ1 ¼ MJ2 ð2:21Þ

Equation 2.21 is valid for any cross-sectional shape. Once this equation is solved
for the unknown depth, the energy equation can be used to calculate the head
loss due to the hydraulic jump. Figure 2.27 demonstrates the relationship
between the flow depths before and after the jump, the specific momentum, the
specific energy, and the energy loss due to the jump. In the figure, hLJ stands for
the head loss due to the jump. Similar figures were previously presented by
Henderson (1966) and Mays (2001).

For rectangular channels, an explicit solution is available for Equation 2.21.

Further discussion of hydraulic jumps in rectangular channels is given in the
subsequent section.

For most other types, the solution requires either a trial and error procedure or
construction of the momentum diagrams. Figures 2.28, 2.29, and 2.30 provide
pre-determined solutions to the hydraulic jump equation for trapezoidal, circular
and triangular channels, respectively.

Although the use of these charts is quite straightforward, an observation in

Figure 2.29 is worth noting. Unlike the other types of channel sections
considered, a circular section has a closing top. Therefore, it is possible that
the flow will not have a free surface at the downstream side of a hydraulic jump.
In other words, we may have a supercritical open-channel flow before a hydraulic
56
2 Energy and momentum principles

100

50

20

10
myJ2/b 5
/b 0
y J1 0 3.
2 m 2.
5
1.
1 0
1.
0.5
5
0.
3
0.2 0.
1
0.
FIGURE 2.28 0.1
0.02 0.05 0.2 0.5 2 5 20 50
Hydraulic jump 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
chart for trapezoidal
channels (Qm1.5)/(g 0.5b 2.5)

0.9
0.70
0.8 0.60
0.50
0.7
0.40
0.6 Q/(g 0.5d02.5)= 0.30
0.25
0.5
yJ1/d0

0.20
0.4 0.15
0.10
0.3
0.05
0.2

0.1

FIGURE 2.29 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Hydraulic jump chart
for circular channels yJ2/d0

jump and full pipe flow after the jump. Figure 2.29 reflects this possibility. For
instance, for Q=ðg0:5 d2:5
0 Þ ¼ 0:25 and yJ1/d0 ¼ 0.3, we can obtain yJ2/d0 ¼ 0.8 from
the figure. Thus the flow will have a free surface after the hydraulic jump, and the
depth will be equal to 0.8 times the diameter. However, for the same discharge,
if yJ1/d0 ¼ 0.2, an inspection of Figure 2.30 will reveal that yJ2/d0 is off the chart.
We can then conclude that, in this case, the circular channel will flow full
downstream of the jump.

EXAMPLE 2.16 The trapezoidal channel considered in Example 2.15 has a

bottom width of b ¼ 6 ft and side slopes of m ¼ 2 (1V: 2H), and it carries a
 2.3 Applications of momentum principle for steady flow
57

100

50

20

10

(yJ2g0.2)/(Q0.4)
5 m=
1
2

1 2
3
5 4
0.5

0.2
FIGURE 2.30 0.1
Hydraulic jump 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.2 0.5 0.7
chart for triangular 0.01 0.1 1
channels (yJ1g 0.2)/(Q 0.4)

discharge of Q ¼ 290 cfs. A hydraulic jump occurs in this channel. The flow depth
just before the jump is yJ1 ¼ 0.9 ft. Determine the depth after the jump.

We can solve this problem in several ways. The first and the most precise way is
the mathematical approach. We will first calculate the specific momentum, MJ1.
Substituting the expressions given in Table 2.1 for A and AYC for trapezoidal
channels into Equation 2.19,

Q2 y2
MJ1 ¼ þ J1 ð2myJ1 þ 3bÞ
gðb þ myJ1 ÞyJ1 6

ð290Þ2 ð0:9Þ2
MJ1 ¼ þ ½2ð2:0Þð0:9Þ þ 3ð6:0Þ ¼ 375 ft3
32:2½6:0 þ ð2:0Þð0:9Þð0:9Þ 6

Now, because MJ1 ¼ MJ2, we can write

ð290Þ2 ðyJ2 Þ2
375 ¼ þ ½2ð2:0ÞðyJ2 Þ þ 3ð6:0Þ
32:2½6:0 þ ð2:0ÞðyJ2 ÞðyJ2 Þ 6

Solving this equation by trial and error, we obtain, yJ2 ¼ 6.85 ft.

Alternatively, we can solve this problem by first constructing the specific

momentum diagram for the channel for Q ¼ 290 cfs. This specific momentum
diagram has already been calculated and plotted in Figure 2.24. For
y ¼ yJ1 ¼ 0.9 ft, we obtain M ¼ MJ1 ¼ 375 ft3 from the figure. The corresponding
subcritical depth, yJ2, is read directly from the figure as being about 6.85 ft.

We can also use Figure 2.28 to find a quick solution. Let us first evaluate

Qm1:5 ð290Þð2:0Þ1:5
¼ ¼ 1:64
g0:5 b2:5 ð32:2Þ0:5 ð6:0Þ2:5
58
2 Energy and momentum principles

and

myJ1 ð2:0Þð0:9Þ
¼ ¼ 0:3
b 6:0

Then, from Figure 2.28, we obtain (myJ2/b) ¼ 2.3. Thus, yJ2 ¼ (2.3)(6.0)/(2.0) ¼
6.9 ft. This result is close to but slightly different from that of the mathematical
approach due to reading errors. When precision is important, the chart in
Figure 2.28 and the mathematical approach may be used together. The result
obtained from the chart would be the first (and a very good) trial value in the
trial-and-error solution.

2.3.5 SPECIFIC MOMENTUM IN RECTANGULAR CHANNELS

For rectangular channels, we can simplify the momentum equation
(Equation 2.18) by writing it for a unit width of the channel. Noting that
q ¼ Q/b ¼ discharge per unit width, A ¼ by, and YC ¼ y/2 for a rectangular section,
we can divide both sides of Equation 2.18 by b and simplify to obtain
   2 
q2 y2 Ff Fe yD þ yU q y2
þ U   þ
xS0 ¼ þ D ð2:22Þ
gyU 2 b b 2 gyD 2

Likewise, the specific momentum for a rectangular section, Mr, is defined as

 2 
q y2
Mr ¼ þ ð2:23Þ
gy 2

We should note that the specific momentum, Mr, for rectangular channels is
defined per unit width and has a dimension of (length)2. Writing Equation 2.23
for an upstream section U and a downstream Section D, and substituting into
Equation 2.22, we obtain

Ff Fe yD þ yU
MrU   þ
xS0 ¼ MrD ð2:24Þ
b b 2

For rectangular channels, specific momentum diagrams display the variation

of y with Mr for constant q. These diagrams are graphical representations of
Equation 2.23. Figure 2.31 shows the specific momentum diagrams calculated for
various values of q. The procedure used to calculate these diagrams is similar to
that of Example 2.13. However, here, for a constant q, we pick different y values
and calculate the corresponding values of Mr from Equation 2.23. Of course it is
also possible to prepare the discharge diagrams for constant Mr, but such
diagrams are of limited use.

It is important to note that Equations 2.22 and 2.24 can be used only if the width,
b, of the rectangular channel is the same (and therefore q is same) at Sections U
and D. If the channel width varies, these equations cannot be used even if the
channel is rectangular.
 2.3 Applications of momentum principle for steady flow
59

3
y (ft) 2.50

2.26
2
q (cfs/ft) 5

1 10

12

FIGURE 2.31 0
3.44 3.93 4.97 9.12
Specific momentum 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
diagrams for q ¼ 5,
10, and 12 cfs/ft Mr (ft2)

EXAMPLE 2.17 Redo Example 2.12 using the simplified momentum equation
for rectangular channels.

Because the width of the rectangular channel is constant at 10 ft between

Sections 1 and 2, we can use Equation 2.22 in this problem. The friction force
and the component of weight in the flow direction are negligible. Therefore, with
q ¼ Q/b ¼ 120/10 ¼ 12 cfs/ft, we can write Equation 2.22 as
   2 
q2 y21 Fe q y2
þ  ¼ þ 2
gy1 2 b gy2 2

or
! !
ð12Þ2 ð4:0Þ2 Fe ð12Þ2 ð1:0Þ2
þ  ¼ þ
ð32:2Þð4:0Þ 2 ð10:0Þð62:4Þ ð32:2Þð1:0Þ 2

Solving for Fe, we obtain Fe ¼ 2587 lb. This is the force exerted by the spillway on
the flow, and it is in the direction opposing the flow. The force exerted by the
flow on the spillway is equal to this force in magnitude, but it is in the same
direction as the flow direction.

We could also use the specific momentum diagram of the channel (if it has
already been calculated and constructed as in Figure 2.31) to solve this problem.
From the diagram for q ¼ 12 cfs/ft, we obtain Mr1 ¼ 9.12 ft2 for y1 ¼ 4 ft and
Mr2 ¼ 4.97 ft2 for y2 ¼ 1 ft. Neglecting the friction force and the component of the
weight in the flow direction, Equation 2.24 can be written for this case as

Fe
Mr1  ¼ Mr2
b
60
2 Energy and momentum principles

or

Fe
9:12  ¼ 4:97
ð10Þð62:4Þ

Solving for Fe, we obtain Fe ¼ 2590 lb. The result is slightly different due to the
reading errors.

EXAMPLE 2.18 Consider the rectangular channel investigated in Example 2.9.

The channel is nearly horizontal and it carries 60 cfs. The width of the channel
smoothly contracts from 12 ft at Section A to 6 ft at Section B (see Figure 2.16).
The flow depth at A is 2.50 ft, and in Example 2.9 the flow depth at B was
calculated as being 2.26 ft. Determine the force exerted on the flow by the
segment of the channel walls between Sections A and B. Assume the friction
force is negligible.

Because the width of the channel varies, we cannot use Equation 2.22 in this
problem. Instead we will use Equation 2.18. Dropping the terms involving the
friction force and the component of weight of water in the flow direction,
Equation 2.18 can be written for Sections A and B as
   2 
Q2 Fe Q
þ YCA AA  ¼ þ YCB AB
gAA  gAB

or
!
ð60Þ2 2:50 Fe
þ ð12:0Þð2:50Þ 
ð32:2Þð12:0Þð2:50Þ 2 62:4
!
ð60Þ2 2:26
¼ þ ð6:0Þð2:26Þ
ð32:2Þð6:0Þð2:26Þ 2

Solving this equation for Fe, we obtain Fe ¼ 1102 lb. The force is in the direction
opposing the flow.

We could also use the specific momentum diagrams to solve this problem.
Note that, in terms of the specific momentum, the momentum equation for this
case is

Fe
MA  ¼ MB


Recalling that M ¼ bMr, we can write

Fe
bA MrA  ¼ bB MrB


Here bA ¼ 12 ft and bB ¼ 6 ft. Accordingly, qA ¼ 60/12 ¼ 5 cfs/ft and qB ¼ 60/6 ¼

10 cfs/ft. From Figure 2.31, for yA ¼ 2.5 ft and qA ¼ 5 cfs/ft, we obtain MrA ¼ 3.44 ft2.
 2.3 Applications of momentum principle for steady flow
61

Likewise, for yB ¼ 2.26 ft and qB ¼ 10 cfs/ft, we obtain MrB ¼ 3.93 ft2. Substituting
these in the equation above,

Fe
ð12:0Þð3:44Þ  ¼ ð6:0Þð3:93Þ
62:4

This will yield Fe ¼ 1104 lb. Due to the reading errors, this result is slightly
different.

2.3.6 HYDRAULIC JUMP IN RECTANGULAR CHANNELS

As discussed in the preceding section, for rectangular channels the
momentum equation can be written for unit width of the channel
(Equation 2.22). This equation applies to a hydraulic jump occurring in
any rectangular channel. However, if the channel is horizontal (S0 ¼ 0),
the friction force is negligible (Ff ¼ 0), and there is no other external
force acting on the flow other than the pressure forces (Fe ¼ 0), Equation 2.22
reduces to
   2 
q2 y2 q y2
þ J1 ¼ þ J2 ð2:25Þ
gyJ1 2 gyJ2 2

where J1 represents the flow section just upstream of the jump, and J2 represents
the section just downstream. We can manipulate Equation 2.25 mathematically
to obtain
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
yJ1 2 1
yJ2 ¼ 1 þ 8FrJ1 ð2:26Þ
2

and
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
yJ2 2
yJ1 ¼ 1 þ 8FrJ2  1 ð2:27Þ
2

Equation 2.26 is useful to calculate the flow depth just downstream of the jump
if the flow conditions are known upstream. If the conditions are known
downstream of the jump and the flow depth upstream is sought, then we can use
Equation 2.27. We should recall that, in Equations 2.26 and 2.27, Fr stands for the
Froude number, and for rectangular channels it can be calculated by using
Equation 2.2.

Once we determine the flow depths upstream and downstream of the hydraulic
jump, we can use the energy equation to calculate the head loss due to the
jump as
   
q2 q2
hLJ ¼ yJ1 þ  yJ2 þ ð2:28Þ
2gy2J1 2gy2J2
62
2 Energy and momentum principles

10 cfs/ft
5 ft

FIGURE 2.32
Example 2.19 A B D

This equation can be manipulated to obtain

ðyJ2  yJ1 Þ3
hLJ ¼ ð2:29Þ
4yJ1 yJ2

EXAMPLE 2.19 The rectangular channel shown in Figure 2.32 is nearly

horizontal, and it carries q ¼ 10 cfs/ft. The flow depth upstream of the sluice gate
is 5 ft. A hydraulic jump occurs on the downstream side of the sluice gate.
Determine the flow depth at Sections B and D, and the head loss due to the
hydraulic jump.

We first need to calculate the flow depth at Section B. The sluice gate applies a
force on the flow in the direction opposite to the flow. This force is unknown.
Therefore, we can not use the momentum equation to calculate yB given q and yA,
since the equation would include two unknowns: yB and Fe. On the other hand,
we can neglect the energy loss due to the sluice gate and write the energy
equation between Sections A and B as
  " #  
q2 ð10Þ2 q2
yA þ ¼ 5:0 þ ¼ 5:06 ¼ yB þ
2gy2A 2ð32:2Þð5:0Þ2 2gy2B

This equation will yield two positive values for yB; 5.0 ft and 0.59 ft. The former
is a subcritical depth and the latter is a supercritical depth. Since the flow in
Section B is supercritical (otherwise a jump could not occur), yB ¼ 0.59 ft.
Now, we can use Equation 2.26 to calculate the depth at Section D. First, let us
calculate the Froude number at Section B using Equation 2.2 as

10
FrB ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 3:89
ð32:2Þð0:59Þ3
 2.3 Applications of momentum principle for steady flow
63

Then by using Equation 2.26 with Section B in place of J1 and D in place of J2,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 
0:59 2
yD ¼ 1 þ ð8Þð3:89Þ  1 ¼ 2:96 ft
2

Finally, by using Equation 2.29

ð2:96  0:59Þ3
hLJ ¼ ¼ 1:91 ft
ð4Þð0:59Þð2:96Þ

2.3.7 CHOKING AND MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE

We discussed the problem of choking in terms of energy in Section 2.2.5.
Basically, if the flow does not have the minimum required specific energy to pass
a certain discharge through a contracted section, it has to back up to acquire the
required energy. The critical flow condition at the contracted section determines
the minimum required specific energy. This is demonstrated in Example 2.10,
where the flow adjusts itself to a new depth at Section A to acquire the required
energy to pass the discharge through Section B. In this example, we neglect the
energy loss between the two sections.

We can also discuss the problem of choking in terms of momentum. We have

already seen in Section 2.3.2 that a certain specific momentum is required to pass
a specified discharge through a specified channel section. The minimum required
specific momentum corresponds to the critical flow condition. Let us consider a
channel contraction in a rectangular section, as shown in Figure 2.16. Let, for the
given discharge, the critical depth at section B be ycB. Then the minimum
required specific momentum at Section B is
 
Q2
ðMB Þmin ¼ þ YCB AB ð2:30Þ
gAB c

where the subscript c on the right-hand side denotes critical flow. For a
rectangular channel, Equation 2.30 becomes

Q2 bB
ðMB Þmin ¼ þ y2cB ð2:31Þ
gbB ycB 2

Given the discharge and the channel width at Section B, we can easily
evaluate Equation 2.31. However, we need to find the corresponding
minimum required specific momentum at Section A to determine whether
choking occurs. For this purpose, we can use Equation 2.18 with Ff ¼ 0 and S0 ¼ 0
to obtain

Fe
ðMA Þmin  ¼ ðMB Þmin ð2:32Þ