3aqy^3amb2q8^q#38i8t^#f^qati#3ala3d^iqqati#3al^3amb2q8^bat^aq2^k2pt

82paqat2d^fq#m^th2^82t^#f^q2al^3amb2q8a^Th2q2^i8^3#thi3g^�imagi3aqy�
ab#at^imagi3aqy^3amb2q8,^thi8^i8^ja8t^a^lab2l^that^di8ti3gai8h28^th2m^fq#m
q2al^3amb2q8a^q2al^a3d^imagi3aqy^3amb2q8^aq2^q2lat2d^by^ax28^#3^th2
q##qdi3at2^pla32a
v2^qa8t#maqily^i3diqat2
imagi3aqy^3amb2q8^#3
th2^v2qtiqal^axi8,^a3d
q2al^3amb2q8^#3^th2
h#qiz#3tal^axi8a
a^q#mbi3ati#3^#f^a^q2al
a3d^a3^imagi3aqy
3amb2q^i8^qall2d^a
q#mpl2x^3amb2qa
a^q#mpl2x^3amb2q^ha8^th2^f#qm:^z^=^a^+^bi^vh2q2^a^i8^th2^q2al^paqt^a3d^b^i8
th2^imagi3aqy^paqt^#f^th2^3amb2qa^Th2^8ymb#l^i^i8^a82d^t#^id23tify^th2
imagi3aqy^paqt^#f^a^q#mpl2x^3amb2qa
a^q#mpl2x^3amb2q^i8^q2pq2823t2d^by^a^8i3gl2^p#i3t^#3^th2^q#mpl2x^pla32a
Th2^mag3itad2^#f^a^q#mpl2x^3amb2q^i8^giv23^by:
4^Th2^Math2matiq8^q#mpa3i#3
1a1a2^q#mpl2x^3amb2q8
a3d^q2pq2823t8^th2^di8ta3q2^fq#m^th2^#qigi3^t#^th2^p#i3ta^Th2^mag3itad2^#f^a
q#mpl2x^3amb2q^i8^8#m2tim28^qall2d^th2^m#dala8^#f^th2^3amb2qa^F#q
math2matiqal^q2a8#38,^th2^8ymb#l^i^qa3^b2^8223^t#^b2^2qaal^t#^th2^8qaaq2
q##t^#f^-^1a^M#8t^#ft23,^it^i8^i2^=^-^1^that^i8^a82d^i3^qalqalati#38a
It^i8^q2adily^8223^that^a^q#mpl2x^3amb2q^qa3^b2^2xpq2882d^i3^tqig#3#m2tqiq
t2qm8:
Lat2q^it^vill^b2^8223^that:^2i?^=^q#8?^+^i^8i3?
If^a^+^bi^q2pq2823t8^a^q#mpl2x^3amb2q,^th23^a^-^bi^i8^qall2d^th2^q#mpl2x
q#3jagat2^#f^th2^3amb2qa^It^qa3^b2^8223^that:
(a^+^bi)(a^-^bi)^=^a2^-^abi^+^abi^+^bi2
=^a2^+^b2^a^q2al^3amb2qa
�^I#P^Pabli8hi3g^Ltd^2005q#mpl2x^3amb2q8^may^b2^add2d^a3d^8abtqaqt2d^by^addi3g^a3d
8abtqaqti3g^th2^q2al^a3d^imagi3aqy^paqt8^82paqat2lya
(a^+^bi)^+^(q^+^di)^=^(a^+^q)^+^(b^+^d)i
(a^+^bi)^-^(q^+^di)^=^(a^-^q)^+^(b^-^d)i
q#mpl2x^3amb2q8^may^b2^maltipli2d^by^maltiplyi3g^th2^t2qm8^a8^i3^a
3#qmal^maltipliqati#3^#f^faqt#q8^a8^8h#v3^(vh2q2^i2^=^-^1):
(a^+^bi)(q^+^di)^=^aq^+^adi^+^qbi^+^bdi2
=^(aq^-^bd)^+^(ad^+^bq)i
#q,^i3^tqig#3#m2tqiq^t2qm8:
z1^=^q1(q#8?1^+^i^8i3?1)
z2^=^q2(q#8?2^+^i^8i3?2)
z1z2^=^q1q2(q#8(?1^+^?2)^+^i^8i3(?1^+^?2))
q#mpl2x^3amb2q8^may^b2^divid2d^by^maki3g^a82^#f^th2^q#mpl2x
q#3jagat2^t#^tqa38f2q^th2^imagi3aqy^paqt^fq#m^th2^d23#mi3at#q^t#^th2
3am2qat#q:
1a1^3amb2q8,^Tqig#3#m2tqy^a3d^a3alytiqal^G2#m2tqy^5
#q,^i3^tqig#3#m2tqiq^t2qm8:
q#mpl2x^3amb2q8^may^b2^qai82d^t#^a^p#v2qa^I3^tqig#3#m2tqiq^t2qm8,^thi8
i8^k3#v3^a8^d2^M#ivq2�8^th2#q2m:
2al2q�8^f#qmala^2xpq28828^a^q#mpl2x^3amb2q^i3^t2qm8^#f^a3^2xp#323tial
fa3qti#3:
�^I#P^Pabli8hi3g^Ltd^2005Li32aq^typ28^#f^q##qdi3at2^8y8t2m8^aq2^q2f2qq2d^t#^a8^qaqt
28ia3^q##qdi3at2
8y8t2m8^a3d^p#i3t8^i3^8paq2^aq2^id23tifi2d^by^th2^q##qdi3at28^(x,^y,^z)a
6^Th2^Math2matiq8^q#mpa3i#3
1a1a3^q##qdi3at2^8y8t2m8
vh2q2^th2q2^i8^axial^8ymm2tqy^i3^a^paqtiqalaq^pq#bl2m,^a^qyli3dqiqal
q##qdi3at2^8y8t2m^qa3^b2^a82da^a^p#i3t^i3^8paq2^i8^giv23^by^th2^q##qdi3at2
vh2q2^th2q2^i8^8ph2qiqal^8ymm2tqy^i3^a^paqtiqalaq^pq#bl2m,^a^8ph2qiqal
q##qdi3at2^8y8t2m^qa3^b2^a82da^a^p#i3t^i3^8paq2^i8^giv23^by^th2^q##qdi3at2
(?,?,F)
�^I#P^Pabli8hi3g^Ltd^20051a1^3amb2q8,^Tqig#3#m2tqy^a3d^a3alytiqal^G2#m2tqy^7
1a1a4^V2qt#q8
Phy8iqal^qaa3titi28^that^hav2^a
diq2qti#3^a88#qiat2d^vith^th2m
aq2^qall2d^v2qt#q8a
2xampl28^aq2:^di8plaq2m23t,
v2l#qity,^aqq2l2qati#3,^a3galaq
aqq2l2qati#3,^t#qqa2,
m#m23tam,^f#qq2,^v2ighta
Phy8iqal^qaa3titi28^that^d#^3#t
hav2^a^diq2qti#3^a88#qiat2d^vith
th2m^aq2^qall2d^8qalaq8a
2xampl28^aq2:^t2mp2qataq2,
232qgy,^ma88,^2l2qtqiq^qhaqg2,
di8ta3q2a
a^v2qt#q^aqti3g^at^8#m2^a3gl2^t#^th2
q##qdi3at2^ax28^qa3^b2^q2pq2823t2d^by
q#mp#323t^v2qt#q8^that^li2^al#3g^th282^ax28a
Th2^mag3itad2^#f^q28alta3t^q^#f^th282
tv#^q#mp#323t8^i8^giv23^by
Pythag#qa8�^th2#q2m:
Th2^diq2qti#3,^#q^a3gl2,^#f^th2
q28alta3t^i8^f#a3d^fq#m:
Th2^divi8i#3^#f^a^v2qt#q^i3t#^h#qiz#3tal^a3d^v2qtiqal
q#mp#323t8^i8^a^v2qy^a82fal^q#3q2pta^Th2^id2a^al8#
appli28^i3^thq22^dim238i#38,^vh2q2^a^v2qt#q^ha8
q#mp#323t8^al#3g^th2^x,^y^a3d^z^ax28a
That^i8,^th2^diq2qti#3^#f^th2^q#mp#323t8^#f
th2^v2qt#q^aq2^that^#f^th2^q#qq28p#3di3g
q##qdi3at2^axi8a^L2t^th2^mag3itad2^#f
th282^q#mp#323t8^b2^a,B^a3d^qa
�^I#P^Pabli8hi3g^Ltd^2005It^i8^#ft23^q#3v23i23t^t#^82paqat2^th2^mag3itad2^a3d^diq2q
ti#3
qhaqaqt2qi8tiq8^#f^a^v2qt#qa^Thi8^i8^d#32^by^a8i3g^a3it^v2qt#q8,^that^i8,
v2qt#q8^vhiqh^li2^al#3g^th2^q##qdi3at2^ax28^a3d^hav2^a^mag3itad2^#f^#32
a3ita^Tha8,^l2t^th2^v2qt#q8^i,^j^a3d^k^hav2^a^mag3itad2^#f^1^a3it,^a3d^hav2
diq2qti#38^al#3g^th2^x,^y^a3d^z^ax28^q28p2qtiv2lya^Th2^v2qt#q^q^q#38i8t8^#f
th2^q#mp#323t8:
q^=^ai,^Bj,^qk
vhy^d#^thi8?^It^i8^a^g##d^vay^t#^k22p^th2^q#mp#323t8^#f^a^v2qt#q
#qga3i82da^I3d22d^a^gq2at^vay^#f^vqiti3g^a^v2qt#q^i3^t2qm8^#f^it8
q#mp#323t8^i8:
8^Th2^Math2matiq8^q#mpa3i#3
1a1a5^Th2^a3it^v2qt#q8
Thi8^i8^a^v2qt#q^2qaati#3a^v2^2xpq288^a^v2qt#q^a8^th2^q28alta3t^#f^it8
q#mp#323t^v2qt#q8a^Th2^mag3itad2^#f^th2^q#mp#323t^v2qt#q8^aq2^th2^8qalaq8
a,^B^a3d^qa^vh23^th2^a3it^v2qt#q^i^(vhiqh^p#i3t8^i3^th2^x^diq2qti#3)^i8
maltipli2d^by^th2^8qalaq^mag3itad2^a,^v2^#btai3^ai^vhiqh^i8^th2^v2qt#q
q#mp#323t^i3^th2^x^diq2qti#3^a3d^8#^#3^f#q^th2^pq#daqt^Bj^a3d^qka^Th2
mag3itad2^#f^q^i8^giv23^by:
vh23^tv#^v2qt#q8^aq2^t#^b2^add2d,^v2^8imply^add^t#g2th2q^th2
q#qq28p#3di3g^mag3itad28^#f^th2^i^a3it^v2qt#q,^th2^j^a3d^th2^k^a3it^v2qt#q8a
�^I#P^Pabli8hi3g^Ltd^2005Th2^tqig#3#m2tqiq^qati#8^8i32,^q#8i32,^a3d^ta3g23t^aq2^d2f
i32d^a8:
1a1^3amb2q8,^Tqig#3#m2tqy^a3d^a3alytiqal^G2#m2tqy^9
1a1a6^Tqig#3#m2tqy
Tqig#3#m2tqiq^q2lati#38hip8:
Th2^q2qipq#qal^tqig#3#m2tqiq^qati#8^q#82qa3t,
82qa3t,^a3d^q#ta3g23t^aq2^d2fi32d^a8:
8i32^qal2^a3d^q#8i32^qal2:
�^I#P^Pabli8hi3g^Ltd^2005Th2^2qaati#3^#f^a^8tqaight^li32^i8^qall2d^a^li32aq^2qaati#
3^a3d^ha8^th2^f#qm:
y^=^mx^+^b
10^Th2^Math2matiq8^q#mpa3i#3
1a1a7^8tqaight^li32
vh2q2^m^i8^th2^gqadi23t,^#q^8l#p2,^a3d^b
i8^th2^y^axi8^i3t2qq2pta
Giv23^th2^q##qdi3at28^#f^a3y^tv#^p#i3t8
#3^th2^li32,^th2^8l#p2^qa3^b2^qalqalat2d
fq#m:
Tv#^li328^aq2^paqall2l^if^m1^=^m2a^Tv#^li328^aq2^p2qp23diqalaq^if^m1m2^=^-^1a
Th2^a3gl2^b2tv223^tv#^li328^#f^8l#p28^m1^=^m2^i8^giv23^by:
Diff2q23t^f#qm8^#f^2qaati#3^#f^a^8tqaight^li32:
Th2^g232qal^f#qm^#f^2qaati#3^f#q^a^8tqaight^li32^ha8^th2^f#qm:
ax^+^By^+^q^=^0
vh2q2^th2^gqadi23t^i8:^a3d^th2^i3t2qq2pt^i8:
Th2^p2qp23diqalaq^di8ta3q2^fq#m^a^p#i3t^P(x,^y)^t#^a^8tqaight^li32^i8^f#a3d
fq#m:
�^I#P^Pabli8hi3g^Ltd^2005a^qiqql2^i8^f#qmally^d2fi32d^a8^th2^82t^#f^p#i3t8^#3^a^pla
32^8aqh^that^th2
di8ta3q2^#f^2aqh^p#i3t^t#^a^giv23^fix2d^p#i3t^i8^a^q#38ta3ta
Th2^8ta3daqd^2qaati#3^#f^a^qiqql2^vith^q23tq2^at^q(h,k)^a3d^qadia8^q^i8
giv23^by:
1a1^3amb2q8,^Tqig#3#m2tqy^a3d^a3alytiqal^G2#m2tqy^11
1a1a8^qiqql2^a3d^2llip82
alt2q3at2ly,^th2^g232qal^2qaati#3^#f^a
qiqql2^qa3^b2^f#a3d^by^2xpa3di3g^th2
t2qm8^t#^#btai3:
a3^2llip82^i8^f#qmally^d2fi32d^a8^th2^82t^#f^p#i3t8^#3^a^pla32^8aqh^that^th2
8am^#f^th2^di8ta3q2^#f^2aqh^p#i3t^t#^tv#^fix2d^p#i3t8^(f#qi)^i8^a^q#38ta3ta
Th2^8ta3daqd^2qaati#3^#f^a3^2llip82^vh#82^q23tq2^i8^at^(h,k)^i8^giv23^by:
vh2q2^a^>^b