Air Only Data

1 INTRODUCTION

Although few reliable or universal models currently exist for predicting the pres-
sure drop for gas-solid flows in pipelines, models for the single phase flow of a
gas are well established. Once again, although discussion will generally be in
terms of air, the models presented will work equally well with the appropriate
value of the specific gas constant for the particular gas being considered. Empty
conveying pipeline pressure drop values, for air only, will provide a useful datum
for both the potential capability of a system for conveying material and the condi-
tion of the pipeline. Air only pressure drop values for the conveying pipeline also
provide a basis for some first approximation design methods for the conveying of
materials.
Air supply and venting pipelines can be of a considerable length with some
systems, whether for positive pressure or vacuum systems, particularly if the air
mover or the filtration plant is remote from the conveying system. In these cases it
is important that the air only pressure drop values in these pipeline sections are
evaluated, rather than just being ignored, for they could represent a large propor-
tion of the available pressure drop if they are not sized correctly. Air flow control
is also important, particularly if plant air is used for a conveying system, or if the
air supply to a system needs to be proportioned between that delivered to a blow
tank and that directed to the pipeline, for example.

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180 Chapters

2 PIPELINE PRESSURE DROP

The pressure drop in the empty pipeline is a major consideration in the design of a
pneumatic conveying system. If a positive displacement blower is used in combi-
nation with a long distance, small bore pipeline, for the suspension flow of a mate-
rial, for example, it is quite possible that the entire pressure drop would be utilized
in blowing the air through the pipeline and that no material would be conveyed.
The pressure drop for air only in a pipeline is significantly influenced by the air
velocity that is required for the conveying of the material. Bends and other pipe-
line features also need to be taken into account.
The value of the empty line pressure drop for any pipeline will provide a
useful indicator of the condition of the pipeline. If a pressure gauge is situated in
the air supply or extraction line, between the air mover and the material conveying
pipeline, this will give an indication of the conveying line pressure drop. With an
empty pipeline it will indicate the air only pressure drop. If this value is higher
than expected it may be due to the fact that the line has not been purged clear of
material. It may also be due to material build-up on the pipe walls or a partial
blockage somewhere in the pipeline.

2.1 Flow Parameters and Properties

In order to be able to evaluate the pressure drop for the air flow in the empty pipe-
line, various properties of the air and of the pipeline need to be determined.
Mathematical models and empirical relationships are now well established for this
single phase flow situation, and so conveying line pressure drops can be evaluated
with a reasonable degree of accuracy.

2.1.1 Conveying A ir Velocity

This is one of the most important parameters in pneumatic conveying, as discussed
earlier, with the air velocity at the material feed point being particularly important.
If the conveying air velocity is not specified, therefore, it will usually have to be
evaluated from the volumetric flow rate, pipeline bore, and the conveying line
pressure and temperature, as outlined in the previous chapter.

2.7.2 Air Density

The density, p, of air, or any other gas, is given simply by the mass of the gas di-
vided by the volume it occupies:

m „
p = — lb/ft3
V
where m = mass of gas - Ib
and V = volume occupied - ft3

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 Air Only Data 181

The Ideal Gas Law, presented earlier in Equation 5.4, applies equally to a
constant mass of a gas, as to a constant mass flow rate of a gas, and so:

m 144 p
P = ib/fr (1)
V RT

where R = characteristic gas constant - ft Ibf/lb R

P
kg/rri (1SI)
RT

Gas constants for a number of gases were presented earlier in Table 5.1.

A particular reference value is that of the density of air at free air conditions:

For air R = 53-3 ft Ibf/lb R and so at free air conditions of

p,, = 14-7 lbf/in 2
and T0= 519 R
its density p = 0-0765 lb/ft3

It will be seen from Equation 1 that air density is a function of both pressure
and temperature, with density increasing with increase in pressure and decreasing
with increase in temperature. The influence of pressure and temperature on the
density of air is given in Figure 6.1 by way of illustration.
0

-10 -5 0 5 10 20 40
Air Pressure - Ibf7in2 gauge

Figure 6.1 The influence of pressure and temperature on air density.

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182 Chapter 6

0-044 __

0-042

>
Ui

< 0-040 .-

475 500 525 550

Air Temperature - R

Figure 6.2 The influence of temperature on the viscosity of air.

2.7.3 Air Viscosity

The viscosity, ft, of gases can usually be obtained from standard thermodynamic
and transport properties tables. In general the influence of pressure on viscosity
can be neglected. The influence of temperature on the viscosity of air is given in
Figure 6.2 [1].

2.1.4 Friction Factor

The friction factor,/ for a pipeline is a function of the Reynolds number, Re, for
the flow and the pipe wall roughness, e.

Note:
Reynolds number

5 p Cd
Re =

where p = density of air - lb/ft3

C = velocity of air - ft/min
d = pipeline bore - in
and fj = viscosity of air - lb/ft h

Alternatively, by substituting p from Equation 1 and C from a combination

of Equation 5.4 into Equation 5.3 gives an alternative form:

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Air Only Data 183

2880 m..
Re =
n d JLI

where rha = air mass flow rate - Ib/min

Note:
The substitution of the volumetric flow rate, V , from Equation 5.4 into
Equation 5.3 gives:

4 ma R T
C = — ft/min (2)
n d p

This provides a useful alternative expression for the evaluation of conveying

air velocity.
Typical values of wall roughness, 8, are given in Table 6.1 [2] and values of
friction coefficient can be obtained from a Moody chart, a copy of which is given
in Figure 6.3. It should be noted that Figure 6.3 is a UK version of the Moody dia-
gram and gives values of friction coefficient that are one quarter the value of those
on an equivalent US version of the diagram. This difference is explained, and
compensated for, in the next equation to be presented.
It will be seen from Figure 6.3 that an accurate value of a surface roughness
is clearly not critical, for a 100% error in relative roughness will only result in a
10% error in friction coefficient.

Table 6.1 Typical Values of Pipe Wall Roughness

Pipe Material Surface Roughness - S

(new) in

Glass 'smooth'
Drawn tubing 0-000,05
Commercial steel and wrought iron pipes 0-002
Asphalted cast iron 0-005
Galvanized iron 0-006
Cast iron 0-0!
Concrete 0-01 - 0-1
Riveted steel 0-05 - 0-5

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184 Chapter 6

0-02

Relative
Roughness

0-01

s
I0-006
c
o

0-003
Smooth
0-002 Pipes
000,01

0-001
10J 10" 10"

Reynolds Number - Re

Figure 6.3 Friction coefficients for flow in circular pipes.

2.2 Pressure Drop Relationships

The pressure drop for straight pipeline, regardless of orientation, is derived in
terms of the pipeline friction coefficient. The pressure drop for bends and other
pipeline fittings and features is obtained in terms of a loss coefficient. For the total
pipeline system the two are added together.

2.2.7 Straight Pipeline

The pressure drop, Ap, for a fluid flowing in a straight pipeline can be determined
from Darcy's Equation:

4/1 pC 2
Ap = x (3a)
d
This is the UK version of Darcy's Equation, which is in terms of d/4. This is
derived in terms of a hydraulic mean diameter, to allow application to non circular
pipes and open channels. Hydraulic diameter is the ratio of the flow section area to
the wetted perimeter, which for a circular pipeline running full is equal to d/4. This
is the reason for the value of the pipeline friction coefficients on Figure 6.3 being
four times lower than those on similar US charts.

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Air Only Data 185

If the pressure drop, Ap, is to have units of lbf/in 2 , and the other parameters
in the equation are as follows:

/ = friction coefficient --
L = pipeline length - ft
d = pipeline bore - in
p = density - lb/ft3
C = velocity - ft/min
and gc = gravitational constant - ft Ib/lbf s2
= 32-2 ftlb/lbfs2

then Darcy's Equation will appear as follows:

fL p C2
lbf/in (3b)
01 Ann dA gc
21,600 .....

For a compressible fluid such as air, the equation in this form is rather in-
convenient, particularly if there is a large pressure drop, for average values of both
density and velocity need to be specified, as they are both very pressure depend-
ent. Both density and velocity, however, can be expressed in terms of constants
and air pressure, which means that the expression can be easily integrated.
From Equation 1 :

144 p
P ^ -

and from Equation 2:

4 ma R T
C = -j - ft/min
n d p

Substituting these into Equation 3 and expressing in differential form gives:

frhl RT
p dp
i *
= r\ -
T-J r 2 /5
r—-- dL - ..... ^
(4)/

9-375 n d gc.

Integrating gives:

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 186 Chapter 6

0-213 f Lm] R T
Pi - P2 (5)

where subscripts , and 2 refer to pipeline inlet and exit conditions

This can be used to obtain the air only pressure drop for any straight pipeline
since:
Ap = p} - p2

and noting that:

if T = p] - p\
0-5

then Apa = pl - |^f - F

/ \fl.s
and Apa = ( p 2 + F

For a positive pressure system p2 will be specified (usually atmospheric

pressure) and so a more useful form of Equation 5, which eliminates the unknown
Pi\s:
xO-5
0-213 f Lm] R T
-p2 lbf/in 2 (6)

Similarly for a negative pressure system pt will be specified (usually atmos-

pheric) and so an alternative form of Equation 5, which eliminates the unknown p2
is:

0-213 RT
P^ lbf/in' (7)

2.2.1.1 The Influence of Air Flow Rate

The velocity of the conveying air will be approximately proportional to the air
flow rate, whether on a mass or volumetric flow rate basis. From Equation 3 it will
be seen that pressure drop is proportional to the square of the velocity, and so air
flow rate will have a very significant effect on conveying line pressure drop. The
influence of velocity is considered in conjunction with pipeline length and bore
below.

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 Air Only Data 187

| 4
JD

3
§•

1 2
CO
CO

£ 1
ol- Conveying Line Exit Air Velocity - ft/min
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
. ' i ' •• '. ' i •—t S—*- ,-1 —r-
o 20 40 60 80 100
Air Mass Flow Rate - Ib/min

Figure 6.4 The influence of pipeline length and air flow rate on the empty pipeline
pressure drop.

2.2.1.2 The Influence of Pipeline Length

From Equation 3 it will be seen that pressure drop is directly proportional to pipe-
line length. Typical values of pressure drop for a 6 in bore pipeline are given in
Figure 6.4. This is a plot of conveying line pressure drop for the air against the air
mass flow rate. Pipeline lengths of 500, 1000 and 1500 ft have been considered.
Conveying line exit air velocity values are also given on the air flow rate
axis of Figure 6.4. This clearly shows the adverse effect of velocity, and hence air
flow rate, on pressure drop. It also shows that if a material has to be conveyed over
a long distance, the proportion of the total system pressure drop due to the air only
in the pipeline could be very significant.

2.2.1.3 The Influence of Pipeline Bore

From Equation 3 it will also be seen that pressure drop is inversely proportional to
pipeline bore. Typical values of conveying line pressure drop for a 500 ft long
pipeline are given in Figure 6.5. This is a similar plot to that of Figure 6.4. The air
mass flow rate axis is proportional to pipe section area, hence the (d/3)2 term, and
so conveying line exit air velocities are constant in each case.
It can be clearly seen from this plot that the air only pressure drop reduces
with increase in pipeline bore. If an air mover with a pressure limitation, such as a
positive displacement blower, has to be used to convey a material over a long dis-
tance, therefore, it should be possible to achieve reasonably high flow rates with a
large bore pipeline.

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188 Chapter 6

5 i_

I 3

22
Q

Conveying Line Exit Air Velocity - ft/min

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

-4-
5 10 15 20 25
2
Air Mass Flow Rate - Ib/min x (d/3)

Figure 6.5 The influence of pipeline bore on the empty pipeline pressure drop.

2.2.2 Bends
The pressure drop for bends in a pipeline can be expressed in terms of the 'veloc-
ity head':
pC-.2
Ap = k x (8a)
2 gc
where k = the number of velocity heads lost for the
particular bend geometry and configuration

If the pressure drop, Ap, is to have units of lbf/in 2 , the other parameters will
be as follows:
k = constant - dimensionless
p = air density - lb/ft3
C = air velocity -ft/min
gc = gravitational constant - ft Ib/lbf s2
and the bend loss equation will appear as follows:

4? = k lbf/in" (8b)
1,036,800 gc

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 Air Only Data 189

20
Ratio of D/d
Figure 6.6 Head loss for 90 degree radiused bends.

The pressure loss in such a bend will depend upon the ratio of the bend di-
ameter, D, to the pipe bore, d, and the surface roughness. Typical values are given
in Figure 6.6 [3]. Data for radiused bends, showing the influence of bend angle, is
presented in Figure 6.7.

0-3

0-2 T-

0-1 -

0
0 30 90
Angle

Figure 6.7 Head loss for radiused bends.

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190 Chapter 6

1-2

1-0

0-8
o
u
• 0-6

0-4

0-2

0
30 60
Angle - 0 - degrees

Figure 6.8 Head loss for mitered or sharp angle bends.

From Figure 6.6 it can be seen that very short radius bends will add signifi-
cantly to the empty line pressure drop. Minimum pressure drop occurs with bends
having a D/d ratio of about 12. This is not a critical value, however, for a reasona-
bly low value of head loss will be obtained with a D/d range from about 5 to 40.
A similar plot for sharp angled or mitered bends is given in Figure 6.8 [3].
This shows that the mitered bend will result in the highest value of air only pres-
sure drop for a ninety degree bend, particularly for smooth pipes. In terms of pres-
sure drop, therefore, such bends should be avoided.

2.2.2.1 Equivalent Length

The head loss for straight pipeline, as will be seen from Equation 3a,

4 fL
is given by
d
The equivalent length of straight pipeline, Lc, of a bend, with a head loss of
k, will therefore be:

kd
(9)

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 Air Only Data 191

Taking a typical pipeline friction coefficient, / of 0-005, the equivalent

length of a 6 in bore 90° mitered bend of smooth pipe, for which k= 1-1, will be
about 27-5 ft. If there are a number of such bends in a short pipeline, the bends
will add significantly to the total air only pressure drop value.

2.2.3 Other Pipeline Features

Other pipeline features, such as branches and section changes, are treated in ex-
actly the same way as any of the above pipeline bends, with the use of Equation
8b. In Figures 6.9 to 6.11 similar head loss values are given for various pipeline
fittings.
2.2.3.1 Expansion Fittings
Expansion fittings are required in stepped pipelines, where the diameter of a line is
increased part way along its length in order to reduce the conveying air velocity.
Figure 6.9 shows that the air only pressure drop will be a minimum if a tapered
section is used having an included angle of about six degrees.
Expansion and contraction sections often occur in association with pipeline
feeding systems such as rotary valves and screws. In venturi feeders the expansion
section is an integral part of the design. Where expanded bends are fitted into a
pipeline both expansion and contraction section are required. At the discharge
from a pipeline into a reception vessel the expansion is effectively infinite. Figures
6.9 and 6.10 show the importance of careful design in such devices.

30 60 90 180
Total Angle - 6 - degrees

Figure 6.9 Head loss for enlarging pipeline sections.

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192 Chapter 6

Abrupt Entrance Abrupt exit

k = 0-5 k = 1-0

l/y i /l i 111 I 11 I I /

Gradual Entrance Gradual Exit

k = 0-05 Kk = 0-2
u-z y
II I I I 11II I 111 11 \\ \\\ \ \ \ \ \ V\AA\ \J^

Figure 6.10 Entrance and exit head losses.

The head loss for various diverter sections, fabricated bends and 'dog-leg'
sections, that are often used in air supply and exhaust pipelines, are given in Fig-
ure 6.11. A comparison of the two 'dog-leg' sections shows just how important
careful pipeline design and layout are in minimizing pressure drop.

k = 3-0
k = 040 smooth
0-53 rough

k = 1-0

k = 0-40 smooth
= 0-60 rough

= 0-16 smooth
30"
= 0-30 rough

Figure 6.11 Head loss for various pipe fittings.

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 Air Only Data 193

2.2.4 Total Pipeline

The pressure drop for the total pipeline system is simply given by a summation of
all the component pressure drop values, so that:

^ ^21,600 d l,036,800j gc

where 2k = the sum of the head losses for all the bends
and fittings in the pipeline

Substituting p from Equation 1 and C from Equation 2 gives:

( f L 2 k\ ml R T
{9-375 d tjuy n a' p gc

For convenience the head loss for the pipeline, bends and fittings can be
grouped together using the term y/, such that:

fL Sk
(dimensionless) - - - (11)
9-375 d
Substituting and integrating, as with Equation 4, gives:

2i// m2 R T

' ' pl '-

This can be used to obtain the air only pressure drop in any pipeline situa-
tion.
2.2.4.1 Positive Pressure Systems
For a positive pressure system p2 will be specified, as mentioned earlier in connec-
tion with Equation 6, and so a more useful form of Equation 12 is:
5
m• a2 RD r\
T] °'
I P2 + -r~T4-
" Sc )
- P2 lbf/i 2
" - - (13)

For air R = 53-3 ft Ibf/lb R

and if T = 519 R

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194 Chapter 6

and taking p2 14-7 Ibf/in" (atmospheric pressure)

substituting g, 32-2 ft Ib/lbf s2
and for jf
this gives:

174^ ml
216-1 + 14-7 M/in2 - - (14)

xO-5

1-0 + -1-0 bar (14SI)

x 105

In many cases a value of the conveying line exit air velocity, C2, can be de-
termined, by using Equation 11, for example. A substitution of C? for ma can be
made from Equation 2:

n d2 C2 p2
m,. Ib/min (15)
4 RT

Substituting this into Equation 12 gives:

t~i~> ~>
¥Q p;
Pi ~ Pi gc
(16)
8

from which:

, 0-5

Ap Ibf/in 2 (17)
8 R T2 gc

Thus in a situation where the downstream pressure, p2, is known (commonly

this would be atmospheric pressure in a positive pressure system) and the convey-
ing line exit air velocity can be determined, this expression allows the pressure
drop for the air alone to be estimated quite easily.
Alternatively, if the conveying line inlet air velocity, C/, is known, this can
be used instead. A substitution of C, for ma, from Equation 2, in Equation 12
gives:

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 Air Only Data 195

¥
P\ ~ P\ (18)
R Tt gc
from which:
.0-5
8 R T, gc
Apa = -1 lbf/in 2 - (19)
gc -

Note:
The velocity, Ct, in Equations. 18 and 19, is not the conveying line inlet air
velocity that is specified for gas-solid flows in pneumatic conveying. It is the con-
veying line inlet air velocity that will result when no material is conveyed. C2 in
Equations 16 and 17, of course, is the same whether material is conveyed or not,
since the pressure will always be the same at the end of the pipeline.
2.2.4.2 Negative Pressure Systems
For a negative pressure system, p/, will be specified (usually atmospheric). A re-
arrangement of Equation 18 gives:

0-5

1 - 1- Ibf/in 2 (20)

,0-5

= Pi 1 - N/m 2 - (20si)
R r, gc
Note:
In this case the conveying line inlet air velocity, C/, will be the same
whether the material is conveyed or not, since the pressure, pt, will be atmos-
pheric in both cases. This is similar to Equations 16 and 17 for positive pressure
systems.

2.3 Air Only Pressure Drop Datum

The empty pipeline pressure drop relationships for a pipeline, such as those shown
in Figures 6.4 and 6.5, provide a datum for material conveying characteristics and
capability. At a given value of air flow rate the pressure drop available must be
greater than the air only pressure drop value, otherwise it will not be possible to
convey material.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

196 Chapter 6

At any value of conveying line pressure drop there will be a corresponding

value of air flow rate at which the air only pressure drop will equal the conveying
line pressure drop. This value can be determined from Equation 13 by making
ma the subject of the equation. Such a re-arrangement gives:

m. Ib/min (21)
2 RT

0-5
(PI
kg/s - - (21 si)
16 i/ RT

This is quite a useful relationship, for it allows an estimate to be made of

where the various lines of constant conveying line pressure drop on material con-
veying characteristics will reach the horizontal axis.

For air R = 53-3 ft Ibf/lb R

and if T = 519 R
and with g, = 32-2 ftlb/lbfs 2
0-5

P\ Pi
m,. = 0-0758 Ib/min (22)

2.4 Venturi Analysis

Particular advantages of using venturi feeders for positive pressure conveying
lines are that minimum headroom is required, there are no moving parts and, if the
device is correctly designed, there need be no air leakage from the feeder, as there
is with nearly all other types of feeder. A venturi basically consists of a controlled
reduction in pipeline cross-section in the region where the material is fed from the
supply hopper, as shown in Figure 6.12 and first presented in Figure 2.12.
A consequence of this reduction in flow area is an increase in the entraining
air velocity, and a corresponding decrease in pressure, in this region. With a cor-
rectly designed venturi the pressure at the throat should be just a little lower, or
about the same, as that in the supply hopper which, for the majority of applica-
tions, is atmospheric pressure. This then encourages the material to flow readily
under gravity into the pipeline, and under these conditions there will be no leakage
of air from the feeder in opposition to the material feed.

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 Air Only Data 197

Air and
Material

Inlet (i) Throat (t)

Figure 6.12 Basic type of venturi feeder.

In order to keep the throat at atmospheric pressure, and also of a practical

size that will allow the passage of material to be conveyed, a relatively low limit
has to be imposed on the air supply pressure. These feeders, therefore, are usually
incorporated into systems that are required to convey free-flowing materials at low
flow rates over relatively short distances. Since only low pressures can be used
with the basic type of venturi, a positive displacement blower or a standard indus-
trial fan is all that is needed to provide the air.
To fully understand the limitations of this type of feeder, the thermodynamic
relationships are presented below. The two parameters of interest in venturi feed-
ers are the velocity at the throat and the area, or diameter, of the throat. From the
steady flow energy equation, equating between the inlet (i) and the throat (t) gives:

C2
Cp T, + CpT,+ (23)
2 gc
from which:
0-5

c, = 2 ge cp (T, - T,) + c? (24a)

If the velocities, C, and C,, are to have units of ft/min, and the other parame-
ters in the equation are as follows:

Cp = specific heat - Btu/lb R

T = absolute temperature - R
and gc = gravitational constant - ft Ib/lbf s2

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

198 Chapter 6

= 32-2 ftlb/lbfs2
and noting that 1 Btu = 778 ft Ibf
the equation will appear as follows:

Ct = [l80 Cp(T,-T,)xl06+CfJ5 ft/mm - - (24b)

If an isentropic model of expansion is assumed for the venturi then:

- = I Pt— (25)
T, \ P,
Note that this appeared earlier in Equation 3.3

Substituting Equation 25 into Equation 24b gives:

0-5

6 2
Ct = \\WCpT, x!06+C ft/min - (26)

From the continuity equation:

ma = Pi AjCj = p,A,C, Ib/min (27)

n d2
where A = section area = - in
4
d = diameter - in
and p = density of gas - lb/ft3
P
(1)
RT

Substituting Equation 1 into Equation 27 gives:

x - x - x d in (28)
, P,
Substituting Equation 25 into Equation 28 gives:

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 Air Only Data 199

-i 0-5
\
1
7
C
dt = ' x
X 1 EL d, in (29)
c, 1; P, }

If, for example,

C, = 4000 ft/min
dj = 4 in
Ti = 528 R = 68 °F
p, = 14-7 Ibf/in 2 abs
p, = 3 lbf/in 2 gauge = 17-7 lbf/in 2 abs
note that for air Cp = 0-24 Btu/lb
and y = 1-4
substituting into Equation 48 gives:

,0-5
0-286
14-7
C, = j 180x0 -24x528 x l O 6 +4000 2
17-7

= 34,582 ft/min

and substituting into Equation 29 gives:

-0-714 0-5
4000 14-7
d, = x 4
34,582 17-7
= 1-45 in

Although Venturis capable of feeding materials into conveying pipelines

with operating pressure drops of 6 lbf/in 2 are commercially available, the addi-
tional pressure drop across the venturi can be of the same order. This means that
the air supply pressure will have to be at about 12 lbf/in 2 gauge and consequently,
for this type of duty, it would be recommended that the air should be supplied by a
positive displacement blower.

3 AIR FLOW RATE CONTROL

If the air to be used for conveying is taken from a plant air supply, or some central
source, it will probably be necessary to put a flow restriction into the pipeline. This
will be needed in order to limit the quantity of air drawn to that of the volumetric

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

200 Chapter 6

flow rate actually required. If this is not done an uncontrolled expansion will occur
and very much more air than necessary will be used. It will only be limited by the
volumetric capability of the supply, or by the increased factional resistance of the
flow in the pipeline. The increased air flow rate will almost certainly result in a
decrease in the material flow rate through the pipeline. It will also add signifi-
cantly to problems of erosive wear and particle degradation.
Flow restrictors may also be required in situations where the air supply
needs to be divided, as in blow tank systems. For the control of many types of
blow tank it is necessary to proportion the air supply between the blow tank and
the conveying line. If the total air supply is set, a flow restrictor can be placed in
one or both of the divided lines. This, however, can only be done if the blow tank
is dedicated to a single material conveyed over a fixed distance. For systems han-
dling more than one material, or conveying to a number of hoppers over varying
distances, a variable flow control might be needed. In these cases special control
valves would be required rather than fixed restrictors.
Nozzles and orifice plates are most commonly used for restricting the air
flow in a pipeline. Under certain flow conditions they can also be used to meter
and control the air flow.

3.1 Nozzles
For the single phase flow of fluids through nozzles the theory is well established,
and for a gas such as air it is based on the use of many of the equations already
presented. Nozzles are either of the convergent-divergent type, as shown in Figure
6.13a, or are convergent only, as shown in Figure 6.13b. Both types restrict the
flow by means of a short throat section at a reduced diameter.

2) Direction

(b)

Figure 6.13 Nozzle types, (a) Convergent - divergent nozzle and (b) convergent nozzle
in pipeline.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Air Only Data 201

3.7.7 Flow Analysis

Assuming a steady one-dimensional flow, and equating the steady flow energy
equation between inlet (1) and throat (t) gives:

C2
CpT, = Cp Tt + (23)
2 gc 2 g,

Neglecting the inlet velocity, Ci, and re-arranging gives:

0-5
T,
c, = gcCPTA\ - -±
T,.
(30a)

For consistency in units, constants of 778 and 3600 have to be applied, as

with Equation 24, and this yields:

0-5
T.
Ct = 13,430 CpTAl - ^ ft/min (30b)

Assuming isentropic flow, for which Equation 25 applies, the unknown tem-
perature at the throat, T,, can be expressed in terms of the pressure at the throat, p,.
Such a substitution gives:

C, = 13,430 CpT, ft/min (31)

Also for isentropic flow:

vt = v, x — fr/lb - - (32)
\Pt)
where v = specific volume - ft3/lb

Now, from the Ideal Gas Law (Equation 5.4):

144 Pl v, = R T,

and substituting this into Equation 32 gives:

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

202 Chapter 6

R T}
(33)
144 Pl

From the continuity equation (Equation 27):

A, C, A, C,
lb/min

Substituting C, from Equation 31 and v ( from Equation 33 into this gives:

T
-te) _
y-\

4 x!3,430x- CpT,
m,. lb/min - (34)
RT (pVr
144 p, p,

Re-arranging this gives:

0-5

lb/min - (35)
T;

where d, = nozzle throat diameter - in

3.1.2 Critical Pressure

A peculiarity of the expansion of the flow of a fluid through a nozzle is that as the
downstream pressure, p2, reduces, for a given upstream pressure, ph the pressure
at the throat,/),, will not reduce constantly with downstream pressure. The pressure
at the throat will reduce to a fixed proportion of the inlet pressure, and any further
reduction of the downstream pressure will not result in a lowering of the pressure
at the throat.
Under these conditions the nozzle is said to be 'choked'. When critical flow
conditions exist, the velocity at the throat will be equal to the local sonic velocity.
The air mass flow rate through a nozzle is a maximum under choked flow condi-
tions and no reduction of the downstream pressure, below the critical throat pres-

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Air Only Data 203

sure, will result in any change of the air mass flow rate. It can be shown [eg 4] that
the ratio between the throat pressure and the supply or inlet pressure is given by:

(36)

For air y = 1-4

R = 53-3 ftlbf/lbR
and Cp = 0-24 Btu/lb R
and so

— = 0-528
P\

3.1.3 Nozzle Size and Capability

Substituting the above data for air into Equation 35 gives:

ma = 25-1 — j j - Ib/min (37)

-'i

where p/ = inlet or supply pressure - Ibf/in 2 abs

For the air flow rate in volumetric terms, Equation 5.4 gives:

maRT
V = flrVmin
144 p

For the volumetric flow rate at free air conditions:

0
V0 = 0-1743 x —— x - ftVmin ---- (38)
^1 Pa

and substituting for R and free air conditions gives:

P^ d?
V0 = 328—^ ft-Vmin - ...... (39)

Alternatively, for a given air flow rate:

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

204 Chapter 6

-05 0-5
m,.
dt = 0-2 in (40)

The relationship between d,, pi and both ma and V0 , for air at a tempera-
ture, t,, of 68°F (T, = 528) is given in Figure 6.14.

3.1.4 Nozzle Types

The above analysis applies to either convergent-divergent or to convergent noz-
zles. For convergent nozzles, however, the range of operation is limited to down-
stream pressures that are less than 52-8% of the upstream pressure, that is, below
the critical pressure ratio. With convergent-divergent nozzles this range can be
extended significantly, and for a well made nozzle the downstream pressure can be
as high as 90% of the upstream pressure, with little deviation from the predicted
flow rate.
3.1.4.1 Orifice Plates
These are frequently used for measuring the flow rate of gases through pipelines
but can also be used to choke the flow and so apply a limit to the throughput. The
orifice is generally made from thin plate that is usually fitted into a flanged joint in
the pipeline. It has a sharp edged opening which is concentric with the pipe.

PlOO

I 90 Nozzle
Thrc(at Diameter
80
-inch

70 3
/4

60
i fr/ntjn of Free Air
200 300 400 500 600

20 30 40 50
Air Flow Rate - Ib/min

Figure 6.14 Influence of throat diameter and air supply pressure on choked air flow
rate for nozzles.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

 Air Only Data 205

The above analysis also applies to orifice plates. There is, however, a coeffi-
cient of discharge associated with orifice plates and this has the effect of reducing
the flow rate to about 61 % of the theoretical value. This means that the constants
in Equations 34 to 39 would have to be multiplied by a factor of 0-61 and the con-
stant in Equation 40 would have to be divided by V O - 61 to take account of this
coefficient of discharge. As with the convergent nozzle, the range of operation is
limited to downstream pressures below the critical pressure ratio.

3.1.5 Flow Rale Control

It will be seen from Figure 6.14 that, for a given nozzle, the air flow rate can be
varied over a wide range simply by varying the air supply pressure. In a pipeline
from a service supply, a diaphragm valve could be positioned upstream of the flow
restrictor, and this could be used to vary the inlet pressure and hence the air flow
rate. Provided that critical flow conditions exist, only the inlet air pressure and
temperature, and the throat diameter, are needed to evaluate the air flow rate, as
will be seen from Equation 37.
It will be noticed that, apart from including a representative coefficient of
contraction for orifices, no other coefficients have been included in the analysis to
allow for friction and other irreversibilities in the flow. For most pneumatic con-
veying applications it will not be necessary, as these losses are generally quite
small. If these devices are to be used for flow measurement purposes, however,
with a need for a high degree of accuracy, either the loss factors will have to be
taken into account or the device will have to be calibrated.

NOMENCLATURE SI

A Pipe section area in2 m2

C Velocity ft/min m/s
Cp Specific heat at
constant pressure Btu/lb R kJ/kg K
Cv Specific heat at
constant volume Btu/lb R kJ/kg K
d Pipe bore in m
/ Friction coefficient
g Gravitational acceleration ft/s2 m/s2
= 32-2 2
ft/s = 9-81 m/s2
gc Gravitational constant ftlb/lbfs 2 kgm/Ns 2
= 32-2 ftlb/lbfs2 = 1-0 kgm/Ns 2
k Bend loss coefficient
L Pipeline length ft m
m Mass Ib kg
m Mass flow rate Ib/min kg/s

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

206 Chapter 6

p Pressure lbf/in 2 N/m 2 , kN/m2, bar

(1 bar= 100 kN/m2)
R Characteristic gas constant Btu/lb R kJ/kg K
/ Actual temperature °F °C
T Absolute temperature R K
= t + 460 = t H 273
V Volume ft3 m3
V Volumetric flow rate ftYmin m3/s
Greek
y Ratio of specific heats
= Cp/Cv (adiabatic index)
8 Pipe wall roughness in m
// Viscosity Ib/ft h kg/m s
v Specific volume ftVlb nv/kg
= \lp
p Density Ib/ft3 kg/m j
if/ Total pipeline head
loss coefficient

Subscripts
a Air
c Constant
e Equivalent value - usually length
i Inlet conditions
t Throat conditions
o Reference conditions (free air)
2
Po = 14-7 lbf/in abs = 101-3 kN/m2 abs
Tn = 519 R = 288 K
1,2 Actual conditions - usually inlet and outlet

Superscripts
Per unit of time ie /min
Repeating value, eg 1/3 = 0-3

Prefixes
A Difference in value
E Sum total

Non-Dimensional Groups
5 p Cd p Cd
Re Reynolds Number

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Air Only Data 207

REFERENCES

1. Y.R. Mayhew and G.F.C. Rogers. Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids.
Basil Blackwell. 1968.
2. J.M. Gasiorek and W.G. Carter. Mechanics of Fluids for Mechanical Engineers.
Blackie and Son. 1967.
3. J.R.D. Francis. Fluid Mechanics for F^ngineering Students - 4th Ed. Edward Arnold.
1975.
4. V.M. Faires. Applied Thermodynamics - 3rd Ed. MacMillan. 1957.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.