Lte Atoll

Long Term Evolution
Part 5: Radio Link Budget
J. Hämäläinen, 2016
Department of Communications and Networking
Contents
1 Principles of RLB
2 LTE downlink RLB
3 Some details on RLB
a) eNodeB powers and antennas
b) Path loss and shadowing margin
c) Interference, SINR and data rate
4 DL Link Budget Examples
5 LTE Uplink Radio Link Budget
Network planning consists of 3 phases:
- Dimensioning, detailed planning and optimization
Network Planning
Our focus area Dimensioning Note: We omit core network
150
140
130
EIRP 58dB
Path Loss [dB]
120
110
+ Margins 23dB
Sensitivity -100dB
1000 x 5000 x
100
90
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Allowed PL 135 dB
Distance from BS [km]
Area and propagation information Radio Link budget # Network elements
Detailed planning
TX power 43dBi
Antennas 2
Input from Antenna tilt 5o
dimensioning Parameter x, y, z
Network planning tools BS + RS Configurations and

System simulations topology plan
Optimization
+
Operating network
(drive tests, monitoring) Optimized system
1. Principles of RLB
Background
• Radio Link Budget (RLB) is a basic tool in radio engineering. It is used to

compute estimates for e.g.
– Received power in terminal/eNodeB Can be used to estimate
user rates
– Allowed propagation loss
– Connection range between transmitter and receiver
• RLB take into account the gains and losses from the transmitter, the
communication medium (wireless channel in our case) and the receiver.
• Typical parameters are related to the propagation model (radio
environment), antennas (antenna directivity/gains), feedlines (cable
attenuation) and the receiver properties (product specific sensitivity, noise
figure)
Example: RLB in LTE cell coverage
estimation
User on the distance where
minimum required rate can be
provided – assuming a certain
LTE eNodeB load.
with 3-sector
transmission
Example: We require that user

should reach 1Mbit/s data rate when
10% of the cell resources are
allocated for him/her.
Question: How far from eNodeB
user can be? This distance gives cell
range under above constraint
Simplified RLB
EIRP = Effective Isotropic Radiated Power,
contains transmitted power and antenna gain
BS Transmitter BS to MS
Transmitter Total transmission power 43 dBm (20 W)
characteristics Transmitter antenna gain 15 dBi
EIRP 58 dBm
Margins
Shadow fading margin 7 dB
Channel
characteristics Interference margin 4 dB
Penetration loss 10 dB
Total Margin 21 dB
Receiver UE Receiver (Max coverage)
characteristics Receiver sensitivity -100.7 dBm
System gain 158.7 dB
Number that is
used to estimate Allowed Propagation Loss 137.7 dB
the cell range
Simplified RLB: Terminology
• dBi = dB(isotropic). It is the forward gain of a certain antenna compared to

the ideal isotropic antenna which uniformly distributes energy to all
directions.
• dBm = dB(1 mW) is a measured power relative to 1 mW (e.g. 20W is
10*log(1000*20)= 43 dBm
• Effective isotropic radiated power is the amount of power that would have
to be emitted by an isotropic antenna (that evenly distributes power in all
directions and is a theoretical construct) to produce the peak power density
observed in the direction of maximum antenna gain.
– EIRP can take into account the losses in transmission line and connectors and
includes the gain of the antenna.
RLB through equations
• In this case the Allowed Propagation Loss (APL) can be calculated as

follows:
APL = EIRP - min { PRX } - M Total
= PTX + GA - min { PRX } - M SF - M I - M Penetration
Here min { PRX } = Receiver sensitivity [dBm]

PTX = Transmission power in BS [dBm]
GA = BS antenna gain [dBi]
M SF = Shadow fading margin [dB]
M I = Interference Margin [dB]
M Penetration = Indoor penetration loss [dB]
Penetration loss simply depends on the expected building wall losses.

The RLB principle
• TX/RX parameters depend on
TX/RX parameters the network deployment
Data rate requirement – Equipments (eNodeB, UE,
User resource allocation antennas), site properties
• Data rate requirement
Link budget – Depends on the service
– Data rate can be mapped to
required signal to interference
Allowed propagation loss and noise ratio (SINR)
• User resource allocation
Path loss model – Traffic expectations
• Path loss model
System range – Environment/clutter type
10
2. LTE Downlink Radio Link Budget
LTE Downlink RLB
• In the following we go
through this LTE
downlink radio link
budget in details
• This is a snapshot from
excel tool that is given
for participants
• There will be some
solved examples
discussed later.
12
Resource allocation and rate
requirements
Parameter Comment
Number of This is estimated by assuming the operation
PRBs bandwidth and number of users served at the same
time. In case of 10MHz band we have 50 resource
blocks (48 for data). Then 10PRB takes 10/48 of all
resources
Data rate In this case we assume 2Mbits/s target rate
Remark on rate requirement
• In case of constant bit rate service (like real time video) the
2Mbits/s requirement defines how much resources user
continuously employs
• In usual case (e.g. web browsing, file downloading, streaming
video) the data transfer happens in bursts so instantaneous rate
can be high while there are time gaps between transmissions
for user (time multiplexing of users)
• Example: If user on cell edge download 1 Mbit file
– (s)he needs round 0.1 seconds for all 48 PRBs OR
– (s)he is given 5PRBs for 1 second time period
– Other options – of course – are possible as well
Transmission characteristics
Parameter Comment
eNodeB TX Typical value is 20W-60W (43dBm-48dBm)
power 20W on 5MHz band (as in WCDMA/HSPA)
40W on 10MHz band (most usual test case for Rel.8 LTE)
60W on 20MHz band
Antenna Discussed later in more details. Typical 1.3 m high panel
gain antenna at 2 GHz band gives 18 dBi gain in main
direction
Cable loss Loss between the eNodeB antenna and the low noise
amplifier. The cable loss value depends on the cable
length, cable type and frequency band.
UE receiver (1/2)
Parameter Comment
UE Noise NF measures of degradation of the SNR by the
Figure (NF) components in the RF receiver chain, product specific.
Typical values: 6-11dB
Thermal Thermal noise = Boltzmann constant x T (Kelvin) x Effective
Noise bandwidth. Here
Boltzmann constant = 1.38 x 10^(-23) J/K (J = Ws)
Reference temperature 20 Celsius = 290 Kelvin
Effective bandwidth = Number of PRB’s x 180kHz
Receiver Receiver noise floor = UE NF + Thermal noise
Noise Floor
PHICH = Physical HARQ Indicator Channel
PBCH = Physical Broadcast Channel
UE receiver (2/2) PDCCH = Physical DL Control Channel
Parameter Comment
SINR Required Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio
depends on the data rate, number of PRBs and link
efficiency. We consider this in more details later in
this slide set
Receiver Minimum required power in receiver required to detect
sensitivity the signal. Receiver sensitivity = Receiver Noise Floor +
SINR
Control channel Control channel overhead includes the overhead
overhead from reference signals, PBCH, PDCCH and PHICH.
5%-25% leads to 1dB-4dB overhead.
RX antenna gain Depends on the receiver antenna, usually 0dBi for
Margins and losses
Parameter Comment
Body loss Body loss is typically included for voice link budget
where the terminal is held close to the user’s head.
3-5dB for voice.
Shadowing loss Depends on the propagation environment. Typical values:
4-7dB. Will be discussed later in more details.
Interference Interference margin accounts for the increase in the
margin terminal noise level caused by the other cell
interference. If we assume a minimum G-factor of −4
dB, that corresponds to 5.5dB IM
(10*log10(1+10^(4/10)) = 5.5 dB). Typical values for
IM: 3dB – 8dB.
Indoor Depends on the building types. In urban area 20dB,
penetration loss in suburban/rural area with light buildings 10dB.
Allowed propagation loss
APL = PTX + GA( NodeB) - LCable + GA(UE) - min { PRX }
- M SF - M I
- LC - Lbody - LPenetration
3. Some details on RLB
RLB elements:
a) eNodeB powers and antennas
eNodeB transmission power
• For macro eNodeB typical value is 20W-60W (43dBm-48dBm)

– 20W on 5MHz band (as in WCDMA/HSPA)
– 40W on 10MHz band (most usual test case for Rel.8 LTE)
– 60W on 20MHz band
• For micro eNodeB typical value is 5-10W (37dBm-40dBm)
• For pico eNodeB typical value is 100mW-2W (20dBm-33dBm)
– 3GPP limit for pico eNodeB TX power is 250mW (24dBm)
– There are many ‘pico’ products with TX power 250mW-2W
• For femto eNodeB TX power is limited to 100mW (20dBm)
– Typical values are some tens of milliwatts
Example eNodeB products
Ericsson 6201 multi-standard

macro base station, indoor
installation
Nokia macro base station,

outdoor wall installation
Macro eNodeB antennas: 3-Sector site
solutions
• Site = location for base 1
station, antennas, cables, etc.
• The use of 3 sectors in each 2
site is the most common
approach 3
• Omnidirectional antennas can
be used in cells with low load
• Here color code refers to 1 1
coverage areas of different 2 2
antennas (frequencies can be
same or different in different 3 3
sectors) 1 1
2 2
24 3 3
Typical macro eNodeB site antenna
• Dual band X-polarization antenna for each sector

– 2 transmission branches in downlink and uplink in
each sector antenna
– Dual band: 800MHz and 2100 MHz
– Design contains only 3 antennas but still 6 feeder
cables needed
25
Panel antenna example: Kathrein 742 215
• Kathrein multi-band dual-polarization

panel antenna (model 742 215)
• Typical macrocell eNodeB antenna
– Round 18dBi antenna gain
– Support 2100MHz and 800MHz bands
• Let us look this antenna in more details
and compare antenna measurements with
the general 3GPP modeling used in
simulations (see antenna slides for more
details)
26
Horizontal and vertical gain patterns
27
Comparison with Gmain q3dB(H ) GFB q3dB(V ) SLL
3GPP model 18dBi 65 deg 30dB 6.2 deg -18dB
Kathrein 742215
Simple gain model
Source: F. Gunnarsson et al: “Downtilted Base Station
q tilt
Antennas – A Simulation Model Proposal and Impact on
HSPA and LTE Performance”, IEEE VTC 2008 = 10 degrees
‘High power’ pico eNodeB
• Ericsson indoor pico (6401), multistandard

• TX output power: 1W
• http://www.ericsson.com/ourportfolio/products/rbs-6401
29
Model for pico eNodeB antenna gain
pattern 1/2
• Horizontal gain pattern
GH ( )
5dBi
0dBi
-180deg -100deg-70deg -15deg 15deg 70deg 100deg 180deg
-10dBi
30
Model for pico eNodeB antenna gain
pattern 2/2
• Vertical gain pattern
GV ( )
0dBi
-3dBi
-180deg -100deg -70deg -15deg 15deg 70deg 100deg 180deg
• Total gain pattern
G ( , )  GH ( )  GV ( )
Example
• Two 2W indoor
nodes with given
antenna gain
patterns
• Received wideband
powers simulated
by WinProp tool
• 2GHz carrier
• Excellent indoor
coverage obtained
32
‘Low power’ Femto base stations
Vodafone 3G femto
Nokia 3G femto base station
base station
RLB elements:
b) Path loss and shadowing margin
b1) Average path loss
Single slope model
• The most commonly used average path loss model is the

so-called single-slope model
where
– “L0” is the average path loss at reference distance “r0”
– “n” is the path loss exponent (which depends on antenna heights,
carrier frequency, and propagation environment)
– In free space n = 2
➢ The single-slope model is valid, e.g., when

dealing with homogeneous environments
Free space model
• Free space propagation is an example of a single slope

model, i.e.,
In this situation, we have that

Dual-slope model
• Another path loss modeling approach is provided by the dual-
slope model, i.e.,
where “r0” is known as the break-point distance

Linear loss model
• In waveguide propagation and absorbing propagation
environments, the linear loss model can be sometimes used
• Linear model is suitable for tunnels, and indoor propagation

through walls (i.e., excellent signal propagation)
Environment types (1)
– Outdoor propagation environments:
Subdivision is done into:
• Base station antenna located above roof tops, and
• Base station antenna located below roof tops
– Outdoor to indoor propagation

environments
Subdivision is done again into same
categories as outdoor case:
• Base station antenna located
above roof tops
• Base station antenna located
below roof tops
– Indoor propagation environments

Subdivision is done, e.g., into:
• Number of floors in a building to be covered,
• Landscape of the (office) building, and so on
– Offices or flats with many rooms
– Corridors, tunnels, etc.
Okumura-Hata Model (1)
• (Okumura-) Hata model is one of most common models
for signal prediction in large macrocells
– This model exists in many version, and is defined for limited
ranges of parameters
• Originally, this model is valid for:
– Distances: 1-100 km
– Frequency ranges: 150-1500 MHz (it was extended later)
43
• Okumura used extensive
measurements of base station-to-
mobile signal attenuation in the
city of Tokio (Japan)
– He developed a set of curves that
gives the median attenuation
(relative to free space) of signal
propagation in irregular terrain
– The base station heights for these
measurements were 30-100 m
➢ The Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical

path-loss data provided by Okumura (model is isotropic)
– Closed-form formulas provided by Hata simplify path loss calculations
(four different environments were defined)
44
• The original Hata model is given by
where the parameters (and their corresponding units) are

150 and 1500 MHz
• The correction factor for the mobile antenna height
“ai(hMS)” depends on the size of the coverage area:
– Large/dense city (i.e., “i = 1”),
– Medium/small size city (i.e., “i = 2”),
– Suburban area (i.e., “i = 3) and rural/open area (i.e., “i = 4”)
➢ Correction factor for the mobile antenna height (cont’d)
Okumura-Hata Model: PL vs. Range (1)
Carrier frequency
48
Carrier frequency
49
Okumura-Hata Model: PL vs. BS Antenna Height
Carrier
frequency
50
• In mobile communication systems (like GSM and

3G), base station antennas are rarely placed on
locations over 40 meters in height
• Systems like television and radio broadcasting
may use towers that higher than 100 meters
– The height of the FM- and TV-mast (Helsinki-Espoo)
located in Latokaski (Espoo), has a current height of 326
meters (third highest structure in Finland)
• In the next slide, we illustrate the impact of the
environment type in the path loss attenuation
– It is found that difference between large and medium
size cities is small, while
– Path loss attenuation in suburban and open areas is far
more smaller than in city environments
Environment Type
52
• Later on, Okumura-Hata model was extended to the 1500-
2000 MHz frequencies, in the COST 231 research program
– The distance interval was also extended
• ITU-R sector adopted this model in Recommendation P.529
where MS antenna height correction factor is the same as in

the previous model, and the additional term is given by
• Finally, an extension to the Okumura-Hata model for
distances between 20-100km is given by the expression
where the “β” parameter is given by
Note: The COST 231 extension of the Okumura-Hata model is

a single slope model for distances in the range of 1-20 km
Remark on path loss models
• Okumura-Hata model represents the most well-know macrocell

model
• Walfisch-Ikegami model is an other well-known model for urban
area
• In network planning tools above-mentioned models are used with
additional clutter corrections
– Several different clutter types can be defined with different additional
dB/m loss factors
– Planning tool design companies are usually not publishing all their
models
• There are also several models for small outdoor and indoor cells
– Yet, the smaller are the cells, the worse are the ‘isotropic models’ that
don’t take into account the environment (e.g. building) structure.
– When high carrier frequency communication take place in cellular
systems (5G) ray tracing models become more important.
55
b2) Shadow fading
56
Example: Path loss measurements
Shadow fading (1)
• Obstacles with a size from tens to hundreds of
wavelengths (on the different propagation paths)
cause a variation of the path loss around the Shadowing
average path loss “L”
• This variation is random but, however, it is Tx
correlated when measured in nearby locations
• Shadowing, caused for e.g. by big buildings, can Rx
be critical for mobile users located in cell edge
areas
– The effect of shadow fading may create large
coverage holes
➢ In many measurements, it has been observed that shadow fading “Ls”
can be described with a log-normal distribution*, and the probability
density function is given by
L2s

1 2 s2
f ( Ls )  e
2  s
* Loss measured in logarithmic scale (i.e., [dB]) is normally distributed
Shadow fading (2)
• Values obtained in shadow fading measurements*
– Carrier frequency: 2.0 GHz
Network area/ Standard

Parameter deviation
Dense urban /
8,5 dB
Urban
Sub-urban 7,2 dB
Rural 6,5 dB
* Values reported in different sources vary generally from 6-10 dB

Shadow fading (3)
0.9
Scaled probability distribution function (PDF)

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Shadow fading value [dB]
Probability distribution function for shadow fading when SF

standard deviation “σs” is 4 dB (o), 8 dB (*), and 12dB (x)
Shadow fading (4)
• The cumulative distribution function (CDF) is given by
 L0 
L0
PLs  L0    f (t ) dt  1  Q  ,
0 s 
where “Q(x)” is the Marcum Q-function,
 t2
1  1  x 
Q( x) 
2 e
x
2
dt 
2
erfc 
 2

erfc(x) = complementary error function

Shadow fading (5)
1
0.9
Cumulative distribution function (CDF)

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Shadow fading value [dB]
Cumulative distribution function for shadow fading when SF

standard deviation “σs” is 4 dB (o), 8 dB (*), and 12dB (x)
Combined path loss and shadowing (1)
• In network planning, a Shadow Fading Margin (SFM) is
added on top of average path loss
• This margin is based on the required target power level
(i.e., maximum allowed path loss in the link budget) to
guaranteed a given outage probability in the system
• Let us denote
– “Lmax” = maximum allowed attenuation (link budget parameter)
– “Pout” = allowed outage probability at cell edge (QoS of network)
– “Ltot” = Total loss including shadowing and average path loss
• Then we set
(*) PLtot  Lmax   Pout Ltot  L  Ls
S-72.3216 RC Systems I (5
”Lmax” = maximum allowedcr) Lecturesattenuation
2013
3-5, Autumn (system specific parameter)
”Ltot” = Total loss at cell
63
edge (network design parameter)
• From formula (*) we obtain
1  PLs  Lmax  L   Pout
• Then, using the Marcum function representation we get
 Lmax  L 
Q    Pout
 s 
• It is common to use the inverse Marcum’s function to obtain
the (average) path loss that fulfill target requirements, i.e.,
L  Lmax   sQ1 Pout 
• Yet, note that the inverse Marcum’s function does not exist in
closed-form
”Lmax” = maximum allowedcr) Lecturesattenuation
2013
3-5, Autumn (system specific parameter)
”Ltot” = Total loss at cell
64
edge (network design parameter)
Inverse Marcum’s function
0
10
-1
10
-2
10
Q(x)
Q(x)
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
x
x
• Revisiting the derived formula that combines path loss and
shadowing,
L  Lmax   sQ 1
Pout 
• The (average) path loss on the left-hand side depends on:
– Distance between transmitter and receiver,
Okumura-
– Antenna heights of both, transmitter and receiver, Hata model
– Carrier frequency, environment type, …
• The value on the right-hand side depends on:
– Standard deviation of shadow fading (environment type),
– Allowed attenuation (system specific parameter: link budget)
– Outage probability (network target performance: guaranteed QoS)
In link budget calculations,

so-called SF margin is given by
M SF   s  Q 1
Pout 
Lmax Edge reliability (i.e., “Pout”) depends on

Path Loss
assumed “σSF” and shadow fading margin
50%
L Ltot
Path Loss + shadowing

90%
Lmax Shadow fading standard
Ltot devidation (σSF) grows
L
➢ As “σSF” grows for same fading margin, the edge reliability is reduced
➢ As “σSF” grows, a larger fading margin is required to maintain the
same edge reliability
67
RLB elements:
c) Interference, SINR and data rate
Co-channel interference: general formulation (1)
• General formulation for the Interfering TX #1

received signal:
K
r  S 0   S k  nW d1 Interfering
k 1 TX #2
where “S0” is the desired Receiver
d2
signal, “Sk” refers to the d0
interfering signal originated
in the k-th (co-channel) dK Source
transmitter, and “nW” is of desired
Interfering signal
additive white Gaussian
TX #K
noise (i.e., Thermal noise)
Interference in LTE, illustration
Desired signal from

serving eNodeB
Interfering signal from
other eNodeB
Interfering signal from
adjacent sector UE
eNodeB
cr) Lectures 11-12, Autumn
2013
70
• Let us compute the expected powers:
  P
E S0
2
0
RX
P
0
TX
  P
/ L0 E S k
2
k
RX
P k
TX
/ Lk   P
E nW
2
N
Here “L0” refers to the path loss attenuation between the

receiver and the source of desired signal, “Lk” corresponds
to the path loss attenuation between the “k-th” interfering
transmitter and the receiver, “PN” the AWGN power
• The instantaneous path loss can be written as follows:
Antenna gain Lk (dk )
x Lk = Average path loss
Gk (j k )× L × hk
SF 2
Shadow fading Fast fading
k
• The shadow fading follows a lognormal distribution, i.e.,

k
LSF
k  10 10
linear scale
where “ξk” is a sample from a zero mean Gaussian process,
with standard deviation “σk”
– If it is assumed that all TX-RX pairs admit the same shadow fading
characteristics, then
k  k
• Shadow fading in different links is usually correlated
– In most studies of cellular systems, the correlation between shadow
fading in different links is assumed to be the same
– A typical value for correlation, which corresponds to BS antennas
located above the roof-top of buildings, is 0.5
– Correlation between adjacent sector antennas is 1.0
LTE: General formulation of SINR
• Now, the general formula for the SINR is given by

P L × h0 G0 (j 0 ) L0 (d0 )
TX SF 2
0 0
SINR= K
åP L × hk × dk ×Gk (j k ) / Lk (dk ) + PN
TX SF 2
k k
k=1
• This formula can be used in simulations. We have

PkTX =transmission power of kth eNB (for certain PRB)
k =SF towards kth eNB
LSF
hk = kth eNB signal fast fading channel power response (for certain PRB)
2
Gk = Antenna gain pattern towards kth eNB

dk = 1 if kth eNB is transmitting on this PRB, otherwise 0
Lk (dk ) = Distance dependent path loss towards kth eNB
PN = AWGN power
General formulation of SINR
• If we ignore shadow and fast fading, and assume

transmission on all PRB’s, then we obtain wideband SINR
that is also called as Geometry-factor (G-factor)
0 G0 (j 0 ) L0 (d0 )
P0TX LSF
Gfactor = K
å k Lk dkGk (j k ) / Lk (dk ) + PN
P TX SF
k=1
• G-factor can be used to describe the network deployment,
see the next slide
– 30% of UEs with ITU modified Vehicular A at 30 km/h and
– 10% of UEs with ITU modified Vehicular A at 120 km/h
Cell selection Best cell selected with 0 dB margin
Uplink: Max 24 dBm (latest 3GPP specifications use 23 dBm
Geometry factor Transmission power
Antenna configuration Downlink: 1 × 2, 2 × 2
Uplink: 1 × 2, 1 × 4
Receiver algorithms Downlink: LMMSE (Linear Minimum Mean Square Error)
• G-factor distribution depends on the network
Uplink: deployment. G-factor
LMMSE receiver with Maximal Ratio Combining
depends on
1
– Antennas, sectorization
0.9
– Applied average path loss model
0.8
– Frequency reuse (e.g. δ ) 0.7
• Example: 0.6
– 3GPP macro 1 (ISD = 500m)
CDF
0.5
– 3GPP macro 3 (ISD = 1700m) 0.4
– 3GPP micro 0.3
0.2
3GPP, macro 1
3GPP, macro 3
Cell edge: 5%-ile level 0.1
3GPP, micro indoor:outdoor = 50:50
0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Interference margin for 3GPP Macro 1: Geometry (dB)
M I =10× log10 (1+10 )

-G G-factor has value -4dB
=Figure
5.5dB onof cell
9.9 Distribution edge
the average wide-band channel SINR (geometry factor) macro ca
3 and micro
The corresponding downlink system performance numbers for LTE SIMO and 2 ×
Source (picture): transmission
Holma, Toskala:
schemes areLTE for inUMTS,
presented Wiley
Figure 9.10 and Figure 9.11, respecti vely.
Notes on the G-factor distribution
• Distribution shows that G-factor varies in macrocell

deployment between -5dB and 15dB
– Thus, in fully loaded macro network the (average) SINR is
limited to 15dB and data rates are limited accordingly
– The 50% level of G-factor CDF indicates that (average) SINR in
fully loaded macro network is close to 4dB
• If microcells are added to the network much higher SINR
values can be reached
• In e.g. indoor small cells very high SINR values are
possible
Mapping between SINR/G-factor and
throughput in LTE
• When creating RLB we require a certain bit rate on the cell edge.
– We may, for example, require that rate on cell edge is 1Mbps when user can be
allocated 10% of the radio resources.
• We can use the following very simple approximation for a bit rate
(throughput):
(*) TP = BW× M × A× log2 (1+ SINR/ B) = NPRB × BWPRB × SE
where SE is the Spectral Efficiency and
– BW is the allocated bandwidth (in terms of PRBs)
– A and B are factors that are selected such that SE approximates the LTE link
spectral efficiency.
– Factors A and B depend on the number of antennas and physical layer
performance.
– M = number of data streams
Mapping between SINR and throughput
• Previous spectral efficiency formula provides an approximation for the

Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC) schemes (also called as
Modulation and Coding Schemes (MCS)) applied in the system.
Resulted parameters of the
configurations
MIMO M A B
SIMO 1x2 1 0.62 1.8
MIMO 2x2 2 0.42 0.85
MIMO 4x4 4 0.40 1.1
MIMO 8x8 8 0.33 1.4
• We note that these parameters represent

approximations based on certain simulations. Thus,
different assumptions on channel estimation and
detection algorithms may lead to slightly different
results.
Spectral efficiency
30
25
Spectral efficiency [bits/s/Hz]
20
SIMO (1x2)
Max SE 15
MIMO (2x2)
MIMO (4x4)
MIMO (8x8)
10
Max SE
5
Max SE
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
SINR [dB]
LTE Rel.8 peak bit rate examples
Modulatio Stream Ideal SE Practical LTE Max bit
n s [bits/s/Hz] SE rate (20MHz)
[bits/s/Hz]
64QAM 1 6.0 3.75 75Mbps
64QAM 2 12.0 7.5 150Mbps
64QAM 4 24.0 15.0 300Mbps
• If carrier aggregation approach is used (LTE-Advanced), then rate
can be multiplied by number of carriers.
• Maximum spectral efficiencies may take place only when SINR is
extremely large => reachable in practical macrocellular networks
only in special cases.
• Note the difference between ideal and practical SE
• These spectral efficiencies set upper limit for SE growth in previous
slide
81
4. DL Link Budget Examples
Urban area example (DL)
• Assume the link budget parameters below, 10MHz band, 2GHz carrier, 35 meter
Radio antenna
base station Communication
height andSystems
1.5 meterII,
UEExercise
height. 3, 2014
• Compute the coverage in case of large city for 2Mbps service when eNodeB
allocates 4 PRBs for the user (12 users/cell served simultaneously).
– Problem
What happens1. forLTE downlink
the service RLB
coverage (excelcan
if eNodeB in Noppa):
allocate allAssume thePRBs
available 48 following link b
for this user
(target rate being
2.1GHz the same
carrier, 2 Mbps)?
25 meter base station antenna height and 1.5 meter UE height:
– Increase the user rate 5Mbps and solve problem again
Parameter Value
BS TX power 40W
BS antenna gain 18dBi
BS cable loss 2dB
UE noise figure 7dB
Interference margin 4dB
RX antenna gain 0dBi
RX body loss 0dB
Control channel overhead 1dB
Indoor penetration loss 20dB
Shadow fading margin 7dB
BS antenna configuration 2x2/4x4 MIMO
• Case 2Mbit/s and 4 PRB’s:
Results – Range in large city = 300 meters
– Range in suburban area = 680 meters
– Range in large city = 880 meters
– Range in suburban area = 2.0 km
– Range in suburban area = 1.5 km
Remark on range (1/3)
• Question: We increase the amount of radio resources 12 times (4

PRB ->48 PRB) but range is not increasing directly proportionally.
Why range increase is so small?
• Answer: If more PRB’s are used, less data needs to be loaded per
PRB => SE and accordingly SINR requirement decreases
– In 2Mbit/s case SINR requirement decreases from 8.8dB to -7.5dB, the
difference being 16.3dB (see next slide)
– In 5Mbit/s case SINR requirement decreases from 24.2dB to -2.8dB, the
difference being 27.0dB (see next slide)
– This increases allowed propagation loss with same amounts. Yet, if distance
from/to eNodeB is short, then the path loss increases fast as a function of
distance (see next slides)
10
9 LTE 2x2 MIMO maximum

spectral efficiency
8 (7.5bits/s/Hz)
Spectral efficiency [bits/s/Hz]
7 SISO Spectral
Efficiency
6
5
MIMO Spectral
efficiency (2x2)
4
3
Shannon AWGN
2 bound (SISO)
0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
SINR [dB]
16.3dB
27.0dB
Other remarks
• In 4 PRB case we can serve 12 users at the same time while in 48

PRB case we can serve only single user.
– Range extension by using more resources per user can take place only
when cell load is low.
• User usually needs 2-5Mbit/s rates just during very short time
periods
– In e.g. web browsing/streaming video data is transferred in bursts.
– Thus, if instantaneous rate is high, user will have good use experience.
Rural area example
• In suburban area LTE is used on 800MHz to provide mobile
broadband for single houses
– Note: interference margin is decreased to 2dB.
• Assume three cases:
1. User is inside a light single house with 10dB indoor penetration loss
2. User is outside the house
3. User has a LTE based fixed wireless system containing directive antenna with
10dBi gain (2dB cable loss) on the house rooftop (7 meters height). LTE
receiver is connected to indoor WiFi (through cable) that provides indoor
connectivity.
• What is the maximum distance from eNodeB to receiver (= rooftop
antenna) for 2Mbit/s and 5Mbit/s services if receiver can apply 4/8
PRBs?
Illustration of connection options
eNodeB
Yagi antenna
(10dBi gain)
Antenna cable
(2dB loss)
LTE receiver
and WiFi
router
Outdoor UE
See, e.g.: http://www.smartcoverage.eu/4G-antenna/4g-lte-aerial-antenna.html

Results
4 PRB case: 8 PRB case:

• Indoor user with 10dB penetration loss • Indoor user with 10dB penetration loss
– 2Mbit/s, suburban area, range = 3.1km – 2Mbit/s, suburban area, range = 4.6km
• Outdoor user with 0dB penetration loss • Outdoor user with 0dB penetration loss
• Rooftop directive antenna + indoor • Rooftop directive antenna + indoor
distribution distribution
Remarks
• If cell dimensioning is done based on outdoor coverage,

then indoor coverage can be achieved using additional
directive rooftop antenna
– Costs falling on the user/subsidized by operator or government?
– Shared directive antennas + local distribution one good option
(village case)
• If only fixed wireless based connectivity is assumed very
large cells can be used
– There will be large coverage holes outdoors and especially for
direct indoor coverage
– Doubling the cell range decreases the required number of
eNodeB’s to ¼ from original case.
5. LTE Uplink Radio Link Budget
LTE Uplink RLB
• Note that besides

data rate the same
parameters are
used as in DL
• The UL data rate
with 10PRB’s is
1Mbit/s while it was
2Mbit/s in DL.
• Yet the ALP is
almost the same as
in DL.
UE resource allocation and rate
Parameter Comment
Number of This is decided by eNodeB after estimating the
PRBs required bandwidth and scheduling uplink users that
are served at the same time. Thus, in this case 1
Mbit/s takes 10/50 of all resources. In (Rel.8/9)
uplink PRB’s are given continuously in frequency.
Data rate In uplink we have 1Mbit/s while in DL we assumed
2Mbits/s target rate (APL will be almost the same)
UE transmission characteristics
Parameter Comment
UE TX In uplink maximum TX power is 23dBm. It is assumed here since
power this RLB consider cell edge user. Power control is used in uplink
=> TX power can be less than 23dBm as well.
UE UE antenna gain depends on the device type. Typical value
antenna is 0dBi while fixed wireless LTE transceivers may have even
gain 10dBi antenna gain.
Body loss Not visible in this UL RLB but 3-5dB body loss can be
subtracted.
EIRP EIRP = TX power + antenna gain (-body loss)
TX power UE power is divided between PRB’s. Thus, with larger
eNodeB receiver (1/2)
Parameter Comment
eNodeB NF measures of degradation of the SNR by the
Noise components in the RF receiver chain, product specific.
Figure The minimum performance requirement is approximately
5 dB but the practical performance can be better like 2 dB.
Thermal Thermal noise = Boltzmann constant x T (Kelvin) x Effective
Noise bandwidth. The bandwidth depends on the number of
allocated resource blocks. With 10 PRB’s we have -
121dBm.
Receiver Receiver noise floor = eNodeB NF + Thermal noise
Noise Floor
eNodeB receiver (2/2)
Parameter Comment
SINR Required Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio
depends on the data rate, number of PRBs and link
efficiency.
Receiver Minimum power in receiver required to detect the signal.
sensitivity Receiver sensitivity = Receiver Noise Floor + SINR (in
UL this is given per PRB)
RX antenna gain eNodeB antenna gain, same as in DL
Margins and losses
Parameter Comment
eNodeB cable Same as in DL.
loss
Shadowing As in downlink. Values: 4-7dB.
loss
Interference Interference margin reflects the increase in the eNodeB
margin receiver noise level caused by the interference from (other
cell) users. Since LTE uplink is orthogonal, there is no intra-
cell interference but we still need a margin for the other cell
interference. This margin depends on the UL target capacity.
That is, there is a tradeoff between capacity and coverage.
Penetration As in downlink
loss
Allowed propagation loss
APL = PTX + GA(UE) - LBody + GA(eNodeB) - min { PRX }
- M SF - M I
- LCable - LPenetration
Example: Recall the first DL example
• Assume the previous link budget parameters (from DL example) 10MHz

band, 2GHz carrier, 35 meter base station antenna height and 1.5 meter
UE height
– eNodeB Noise Figure = 2dB (In DL for UE it was 7dB)
– Antenna configuration is now 1x2 SIMO (2 eNodeB antennas, 1 UE TX antenna)
• Compute the coverage in case of large city for 1.3Mbps service when
eNodeB allocates 5 PRBs for the user (10 users/cell served
simultaneously)
• Ranges when assuming 1.3Mbit/s and 5 PRB’s:
Rural area example (UL)
• In suburban area LTE is used on 800MHz to provide mobile
broadband for single houses
– Note: interference margin is decreased to 2dB.
• Assume three cases:
1. User is inside a light single house with 10dB indoor penetration loss
2. User is outside the house
3. User has a LTE based fixed wireless system containing directive antenna with
10dBi gain (2dB cable loss) on the house rooftop (7 meters height). LTE
transceiver is connected to indoor WiFi (through cable) that provides indoor
connectivity.
• What is the maximum distance from transmitter to eNodeB for
1.3Mbit/s service if receiver can apply 5/10 PRBs?
Illustration of connection options
eNodeB
Yagi antenna
(10dBi gain)
Antenna cable
(2dB loss)
LTE receiver
and WiFi
router
Outdoor UE
See, e.g.: http://www.smartcoverage.eu/4G-antenna/4g-lte-aerial-antenna.html

Results
5 PRB case: 10 PRB case:

• Indoor user with 10dB penetration loss • Indoor user with 10dB penetration loss
– 1.3Mbit/s, suburban area, range = 3.1km – 1.3Mbit/s, suburban area, range = 4.35km
• Outdoor user with 0dB penetration loss • Outdoor user with 0dB penetration loss
• Rooftop directive antenna + indoor • Rooftop directive antenna + indoor
distribution distribution

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Long Term Evolution

Part 5: Radio Link Budget

Area and propagation information Radio Link budget # Network elements

Network planning tools BS + RS Configurations and

• Radio Link Budget (RLB) is a basic tool in radio engineering. It is used to

Example: We require that user

• dBi = dB(isotropic). It is the forward gain of a certain antenna compared to

• In this case the Allowed Propagation Loss (APL) can be calculated as

Here min { PRX } = Receiver sensitivity [dBm]

Penetration loss simply depends on the expected building wall losses.

• For macro eNodeB typical value is 20W-60W (43dBm-48dBm)

Ericsson 6201 multi-standard

Nokia macro base station,

• Dual band X-polarization antenna for each sector

• Kathrein multi-band dual-polarization

3GPP model 18dBi 65 deg 30dB 6.2 deg -18dB

Source: F. Gunnarsson et al: “Downtilted Base Station

• Ericsson indoor pico (6401), multistandard

• Total gain pattern

• The most commonly used average path loss model is the

➢ The single-slope model is valid, e.g., when

• Free space propagation is an example of a single slope

In this situation, we have that

where “r0” is known as the break-point distance

• Linear model is suitable for tunnels, and indoor propagation

– Outdoor to indoor propagation

– Indoor propagation environments

➢ The Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical

where the parameters (and their corresponding units) are

• In mobile communication systems (like GSM and

where MS antenna height correction factor is the same as in

where the “β” parameter is given by

Note: The COST 231 extension of the Okumura-Hata model is

• Okumura-Hata model represents the most well-know macrocell

Network area/ Standard

* Values reported in different sources vary generally from 6-10 dB

Scaled probability distribution function (PDF)

Probability distribution function for shadow fading when SF

• The cumulative distribution function (CDF) is given by

erfc(x) = complementary error function

Cumulative distribution function (CDF)

Cumulative distribution function for shadow fading when SF

In link budget calculations,

Lmax Edge reliability (i.e., “Pout”) depends on

Path Loss + shadowing

• General formulation for the Interfering TX #1

Desired signal from

• Let us compute the expected powers:

Here “L0” refers to the path loss attenuation between the

• The shadow fading follows a lognormal distribution, i.e.,

• Now, the general formula for the SINR is given by

• This formula can be used in simulations. We have

Gk = Antenna gain pattern towards kth eNB

• If we ignore shadow and fast fading, and assume

– 3GPP macro 1 (ISD = 500m)

– 3GPP macro 3 (ISD = 1700m) 0.4

– 3GPP micro 0.3

M I =10× log10 (1+10 )

• Distribution shows that G-factor varies in macrocell

• Previous spectral efficiency formula provides an approximation for the

• We note that these parameters represent

• Question: We increase the amount of radio resources 12 times (4