Journal of Materials Processing Technology 110 (2001) 244±248

A note on a numerically controlled precision system

for sheet metal bending tests
J.C. Ferreira*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Instituto Superior TeÂcnico, Av. Rovisco Pais, P-1096 Lisbon, Portugal
Received 17 November 1999; received in revised form 2 November 2000; accepted 27 November 2000

Abstract

An experimental study to investigate the performance of an innovative numerically controlled precision system developed to evaluate
sheet metal mechanical properties when subjected to bending tests is presented. Details of the experimental computerised apparatus
connected to data acquisition systems to enable the output of force±de¯exion equivalent stress±strain diagrams and to compute the
respective elastic and plastic constants at characteristic points upon the stress±strain graphs are presented. The stresses and strains generated
by progressive force applied to bend cantilever beams made from rectangular metallic sheets were analysed. The stress±strain on metals
when bending sheet specimens are exempli®ed with sample graphs and the results are discussed. # 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights
reserved.

Keywords: Bending tests; Stress±strain analysis; Experimental methods; Sheet processing technologies

1. Introduction one that generates bending and other generated by the

The ability of some metals to be extensively plastically
deformed without fracture is one of the most useful engi-
neering properties of metals. For example, the extensive
plastic deformability of some metal alloys enables sheet
stamped out mechanically without the metal fracturing.
The development of an innovative computerised precision
numerical controlled (NC) apparatus connected to a modular
system allows making research studies to evaluate metal's
mechanical properties as the bending stresses±strain that is
critical for processing technology, Fig. 1.
The modular controlled equipment is an adaptable labora-
tory precision system for analysis, synthesis, simulation and
test of adjustment procedures in different ®elds of technol-
ogy [1,2], Fig. 2.
2. Hardware and software for bending tests
The developed bending test apparatus is composed by a
sheet metal specimen support, a crossed translation stage NC
with a linear gauge in Z-axis, and two precision force
gauges. The force gauges measure two differential loads,
cantilever momentum, Fig. 3.
2.1. Translation stage NC and linear gauge
With the motorised translation stage NC progressive
numerical controlled Z displacements are applied on the
cantilever beam to generate correspondent de¯exions S that
are function of the load P, Fig. 4.
The load P is applied on the rectangular bar sheet section
located at a distance l (100 mm or 4 in.) from the support
side. The de¯exions S are a function of load P, Young's
modulus E, minimum moment of inertia Iyy, and beam's
length l, governed by the equation:
P
Sˆ ‰…x ÿ l†3 ÿ x3 ‡ 3lx2 Š (1)
6EIyy
The precision linear measuring gauge is mounted inside
the precision motorised translation stage and has an accu-
racy of 2 mm/100 mm (OWIS GmbH). A PC board card,
for controlling the DC-servo-motor with encoder, can deli-
ver trapezoidal speed pro®le controlled by NC software to
drive progressive controlled Z displacements.
2.2. Force gauges

*
Tel.: ‡351-21-8417644; fax: ‡351-21-8419058. The force gauges are weighing systems based on optoe-
E-mail address: mjcf@alfa.ist.utl.pt (J.C. Ferreira). lectronic laser interferometry principles [3±7]. The laser

0924-0136/01/$ ± see front matter # 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 8 9 1 - 8
 J.C. Ferreira / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 110 (2001) 244±248
Fig. 1. Computerised modular system for sheet bending tests.
Fig. 2. Modular NC precision system for simulation and tests.
interferometric measuring probes allows measuring lengths
and derived quantities like weights, forces, and pressures.
These ®bre-coupled length measurement devices have a
resolution of 1 nm. Because of light supplying to the
sensor head via optic ®bres, the probe's environment is
not in¯uenced by temperature. The laser interferometers
(SIOS GmbH) convert translations of their plane
Fig. 3. Testing apparatus with cantilever beam.
245
mirrors along the optical axes of their probing beams into
optical-interference signals. Those are transmitted to their
optoelectronic signal-processing module and thereafter to a
demodulator A/D module for conversion into lengths and
output to a PC. The PC running a controlling software
package performs the NC system operation and display of
measurement results. The two precision dynamic force
gauges (fg1 and fg2) work mainly based on weighing
systems with laser interferometers, as shown in Fig. 5.
2.3. Control and data analyse software
The software utilised for numerical control (NC) and data
acquisition (DAQ) was LabVIEW 4 (from National Instru-
ments). The language interfaces is based on subroutines and
function calls from conventional programming languages in
C‡‡. The DAQ includes more ef®cient control loop appli-
cations and improved scaling algorithms in measurement
and automation. With the scaling algorithms, taking sensor
measurements can be converted in voltage readings to
physical values, such as force±de¯exion or equivalent
stress±strain.
Researchers of Instituto Superior TeÂcnico in cooperation
with researchers of Technical University Ilmenau [8,9]
Fig. 4. Bending test set-up with a rectangular cantilever beam.
246 J.C. Ferreira / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 110 (2001) 244±248

Table 1
Chemical composition (wt.%) of stainless steel 18/8

C Mn Si Cr Ni P S

0.08 1.66 0.25 18.62 10.93 0.02 0.017

Fig. 5. Laser-optical interference force measuring system.

developed proprietary software for computer aide adjust-

ment (CAA). This CAA software transforms the PC and
DAQ hardware into a complete analysis and control system.
The acquired test data is computed in the compiled CAA
software code for adjusting the driver interface by NC
software. The DAQ applications use driver software. The
driver software is the layer of software that directly pro-
grams the registers of the DAQ hardware, managing its
operation and its integration with the computer resources,
such as processor interrupts, DMA and memory.
The graphical user interface (GUI) tools of LabVIEW
allow displaying dynamic stress±strain diagram from sheet
metal bending test, as shown in Fig. 6.
The modulus of elasticity E, or Young's modulus, is
computed from the equation E ˆ s=e (s: stress, e: strain).
3. Sample results and analysis
3.1. Stress±strain tests with stainless steel specimens
Bending tests with specimens of annealed austenitic
stainless steel sheet 18/8 (Table 1) have been conducted.
Tests on three stainless steel 18/8 strips 100 mm long
10 mm wide  0:62 mm thick, with distinct heat treatment
gave the stress±strain graph shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7. Stress±strain for stainless steel sheet 18/8.
After computing based on stress±strain theory, the respec-
tive elastic and plastic constants for the stainless steel sheets
18/8 were settled. These results are shown in Table 2.
3.2. Stress±strain tests with aluminium specimens
Experimental tests with an aluminium alloy 2014-T6
(sheets transverse to rolling direction) have been also con-
ducted (Table 3).
Tests on aluminium 2014-T6 strips 102 mm (4 in.)
long  12:7 mm (0.5 in.) wide  0:5 mm (0.020 in.) thick
gave the stress±strain graphs as the one shown in Fig. 8.
The experimental bending test was performed with elastic
hysteresis loop during a cycle of loading and unloading till
0.1% yield strength. After performing computer calculations
the respective elastic and plastic constants for the aluminium
2014-T6 were determined. These results are shown in
Table 4.

Table 2
Mechanical properties of stainless steel sheet 18/8 (experimental
E-modulus and strength in bending tests)

E (105 MPa) 0.2% YS (MPa) Stress maximum

Strain e smax (MPa)

Steel 1 2.071 1012.83 0.0185 1059.42

Steel 2 1.951 1003.26 0.0158 1060.90
Steel 3 2.028 1019.66 0.0208 1067.06

Table 3
Chemical composition (wt.%) of aluminium 2014-T6

Fig. 6. A stress±strain diagram with characteristic points. P1: proportional Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti

elastic limit; P2: yield strength; P3: ultimate tensile strength; P4: rupture
0.85 1.00 4.45 0.80 0.50 0.10 0.25 0.15
stress.
 J.C. Ferreira / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 110 (2001) 244±248
Fig. 8. Stress±strain for aluminium alloy.
Table 4
Mechanical properties of aluminium alloy 2014-T6 sheet (experimental E-
modulus and strength in bending tests)
E (104 MPa) 0.1% YS (MPa) Stress maximum
Strain e smax (MPa)
2014-T6 7.830 265 0.0063 280
3.3. Elastic hysteresis tests with aluminium specimens
When a material is subject to repeated loading, during any
cycle of loading and unloading, or vice versa, some energy is
permanently absorbed or lost. The effect of permanent
energy absorption under cyclic stress within the elastic
range, called elastic hysteresis or frictional damping, is
illustrated by the decay in amplitude of free vibrations of
an elastic spring.
With precise instrumentation, as the programmable com-
puterised bending test system described, it is also possible to
investigate oligocyclic fatigue in aluminium alloy 2014-T6
sheets by applying hysteresis loops, shown at the sample in
Fig. 9. The area enclosed by the loop formed by consecutive
segments of the diagram represents the hysteresis loss.
[1] G. HoÈhne, R. NoÈnnig, D. Heû, R. Hoffmann, Justieruntersuchungen
[2] G. HoÈhne, R. NoÈnnig, D. Heû, R. Hoffmann, Mehrachsiger
[3] G. JaÈger, R. FuÈûl, U. Gerhardt, Optical interference force measuring
[4] R. GruÈnwald, G. JaÈger, Laserinterferometric precision pressure
Fig. 9. Hysteresis loops to test oligocyclic fatigue in aluminium 2014-T6.
247
4. Conclusions and future applications
An experimental research involving an innovative
numerically controlled precision bending test system to
quantify and analyse stress±strain in sheet metal was
described. The results achieved with that system allows
the following conclusions and future applications:
 Bending stress±strain graphs are obtained for stainless
steel and aluminium sheet specimens and the respective
elastic and plastic constants, at characteristic points upon
the stress±strain graphs, present some similarity with
those obtained with tensile testing equipment.
 The effect of permanent energy absorption under cyclic
stress within the elastic range, called elastic hysteresis,
could also be investigated.
 The stresses at which non-linear stress±strain behaviour
or actual yielding begins in thin sheet metals are useful in
designating practical limits of elastic action of the com-
mon spring metals. The plasticity is of importance in
forming, shaping, and stamping operations. The ultimate
tensile strengths are usually stated in terms of the kind of
stress producing the flexural failure.
 Bend tests could be necessary to investigate the ductility
of thin sheet metals for particular types of mechanical
service (sheet springs) or to detect loss of ductility after
certain types of heat treatment.
 Cold-bend tests could be required to control the specifi-
cations for some steel or aluminium alloys, particularly
those in the form of thin sheet to detect improper rolling
conditions.
Acknowledgements
This research work was developed at Technical University
Ilmenau (Germany) during a research fellowship and the
author gratefully acknowledged the collaboration of Prof.
Dr.-Ing. Habil. GuÈnter HoÈhne, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Rainer NoÈnnig
and the staff from the Machine Elements and Engineering
Design Department.
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