(Neural Control And Coordination)

Organs of Sight (Eyes)

These are located in eye orbits formed by the skull bones
Structure of human Eye
The eye is a hollow, spherical structure measuring about 2.5 cm in diameter. Its wall is composed of three
coats:
1. The outer fibrous coat------- sclera, cornea
2. The middle vascular coat-------- choroid, cilliary body, iris
3. The inner nervous coat------- retina
1. Fibrous Coat. It is divided into the sclera and the cornea.
(i) Sclera. It covers most of the eye ball. The sclera or white of the eye contains many collagen fibers. It
protects and maintains shape of the eye ball.
(ii) Cornea. It is a transparent portion that forms the anterior one- sixth of the eyeball. The cornea admits and
helps to focus light waves as they enter the eye. The cornea is avascular (i.e., gets no blood supply). This
part of eye absorbs oxygen from the air. The cornea was one of the first organs to be successfully
transplanted because it lacks blood vessels.
At the junction of the sclera and cornea there is a structure called the canal of Schlemm. From the anterior
chamber the aqueous humour, which is continuously produced, is drained off into the canal of Schlemm
and then into the blood.
2. Vascular Coat. It comprises the choroid, the ciliary body and the iris.
(i) Choroid. The choroid lies adjacent to the sclera and contains numerous blood vessels that supply nutrients
and oxygen to the other tissues especially of retina. It also contains pigmented cells that absorb light and
prevent it from being reflected within the eyeball.
(ii) Ciliary body. The cilliary body extends towards the inside of the eye from the choroid coat. It is composed
of the cilliary muscles and the cilliary processes. The cilliary processes secrete aqueous humour. The silliary
muscles are smooth muscles and are of two types: circular and meridional. Attached to the cilliary body
are the suspensory ligaments, which are in turn attached to the capsule that surrounds the lens of the eye.
The capsule and ligaments, to gether with the cilliary body, hold the lens in place.
(iii) Iris. The iris is a circular muscular diaphragm containing the pigment giving eye its colour. It separates the
aqueous humour region into anterior and posterior chambers. It extends from the cilliary body across the
eyeball in front of the lens. It has an opening in the centre called the pupil. It contains two and radial
muscles ( dilators), of ectodermal origin. The iris controls the amount of light entering the eye by the radial
muscles contracting in dim light and the circular muscles contracting in bright light. Both of these sets of
muscles are under the control of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic stimulation causes the
muscles and the pupil to dilate or get larger. Parasympathetic stimulation causes the circular muscles to
contract and the pupil to constrict.
3. Neural Coat- The Retina. The retina is the neural and sensory layer of the eye ball. Its external surface is in
contact with the choroid and its internal surface with the citreous humour. A small oval, yellowish area of
the retina lying exactly opposite the centre of the cornea is named the macular lutea or yellow spot which
has at its middle a shallow depression, the fovea centralis. The fovea centralis has cone cells only. It is
devoid of rods and blood vessels. The fovea centralis is the place of most distinct vision. Here the nerve
fibres from the light- sensitive cells leave the eyeball to from the optic nerve. An artery and a vein also pass
through the optic disc.This area is called the blind spot because it is devoid of receptor cells. Ora serrate (=
ora terminalis) is a special structure which demarcates the sensitive part of retina from its nosensory part .
Beginning from the external surface (choroid side), the retina consists of the following layers.
(i) Pigment Cell Layer. This layer lies close to the choroid. It consists of a single layer of cells containing
pigment. These pigment cells appear to be rectangular in vertical sector, their width being greater than
their height. The cells given rise to pigmented processes (projections), extending into the next layer.
(ii) Layer of Rods and Cones. The rods are processes of rod cells and cones are processes of cone cells. The
total number of rods in the human retina has been estimated at 110 to 125 million and cones at 6.3 to 6.8
million (Osterberg 1935). The rods contain a photosensitive pigment called the rhodopsin (= visual purple).
Rhodopsin is composed of opsin and retinene. The opsin is a protein and is called scotopsin in rhodopsin.
The rods mainly enable the animal to see in the darkness. Therefore, rods are present in large number in
nocturnal animal to photosensitive pigment in the cones is of three types namely: porpyrosin, iodopsin and
cyanopsin which give response to red, green and blue light respectively. The sensations of different colours
are produced by various combinations of these three types of cones and their photo pigments. The protein
in cone pigment is called photopsin, which is different from scotopsin of rhodopsin.

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 (Neural Control And Coordination)
(iii) External Nuclear Layer. This layer contains the cell bodies and nuclei of rod and cone cells.
(iv) External Plexiform Layer (= Outer Synaptic zone). This layer consists only of nerve fibres that form a plexus
(network). The axons of rods and cones synapse here with dendrites of bipolar neurons. Processes of
horizontal cells also take part in the formation of these synapses.
(v) Internal Nuclear Layer. This layer contains the cell bodies and nuclei of three types of neurons. (a) Bipolar
Neurons (b) Horizontal Neurons and (c) Amacrine cells.
(vi) Internal Plexiform Layer. (= Inner Synaptic Zone). This layer consists of synapsing nerve fibres of bipolar
neurons, ganglion cells and amacrine cells. This layer also contains some horizontally placed internal
plexiform cells and also a few ganglion cells.
(vii) Layer of Ganglion Cells. This layer contains the cell bodies of ganglions cells. Axon of each ganglion cell
gives to a fibre of the optic nerve.
(viii) Layer of Optic Nerve Fibres. This layer is made up of axons of ganglion cells that form the optic nerve. The
optic nerves are connected with the brain.
The nerve fibres from all parts of the retina converge to leave through a blind spot (= Optic disc) which
contains no rods and cones and, therefore, no image is formed at this spot.
Retinal Gliocytes (= Cells of Muller). In addition to bipolar, horizontal neurons and amacrine cells, the
internal nuclear layer also contains the cell bodies of the retinal gliocytes (= cells of Muller). These cells
from numerous protoplasmic processes that extend through almost the whole thickness of the retina and
form external and internal limiting membranes. The internal limiting membrane separates the retina from
the vitreous humour- Retinal gliocytes support the neurons of the retina and may ensheath them. They also
have nutritive function. Some atrocities (other glial cells) are also present in between the retinal neurons.
Contents of the Eye Ball
(i) The lens. It is a transparent, biconvex, elastic structure that bends light waves as they pass through its
surfaces. The lens surfaces. The lens separates the aqueous and vitreous humours. It is composed of
epithelial cells that have large amounts of clear cytoplasm in the form of fibres its capsule is composed of
layers of intercellular protein. The lens can charge shape from moment to moment and, by doing so,
focuses light waves into the retina from objects at different distances from the eye. The lens can also
charge shape from year to year, thereby accounting for changes in vision.
(ii) Aqueous Humour. The space between the cornea and the lens is called the aqueous chamber which
contains a thin watery fluid called auqous humour. The epithelium of the ciliary process continuously
secretes a watery fluid, the aqueous humour. The aqueous humour helps to maintain the shape of the front
part of the eye and provides nutrients to the lens and cornea. As stated earlier, the aqueous humour is
continuously drained off into the canal of Schlemm and then into the blood. The pressure in the eye, called
intraocular pressure is produced mainly by the aqueous humour.
(iii) Vitreous Humour. The space between the lens and retina is called the vitreous chamber which is filled with
a transparent gel called the vitreous humour. It helps to maintain the shape of the eyeball and also
contributes to intraocular pressure (pressure inside the eyeball). Unlike the aqueous humour, the vitreous
humour cannot be replaced in any significant quantity. Therefore, in puncture wounds of the eye it is
important to prevent the escape of citreous humour.

Differences between Aqueous Humour and Vitreous Humour

Aqueous Humour Vitreous Humour
1. It is a watery fluid 1. It is a jelly- like substance
2. It is present between cornea and lens 2. It is present in lens and retina
3. It is continuously secreted by ciliary processes 3. It is not replaced
and drained out of the eye
4. Obstruction in its flow may damage retina by 4. It does not flow
increasing intraocular pressure and may cause
glaucoma

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Differences between Blind Spot and Yellow Spot

Blind spot Yellow spot (Macula Lutea)
1. Optic nerve arise from this spot 1. It is yellow area of the retina lying exactly
opposite the centre of the cornea
2. It does not have a shallow depression 2. It has at its middle a shallow depression called
fovea contrails
3. No image if formed at blind spot 3. Image is formed yellow spot
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Differences between Blind spot and Fovea Centralis
Blind spot Fovea Centralis
1. Optic nerve fibres arise from it 1. It is a shallow depression of the retina in the
middle of the macula lutea (yellow spot)
2. There are no rods and cones 2. It has cones only
3. No image is formed at blind spot 3. It is the place most distinct image is formed

Differences between Rods and Cones

Rods Cones
1. Rods are sensitive to dim light 1. Cones are sensitive to bright light only
2. These contain rhodopsin pigment formed from 2. These contain iodopsin pigment
vitamin A
3. Rods do not help in seeing colours 3. Cones help in seeing colours

Differences between Iodopsin and Rhodopsin

Rods Cones
1. It is found in cones 1. It is present in rods
2. It is sensitive to bright light and gives ‘’day 2. It is sensitive to din light and gives ‘’twilight’’
light’’ vision vision
3. It gives colour vision 3. It does not give colour vision
4. Insufficient iodopsin results in colour blindness 4. Insufficient rhodopsin results in night blindness
which is due to vitamin A deficiency.

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