Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
by
Aziz Issaka
Supervisor: Prof. Károly Böröczky
Associate Supervisor: Mr. Gerg® Nemes
in the
Department of Mathematics and Its Application
Central European University
May 2014
Acknowledgements
I am most grateful to the Almighty God for his protection, mercies and guidance through-
supervisor Prof. Károly Böröczky for his continuous help and support for carrying out
I would like to express my deep gratitude and respect to my associate supervisor Gerg®
Nemes, whose supports and advices was invaluable to me throughout this thesis. It is
with his help and support that this work came to fruition.
I would like to thank Prof. Pál Heged¶s, Prof. András Bátkai, Elvira Kadvány, Melinda
Balázs and all the lecturers in the department for their teachings, help and support.
I would also like to thank my class mates and all the student in the department for their
friendly support.
I would also like to thank all the CEU sta and all my CEU friends for their friendly
I would also like to thank D.r Peter Amoako-Yirenkyi for his encouragement and support.
Finally, I would like to thank my parents, my sisters Hawa, Bilkis, Samiratu, Wasilatu
and Fadeelatu and my brothers Osman, Faisal, Kassim, Misbahu and all my family and
friends, especially Suraju Mumuni, Anissa Mohammed-Rabiu, Laila Issaka, etc. for their
i
Contents
Acknowledgements i
Introduction 1
1 Preliminaries 3
1.1 Fundamental Concepts and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Conclusion 33
Bibliography 34
ii
This thesis is dedicated to my parents Issaka Osumanu and Jamilatu
Issaka. All I have and will accomplish are only possible due to their
love and sacrices.
iii
Introduction
First, I will give a brief story about Ramanujan and his lost notebooks.
Figure 1: S. Ramanujan
Most famous mathematicians were educated at renowned centers of learning and were
southern Indian State of Tamil Nadu. He started to focus on mathematics at the age of
15 years and borrowed a copy of G. S. Carr's Synopsis of Pure and Applied Mathematics
which served as his primary source of learning mathematics. At the age of 16 years,
paying attention to other subjects and consequently failed his examinations at the end
of the rst year. He therefore lost his scholarship and was forced to halt his formal
During his time at the college; he began to record his mathematical discoveries in note-
books. Living in poverty with no means of nancial support devoted all of his eort to
mathematics and continued to record his discoveries without proofs in notebooks for the
next 6 years.
He later visited G. H. Hardy, who was then a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge where
he worked for some time and by the end of his third year in England, became ill and
returned home after the World War I ended and died on 26 April 1920 the age of 32. In
1
Introduction 2
a letter to one of his friends, Ramanjuan admitted, I am doing my work very slowly.
My notebook is sleeping in corner for these four or ve months. I am publishing only
my present researches as I have not yet proved the results in my notebooks rigorously.
He is known for his asymptotic formulas in number theory but has not received much
recognition for his asymptotic methods and theorems in analysis because his beautiful
asymptotic formulas, both general and specic, laid hidden in his notebooks for many
years.
After his death, G. H. Hardy strongly urged that Ramanujan's notebooks be edited
and published. By editing, Hardy meant that each claim made by Ramanujan in his
notebooks should be examined. For more information on the story of Ramanujan story,
We will present some new results about two problems of Ramanujan from the lost note-
book 1 [6] and 5 [7] in this thesis. The rst problem is about an approximation of the
inverse of the Digamma function, which was proposed by Ramanujan with no proof and
without a formula for the general term. B. C. Berndt [6, pp. 194195, Entry 15] also
did not give any proof for the problem but only showed that, the rst few terms of the
proposed problem agree. The second problem is about an asymptotic formula of the
Harmonic numbers in terms of the triangular numbers, which again was proposed by
Ramanujan, see B. C. Berndt [7, pp. 531532, Entry 9]. In 2012, M. D. Hirschhorn [10]
gave a proof, but there is a gap in his proof which he admitted and our aim is to ll this
gap.
Chapter 1
Preliminaries
will be very useful hereinafter. For additional material, see, e.g., Olver [13].
Let H be a domain in the complex plane. Let f (z) and g(z) be two continuous functions
dened on H. Let z0 be an accumulation point of H.
mean that for every >0 and a neighbourhood U of z0 such that |f (z)| ≤ |g(z)| for all
z ∈ U ∩ H .
f (z)
lim
z→z0
= 0.
z∈U ∩H
g(z)
3
Chapter 1. Preliminaries 4
f (z)
lim
z→z0
= 1.
z∈U ∩H
g(z)
Denition 1.1.4. Let H be a domain in the complex plane and let z0 be an accumulation
∞
X
ak φk (z)
k=1
N
X
f (z) − ak φk (z) = o(φN (z)) as z → z0 . (1.1)
k=1
∞
X
f (z) ∼ ak φk (z) as z → z0 in H.
k=1
Denition 1.1.6. Let f (z) be dened on a domain H. If f (z) has an asymptotic series
∞ ∞
X ak X bk
f (z) ∼ and g(z) ∼ as z → ∞ in a domain H.
zk zk
k=0 k=0
∞
X αak + βbk
αf (z) + βg(z) ∼ as z → ∞ in the domain H.
zk
k=0
Chapter 1. Preliminaries 5
Moreover,
∞ k
X ck X
f (z)g(z) ∼ as z → ∞ in the domain H, with ck = ak−j bj .
zk
k=0 j=0
If a0 6= 0, then
∞ k−1
1 X dk 1 X
∼ , as z → ∞ in the domain H, with d0 = and dk = −d0 ak−j dj for k ≥ 1.
f (z) zk a0
k=0 j=0
∞
X ∞
X
f (z) ∼ ak φk (z) and f (z) ∼ bk φk (z) as z → z0 in H,
k=0 k=0
f (z)
a0 = lim
z→z0
,
z∈U ∩H
φ0 (z)
Pn−1
f (z) − k=0 ak φk (z)
an = lim
z→z0
.
z∈U ∩H
φn (z)
In this section, we present some basic notions and concepts of the Gamma function,
the Digamma function, and a bridge connecting Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 which will be
useful hereinafter.
Denition 1.2.1. The Gamma function also known as the Eulerian integral of the
Z +∞
Γ(z) = e−t tz−1 dt.
0
Denition 1.2.2. The Digamma function or the Psi function is given by the fol-
lowing expression
d Γ0 (z)
ψ(z) = log Γ(z) = with z 6= 0, −1, −2, . . . .
dz Γ(z)
Chapter 1. Preliminaries 6
+∞ −t
e−zt
Z
e
ψ(z) = − , for R(z) ≥ 0.
0 t 1 − e−t
The functions ψ (n) (z), n = 1, 2, . . . , are called the polygamma functions. In particular,
ψ 0 (z) is called the trigamma function, ψ (2) , ψ (3) , ψ (4) are respectively called, the tetra-,
penta-, and hexagamma functions. The properties of these functions are obtained simply
Denition 1.2.3. The Euler constant also called EulerMascheroni constant, usu-
ally denoted by γ, is dened as
1 1 1
γ = lim 1 + + + . . . − log n .
n→+∞ 2 3 n
Here we state some basic properties of the Digamma function, for additional information
∞ n
!
1 X 1 1 X 1
(1) ψ(z) = −γ − + − = lim log n − .
z n n+z n→+∞ k+z
n=1 k=0
n−1 n−1
X 1 X 1
(4) ψ(z + n) = ψ(z) + , ψ(z − n) = ψ(z) − .
z+k z+k
n=1 n=1
n
X 1
(5) ψ(1 + n) = −γ + .
k
k=1
1
(6) ψ = −γ − 2 log 2.
2
n−1
1 X 1
(7) ψ ±n = −γ − 2 log 2 + 2 .
2 2k + 1
k=0
Chapter 1. Preliminaries 7
(8) For x > 0, the Diagmma function satises the following functional equation
1
ψ x+ = 2ψ(2x) − ψ(x) − 2 log 2. (1.2)
2
Denition 1.2.4. The Bernoulli polynomials Bk (x) are sequence of polynomials with
rational coecients and play an important role in several areas of mathematics. These
∞
text X tk
= B k (x) , |x| < 2π.
et − 1 k!
k=0
The special values Bk (0) = Bk are called the Bernoulli numbers. For odd index k > 1,
all the Bk 's are zero, and the even-indexed Bk alternate in sign. The rst few values of
The following proposition gives the asymptotic expansion of the Digamma function, for
∞
1 X B2n 1
ψ(z) ∼ log z − − , (1.3)
2z 2n z 2n
n=1
as z → +∞.
∞
(1 − 21−2n )B2n
1 X
ψ z+ ∼ log z + , (1.4)
2 2nz 2n
n=1
as z → +∞.
In this section, we present the fundamental concepts of the Hurwitz zeta function, Har-
monic numbers, and a short history relating to some approximations of the Harmonic
numbers which will be be useful hereinafter, see the paper of Villarino [15] for more
details.
Chapter 1. Preliminaries 8
Denition 1.3.1. For every natural number n ≥ 1, the nth Harmonic Number, Hn
is the nth partial sum of the harmonic series
1 1 1
Hn := 1 + + + ··· + .
2 3 n
The asymptotics of Hn was determined by Euler in his famous formula, which follows
1 1 1
Hn ∼ log n + γ + − 2
+ − ···
2n 12n 120n4
∞
1 X B2k 1
= log n + γ + − .
2n 2k n2k
k=1
1
Hn ≈ log n + γ + (Euler's approximation),
2n
1
Hn ≈ log n + γ + 1 (TothMare approximation),
2n + 3
p 1
Hn ≈ log n(n + 1) + γ + (LodgeRamanujan approximation),
6n(n + 1) + 65
1 1
Hn ≈ log n + +γ+ 2 (DetempleWang approximation).
2 24 n + 21 + 21 5
Here we state some denitions and representations of the Hurwitz zeta function [14, p.
Denition 1.3.2. The Hurwitz zeta function ζ(s, a) was introduced by Hurwitz (1882)
and is dened by the series expansion
∞
X 1
ζ(s, a) = for R(s) > 1 and a 6= 0, −1, −2, . . . . (1.5)
(n + a)s
n=0
The ζ(s, a) has a meromorphic continuation to the s-plane, with a simple pole at s=1
with residue 1. As a function of a, with s 6= 1 xed, ζ(s, a) is analytic in the half-plane
X (−1)n ∞
1 1 1
ζ(s, a) = ζ(s, a + ) + 2s
2 2 2 (n + a)s
n=0
+∞
a1−s
Z
1 1 1 1 1
ζ(s, a) = a−s + + t s−1
t
− + e−at dt,
2 s − 1 Γ(s) 0 e −1 t 2
Denition 1.3.3. A Triangular Number enumerates the objects that can form an
equilateral triangular. The nth triangular number is equal to the sum of the natural
numbers from 1 to n.
0, 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, 66, 78, 91, . . . ,
The nth Triangular number can be given explicitly by the following formulas
n
X n(n + 1)
m := m(n) = k = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 · · · + (n − 1) + n = .
2
k=1
In this section, we present some basic notions of formal power series and some tools that
Denition 1.4.1. A formal power series can be dened formally as innite sequence
(a0 , a1 , a3 , . . .) of complex numbers; and can also be represented in the form
∞
X
a0 + a1 t + a2 t2 + · · · = an tn .
k=0
In simple terms, a formal power series is a power series (or Taylor series) in which the
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
k k
ak t + bk t = (ak + bk )tk .
k=0 k=0 k=0
Denition 1.4.3 (Multiplication) . The product of two formal power series is again a
∞ ∞ ∞
! !
X X X
k k
ak t bk t = ck tk ,
k=0 k=0 k=0
Pk
where ck = n=0 an bk−n .
Denition 1.4.4 (Substitution) . Let B(t) be a formal power series with constant term
P∞ k
P∞ k
zero and if A(t) =
k=0 ak t is another formal power series, then A(B(t)) = k=0 ak B(t)
n k
and B(t) has no terms in t for k < n.
Here we state some two important theorems about formal power series that we shall use
in the next chapter (see, e.g., Comtet [8, p. 148 and pp. 133134]).
∞
( )
yk dk−1 t k
X
t= .
k! dtk−1 f (t)
k=1 t=0
∞ ∞ m
!
X X X Y 1
ak tk (aj )kj
k
exp =
t .
kj !
k=1 k=0 k1 ,k2 ,...,km ≥0 j=1
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =m
Lemma 1.4.3.
P∞ k
Let α∈C be xed and let F (t) = k=0 fk t , f0 = 1 be a formal power
series. Then
∞
X
F (t)α = pk tk , (1.7)
k=0
with p0 = 1 and
m
1 X
pm = (αk − m + k)pm−k (α)fk ,
m
k=1
for m ≥ 1.
Chapter 1. Preliminaries 11
∞
!α−1 ∞
! ∞
X X X
k k−1
α fk t kfk t = kpk tk−1 ,
k=0 k=1 k=1
∞
!α−1 ∞
! ∞
X X X
k k
α fk t (k + 1)fk+1 t = (k + 1)pk+1 tk . (1.8)
k=0 k=0 k=0
∞
!α ∞
! ∞
! ∞
!
X X X X
α fk tk (k + 1)fk+1 tk = (k + 1)pk+1 tk fk tk ,
k=0 k=0 k=0 k=0
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
! ! ! !
X X X X
α pk tk (k + 1)fk+1 tk = (k + 1)pk+1 tk fk tk ,
k=0 k=0 k=0 k=0
∞
X k
X ∞
X k
X
α pj (k − j + 1)fk−j+1 tk = (j + 1)pj+1 fk−j tk .
j=0 j=0 j=0 j=0
Applying the Cauchy product of two innite series and equating coecients, we obtain
k
X k
X
α(k − j + 1)pj fk−j+1 = (j + 1)pj+1 fk−j ,
j=0 j=0
where
k
X k−1
X
(j + 1)pj+1 fk−j = (k + 1)pk+1 f0 + (j + 1)pj+1 fk−j ,
j=0 j=0
and
k−1
X k−1
X k
X
(j + 1)pj+1 fk−j = (j + 1)pj+1 fk+1−(j+1) = jpj fk+1−j .
j=0 j=0 j=0
Therefore
k
X k
X
α(k − j + 1)pj fk−j+1 = (k + 1)pk+1 f0 + jpj fk−j+1 .
j=0 j=0
Since f0 = 1, we obtain
k
X k
X
(k + 1)pk+1 = α(k − j + 1)pj fk−j+1 − jpj fk+1−j ,
j=0 j=0
Chapter 1. Preliminaries 12
k
X
(k + 1)pk+1 = (α(k − j + 1) − j) pj fk−j+1 ,
j=0
k
1 X
pk+1 = (α(k − j + 1) − j) pj fk−j+1 .
k+1
j=0
m
1 X
pm = − (α(k − m) + k) pk fm−k ,
m
k=1
Approximation
In this chapter we present some new results of an unsolved problem of Ramanujan, found
in the book of B. C. Berndt [6, pp. 194195, Entry 15] titled Ramanujan's Notebooks
Part I. B. C. Berndt only showed that, the rst few coecients of an asymptotic series we
are about to discuss in the subsequent section agree with the ones given by Ramanujan.
But in general neither Ramanujan nor B. C. Berndt was able to come up with a formula
for the general term and since then nothing has been done as of this date, that is why
we deem it interesting to come up with possible solutions to the problem. This chapter
is divided into two sections, the rst section deals with the description of the problem.
In the second section, we will give the main results that is all the theorems we have
propounded.
Ramanujan [6, pp. 194195, Entry 15] rst denes a by the equality
and regards a as a function of x which is assumed to be real and positive. We know from
(1.4) that ψ(x + 1) ∼ log(x + 1/2) for large x. Which further implies that a ∼ x + 1/2
for large x. This actually means that Ramanujan's notation is reasonable. Ramanujan
[6, pp. 194195, Entry 15] proposed the following asymptotic expansion without a proof
13
Chapter 2. Ramanujan's Inverse Digamma Approximation 14
!4n
1
x+ 2 n 10n2 + 11n 70n3 + 231n2 + 891n
∼1− + − + ··· (2.2)
a 6a2 720a4 80720a6
as a → +∞. Let us denote the mth coecient in Ramanujan's expansion (2.2) by %m (n),
so that !4n
1 ∞
x+ 2
X %m (n)
∼ as a → +∞. (2.3)
a a2m
m=0
1 1 3 555
x∼− +a− + 3
− + ··· ,
2 24a 640a 129152a6
This means that Ramanujan's approximation really gives the inverse of the Digamma
function asmptotically.
The rst aim of this section is to provide formulae for the computation of the coecients
%m (n). We nd that these coecients can be derived explicitly when n = − 14 , whereas
for the general complex n, we have a recurrence relation for the general term %m (n)
involving the %m (− 41 ). The second aim is to provide an asymptotic formula for %m (n)
when n is xed and m → +∞.
Here we give an explicit formula for computing %m (n) when n = − 14 , which we shall use
m k
1 (2m + 1)(1 − 21−2j )B2j j
1 1 X Y
%m − = ,
4 2m + 1 kj ! 2j
k1 ,k2 ,...,km ≥0 j=1
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =m
1
Proof. Substituting x=z− 2 into (1.4), we obtain the following expression
∞
a X (1 − 21−2k )B2k
log ∼ ,
z 2kz 2k
k=1
as z → +∞. Then
∞ ∞
!
1 1 X (1 − 21−2k )B2k X µm
∼ exp − ∼ ,
a z 2kz 2k zm
k=1 n=0
with some real coecients µm . By Olver's theorem [13, pp. 2222], we can invert this
∞
1 X λm
∼ ,
z am
m=0
as a → +∞, with some real coecients λm . To determine the λm 's we can use Proposi-
1 1
tion 1.4.1 with the choice of y= a, t= z and
∞ ∞
!
X X (1 − 21−2m )B2m 2m
f (t) = µ m tm = t exp − t ,
2m
m=0 m=1
to arrive at
∞
X
t= λm y m ,
m=1
where
" ∞
!m #
1 dm−1 X (1 − 21−2k )B2k 2k
λm = exp t .
m! dtm−1 2k
k=1 t=0
∞
" ∞
!m #
1 X 1 dm−1 X (1 − 21−2k )B2k 2k
∼ exp t ,
z m!amdtm−1 2k
m=1 k=1 t=0
∞ ∞
" !#
1 X 1 dm X (m + 1)B2k (1 − 21−2k ) 2k
∼ exp t ,
z (m + 1)!am+1 dtm 2k
m=0 k=1
∞
" ∞
!# t=0
a X 1 d m X (m + 1)B2k (1 − 2 1−2k ) 2k
∼ m m
exp t .
z (m + 1)!a dt 2k
m=0 k=1 t=0
Chapter 2. Ramanujan's Inverse Digamma Approximation 16
Because the odd powers vanish, we consider only the even powers and by applying
∞ ∞ m k
2m X 1 (2m + 1)(1 − 21−2j )B2j j 2k
a X 1 1 d
X Y
∼ t .
z (2m + 1)a2m (2m)! dt2m kj ! 2j
m=0 k=0 k1 ,k2 ,...,km ≥0 j=1
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =m t=0
∞ m k
1 (2m + 1)(1 − 21−2j )B2j j 1
a X 1 X Y
∼ . (2.4)
z (2m + 1) kj ! 2j a2m
m=0 k1 ,k2 ,...,km ≥0 j=1
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =m
1
Substituting back z =x+ 2 in (2.4) we nd that
!−1 ∞ m k
1
1 (2m + 1)(1 − 21−2j )B2j j 1
x+ 2
X 1 X Y
∼ .
a (2m + 1) kj ! 2j a2m
m=0 k1 ,k2 ,...,km ≥0 j=1
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =m
!−1 ∞
1
x+ 2
X %m (− 14 )
∼ as a → +∞.
a a2m
m=0
It follows from the uniqueness on the coecient of asymptotic power series that
m k
1 (2m + 1)(1 − 21−2j )B2j j
1 1 X Y
%m − = ,
4 2m + 1 kj ! 2j
k1 ,k2 ,...,km ≥0 j=1
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =m
Here we present a recurrence relation for the general term %m (n) with the help of Lemma
1.4.3 and Theorem 2.2.1.
Theorem 2.2.2. For m ≥ 1, the coecients %m (n) satises the recurrence relation
m
1 X 1
%m (n) = − ((4n − 1)k + m)%m−k (n)%k (− )
m 4
k=1
with %0 (n) = 1.
Chapter 2. Ramanujan's Inverse Digamma Approximation 17
∞
!−4n ∞
X X
m
%m (−1/4)t = %m (n)tm .
m=0 m=0
m
1 X 1
%m (n) = − ((4n − 1)k + m)%m−k (n)%k (− ),
m 4
k=1
Here we state some Lemmata and Theorems which we shall use to determine the asymp-
2(2k)! 4(2k)!
2k
< |B2k | < .
(2π) (2π)2k
k+1 2(2k)! 1 1 1
B2k = (−1) 1 + 2k + 2k + 2k + · · · ,
(2π)2k 2 3 4
2(2k)!
< |B2k |.
(2π)2k
∞ ∞
X 1 X 1 π2
≤ = < 2.
n2k n2 6
n=1 n=1
2(2m)!
(1 − 21−2m )B2m ∼ B2m ∼ (−1)m+1 ,
(2π)2m
as m → +∞.
Proof. Clearly,
(1 − 21−2m )B2m
lim = 1.
m→+∞ B2m
Chapter 2. Ramanujan's Inverse Digamma Approximation 18
∞ ∞
B2m X 1 X 1
1≤ lim 2(2m)!
= lim 2m
≤ lim 2jm
= 1,
m→+∞ (−1)m+1 (2π) m→+∞ k m→+∞ 2
2m k=0 j=0
∞
X ∞
X
α(x) = αk xk , F (x) = fk xk ,
k=1 k=1
∞
X
β(x) := F (α(x)) = βk xk .
k=1
k−1
X
(2) |αj αk−j | = O(αk−1 ) as k → +∞.
j=1
Then βk ∼ f1 αk as k → +∞.
Lemma 2.2.6. Dene the formal power series A(x) with coecients a1 , a2 , . . . via the
expression
∞ ∞
!
X (1 − 21−2k )B2k X
A(x) = exp xk −1= ak xk .
2k
k=1 k=1
Then we have
(−1)k+1 (2k)!
ak ∼ ,
k(2π)2k
as k → +∞.
To prove Lemma 2.2.6, we apply Theorem 2.2.5 together with Lemma 2.2.3 and Lemma
2.2.4.
∞ ∞
X B2k (1 − 21−2k ) X xk
α(x) := xk , F (x) := ex = .
2k k!
k=1 k=0
Chapter 2. Ramanujan's Inverse Digamma Approximation 19
It follows that
∞
X
A(x) = F (α(x)) =: β(x) = ak xk .
k=1
(1 − 21−2k )B2k
αk := ,
2k
we obtain
(1 − 21−2k )(2k)! 2(1 − 21−2k )(2k)!
< |α k | < ,
k(2π)2k k(2π)2k
for every k ≥ 1. Then we have
(2k)! 2(2k)!
2k
≤ |αk | < (2.5)
2k(2π) k(2π)2k
4(2π)2
αk−1
0 ≤ lim
< lim = 0,
k→+∞ αk k→+∞ (k − 1)(2k − 1)
we have
We have
k−2 k k−2
X (2j + 1)!(2k − 2j − 3)! X (2j + 1) 6 X (2j + 1)
= =2+ + ,
(2k − 3)! 2k + 1 k(2k + 1) 2k + 1
j=1 j=0 j=0
2j 2j
2k + 1
and ≥ Ck 3 , therefore
2j
k−2 ∞
X (2j + 1)!(2k − 2j − 3)! X 1
≤3+K < 3 + 2K.
(2k − 3)! k2
j=1 k=1
Chapter 2. Ramanujan's Inverse Digamma Approximation 20
Finally, we obtain
k−1
X
|αj αk−j | < 16|αk−1 |(3 + 2k) ≤ C|α
e k−1 |,
j=1
Since condition (1) and (2) of Theorem 2.2.6 are satised, we can conclude that
as k → +∞.
Theorem 2.2.7 (E. A. Bender and L. B. Richmond, [5]) . Let A(x) be a formal power
Here we present our result concerning the asymptotic behaviour of %m (n) when n = −1/4
by applying Lemma 2.2.6 and Theorem 2.2.7, which will be useful in our next result about
1 2(2m − 1)!
%m − ∼ (−1)m+1 ,
4 (2π)2m
as m → +∞.
Proof. Let A(x) be the formal power series given in Lemma 2.2.6, and dene the sequence
p0 , p1 , p2 , . . . by
∞
X
(1 + A(x))2m+1 = pk xk .
k=0
kak−1 −k
lim = lim = 0.
k→+∞ ak k→+∞ (2k − 1)(2k − 2)
Hence the condition (1) of Theorem 2.2.7 holds. Thus, we can conclude that
∞
!
X (2m + 1)(1 − 21−2k )B2k
(1 + A(x))2m+1 = exp xk
2k
k=1
∞ m k
1 (2m + 1)(1 − 21−2j )B2j j k
X X Y
= x ,
kj ! 2j
k=0 k1 ,k2 ,...,km ≥0 j=1
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =m
m k
1 (2m + 1)(1 − 21−2j )B2j j
X Y
pm = . (2.7)
kj ! 2j
k1 ,k2 ,...,km ≥0 j=1
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =m
1 2(2m + 1)(2m − 1)!
(2m + 1)%m − = pm ∼ (−1)m+1 ,
4 (2π)2m
and nally,
1 2(2m − 1)!
%m − ∼ (−1)m+1 ,
4 (2π)2m
as m → +∞.
Here we present our nal result on the asymptotic formula for the general term %m (n)
for every complex number n. This can be achieved with the help of Theorem 2.2.5 and
Theorem 2.2.8.
8n(2m − 1)!
%m (n) ∼ (−1)m ,
(2π)2m
as m → +∞.
Chapter 2. Ramanujan's Inverse Digamma Approximation 22
∞ ∞ ∞
X −4n X 1 X
F (x) = (1 + x)−4n = xk , α(x) = %m (− )xm =: αm xm .
k 4
k=0 m=1 m=1
2(2m − 1)!
αm ∼ (−1)m+1 ,
(2π)2m
which implies
c2 (2π)2
αm−1
lim
= lim = 0,
m→+∞ αm m→+∞ c1 (2m − 1)
m−1
4c22 (2m − 2)! X
1 (2m − 2)!
= = O = O(αm−1 ).
(2π)2m
2m − 2 (2π)2m
j=1
2j − 1
Hence the condition (2) of Theorem 2.2.5 also holds and it follows that
1
%m (n) ∼ −4nαm = −4n%m − ,
4
8n(2m − 1)!
%m (n) ∼ (−1)m ,
(2π)2m
as m → +∞.
Remark: Although the general terms are given by a complicated formula, their asymp-
totic behaviour are simple and it also shows the divergent character of Ramanujan's
series.
Chapter 3
number
Ramanujan [7, pp. 531532, Entry 9] provided an asymptotic series for the nth Harmonic
number, but he expresses the asymptotic expansion in powers of 1/m instead of 1/n,
where m is the nth triangular number. B. C. Berndt [7, pp. 531532, Entry 9] says
We cannot nd a natural method to produce such an asymptotic series. In 2012, M. D.
Hirschhorn [10] provided a natural derivation of the asymptotic series by computing only
the rst 11 odd powers for the tail of the Riemann zeta function with no proof, which he
admitted by saying the reader might note that I hesitate to use the word prove . Our
aim is to give a general expansion which works for any odd power and as a special case,
our result will contain the expansions given in the result of M. D. Hirschhorn , not only
that but with formula for the general coecient and a precise error term. This means
that the special case of our result together with M. D. Hirschhorn's result completely
solves the problem. This chapter is divided into two sections. The rst section deals
with the description of the problem and a brief history of other related problems. In the
Ramanujan [7, pp. 531532, Entry 9] proposed the following asymptotic expansion for
the partial sum of the harmonic series without proof and also without a formula for the
general term
n
X 1 1 1 1 1 1
Hn := ∼ log(2m) + γ + − + − + ··· . (3.1)
k 2 12m 120m2 630m3 1680m4
k=1
23
Chapter 3. Ramanujan on the nth Harmonic numbers. 24
In 2008, M. Villarino [15] gave a proof and a formula for the general term with a nice error
somewhat enigmatic and mentioned that we cannot nd a natural method to produce
also called natural method. In proving (3.1), M. D. Hirschhorn mentions that I hesitate
to use the word prove and derived the following results for the odd powers, that is
∞
X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∼ − + − + − + ··· ,
k3 4m 16m 2 48m 3 96m 4 120m5 96m6
k=n+1
∞
X 1 1 1 11 5 13 1
∼ − + − + − + ··· ,
k5 16m 2 24m 3 384m 3 192m 5 384m 6 16m7
k=n+1
.
.
.
∞
X 1 1
∼ − ··· ,
k 23 45056m11
k=n+1
n ∞ ∞ ∞
X 1 1 1X 1 1X 1 1X 1
− log 2m − γ = + + + ··· .
k 2 3 k3 5 k5 7 k7
k=1 n+1 n+1 n+1
P∞ j
The rst aim of this section is to provide an expression for the k=n+1 1/k where j>1
with a formula for the general term and a precise error term. Secondly we will as a
special case provide an expression for the odd powers, that is j = 2i + 1 for i≥1 with
a formula for the general term and nice error term. M. D. Hirschhorn just computed
the rst few terms of those series for the rst 11 odd numbers without error term and a
general term. So our result is not only going ll in this gap but will add beauty to his
result base on formulas we are going to provide. We start by rst proving the following
∞ ∞
1 X 2s X 1
2s ζ(s, 2a + 1) − ζ(s, a + ) = −
2
n=0
(n + 2a + 1) s
n=0
(n + a + 12 )s
∞ ∞
X 1 X 1
= n 1 s −
( + a + 2)
n=0 2 n=0
(n + a + 12 )s
" #
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + + + + ··· −
(a + 12 )s (a + 1)s (a + 32 )s (a + 2)s (a + 25 )s (a + 52 )s
" #
1 1 1 1
− − − − ··· .
(a + 3)s (a + 32 )s (a + 25 )s (a + 72 )s
X∞
1 1 1 1 1
= s
+ s
+ s
+ s
+ · · · =
(a + 1) (a + 2) (a + 3) (a + 4) (n + a)s
n=1
∞
X 1
= = ζ(s, a + 1),
(n + a + 1)s
n=0
(a + 12 )1−s +∞
Z
1 1 1 1
ζ(s, a + 1) = + s−1
t − e−(a+ 2 )t dt,
s−1 2Γ(s) 0 sinh(t/2) t/2
(a + 12 )1−s
s Z +∞
2 s−1 1 1 1 −(2a+1)t
ζ(s, a + 1) = + t − + e dt −
s−1 Γ(s) 0 et − 1 t 2
Z +∞
1 s−1 1 1 1 −(a+ 1 )t
t − + e 2 dt .
Γ(s) 0 et − 1 t 2
(a + 21 )1−s +∞
Z
1 2 2 1 1
ζ(s, a + 1) = + s−1
t t/2
− t − e−(a+ 2 )t dt,
s−1 2Γ(s) 0 e − 1 e − 1 t/2
Here we present a series representation of the reciprocal of the hyperbolic sine with an
error term. This will enable us to evaluate the integral in Lemma 3.2.2 and obtain a
series representation of the Hurwitz zeta function with a precise error term.
N −1
1 1 X (2 − 22n+2 )B2n+2 2n+1 (2 − 22N +2 )B2N +2 2N +1
= + x + Θ(x, N ) x
sinh(x) x (2n + 2)! (2N + 2)!
n=0
Proof. We shall use the following well know expressions, which can be found in [14, p.
∞
X (−1)k
x
= 1 + 2x2 , (3.2)
sinh(x) x2 + π 2 k 2
k=1
∞
2(2n + 2)! X cos(2πkx)
B2n+2 (x) = (−1)n 2n+2
, (3.3)
(2π) k 2n+2
k=1
1
Bn = −(1 − 21−n )Bn . (3.4)
2
∞
X 1 (2π)2n+2 B2n+2 ( 12 ) (2π)2n+2 (2−2n−1 − 1)B2n+2
(−1)n (−1)k = = . (3.5)
k 2n+2 2(2n + 2)! 2(2n + 2)!
k=1
N −1
1 X zN
= (−1)k z k + (−1)N , z 6= 1,
1+z 1+z
k=0
"N −1 ∞
#
x X (2 − 22n+2 )B2n+2 X x 2N
= 1 + 2x2 x2n + (−1)N +k ,
sinh(x) 2(2n + 2)! (πk)2N (x2 + π 2 k 2 )
n=0 k=1
or
N −1 ∞
x X (2 − 22n+2 )B2n+2 2n+2 X x2N +2
=1+ x +2 (−1)N +k (3.6)
sinh(x) (2n + 2)! (πk)2N (x2 + π 2 k 2 )
n=0 k=1
P∞ k 1
k=1 (−1) (πk)2N (x2 +π 2 k2 ) (2 − 22N +2 )B2N +2 2N +2
RN := P∞ k 1 x ,
k=1 (−1) (πk)2N (π 2 k2 ) (2N + 2)!
Chapter 3. Ramanujan on the nth Harmonic numbers. 27
then
N −1
x X (2 − 22n+2 )B2n+2 2n+2
=1+ x + RN .
sinh(x) (2n + 2)!
n=0
Let P∞ k+1 1
k=1 (−1) k2N (x2 +π 2 k2 ) f (x)
Θ(x, N ) := P∞ k+1 1 := ,
k=1 (−1) k2N (π 2 k2 )
f (0)
where
∞
X 1
f (x) = (−1)k+1
k 2N (x2 + π2 k2 )
k=1
∞
X 1 1
= − .
(2m + 1)2N (x2 + π 2 (2m + 1)2 ) (2m + 2)2N (x2 + π 2 (2m + 2)2 )
m=0
Here we try to nd the range of Θ(x, N ). For the general term, we have
1 1
fm (x) := − ≥0
(2m + 1)2N (x2 + π 2 (2m + 1)2 ) (2m + 2)2N (x2 + π 2 (2m + 2)2 )
and
Here we present our rst result concerning the nth Harmonic number which will be very
useful for our next result. This result can be achieved with the help of Lemma 3.2.3.
n r
X 1 (n + 12 )1−j X (1 − 21−2p )B2p (j)2p−1
= ζ(j) + +
kj
k=1
j−1 (2p)! (n + 12 )2p+j−1
p=1
(2−2r−1− 1)B2r+2 (j)2r+1
+θr (j, n) ,
(2r + 2)! (n + 12 )2r+j+1
where (a)m = Γ(a + m)/Γ(a) and with a suitable 0 < θr (j, n) < 1.
N −1 2n+1
1 X (2 − 22n+2 )B2n+2 (2 − 22N +2 )B2N +2 t 2N +1
1 t
= + +Θ(t/2, N ) ,
sinh(t/2) t/2 (2n + 2)! 2 (2N + 2)! 2
n=0
Chapter 3. Ramanujan on the nth Harmonic numbers. 28
N −1
(a + 12 )1−s 1 X (2−2n − 2)B2n+2 +∞ 2n+s −(a+ 1 )t
Z
ζ(s, a + 1) = + t e 2 dt
s−1 2Γ(s) (2n + 2)! 0
n=0
1 (2−2N − 2)B2N +2 +∞
Z
1
+ Θ(t/2, N )t2N +s e−(a+ 2 )t dt
2Γ(s) (2N + 2)! 0
Note that
Z +∞ Z +∞
2n+s −(a+ 12 )t 1 Γ(2n + s + 1)
t e dt = 1 2n+s+1 x2n+s e−x dx = ,
0 (a + 2 ) 0 (a + 12 )2n+s+1
Z +∞ 1 Γ(2N + s + 1)
Θ(t/2, N )t2N +s e−(a+ 2 )t dt = θN (s, a) ,
0 (a + 12 )2N +s+1
with a suitable 0 < θN (s, a) < 1. We arrive at the following expression after combining
N −1
(a + 21 )1−s X (2−2n−1 − 1)B2n+2 Γ(2n + s + 1)
ζ(s, a + 1) = +
s−1 (2n + 2)!
n=0
Γ(s)(a + 12 )2n+s+1
(2−2N −1 − 1)B2N +2 Γ(2N + s + 1)
+θN (s, a) . (3.7)
Γ(s)(2N + 2)! (a + 12 )2N +s+1
n
X 1
= ζ(j) − ζ(j, n + 1). (3.8)
kj
k=1
Substituting (3.7) into (3.8) with s=j and a = n, we obtain obtain the statement of
the theorem.
To prove our main result, we need the following lemma, which is an easy consequence of
N −1
α
X α n (α) α
(1 + x) = x + ΘN xN ,
m N
n=0
(α)
with a suitable 0 < ΘN < 1.
Now, we are ready to present our main result. Here we present an expansion of the odd
powers of the Riemann zeta function in terms of the reciprocal of the nth triangular
Chapter 3. Ramanujan on the nth Harmonic numbers. 29
number m, with a nice error term and a formula for the general coecient. This can be
n r i i
X 1 1 X A p Ar+1
= ζ(2i + 1) + + κr (n, i) r+1 ,
k 2i+1 (2m)i mp m
k=1 p=0
p
(−1)p X 2i + 2q (22q − 2)B2q
q p+i−1
Aip = (−1) .
8p p−q 2q 2i + 2q
q=0
n r
X 1 (n + 21 )−2i X Spi Sr+1i
= ζ(2i + 1) + + + Θ r (n, i) .
k=1
k 2i+1 −2i (n + 21 )2p+2i
p=1
(n + 21 )2r+2i+2
1 −2i
First, let us modify the term n+ 2 using the binomial series
1
To obtain the series expansion in terms of
m , we apply the binomial theorem again
r r r
X Spi X Spi X Spi
= =
p=1
(n + 12 )2p+2i p=1
(2m + 14 )p+i (2m)p+i (1 + 8m
p=1
1 p+i
)
r ∞ r X∞
Spi Spi
X X −p − i 1 X −p − i
= = .
(2m)p+i l 8l m l l 23l+p+i ml+p+i
p=1 l=0 p=1 l=0
n ∞ ∞
r X
Spi
X 1 X 1 −i 1 X −p − i
= ζ(2i + 1) + +
k 2i+1 −i l 23l+i+1 ml+i l 23l+p+i ml+p+i
k=1 l=0 p=1 l=0
Sr+1i
+Θr (n, i) .
(n + 21 )2r+2i+2
Chapter 3. Ramanujan on the nth Harmonic numbers. 30
∞ ∞
r X i
S
1 X 1 −i 1 X −p − i p
= ζ(2i + 1) + + + Er ,
(2m)i −i l 23l+1 ml l 23l+p ml+p
l=0 p=1 l=0
where
i −r−i−1
Sr+1 1 1
Er := Θr (n, i) r+1 1+ .
2 mr+1 8m
Here we try to simplify the above expression while concentrating much on the error terms
∞ r
X 1 −i 1 1 X 1 −i 1
3l+1 l
=− + 3p+1
+ Rr ,
−i l 2 m 2i −i p 2 mp
l=0 p=1
where
∞
X 1 −i 1
Rr := 3l+1
,
−i p 2 ml
l=r+1
and
∞
r X r−p
r X r ∞
Spi Spi Spi
X −p − i X −p − i X X −p − i
= + .
l 23l+p ml+p l 23l+p ml+p l 23l+p ml+p
p=1 l=0 p=1 l=0 p=1 l=r−p+1
∞
r X p
r X
Spi Sqi
X −p − i X −q − i
= + r ,
l 23l+p ml+p p − q 23p−2q mp
p=1 l=0 p=1 q=1
where
r ∞
Spi
X X −p − i
r := .
l 23l+p ml+p
p=1 l=r−p+1
Therefore
n
X 1
k 2i+1
k=1
r p
r X i
Sq
1 1 X 1 −i 1 X −q − i
= ζ(2i+1)+ i
− + 3p+1 p
+ 3p−2q
+ r + Rr + Er .
(2m) 2i −i p 2 m p−q 2 mp
p=1 p=1 q=1
Here the second term is the value of the third term when q = 0, which means that
the second term can be absorbed by the third term and this simplies to the following
Chapter 3. Ramanujan on the nth Harmonic numbers. 31
expression
n r Xp i
S
X 1 1 1 X −q − i q 1
= ζ(2i+1)+ − + + r + Rr + Er .
k 2i+1 (2m)i 2i p − q 23p−2q mp
k=1 p=1 q=0
Again, here the rst term in the bracket is the value of the second term when p = 0,
which means that the rst term can be absorbed by the second term, which results to
n r Xp i
Sq
X 1 1 X −q − i 1
= ζ(2i + 1) + + r + Rr + Er .
k 2i+1 (2m)i p−q 2 3p−2q mp
k=1 p=0 q=0
(3.10)
Here we insert (3.9) into (3.10) for further simplication of the general term and as result
we obtain
p p
Sqi Sqi
X −q − i X
p−q p + i − 1
= (−1)
p − q 23p−2q p−q 23p−2q
q=0 q=0
p
(−1)p X 2i + 2q (22q − 2)B2q
q p+i−1
= (−1) =: Aip .
8p p−q 2q 2i + 2q
q=0
Now what is left, is to show that for r≥1 the error term has the properties specied in
i −r−i−1 i
Sr+1 1 1 Sr+1 1
Er = Θr (n, i) 1+ = σr (n, i) ,
2r+1 mr+1 8m 2r+1 mr+1
1 −r−i−1
because 0 < 1+ 8m <1 and 0 < Θr (n, i) < 1 it implies that 0 < σr (n, i) < 1.
Using Lemma 3.2.5 for the error terms Rr and r , we obtain
∞ ∞
(−1)l l + i − 1
X 1 −i 1 X 1
Rr = 3l+1 l
= 3l+1
−i l 2 m −i l 2 ml
l=r+1 l=r+1
(−1)r r + i
1
= τr (n, i) 3(r+1)+1
,
i r+1 2 mr+1
and
r ∞ r ∞
Spi Spi
X X −p − i 1 X X
l l+p+i−1 1
r = = (−1)
2p mp l 23l ml 2p mp l 23l ml
p=1 l=r−p+1 p=1 l=r−p+1
r i r
Sp r−p+1 Spi (−1)r−p+1
X r+i (−1) X r+i
= ω p (n, i) = Ω r (n, i) ,
2p r − p + 1 23(r−p+1) mr+1 2p r − p + 1 23(r−p+1) mr+1
p=1 p=1
where 0 < σr (n, i), τr (n, i), ωp (n, i), Ωr (n, i) < 1 for r ≥ 1 and 1 ≤ p ≤ r . Moreover
0 < Ωr (n, i) < 1, because for a xed r, all the terms with the weights ωp (n, i) have the
Chapter 3. Ramanujan on the nth Harmonic numbers. 32
same sign. Since r , Er and Rr always have the same sign, we deduce
r
Spi (−1)r−p+1 i
X r+i Sr+1 1
r + Er + Rr = Ωr (n, i) + σ r (n, i)
2p r − p + 1 23(r−p+1) mr+1 2r+1 mr+1
p=1
(−1)r r + i
1
+τr (n, i) 3(r+1)+1
i r+1 2 mr+1
r
Spi r−p+1 i r
X r+i (−1) Sr+1 1 (−1) r + i 1
= κr (n, i) + + ,
2p r − p + 1 23(r−p+1) mr+1 2r+1 mr+1 i r + 1 23(r+1)+1 mr+1
p=1
r+1 i
Sp (−1)r−p+1 Air+1
X r+i
r + Er + Rr = κr (n, i) = κr (n, i) ,
2p r − p + 1 23(r−p+1) mr+1 mr+1
p=0
This thesis has provided some new results of two problems which were proposed by
Ramanujan.
For the rst problem, which is Ramanujan's inverse Digamma approximation (2.2).
Firstly we gave an explicit formula for computing the coecients when n = 1/4. Sec-
ondly, we provided a recurrence relation for the general term of the asymptotic series
for every complex number n. Finally, we provided an asymptotic formula for the gen-
eral term. From our nal result, we realized that even though the general terms looks
very complicated, their asymptotic behaviour are simple which also shows the divergent
For the second problem, which is about Ramanujan's asymptotic formula for the nth
P∞ j
Harmonic number. Firstly, we provided an expression for the k=n+1 1/k where j>1
with a formula for the general term and a precise error term. Secondly, we provided an
expression for the odd powers, which is in terms of the reciprocal of the nth triangular
number, with a formula for the general term and a nice error term. This as a result,
33
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of some formal power series II: Lagrange Inversion, Discrete Math. 50 (1984), pp.
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[10] M. D. Hirschhorn, Ramanujan's enigmatic formula for the harmonic series, Ramanu-
Quadratic Recurrence Constant, Appl. Anal. Discrete Math. 5 (2012), pp. 6066.
[13] F. W. J. Olver, Asymptotic and Special Function, A. K. Peters Ltd., Wellesley, 1997.
a triangular number, J. Inequal. Pure and Appl. Math. 9 (2008), pp. 112.
34