Meteorology Today 10th Edition

TENTH EDITION
AN INTRODUCTION TO WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Meteorology Today
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Meteorology Today
AN INTRODUCTION TO WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND THE ENVIRONMENT
C. Donald Ahrens
Emeritus, Modesto Junior College
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Weather, Climate, and the Environment
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CHAPTER 1 Earth and Its Atmosphere 2
CHAPTER 2 Energy: Warming the Earth and the Atmosphere 30
CHAPTER 3 Seasonal and Daily Temperatures 58
CHAPTER 4 Atmospheric Humidity 92
CHAPTERS Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds 114
CHAPTER 6 Stability and Cloud Development 144
CHAPTER 7 Precipitation 168
CHAPTER 8 Air Pressure and Winds 198
CHAPTER 9 Wind: Small-Scale and Local Systems 228
CHAPTER 10 Wind: Global Systems 264
CHAPTER 11 Air Masses and Fronts 292
CHAPTER 12 Middle-Latitude Cyclones 318
CHAPTER 13 Weather Forecasting 344
CHAPTER 14 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 378
CHAPTER 15 Hurricanes 424
CHAPTER 16 Earth's Changing Climate 456
CHAPTER 17 Global Climate 488
CHAPTER 18 Air Pollution 518
CHAPTER 19 Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics 548
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CHAPTER 1
FOCUS ONA SPECIAL TOPIC
Rising Ai r Cools and SI nking Air Warms 38
Earth and Its Atmosphere 2
Radiant Energy 39
Overview of the Earth's Atmosphere 4 Radiation and 1e mperature 40
Composition of the AtmO-~phere 4 Radiation of the Sun and Earth 40
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE
ABreathofFresh Air 6 Wave Energy, Sun Burning, and lN Rays 42
111e Early AtmO-~phere 9 Radiation-Absorption, Emi~sion, and
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere LO Equilibrium '12
A Brief Look at Air Prc,~sure and Air Density l0 Selective Absorbers and the Atmospheric Greenhouse
Layers of the Atmosphere 12 Effect 44
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC Enhancement of the Greenhouse Effect <IS
The Atmospheres of Other Planets 14 Warming the Air from Below 47
Shortwave Radiation Streaming from the Sun 48
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
The Radiosonde 16
Blue Skies, Red Suns, and White Clouds 49
The Ionosphere 17
The Earth's Annual Energy Balance 49
Weather and Climate 17
Solar Particle,~ and the Aurora 52
Meteorology-A Brief History 18
A Satellite's View of the Weather 19 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Weather and Climate in Our Lives 23 Characteristi cs of the Sun 52
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC Summary 55
What is a Meteorologist? 24 KeyTerms 55
Questions for Review 55
Summary 27
Questions for 'Thought 56
Key 1e rms 27
Questions for Review 27 Problems and Exercises 56
Questions for Thought 28
Problems and Exercises 28
CHAPTER 2
Energy: Warming the Earth

and the Atmosphere 30
Energy, Temperature, and Heat 32
-
TemperatureScales 33
Specific Meat 34
Latent 1-Jeat-'Jhe 1-lidden Warmth 34
1-leat 'lhnsfer in the Atmosphere 36
Conduction 36
Convection 37
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC
The Fate of a Sunbeam 37
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CHAPTER 3 Summary 89
Key1erms 89
Seasonal and Daily Temperatures ss Questions for 'Thought 90
Problem~ and £xercises 9 1
Why 1he Earlh Mas Season.~ 60
Seasons in !he Northern Hemisphere 61
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC CHAPTER 4
Is December 21 Really the First Day of Winier? 65
Seasons in !he Southern Hemisphere 66 Atmospheric Humidity 92
local Seasonal Variations 66
Daily Warming and Cooling Air Near I he Surface 67 Circulation of Water in the Atmosphere 94
Daytime Warming 67 The Many Phases of Water 95
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE Evaporation, Conden.~ation, and $;\luration 95
Sol ar Heating and !he Noonday Sun 68 Humidity 97
Specific Humidiry and Mixing Ratio 97
Nighttime Cooling 69
Vapor Pressure 98
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC Relative Humidity 99
Record High Temperatures 70
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC vapor Pressure and Boiling-The Higher You Go,
Record Low Temperatures 74 the Longer Cooking Takes 100
DailyTemperalure Variation.~ n Relative Humidity and Dew Point 100
Regional Temperature Variations 78 Comparing Humidities 104
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC Relative Humidity in 1he Home 105
When It Comes to Temperature, What's Normal? 79 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC
Applications of Air1emperalure 82 Computing Relative Humidi ty and Dew Point 106
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION Relative Humidity and Human Discomfort 107

A Thousand Degrees and Freezing to Death 84 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC
Air 1empera1ure and Human Comfort 84 Which Is "Heavier"-Hum id Air or Dry Air? 109
Measuring Air 'Jemperalure 86 Measuring Humidity 110
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC Summary 111
Why Thermometers Should Be Read In the Shade 88 Key 1erms 111
Questions for Though! 112
l'roblems and Exercises 112
CHAPTERS
Condensation: Dew, Fog, and

Clouds 114
The Formal ion ofDew and Frost 11 6
Condensation Nuclei 117
Haze 117
Fog 118
Radial ion Fog 11 9
Advec1ion Fog 120
Why Are Headlands Usuall y Foggier Than Beaches? 121
Upslope Fog 122 j
Evaporation (Mixing) Fog J 122
!:::i&.Jiiliili~':!:!!=~!.!.:::~ ~ Foggy Weather 123
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FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC CHAPTER 7
Fog That Forms by Mixing 124
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE Precipitation 16s
Fog Dispersal 126
Clouds 127 Precipitation Processes 170
Classification of Clouds 127 How Do Cloud DropleL~ Grow larger? 170
Cloud Identification 128 Collision and Coalescence Proces.~ 171
Some Unu.~ual Clouds 133 Jce-Cryst;d (Bergeron) Proce,ss 173
Cloud Observations 135 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION The Freezing ofTinyCloud Droplets 174
Measuring Cloud Ceilings 137 Cloud Seeding and Precipitation 176
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC Precipitation in Cloud~ 178
Satellites Do More Than Observe Clouds 141 FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE
Summary 142 Does Cloud Seeding Enhance Precipitation 7 178
Key Terms 142 Precipitation Types 180
Questions for Review 142 Rain 180
Questions for'Jl1ought 143 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Problems and Exercises 143 Are Raindrops Tear-Shaped? 181
Snow 181
CHAPTER 6 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Snowing When the Air Temperature IsWell Above
Stability and Cloud Development 144 Freezing 183
Sleet and Freezing R:lin 185
Atmospheric Stability 146 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Determining Stability 147
Sounds and Snowfalls 187
A Stable Atmosphere 147
An Unstable Atmosphere 149 Sno'" Grains and Snow Pellets 187
A Conditionally Unstable Almo.~phere 15 1 FOCUS ONAN OBS ERVATION
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Aircraft Icing 188
Subsidence Inversions Put a Lid on It 152 Hail 189
Causes of Instability 152 Measuring Precipitation 191
Cloud Oevelopment 154 Instruments 19 1
Convection and Clouds 154 Doppler Radar and Precipitation 192
Measuring Precipitation from Space 194
Summary 195
Atmospheric Stability and Windy Afternoons-Hold On
Key 1erm.~ 195
to Your Hat 155 Questions for Review 195
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION Questions for Thought 196
Determ ining Convective Cloud Bases 159 Problem.~ and Exercises 196
Topography and Clouds 159
FOCUS ON AN ADVANCED TOPIC CHAPTER 8
Adiabatic Charts 162
Changing Cloud Forms 164
Summary 166
Air Pressure and Winds 198
Key Terms 166 Atmo.o;pheric Pressure 200
Questions for Review 166 Horizontal Pressure Variations-A Tale ofTwo
Questions for'Jl1ought 166 Cities 200
Problems and Exercises 167 Daily Pressure Variations 201
The Atmosphere Obeys the Gas Law 202
Pres.~ure Measurement~ 203
Pres.~ure Readings 204
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Surface and Upper-Level Charts 206 Katabatic Winds 244
Newton's Laws of Motion 209 Chinook (Foehn) Winds 245
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Flying on a Constant Pressure Surface-High to Low, Snow Eaters and RapidTemperature Changes 246
Look Out Below 210 Santa Ana Winds 247
Forces That Influence the Wind~ 211 Desert Wi1ids 249
Pressure Gradient Force 211 Seasonally Changing Winds-The Monsoon 251
Coriolis Force 212 Determining Wind Direction and Speed 254
Straight-Line Flow Aloft-Geostrophic Winds 215 1 he lnfluenceof Prevailing Winds 255
FOCUS ON AN ADVANCED TOPIC Wind Measurements 256
AMathematical Look at the Geostrophlc Wind 216 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Curved Winds Arolllid Lows and Highs Aloft- Wind Power 257
Gradient Winds 216 FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION Observing Winds from Space 259
Estimating Wind Direction and Pressure Patterns Aloft by Summary 260
Watching Clouds 218 Key 1erms 260
Winds on Upper-Level Charts 219 Questions for Review 260
Surface Winds 220 Questions for Thought 261
Winds Aloft In the Southern Hemisphere 221
Winds and Vertical Air Motions 222 CHAPTER 10
FOCUS ON AN ADVANCED TOPIC
The Hydrostatic Equation 224 Wind: Global Systems 264
Summary 225
General Circulation of the Atmosphere 266
Key 1erms 225
Single-Cell Model 266
Three-Cell Model 267
Average Surface Winds and Pres.~ure:
Problem~ and £xercises 227
The Real World 269
1 he General Circulation and Precipitation
CHAPTER 9 Patterns 27 1
Average Wind Flow and Pres.~ure Patterns Aloft 272
Wind: Small-Scale and Local FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
The "Dishpan" Experiment 274
Systems 228 Jet Streams 274
Scales of Motion 230 The Formation of the Jet Streams 275
Small-Scale Winds Interacting '"ith the Environment 230 Other Jet Streams 277
Friction and Turbulence in the Boundary Layer 230 Atm<>-~phere-Ocean Interactions 278
Eddies-Big and Small 233 Global Wind Patterns and Surface Ocean
'lheStrongForceoftheWind 234 Currents 278
Wind and Soil 234 Upwelling 280
El NU\o and the Southern Osc:ith1tion 282
Pacific Decadal Oscillation 286
Eddies and ':.\Ir Pockets• 235
FOCUS ON A SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Wi1id and Snow 236
El Nli\o and the Winter Olympics of 201 O 287
Wi1id and Vegetation 237
Wi1id and Water 238 North Atlantic Oscillation 288
Local Wind Systems 239 Arctic Oscillation 289
Summary 290
Pedaling into the Wind 240
'l hermal Circulations 240
Sea and Land Breezes 241
Mountain and Valley Breezes 243
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Key 1erms 290
CHAPTER 11
Air Masses and Fronts 292

Air Mas.~es 294
Source Regions 294
Classification 294
Air Mas.~es of North America 295
Lake-Effect (Enhanced) Snows 297
The Return of the Siberian Express 300
Fronts 305
Stationary Fronts 306
Cold Fron1s 306
Warm Fronts 309
Drylines 3 11
A Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclone-'Jl1e March
Occluded Fronts 313
S1orm of 1993 332
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC Vorticiry, Divergence, and Developing Mid- Latitude
The Wavy Warm Front 312 Cyclones 335
Upper-Air Fronls 315 Vorticity on a Spinning Planet 336
Summary 316 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
Key 1erms 316 Vorticity and Longwaves 337
Vorticity Advection and Shortwaves 339
Questions for Though! 3 17
Putting 11 All Together-A Monstrous
Snowstorm 339
Polar Lows 340
CHAPTER 12 Summary 342
Key 1erms 342
Middle-latitude Cyclones 318
Polar Fron! Theory 320 Problems and Exercises 343
Where Do Mid-Lalitude Cyclones Tend to Form> 321
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC CHAPTER 13
Northeasters 324
Verlical Structure of Oeep Dyn:tmic Lows 324 Weather Forecasting 344
Upper- Level Waves and Mid-Latilude Cyclones 326
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC Acquisition ofWeather Information 346
ACloser Look at Convergence and Divergence 327 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
'The Necessary lngredienls for a Oeveloping Mid-La1i1ude Watches, Warnings, and Advisories 347
Cvclone 328 Weather Forecasting Tools 348
Upptr-Air Supporl 328 Weather Forecasting Methods 350
111e Roleof1hc Je1S1ream 329 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC The Thickness Chart-A Forecasting Tool 350
Jet Streaks and Storms 330 1 he Computer and Weather Forecasting: Numerical
Conveyor Bell Model of Mid- Latitude Cyclones 331 Weather Prediction 351
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WhyNWS Forecasts Go Awry and Steps 10 lmprove 1brnado Formation 413
Them 353 Supercell Tornadoes 413
Other Forecasting Methods 355 Nonsupercell Tornadoes 415
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
TV Weathercasters-How Do They Do Ir? 356 Forecasting Severe Thunderstorm s and Tornadoes 416
Type~ of Forecasts 358 Observing Tornadoes and Severe Weather 417
FOCUS ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS Waterspouts 420
Weather Prediction and the Marketplace 359 Summary 422
Key Terms 422
Accuracy and Skill in Forecasting 360
Predicting the Weather from Local Sign.~ 362
Weather Forecasting Using Surface Charts 362
Problems and Exercises 423
Determining the Movement of Weather Systems 363
Forecasting Tern perature Advection by CHAPTER lS
Watching the Clouds 364
A Forecast for Six Cities 366 Hurricanes 424
A Meteorologist Makes a Prediction 370
Help from the 500 -mb Chart 370 Tropical Weather 426
The Computer Provides Assistance 371 Anatomy of a Hurricane 426
A Valid Forecast 37 1 Hurricane Formation and Dissipation 428
Satellite and Upper-Air Assistance 373 The Right Environment 428
A Oay of Rain and Wind 374 The Developing Storm 430
Summary 376 TheStorm Dies Out 43 1
Key 1erm~ 376 Hurricane Stages of Development 431
Questions for Review 376 Jnvestigating the Storm 432
Questions for Thought 377 Hurricane Movement 433
Problems and Exercises 377 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
How Do Hurricanes Com pare with
Middle-Latit ude Storms? 434
CHAPTER 14
Naming Hurricanes and Tropical Storms 437
Devastating Wind~, the Storm Surge, and Flooding 438
Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 378 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC
1bunderstorms 380 Devastating Tropical Storms 442
Ordinary Cell Thunderstorms 381 Some Notable Hurricanes 443
Multice!l "Jhunderstorm~ 382 Camille., 1969 443
SuperceU Thunderstorms 390 Hugo 443
Thunderstorm~ and !he Dryline 393 Andrew 444
1bunderstorm~ and Flooding 394 Ivan 445
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC Katrina 446
The Terrifying Flash Flood in FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
the Big Thompson Canyon 396 The Record-Setting Atlanti c Hurricane Seasons of 2004
Distribution of1bunderstorms 397 and2005 446
Lightning and 1hunder 397 Other Devastating Hurricanes 447
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION Hurricane Watches, Warnings, and Forecasts 449
ELVES In the Atmosphere 400 FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION Hurricanes In aWarmer World 450
Don' Sit Under the Apple Tree 405 Modifying Hurricanes 452
1brnadoes 405 Summary 453
1brnado Life Cycle 406 Key Terms 453
1brnado Occurrence and Distribution 407 Questions for Review 453
1brnado Winds 408 Questions for 1bought 454
1brnado Outbreaks 411 J'roblems and f.xerci~es 454
xii
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CHAPTER 16 CHAPTER 17
Earth's Changing Climate 456 Global Climate 48s

Recon~tructing Past Climates 458 A World "1th Many Climates 490
Climate ' lbroughout the Ages 46 1 Global 'Jemperatures 490
Temperature Trends during the Past 1000 Years 461 Global Precipitation 491
Temperature Trend.~ during the Past l 00-Plus Years 462 FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPIC Precipitation Extremes 494
The Ocean's Influence on Rapid Climate Change 463 Climatic Classification 495
Climate Change Caused by Natural Events 464 The Ancient Greeks 495
Climate Change: Feedback Mechanisms 465 1be Koppen System 495
Climate Change: Plate 1e ctonics and Mountain 1bornthwaites System 495
Building 466 The Global l'anern of Climate 496
Climate Change: Variations in the Earth~ Orbit 467 Tropical Moist Climates (Group A) 498
Climate Change: Variations in Solar Output 469 Dry Climates (Group B) 502
Climate Change: AtmosphericP.Jrticles 470 Moist Subtropical Mid- L1titude Climates
Climate Change Caused by Human (AnthroPogenic) (Group C) 504
Activities 472 FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Climate Change: Aerosols Injected into the Lower ADesert wl th Clouds and Drizzle 505
Atmosphere 472
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL lOPI C
Climate Change: Increasing Levels of Greenhouse
When Does a Dry Spell Become a Drought? 508
Gases 473
Climate Change: Land Use Changes 473 Moist Continental Climates (Group D) 509
Polar Climates (Group£) 511
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE
NuclearWinter, Cold Summers, and Dead Dinosaurs 474 Highland Climates (Group H ) 514
Summary 515
Climate Change: Global Warming 475 Key Terms 515
Recent Global Warming: Perspective 475
The Sahel-An Example ofClimaticvariabillry and Human
Existence 476
Future Climate Change: l'rojections 477
The Extremes of 2011: Did Climate Change Play a
-
Role? 478
Clim ate Models-A Qu ick Glance 480
Consequences of Climate Change:
The Pos.~ibilitie~ 481
Ozone and the Ozone Hole: Thel r lnnuence on Climate
Change 482
Climate Change: Efforts to Curb 485
Climate Change: A Final Note 485
Summary 486
Key 1erms 486
Que~tions for Review 486
Que~tions for 'Thought 487
,
"
xiii
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Questions for Review 5 15 FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION
Questions for 'Thought 516 The Fata Morgana 559
Problem~ and £xercises 516 Malos, Sundogs, and Sun Pil~ars 559
Rainbows 562
CHAPTER 18 Coronas, Glorie,~. and 1-/eiligenschein 565
Can It Be a Rainbow If It Is Not Raining? 565
Air Pollution s1s
Summary 568
A Brief History of Air Pollution 520 'Key Terms 568
Types and Sources of Air Pollutants 52 l Questions for Review 568
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE Questions for 111ought 568
Indoor Al r Pollution 522 Problems and £xerci~es 569
Principal Air Pollutants 523
Ozone in the Troposphere 526 APPENDIX A
Ozone in the Stratosphere 527 Units, Conversions, Abbreviations, and Equations A· l
Air Pollution: Trend~ and Patterns 530
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE APPENDIX B
The Ozone Hole 53 1 Weather Symbols and t he Station Model A· S
Factors That Affect Air Pollution 535
'lhe Role of the Wind 535
APPENDIX C
·1he Role of Stability and I nversions 535
Beaufort Wind Scale (Over land) A·7
Smokestack Plu mes 537
APPENDIX D
·1he Role of1o pography 538 Humidity and Dew-Point Tables A· 8
Severe Air Pollution Potential 539
Five Days In Donora-An Air Pollution Episode 540 APPENDIX E
lnstan tWeather Forecast Chart A· l 2
Air Pollution and the Urban Environment 54 l
Acid Deposition 542
FOCUS ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT APPENDIX F
Hear Waves and Air Pollution: A Deadly Team 543 Changing GMT and UTC to local Ti me A· l3
Summary 546
Key 11.>rms 546 APPENDIX G
Questions for Review 546 Global Average Annual Precipitation A· 14
APPENDIX H
Standard Atmosphere A· 16
CHAPTER 19
APPENDIX I
Light, Color, and Hurricane Tracking Chart A· l 7
Atmospheric Optics s48
APPENDIX J
White and Colors 550 Adiabatic Chart A· 18
White Cloud~ and Scattered Light 550
Blue Skies and Hazy Days 55 l
Red Suns and Blue Moons 553 Glt>~ary G- l
1\ vinkling, Twilight, and the Green flash 554 Additional Reading Material R- l
'The Mirage: Seeing Is Not Bel~ving 557 Index 1-1
xiv
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e world i~ an ever-changing picture of naturally occur- sky.1b strengthen points and clarify concepts, illustrations are
Ti ing events. From drought and famine to devastating

oods,someof the greatest challenges "'e face come in the
form of natural disasters created by \\'eather. Yet, dealing with
rendered in full color throughout. Color photographs were
carefully selected to illustrate features, stimulate interest, and
show how exciting the study of weather can be.
weather and climate is an inevitable part ofour lives.Sometimes This edition, organized into nineteen chapters, is de-
it isassmall asMcidingwhatto wear for the day or how to plan signed to provide maximum flexibility to instructors ofatmo-
a vacation. But it can also have life-shattering consequences, spheric science courses. Thus, ch"l'ters can be covered in any
es!"'cially for those who are victims ofa hurricane or a tornado. desired order. For example, the chapter on atmospheric op-
In rocent years, "-eather and dimatehave become front page tics, Chapter 19,isself-contained and can be covered before or
news, from the record-setting extreme weather events of 20 11, after any chapter. Instructors, then, are able to tailor this text
to environmental issues such as global warming and ozone to their particular needs. This book basically follows a tradi-
depletion. '!he dynamic nature ofthe atmosphere seems to de- tional approach. After an introductory chapter on the compo-
mand our attention and understanding more these days than sition, origin, and structure ofthe atmosphere, it then covers
ever before. Al moot daily, there are newspa!"'r articles describ- energy, temP"rature, moisture, precipitation, and winds. 'Jben
ing some \\<tather event or irn!"'nding climate change. For thi~ come chapters that deal with air masse,s and mid<lle-latitude
reason, and the fact that weather influences our daily lives in cyclones. Weather prediction and severe storms are next. A
so many ways, interest in meteorology (the study ofthe atmo- chapter on hurricanes is followed by a chapter on climate
sphere) i~ gro"1ng. 'l11is rapidly developing and popular science change. A chapter on global climate is next. A chapter on air
is giving u.s more infi>rmation about the \\'Orking,~ ofthe atmo- Pollution precedes the final chapter on atmospheric optics.
sphere than ever befi>re. One of the reasons that meteorology Each chapter contains at least two Focu.s sections, which
is such an engaging science to study i.s that the atmosphere is a expand on material in the main text or explore asubje.ct closely
universally accessible laboratory fi>r everyone. Although the at- related to what is being discu.ssed. Focus sections foll into one
mosphere will always provide challenges for u.s, as research and of frve distinct categories: Observations, SP"cial Topics, Envi-
technology advance, our ability to understand our atmoophere ronmental Issues, Advanced Topics, and new to this edition,
improves, as well. The information available to you in this book, Social and Economic Impacts. Some include material that is not
therefore, is intended to aid in your own personal understanding always round in introductory meteorology textbooks,.-ubjects
and appreciation ofour eart~ dynamic atmosphere. such •IS temP"rature extremes, cloud seeding. and the weather
on other planets. Others help to bridge theory and practice. A
few of theFoClL~ sections new to this edition include"£! Nii\o
an<l the Winter Olympics of 2010" in Chapter JO, "Forecast-
About This Book ingSevere Thunderstorms and 1brnadoes'' in Chapter 14, and
"The Extremes of2011: Did Climate Change Play a Role?" in
Meteorology 1odayis written for college-level students taking Ch"!'ter 16. Quantitative discussions of imPortant equations,
an introductory course on the atmospheric environment. The such as the geootrophic wind equation and the hydr0-static
main purpose of the text i~ to convey meteorological concepts equation,are fi>lllid in Font.~ sections on advanced topics.
in a vi~ual and practical manner, while simultaneously pro- Set apart as "Weather Watch" features in each chapter is
viding students "ith a comprehensive background in basic weather information that m.'y not be commonly known, yet
meteorology. This tenthedition includes up-to-date informa- P"rlaiiis to the topic under disClL<;.sion. De-'igned to bring the
tion on irnportanttopics,such •tsdimatechange,ozonedeple- reader into theteitt, moot ofthese weather highlights relate to
tion, and £l Niiio. Also included are discussions of weather some interesting weather fact or astonishing event.
events, such as the devastating drought in Tex:ts during 201I New to this edition are critical thinking questions that ap-
as well as the deadly tornado outbreaks during the spring of P"ar \\ithin each chapter. 'Jbese questionsencourage students
the same year. As wasthecasein previous editions, nos!"'cial to delve more deeply into a concept presented in a photograph
prerequisites are nece,ssary. or diagram
Written expressly for the student, this book emphasizes Each chapter incorpor:1tes other effective learning aids:
the understanding and application of meteorological prin-
• A major topic outline begins each chapter.
ciples. The text encourages watching the weather so that it
becomes "alive; allowing readers to immediately apply text- e lnteresting introductory pieces draw the reader naturally
book material to the \\'Orld around them. 1b assist \\ith this into the main text.
endeavor, a color Cloud Chart ap!"'ars at theend of this text. • Important terms are boldfaced, with their definitions ap-
The Cloud Chart can be separated from the book and used pearing in the glos.sary or in the text.
as a learning tool any place where one chooses to observe the • Key phrases are italicized.
xv
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.bmcdfl,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l""~ C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl ••,:!o .. •mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
• English equivalent~ of me1ric units in most cases are im- <1synchronous discussion, real-time chat, a whiteboard, and
mediately provided in p;irentheses. an integrated e-mail system-make it easy to stay connected
• A brief review of the main points ispk1ced toward the mid- lot he course.
dle of most chapters.
Global Geoscience Watch Updated several times a day, the
• Each chapter end~ with a summary of the main ideas. Global Geoscience Watch i~ an ideal one-stop site for clas.~
• Alist of key terms with page references follows each chapter, room discus.~ion and research projects for all things geo-
allowing students to revie"' and reinforce their knowkdge science! Broken into the four key course areas (Geography,
of key concept~. Geology, Meteorology, and Oceanography), you can easily get
• Questions IOr Review act tocheckhowwellstudentsassimi- to the most relevant content available for your course. You
late the material. and your students will have acces.~ to the latest information
• Questions for Thought require students to synthesize from trusted academic journals, news outlets, and mag.1zines.
learned concepts for deeper understanding, You also will receive acces.~ lo statistics, primary sources,case
• Problems and Exerci~s require mathematical c-alculations studies, po<lcasts, and much more!
that provide a technic-al challenge to the student.
TECHNOLOGY FOR THE STUDENT
• Reference to 18 concept animations are spread throughout
the chapters. These animations (many of which are new) Meteorology CourseMate Meteorology7odayincludesMe-
convey an immediate appreciation of how a process works teorology CourseMate, which helps students make the grade.
and help.~students visualize the more difficult concepts in Meteorology CourseMate incluMs:
meteorology. Animations can be found on the Meteorology • an interactive ellook, with highlighting, note taking, and
CourseMate,accessed through CengageBrain.rom search capabilities
• At the end of each chapter are quest ions that relate to art ides • interactive learning tools including:
found on the Global Geoscience Watch website available on Quizzes
its own or via the Meteorology CourseMate. flashcards
Ten appendices conclude the book. Jn addition, at the end Videos
of the book, a compilation of supplementary material is pre- Concept Animation~
sented, as i~ an extensive glossary. Questions for Exploration and more!
On the endsheet al the back of the book is a geophysical Go to login.cengagebrain.com to access the~ resources.
map of North America. ·1he map serves as a <luick referenc.e
IOr locating stales, provinces, and geographical features, such Workbook Wriuen by the author, the Workbook and Study
as mountain ranges and large bodies of waler. Guide reinforce concepts you learn in Meteorology Tod<')'.
Tenth Edition. Each chapter contains a summary of the text,
a list of important concepts, self-tests with answers (which
include multiple choice, true/false, matching, short answer,
and/or fill in the blank), and a Ii~! of additional reading,~.
Supplemental Material
and Technology Support
TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INSTRUCTOR Tenth Edition Changes
PowerLecture This DVD-ROM, free 10 adopters, includes lo this tenth edition of Meteorology 'fotlay more than 80
art, photos, and tables from the text, as well as prepared lecture new or revised color illustrations and more than 75 new
outlines in PowerPoint to get you started. Stepped art figures, photos have been added to hdp vi~ualize the excitement of
zoom art, video library. and an instructors manual and test the atmo.~phere. Moreover, all satellite and radar images are
bank are also included, lo help create dynamic presentations. rendered in full color to complement the new art and pho-
tograph.~. 1be tenth edition has been extensively updated
Online Instructor's Manual with Test Bank free 10 adopters.
and revi~ed to reflect the changing nature of the field.
Also availal~eon PowerLecture.
Chapter I, "Earth and Us Atmo.~phere," still serves as a
ExamView Quickly create, deliver, and customize tests for broad overview ofth eat mosphere. 'lb help with this endeavor,
class in print and online IOrmats. many new photographs have been added. Chapter 2, "Energy:
Warming the Earth and the Atmosphere;· contain~ up-Io-
WebTutor Toolbox for WebCT or Blackboard Jump-start date information on greenhouse gases 'md their influence on
your course with customizable, rich, text-specific content global warming. Chapter3, "Seasonal and Daily Temperatures,"
within your Course Management System. Web1utor offers a has been reorg,mized for clarity 'md slrengt hened with new and
v.iide arrtty of "'eb quitte$>activities. exercises. and \\•eb links. revi~d illu.~tration~. New ;Ir! t.~s al~ been added to Chapter4,
Robust communication tools-such as a course calendar, "Atmo.~pheric Humidity," to strengthen main points.
xvi
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Chapter 5, "Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clou<ls," now A thank-you goes to Charles Prtppernau for his atre in
includes information on the satellite CloudSat, a revised sec- rendering beautiful 'trtwork and to Mabel Labiak for her
tion on ob.serving clouds, and a revised Focus section on mix- careflll proofreading. Thanks to Jan Null for providing
ing fog. Chapter 6, "Stability and Cloud Development," con- some of the photos and to Bob Robinson for reviewing the
tains a new Focu.~ se.ction on atmospheric stability and windy chapter on Weather Fore.casting.
afternoons. The chapter on "Precipitation" (Chapter 7) has I am indebted to Janet Alleyn who not only designed the
been strengthened with new art and new photos, and a revised book but, once again, took the photos, art, and manuscript
section on hail. Several sea ions in Chapter 8, "Air Pre~sure and and turned them into a beautiful book. A thank-you toStuart
Winds;· have been revised for darity. Kenter for his conscientious editing, Special thanks to all the
Chapter 9, "Wind: Small-Sat le and Local Systems," has people at Cengage Learning who worked on this edition, es-
been reorganized with the material on wind measurements pecially Aileen Berg, Jake Warde, and Hal Humphrey.
now appearing at the end of the chapter. M'U!Y new photos I arn most grateful to Robert Henson who provided
appear in this chapter. Chapter 10, "Wind: Global Systems," the Global Geoscience Watch questions at the end of each
contains updated information on the latest El Niiio and chapter, reviewed Chapter 16 on climate change, and who
La Nii\a events, as well as a Focus section that describe~ the wrote a number of Focus seclioii~ including: "El Nii\o and the
impact El Niiio had on the 20 IO Winter Olympics. Winter0lympiarnf20 10;' in Chapter 10, "Weather Prediction
In Chapter 1 l, "Air Masses and Fronts," the section on and the Marketpl1ce," in Chapter 13, "The Extremes of2011:
the dryline has been placed in the main body of the Did Climate Change Play a Role," in Chapter 16, and "Heat
text. Chapter 12, "Middle l "ttitude Cyclones," has been Waves and Air Pollution: A Deadly 1eam," in Chapter 18.
revi~ed with new art. The Chapter also includes a new se.c- 'Thank~ to my friends who provided photos and to th0-se
tion on vorticity advection. Th e chapter on "Weather Fore- reviewers whoofferedcommentsandsuggestioii~for this edi-
casting," (Chapter 13), contains a new focu.~ section entitled, tion, including;
"Weather Prediction and the Marketplace:· Chapter 14,
Colleen Garrity
"Thunderstorms and Tornadoes," has been extensively re-
SUNY Geneso
written and revised to include the tornado outbreaks of20 l I.
M'my new photos and illustrations have been added to this John Monteverdi
chapter. Also included is new material on tornado-observ- San Franci~ro State University
ing techniques and the field study \IORTEX2. A new Focus Hollis E. Pyatt
section on predicting severe thunderstorms and tornadoes Salem State University
also appears in this chapter. Alan Robock
Chapter 15, "l-JurricMes;· has been updated to include the Rutgers University
flooding from Hurricme lrenealongthe Northeastern United
Peter$. Ray
States in August, 2011. Also new to thi~ chapter i~ asection on
Florida Stale University
investigating hurricanes and a section on the revised Saffir-
Simp.~on Hurricane Wind Scale. Chapter 16, "Earth's Chang- DebbieSchaum
ing Climate," has been reorganized for clarity and revised to Embry-Riddle Aeronautical ~University
include the late~! information on climate change. Many new James Wysong, Jr.
diagrams appear in this chapter. Also included is material on Hillsborough Commllnity College
the carbon dioxide-chemical weathering feedback, along with
t\''O ne\"' FoctL'> sections.
1 hechapter on Global Climate (Chapter 17) contain~ a
revised Focussection that includes m.1terialon the dtLSt-bowl To the Student
of the 1930s and the 1exas drought of2011. Chapter 18, "Air
Pollution," contains the latest information on O'LOnedepletion learning about the atm<>-~phere can be an enjO~O!ble expe-
in the Arctic and Antarctic, and a new Focusse.ction on heat rience, especially if you become involved. 1llis book is in-
waves and air p<>llution. Chapter 19, "Light, Color, and At- tended to give you some insight into the workings of the :ll-
mospheric Optics," uses exciting photos,md art to convey the mosphere, but for a real appreciation of your atmospheric
beauty of the atmosphere. environment, you mus:t go outside and observe. Mountains
take millions of years to form, while a cumulus cloud can
develop into a raging thunderstorm in less than an hour. To
help with your observations, a color Ooud Chart is at the
back of the book for easy reference. Remove it and keep it
Acknowledgments "1th you. And remember, all ofthe information in thi~ book
i~ out there-please, take the time to look.
Many people have contributed to this tenth edition of Me-
teorology Today. A special and most grateful thank-you to Donald Ahrens
my wife, Lita, who indexed and proofread the entire book.
xvii
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Meteorology Today
Earth and Its Atmosphere
CONTENTS well remember a brilliant red balloon w hich kept me com·
Overview of the Earth's Atmosphere
Composition of the Atmosphere
I pletely happy for a whole afternoon, until, w hile I was playing,
a clumsy movement allowed it to escape. Spellbound, I gazed af·
FOCUS ONA SPECIALTOPIC
ter it as it drifted silently away, gently swaying, growing smaller
A Breath of Fresh Air
The Early Atmosphere and smaller unti I it was only a red point in a blue sky. At th at mo·
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere ment I realized, for the first time, the vastness above us: a huge
A Brief look at Air Pressure and Air
space without visible limits. It was an apparent void, full of se·
Density
layers of the Atmosphere crets, exerting an inexplicable power over all the earth's inhabit·
FOCUS ON A SPECIALTOPIC ants. I believe t hat many people, consciously or unconsciously,
The Atmospheres of Other Planets
have been filled with awe by the immensity of the atmosphere.
The Radiosonde All our knowledge about the air, gathered over hundreds of
The Ionosphere years, has not diminished this feeling.

Weather and Clim ate
Meteorology-A Brief History Theo Loebsack, Our Atmosphere
A Satel I ite's View of the Weather
Storms ofAll Sizes
A Look ata Weather Map
Weather and Climate in Our lives
FOCUSONA SPECIALTOPIC
What ls a Meteorolo9ist7
Summary
Key Terms
Questions for Review
Questions for Thought
Problems and Exercises
Facing page: Light reflected from the Indian Ocean

casts a rainbow of colorover the surface.as \Varm
tropical air rises. and its moisture condenses into
doud.s..
3
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..i ..,.,.,h ~dl ... :.1J\ o .0."l'nV I f:1"'-i.rtn1•"'!....
.._,.,..,,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•te_.Jl~""'""l"TIC'>-"c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.."<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
ur atmosphere i~ a delicate life-giving bhmket of air that the earth and seven otherpbnets (see • rig. 1.1).'These planets,
0 surrounds the fragile earth. In one way or another, it in-

flue.nces everything we see and hear-it is intimately
connected to our lives. Air is \\•ith us from birth, and \\'t?C-annot
along with a host of other material (comets, asteroids, meteors,
d\\•Jrf planet~. etc.), comprise our solar system.
Warmth for the planets is provided primarily by the sun's
detach ourselves from it~ presence. In the open air, wecan travel energy. At anavcragedistance fromthesunofnearly ISO million
for many thousand~ of kilometers in any horizontal direction, kilometers (km) or 93 million miles (mi), the earth intercept~
but should we move a mere eight kilometers above the surface, only a very small fraction of the sun~ total energy output. How-
we would suffocate. We may be able to survive without food for ever, it is this radian/ energy (or radiation)" that drives the at-
a fev.· \\•eeks, or \\1thout \\•ater for a ft\\ days, but, \\•ithout our
1
mosphere into the patterns of everyday wind and weather and
atm~"phe-re, \\'t' \\IQuld not survive more than a ft\\' minutes. allows the earth to maintain an average surface temperature of
Just as fish are c.onfine.d to an enviro1unent of \\"Jter, so \ve are about 1s•C(5\fF).' Although this temperature is mild, the earth
confined to an orean ofair. Any\..•here\\•ego. it must go \\•ith us. experiences a wide range of temperatures, as readings can <lrop
The earth without an atmosphere would have no lakes or below-8S"C (-121•F) during a frigid Antarctic night and climb,
oceans. There would be no soun<ts, no douds, no red sunsets. during the day, to above so•c (122•F) on the oppressively hot
The beautiful pageantry of the sky would be absent. It would be subtropical desert.
unimaginably cold at night and unbearably hot during the day. 'Jlte earth's atmosphere i~ a thin, gaseous envelope com-
All things on the earth would be at the mercy of an intense Slm prised mostly of nitrogen and oxygen, with small amounts of
beating down upon a planet utterly parched. other gases, such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. Nestled
Living on the surface of theearth, we have adapted so com- in the atmosphere are douds of liquid water and ice crystals.
pletely to our environment of air that we sometime,~ forget how Although our atrn0-~here extends up'""d for many hundreds
truly remarkable this substance i~. Even though air is tasteless, of kilometers, almost 99 percent of the atmosphere lies within
odorless, and (most ofthe lime) invisible, it protects us from the a mere 30 km (19 mi) of the earth's surface (see • Fig. 1.2). Jn
scorching rays of the sun and provides us with a mixture ofgases fact, if the earth \\'ere to shrink to the size of a beach ball, it~
that allows life to flourish. Because "'"cannot see, smell, or taste inhabitableatmo~phere would be thinner than a piece of paper.
air, it may seem surprising that between your eyes and the pages This thin blanket of air constantly shields the surface and it~
of this book are trillions of air molecules. Some of these may inhabitants from the sun's dangerous ultraviolet radiant encr&'Y•
have been in a doud only yesterday, or over another continent as "'"ll as from the onsh1ught of material from interplanetary
last week, or perhaps part of the life-giving breath of a person space.1 here is no definite upper limit to the atm<>-~phere; rather,
who lived hundreds ofyears ago. it becomes thinner:md th inner, eventually merging with empty
In this chapter, we will ex.~mine a numberofimportant con- space, which surrounds all the planets.
c-eptsand ideas about theearth~ atmo~phere,manyofwhich \\1ll
be expanded in subsequent chapters. COMPOSITION Of THE ATMOSPHERE •'fable 1.1 shows the
various gases present in a volume of air near the earth's sur-
face. Notice that nitrogen (N,) occupie,~ about 78 percent and
·rtuto \\'l'ISonce dassilied asn true pl1ne1. Bui r«ently ii hns been redas.silied asa
Overview of the Earth's Atmosphere planetaryobjca cn!IOO a dwdrfplauet.
··Radiation is energy trilnsfcrred in the tbrm of \Wives tha! h.1vcelecLrical and nug·
The universe contains billions of g;ilaxies and each galaxy is netic properties.. The light Lha1 w~s.ee is r.ldiation, ~ is ultravioJe1 light. ri..tore on this
made up of billions ofstars. Stars are hot, glowing balls of gas bnporh'lnl topic is given in Chapter 2.
that generate energy by converting hydrogen into helimn near tlhe abbreviation "C is used when 1neasuring 1en1per.tture in degrees f'...elsius. and
their centers. Our sun is an average size star situated near the "Fis the abbreviation for degrees F.lhr('nbcit. f\ilore intOnnation about 1e1uper.uurc
edge of the Milky Way galaxy. Revolving ''round the sun are .scab isgiven in Appt>ndix Band in Ch.1pter l.
• F I GURE 1 .1 Tberelativesizesandposi·
tions cJ the planets in our solar system. Pluto is
included as an object called a dwarf planer. {Posi 4
tions are not to sea~}

r'.'e-rc u· y !:<i<H·· =='' ~1tc
\,'t!Tl..I~ '. ,,1rs

f JLp1'.e• Saturn
~
IJra'lus
t
•
Ne ptun.o>
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,......._.,..... "',...,,• .,,in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~,,.,~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,...,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• F I GURE 1 .2 The earth'satmosphere as viewed
from space. The atmosphere is the thin blue region
along the ed9e of the earth. The photo\vas taken
from the International Space Station on April 12.
2011. 0ter\veste1n South America.
oxygen (0) about 21 percent of the total volume ofdry air. !fall to the atmo.sphere occurs during pliotosynthesis, as pbnts, in
the other gases are removed, these percentages for nitrogen and the presence of sunlight, combine carbon dioxide and water to
oxygen hold fairly constant up to an elev-at ion ofabout 80 km produce sugar and oxygen.
(SO mi). (fora do.o;er look at thecompo.sitioo ofa breath ofair at The concentration of the invisible gas water vapor (H,0).
the earth'ssurface, read the focus section on p. 6.) however, varies greatly from place to place, and from time to
At the surface., there isa balance between destruction (out- time. Clo.c;e to the surface in \\•arm. steamy. tropical locations.
put) and production (input) of these gases. For example, nitro- water vapor may account for up to 4 percent of the atmospheric
gen is removed from the atmosphere primarily by biological gases. \\•hereas in colder arctic areas. its concentration may
processes that involve s(jl bacteria. Jn addition, nitrogen is taken dwindle to a mere fraction of a percent (see 1able I. I). Water
from the air by tiny ocean-dwelling plankton that convert it into vapor molecules are, of course, invisible. 'Jltey become visible
nutrients that help fortify the ocean'.s food chain. lt is returned only when they transform into larger liquid or solid particles,
to the atmo.sphere mainly through the decaying of plant and such as cloud droplets and ice crystals, which may grow in size
anim.11 m.1tter. Oxygen, on the other h:tnd, is removed from the and eventually fall to the earth as rain or snow. ' llte changing of
atmosphere when organic matter decays and when oxygen com- water vaPor into liquid water is called co11dei!S!•tio11, where,ts the
bine,s "'th other substances, producing oxides. lt is also taken proces.s of liquid water becoming water vapor is called evapo-
from the atmosphere during breathing, 'ts the lun~ take in oxy- ration. 'Jlte falling rain and snow is called precipitation. Jn the
gen and release carbon dioxide (CO,). The addition of oxygen lower atmosphere, water is everywhere. Jt is the only substance
., TABLE 1.1 Composition of the Atmosphere near the Earth's Surface
PERlt\ANENT GASES VARIABLE GASES

Percent !by Volume! Percent Par U per
Ga'S Symbol Dry Air Gas land Particles} Symbol !by Volume I Million !ppm)"
Nitrogen N, 78.0S \"lacer vapor H,O Oto 4
Ox·ygen o, 20.95 Carbon dioxide co, 0.039 395•
Argon Ar 0.93 ~·fethane CH, 0.00018 1.8
Neon Ne 0.00t8 ~tttrous oxide N~O 0 .00003 0 .3
Heliun1 He 0.0005 Ozone o, 0.0 00004 0 .04'

Hydrogen H, 0.00006 Particles (dust, soot, etc.) 0.000001 0 .0t- 0.15
Xenon Xe 0.000009 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 0.00000002 0 .0002
·ForCOl. 395 p.1r1.S per n1il!ion 1ncam that Olli ofevery n1illion ~ir molecules. 39.S .are CO: n1olecules.
t.stra1osphcric values at ahi1udes bcrn-een l 1 kn1 and SO kin .are <.lbou1S to 12 pp1n.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
A Breath of Fresh Air
lfwe could examine a breath of a ir, we equals the number of orb iting electrons, number of stars in the universe, we multi-
would see that air (like ever ything else in the atom as a whole is electrically neutral plyth e number of stars in a galaxy by the
the universe) is composed of in credibly tiny (see Fig. 1). total number o f galaxies and obtain
particles called atoms. We cannot see at- Most of the air par ticl es a re molecules,
1on X 10°-;:; 1011 stars in the universe.
oms in dividually. Yet, if we could seeone, combinations of two or more atoms (such
we would find electrons w hirling at fantas- as nit rogen, Ny andox~en, 0 2), and most Therefore, each breath o f air contains
tic speeds about an extremely dense cen- of the molecules are electrically neutral. A a bout as many molecules as there are stars
ter, somewhat like hummingbirds da rting few, however, a re electrically charged, hav- in the known univer se.
and c ircling about a flower. At this center, ing l ost or gained electro ns. These charged In the ent ire atmosphere, there are
or nucleus, ar ethe protons an d neutrons. atoms and molecules a re called ions. n early 1Qt4 molecules. Th e number 10 44 is
Almost all of t he atom's mass is concen- An aver age breath o f fresh air contains 10 22 .squared; consequently
trated here, in a t rillionth of th e atom's a tremendous numb er of molecules. W ith
entire volume. In t he nucleus, the proton f!Ver y deep b reath, t rillions of molecules
1021 x 1011 = 10 44 molecules in the
atmosphere.
carries a posit ive charge, whereas the neu- from the atmosphere enter your body.
tron is electrically neutral. The circling elec- Some of these inhaled gases become a We thus conclude that there are about
tron carries a negative char ge. As long as par t o f you, and others are exhaled. 10 22 breaths of air in the entire atmosphere.
the total number o f protons in the nucleus The volume of an average size b reath In other words, there are as many mole-
of air is about a liter.* Near sea lf!Vel, t here cules in a single breath as th ere are breaths
are roughly ten thousand million million in the atmosphere.
million (1 01')t air molecul es in a liter. So, Each time we breathe, th e molecules
we exhale enter the turbulent atmosphere.
1 breath of a ir ~ 10" molecules.
If we wait a long time, those molecules w ill
We can appreciate how large this eventually become thoroughly m ixed w ith
number is w hen we compare it to the num-- all of th e other air molecules. If none o f th e
ber of stars in the universe. Astronomers molecules were consumed in oth er pro-
estimated that there are about 100 billion cesses, f!Ventuallythere would be a mole-
(1 011) stars in an average size galaxy and cule from that single breath in every breath
that there maybe as many as 10 11 ga la xies t hat is o ut there. So, considering the many
in t he universe. To determine the total b reaths people exhale in their lifetimes, it is
possible that in our lungs a re molecules
•one cubic centimeter isabout t hesizeof a sugar
• FIGU RE 1 An atom has neut ron.sand protons t hat were once in the lungs of people w ho
at it s center \Vilh electrons orbit ing this center cube. and there are a thousand cubiccent imeter-s
in a liter. lived hun dreds or even thousands of years
{pr nucleus). Molecules are combinat ions of l\vo
or more atoms. The air we breathe is mainly rrhe notation HY 1 means the number one follo\ved ago. In a ver y real way t hen, we all share
molecular nitrogen (N) and molecular byl\venty- hw zeros. For a furt her explanat ion of t he same atmosphere.
<><)'9en (0). this syst em of notat ion see Appendix A .
thatexistsasagas, a liquid, and a solid at tho~temperaturesand earth~ surface-<:.alled the greenhouse effect-keeps the average
pres.~ures normally found near theearth'ssurface (~e • Fig. 1.3). air temperature near the surface much \\•armer than it \\'Ould
\Vater vapor is an extre111dy important gas in our atmo· be othern1~.· Thus, water vapor plays a significant role in t he
sphere. Not only does it form into both liquid and solid cloud earth~ heat-energy balance.
particles that grow in size and faU to earth as precipitation, but it Carbon dioxid e (CO, ), a natural component of the atmo-
aLro rele<t~s large amounts of heat - called fotent lie.at -when sphere, occupies a small (but important) percent of a volume of
it changes from vapor into liquid water or ice. latent heat is an air, about 0.039 percent. Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere
important source of atmo~pheric energy, especially for storms, mainly from the decay of vegetation, but it also comes from vol-
such as thunderstonnsand hurricanes. Moreover, water vapor is canic eruption~. theexhahrtionsof animal life, from the burning
a potent gree11/1011se gM becau~ it strongly absorbs a portion of offossil fuels(such ascoal,oil, andnaturalgas), and from defor-
the earth~ outgoing radiant energy (somewhat like the glass of a estation. The removal of CO, from t he atmosphere takes place
greenhou~ prevents the he;rt inside from escaping and mixing
with the outsiM air). Thi~ trapping of heat energy do~ to the •A more dctniled look at the greenhoUSt' elfoct is presented in C'.haptcr l .
'°"">' ""'buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*<' niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
C'1'1rif* :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl<'l~..,'11..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
(1.9 ppm/year), scientists now estimate that the concentration of
CO, will likely rise from its current v-alue of about 395 ppm to a
value exceeding 550 ppm by the end of this century.
Carbon dioxide is another important greenhouse gas be-
cau.~. like water vapor, it traps a portion of the earth's outgo-
ing energy. Consequently, \\1th everything else being equal,
as the atmospheric concentration of CO, increases, so should
the average global surface air tlmperature. Jn fact, over the last
JOO years or so, the earth's average surface temperature has
'"' rmed by more than o.s•c ( l. 4°F). Mathematical climate
models that predict future atm0-~pheric conditions estimate that
if increasing levels of CO, (and other greenhouse gases) con-
tinue at their pre,~nt rates:theearth~surfacecould warm by an
additional 3•c (5.4.F) by the end of this century. As we will see
in Chapter 16, the negative consequences of this type of c/imt1te
change (such as rising sea levels and the rapid melting of polar
ic.e), will be felt worldwide.
Carbon dioxide and water vapor are not the only green-
house gases. Others include methane (C H,), nitrous oxide
(N ,0) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). levels of meth,me, for
example, have been rising over the past century, increasing re-
O?ntly by about one-half ofone percent per year. Mo_~t methane
appears to derive from the breakdown of plant material by cer-
tain bacteria in rice paddies, wet oxygen-poor soil, the biological
• FIGURE 1.3 Theeartlisatmosphere is a rich mixture of many 9ases. \Vith activity of termites, and biochemical reactions in the stomachs
doudsof condensed \vater vapor and ice crystals. Here. \Yater evaporates from cL cows. Just why methane should be increasing so rapidly i~cur
the ocean's surface. Rising air currents then transfonn lhe invisible water vapor
into many billions of tiny liquid droplets that appear as puffy cumulus douds.
rently under study. Levels of nitrous oxide-commonly known
If the rising air in the cloud should extend to greater heights, \Vhere air tem- as ktughing gas- have been rising 'Ulnu.1lly at the rate ofabout
peraturesare quite low, some o f the liquid droplets,vould freeze into minute
icec:rystals.
duringphotosynthesi~. as plants consume CO, to produce green

matter. 'l11e CO, is then stored in roots, branches, ,.,d leaves. The
oceans act as a huge reservoir for CO,, as phytoplankton (tiny
drifting plants) in surface water fix CO, into organic tissue.s.
Carbon dioxide that dissolves directly intosurfaO? water mixes
downward and circulates through greater depths. Estimates are
that the oceans hold more than 50 times the total atm0-~pheric
CO, rontent. • Figure 1.4 illustrates important ways carbon di-
oxide enters and leaves the atm0-~phere.
• Figure 1.5 reveals that the atm0-~pheric concentration of
CO, has ri~n by about 25 percent since 1958, when it was first
measured at Mmma Loa Observatory in Mawaii. This increase
means that CO, i~ entering the atm0-~phere at a greater rate than
it is being rem0ved. The increase appears to be due mainly to
the burning of fossil fuel~; however, deforestation also plays a
role as cut timber, burned or left to rot, releases CO, directly
into the air, perhaps accounting for about 20 percent of the ob-
served increase. Measurements of CO, also rome from ice core.s.
In Greenland and Antarctica, for example, tiny bubbles of <1ir
trapped within the ice sheets reveal that before the industrial
revolution, CO, levels were stable at about 280 parts per million e FIGURE 1.4 The main componentsoftheatmospl'lericcarbon diax.ide
(ppm). (See the insert in Fig. 1.5.) Since the early 1800s, how- cyde. The gay lin~ sho\v pro<esses that put carbon dia1dde into the atmo-
ever, CO, levels have increa.~d more than 40 percent. With sphere, \Vhereas the red lines sho\v processes tha. t remove carbon dioxide from
CO, levels presently increasing by about 0.4 percent annually the atmosphere.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,..,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FI GURE 1.5 (a}Thesolid
blue line shows the average 400
)early measurement sofC07 395
400 ~~~---,-~-~---...
in parts per miltion {ppm}al
Mauna Loa Observatory,
390
385 375
Ha\vail from 1958 to 2011. The Maupa
jagged dark line illustrat es ho\v 380 e 3501--<--.J--+-boa ""---
higher reading soccur in \Yin ter
375
g
\vhere plants die and release
CD 1 to the atmosphere.and
370 g" 3251-_,I-_,-
le cores
ho\v lower r eadings occur in 365 300
summer\vhen moreabundant
360 275l:::::::t::::::±:~~..:::::_lJ
vegetation absorbs col from ~ 355 1000 1200 1400 1600 100'.) 2000
the a tmosphere. (b) The insert .e Year
ShO\VS C0
1
values in ppm d ur· o" 350
ing the pa.st 1000 year s from 0 345
ice cores in Antarct ica (orange
hne} and from Mauna Loa Ob-
340
servatory (blue line). {Mauna 335
lDa data NOAA•lce Core data 330
A1mospheric C02
court esy ofCarbon Dioxide
325 concentration
Information Analysis Cenl er,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory) 320
315
310
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
one-quarter of a percent. Nitrous oxide form~ in the soil through 'md damages vegetation. But the majority of atmospheric ozone
a chemicttl process involving bacteria and certain microbes. U 1- (about 97 percent) is found in the upper atmosphere-in the
traviolet light from the sun destroys it. stratosphere-where it is formed naturally, as oxygen atoms
Chlorofluorocttrbons (CFCs) represent a group of green- combine with oxygen molecules. Here, the concentration of
house gases that, up until the mid- J 990s, had been increttsing ozone averages less than 0.002 percent by volume. This small
in concentration. At one time, they were the most widely used quantity is important, however, because it shields plants, ani-
propellants in spray cans. Today, however, they are main! y used mals, and humans from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. It is
as refrigerant~. as propellants for the blowing of plastic-foam ironic that ozone, which damages plant life in a polluted envi-
insulation, mxl as solvents for deaning electronic microcircuits. ronment, provides a natural protective shield in the upper atmo -
Although their average concentration in a volume of air is quite sphere so that plants on the surface may survive.
small (see Table 1.1, p. S), they have an important efrect on our When Cl'Cs enter the stratosphere, ultraviolet rays break
atmosphere as they not only have the potential for raising global them apart, and the CFCs release ozone-destroying chlorine. Be-
temperatures, they also play a part in destroying the gas ozone cause of this effect, O-Lone concentration in the stratosphere has
in the stratosphere, a region in the atmosphere located between beendecreasingoverpartsofthe Northern and Southern Hemi-
about 11 km and SO km above the earth's surface. spheres. • Figure 1. 6 illustrate,~ the extent of ozone depletion
At the surface, ozone (O) istheprimary ingredient ofpho- above Antarctica during September, 20 LO. Stratospheric O-LOne
todiemirAI smog,• pollution which irritates the eyes and throat levels have plummeted during September and October to where
little O-LOne is observed and an actual ozone hole has fi>rmed as
•originally the word srt~ nlean1 lhecombiningof 51n okeand fog. Today, howewr, shown in Fig. 1. 6. (We "ill examine stratospheric ozone and the
Lhe wo1d usually rett n to the type o f .sinog lhnt fo nns in large ciLies. such as Los
Antarctic ozone hole in more detail in Chapter 18.)
Ang:lcs. California. B«nuse Lhis typt of sn)()g IOnns when chcnlical reactions take
place in thcpresenu of sunlight. ii is tenned photocllt'Jniad sruog. Impurities from both natural and human sources are also
present in the atmosphere: Wind picks up dust and soil from
the e'1rth's surface and cttrries it aloft: small saltwater drops
WEATHER WATCH from ocean waves are swept into the air (upon evaporating,
When i t rai ns, i t rains penn ies from heaven- sometimes . these drop.~ leave microscopic salt particles suspended in the
On July 17, 1940, a tornado repor ted ly picked up a t rea- atmosphere);smokefrom forest fires is often rarried high above
sure of over 1000 sixteenth-century sil ver coins, carri ed the earth: and volcanoes spew many ton~ of fine ash particles
them i nto a thunderstorm, then dropped them on t he and gases into the air (see • Fig. 1.7). Collectively, these tiny
village of Mercher y i n the Gorki regi on of Russia. solid or liquid suspended particles of various composition are
called aerosols.
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,.,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Some natural impurities found in the atm<>-~phere are quite
beneficial. Small, floating particles, for instance, act as surfaces
on which water vapor condenses to form cloud~. However, m<>-~t
human-madeimpurities(andsomenaturalones)areanuisance,
as well as a health hazard. 'lbesewe call poUutant~- Forex.~mple,
automobile engines emit copious amount~ of nitrogen dioxide
(N02). rtirbon monoxide (CO). and hydromrbons. Jn sunlight,
nitrogen dioxide reacts "1th hydrocarbons and other gases to
produce photochemical smog. Carbon monoxide is a major
pollutant of city air. Colorless and odorless, thi~ poisonous gas
forms during the incomplete combtc~tion of carbon-containing
fuel. Hence, over 75 percent ofcarbon monoxide in urban areas
comes from road vehicle.~.
1 he burning ofsulfur-containing fuel~ (such ascoalandoil)
releases sulfur gases into the air. When the atm<>-~phere is suf-
ficiently moist, these gases may transform into tiny dilute drops
of sulfuric acid. Rain containing sulfuric acid corrodes metals
and painted surfaces, and turns freshwater lakes acidic. Acid rain
is a major environmental problem, especially down\\1nd from
major industrial areas. (More on the acid rain problem is given
in Chapter 18.)
THE EARLY ATMOSPHERE The atmosphere that originally

surrounded the earth was probably much different from the air ~
we breathe today. ' lbe earth'.~ first atm<>-~here(some4.6 billion
• FI GURE 1 .6 The darkest color represents the area of lowest ozone concen
years ago) was m<>-~t likely hydrogen and helium -the twom<>-~t
4
tration, or ozone liole..over the Southern Hemisphereon September 25, 20 10 .

abundant gases found in the universe-as well as hydrogen Notice that the hole islargerthan the continent of Antarctica.A Dobson unit
compounds,suchasmethane(CH) andammonia(NH,). Mo_~t (DU} is the physicalthic:knessof the ozone layer if it \Vere brought to the earth's
scientists feel that thi~early atm<>-~pheree.scaped into space from surface, \vhere 500 DU equals S millimeter!..
the earth's hot surface.
A second, more dense atm<>-~phere, however, gradually en- m<>-~tly water vapor (about 80 percent). carbon dioxide (about
veloped the earth as gases from molten rock within its hot in- JO percent). and up to a few percent nitrogen. 'f hese gases
terior e.scaped through vokanoes and steam vents. We assume (mostly water vapor and carbon dioxide) probably created the
that volcanoes spewed out the same gases then as they do today: earth~ second atm<>-~phere.
e FI GURE 1. 7 Erupting volcanoes can send

tons of particles into theatmosphere., along
with VM1 amounts of \Vater vapor, carbon
dioxide, and sulfur dioxide.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11 ,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
As millions of)'enh po;,:.cd. the "•1>111111 outpouring of g<1>C>
from the hot interior-known ns outg.isslng - provided n rich
supply of wJtcr vapor. which formed Into dmi<b. ( h Is nlso be· Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere
licwd that when the earth w.L> v~ry )1>ung >omc of 11; \\<Iler may A vertical profile of the atmo;pberc rc,·cals that it can be di
haw originated from nwnero11> rnlli\1ons with small meteor~ vidcd into a series oflayers. Each bycr may be dcfin1'tl In •I
that pounded the earth, a~ wcU ~from di>lnllt1rntingcometi.) number of wa)S: by the manner in which the air tcmpcrnturc
Rain fell upon the earth for n~my thow••1n. andoc•~ans of the world. Ouringtlu\ tme, brge it> electrical properties. At any rate. before we cxom1nc the.e
amoun~ofCO, werecb~-cd 1nthe0Ctan> ·1hroogh chemical \'3riousatmosphericloytrs. WI.' nttd to look01 thc•erllc:il pro
and biological proce~<'>. mu'h of the CO, ba;ame lucked up file of two impurtant \-ariables: au ptCSM!tt and ~•r density.
in carbonate ;,ecbmenc.iry ro<b. w1h .u lmt>ionc W ch much
of tht w.itttvapor alrtiJdj· cundensed and the concmtnuon of A BRlEf LOOK AT AIR PRESSURE AHO AIR DENSITY urhct
CO.dwmdlulg. tht amo<phtrcgr.idual!) b«=e nch m nttro- in this chapter ...~ learned that mo;t of Ollr atma.phrtt is
l)l!ll'!N,). wh.id> • wwl~· not chtnu,:ally adl\'t. cro....itd close to the l'Or1h'sswfatt. lht reason for tlu> f..:11s
ll"PJll"'B Iha oxygm(O1). lhr>ai.>nJ mO>t .ibund.irc p>in lhat air molecul.s (as wd as C\e:rything d;e)..,.. hdJ nnr the
!Oda)•> a.tmosphrrc prob;abl) bqpn an rnn:mdy >ICJ\\ incmase earth bygravity. This .strong in\'istir fO«'.e pu1lulg <low n on the
in cooantnllon umcrgr:tic ra)~ from !hewn <plat "aternpor air abo'"' squttzts (com~) a<r molcculo cbcr togdhcr,
(H,0) inlo b)'llJ'08"1and oxy[lrn Junnga procesi. c:alltd photo· which causes their numbtr in a gi\'tll \'OlwnC to 1nc1t.1'<'. 1ht
cf.WOahon. lht h)'ll~n. be1~ bghtct, probably rose and t'S· more air abm·e a levd, the greater the squcttmg rffcc t or
captd mtospacc wlulc lht OX)'l!Ml renla111tJ 1n lhe atmosphere. Q)tllpt ession.
lhi; ;low lllCrea;r in oxygrn may haw J'fU' 1dtd mough Gravity also hasandfect on thrwrighl of00,cc~ mcludutg
ct this ga; bt purutn.. plant; to c:vd'-e. priflaps 2 to 3 biIDon air. Jn fact. weight is the forceactingon an OOJCCI durtogravdy.
yean ogo. Or tht plant> may hJve emh'td 1n an almo;1 Weight isddinedasthemassof anob)CCI lime> lheaccdcration
OX)'!,"W·fri'<' (anJtrobic) env1roruncnt. At •nyrate, pb nt growth ofgravity: thus
grcatlyenr1chcd our Jtnui.phctt "1th oxygen. 1he l'ta<On for
tltis enrichment i;, lhJI. dunng 1hc procc.<» of phot<»ynthcsl>. Weight = lllaiS X grJv11 y.
plants, in tbc pr<.'locncc of >unlight, combine tllrbon dioxick An object's mass is the quanllty of mailer in the obj~l.
and water 10 produce oxygen. I lcncc, aft er plant;, evolved, Consequentl)l lhe ma;s of air in a rigid container i> the •ll•nc
thcatmosphcricoxygcn content lncrca,Nl more rnpidly, prob· everywhere in the universe. However, if you were lo ln;tantly
ably rcacning il> prc:.cnt compo•illnn nboul :.cvcrnl hundred travel 10 the moon, where the accclcrntion of grnvlly is much
million years u1.10. less than that ofearth, the m;1ssof air in the container"""'" be
the same~ bul its \\'tight \\•Ould decrease.
When m;1ss is given in gram; (g) or kllngrnms (kg), vol ·
BRIEF REVIEW ume is given in cubic centimeters (cm') or cubic meters (m').
Before going on to the next several sectlonJ, here is a review Near sea !eve~ air density is about l .2 kilogram> per cubk meter
of ;ome of the important conctpu presented ;o far: (nearly 1.2 ounces per cubic foot).
'rhe density of air( or any substance) is determined by the
• The earth's atmospht<e Is a mixture of many gasu. In a vol· masses of atoms and molecules and the amount of >pa•c be
ume of dry air near the surfact, nltrogtn (N,) occupies about tween them. ln other words, density teDs us how mu th mailer
78 perctnt and oxygtn (0 1) about l 1 percent. is in a given space (!hat is, volume). We C\UI e.xprc» d.:nsity m
• Water vapor. whkh normally occuplu less than 4 percent In • \':lriety of "'")'S. lhe molecubr denscy of air 1> thc number of
a volume of alrneanhe surface, an condtnse Into Uquld molecules in a gi''tll volume. Mo;tcommonly, howt''l.'1'. d.:nuy
cloud droplets 0<tr1nsform Into Mlkate lc. crystals. Water is given as the mass ofair in a gn•en ''Olume; !bu>
is the only substance In our atmosphere !hit b found natu · mas.
rally u a gas (watervapO<), H 1 lquld (water), 1nd u •solid Deru.il)• - •
volumt
(ice).
&cause thereartappmi;lblym<n moltcula w1th1n lhr\ame
•Both water VflPO< and carbon dioxide (CO) we lmporunt .siz.r ,·olume of air near the nrtb '>surface than at higher lt\d..
gretnhouseguu.
airdmsit y is greatest at the~ and dtcttalO t i " e 11l()<(' up
• OJIOM (0 ) In the stratosphere protects Ue from harmful ul· into thcatmosphtn'. :>:otn in• Fig. 1.8 tlw. b«au)<! air nnr lht
traviolet (UV) radiation. At the surfac .. ozone Is the main In· girfau iscompresstd. udmsllynonnaDydcctt;uc> raptdl) •t
gredient of photochemkal smog. fir.it, Ihm mott slowly as""' mO\'t farlhtr aw;ry from lhc iunoce.
•The majority of water on our planet Is beUeved to have come Airmolecule:s are in constantmOIJon. On a m11J 'J'"'l!d•y
from its hot Interior through outgaulng, although some of near lhe surface, an air mol<.'Culr will coble about 10 b1D1011
the earth's water may have co mt from colliilons with mete· limes rach second with othtr air molecub. It wJI al'. the gr<>und.
and on television and rndio weather brood casts. At sea lcvel, the
$f1mdnrd value for atmo;phcnc prc>.>ure i>
JOI 3.25 mb - 1013.25 hJ>3 29.92 in. I Jg.
Billions of air molecules push constantly on the human body.
Thisforttiseurtedequolly mall cLrtct10ns. Weare not crushed
by ii because billioruofmolttules 1nstdr the body puoh outward
just as bard. Even though wr do not l\Ctu.tly feel the constant
bombanlment of air, \\Cain clet«t quick chaoses in it for u
ample, ifwe climb rapidly in tltvatton. our cats mar "pop." 1hi>
0
---
N
experience happens becaust a1rcolbsannsout>ide the eardrum
lessm. The popping comes about as rurcoD15Jons bel\\'een tht
inside and outside of tht car equahu. lhe drop in tht numbtt
a collisions informsusth<i theprtSSurtl'xcned by the air mol
oculcs decreases with height above the canh. A similar typt of
eat-popping occurs as we drop tn cl<1'.l1ton, and the air colh
!ions outside tht eardrum increase.
Air molecules not only take up >pact (freely daning. twist
e FIGURE 1-1 loth• Pf"ISSUIW ind audt ... cydlc.rene wlh incf!IMng ing, spinning. and colliding wdh rwrythmg around them),
......n..-9111o1 a11""' .. .-~1&11>ow11w-1t1~ wr1- pooduce but-as we have seen-the>c same moltcules ha1'r Wl'lgl\L Jn
MWIQ91'r:a-Wlte f'l8' 14 7 bsltn..I fact air is surprisingly heavy. 1hc ""•ght of .ti the air around
the earth is a staggering 5600 ttillt0n tons, or about 5.136 X
IO"kg. 1hcw<ight of tht 31r molcculesa.:ts asa force upon tht
ond evm ptoplc. l:Jch ume an :ur molttule bounce. og;;urut a earth_ The amount o( fon;e exencd over an an-a of surf.w:e is
person, d II"'"•
bny push. llus smoll fotcr (pu>h) divided by coiled almosplaeric prtssurr or. .imply. air pressul'r. •The pres
the nreaon "tuch 1t pushc:. is c:illed prusurt; thus sure al an}' level in theatm05phcre maybe m<!asured in term; o(
the total mass of air abo'-e nnypoont. As we cbmb in elevation,
force few"r air molecules nre ubove us; hence, 11tmosploeric press11rr
pressure = - .
nrcn cilw'!)'s decreases witIr i11creas/11g l1r1gl11. Like nir tlcn>ity, air pre;
lf wc wci!V• n column ofair I square Inch In cro,;..ection, sure decreases rapidly nt fir.t, thcn more >lowly Ct1 lcwl) ns illustrated in Fig. 1.8.
hllhc "top" ofthe :ttnl<>"l'hcrc, it would wd!Vt nearly 14.7 pounds o rigure l.9 al~CI illu>trntcs how rnpiclly :tir pre.sure de ·
(;cc rig. 1.8). 'I hu., normnl at rtlO>phcrlc prc...,.urc ncnr .en lcvd creases with heighc. Near .en level, otmo.>phcric prcSMtrC is
I> dose tu 14 .7 pound> per square Inch (14 .7 lb/in'). If more usually dose to JOOO mli Nonnally, j<L\t obovc sea level. ntmo·
molecule.> arc pachxl into the oolwnn, It lx'Conirs mme den.c, .>pbcric pressure decrease;, by about JO mb for every 100 me·
the airwc1gh> more, and the surface prei.;ure !,'ll<"> up. On the ters (m) increase in altitude-about I tnch of nirrcury for cwry
1000 feet (ft) of rise. Al higher levels, a.- pressure dtcTea>e>
other hand, "hen fewer molecules arc to tht colunm. the :ur
wciglu k». and therorface ~uregoes down. So. thcwn~ce much more slowly "ith height Wt th a sea -level prcssu rt near
air pttMUrt can hr changed by changing the nw; of :ur abo..-e JOOOmb. "'"can ..,..in Fig. I .9that. :i an olu1udeofonlyS.5 km
the rorf.w:e. (35mi). tbeairpressure1> about 500 mb,or half ofthesea-le..-d
Pound> prr >quart inch is, ofcoune.1ust <>Ml'"Y toapress pressure_ This situabon means that.1(you ""rt :i a mm.' 5.5 km
or prt'»UIC Prc.tntly. tht most common und found on >11rfxe
(about 18,000 ft) abo\.., the carth"s surfa.:t, )'OU would be above
weather maps "' the m10ibor' (mb) ahhough the hutof"'SCal one-holfofall the .,..,fccuJes in the atm<>"phere.
(hP.l) "grnduaDy repbcing tht m1Dibatastht preferred unit of
"B«a1w ar pnssuR b tna•\lrtd ,.-1h •n 1ni1ru1nm111..alcJ a ,..._&r. atmo·
prcs.>-ure on >urfacech:uu. Another und of pro.;urc a> 111d1cs of !ipheric pus.suRiJ ohm ll'imcJ M ••--mu!"~ ..,
lllm'tl')' (I Jg). wluch is commonly u;ed 1n the firld of aviation
~nilkJn. • b,,,, a klrcC"of IOOJXIOnt•1oru(N) .:.11n1M • turt.« ar••ol WEATHER WATCH

l -.qmrc- nwtn fm ). A ntw..,. U lbt .noual ot klf11.ir rt'quhcJ In tru\c- an '6)«1
w1h • m. . tii I Uktgaon tkf.) t0thar ii inair.-.rr. lb ~rreJ. .ii a r•t'<•f I Mdtrpcr The air density In tht m"•-hlgh city of Donvor, Colorado,
.tcwnd lm'.t«)t'.-:h ..:cwi.d. Btouw tht b. ""' nUb,d• l-sc unli.. .Id b«aa.w is normaly about 15 percent Jui thin tht air dtnslty at
*'\lri.kc pftMur'° <hA'lvrt .-ir ..u..tJt, -.m.all, ltw unit or pritMl.lfir Mf•t 4.(lttlOknly
sea level. As tht air dtnsltydt<rHses, tht drog force on
k>l.IWon lllrt.JU" "'"ahtr nupt.'61ht.Uhlr. wtw .. I bu • IOOOmh 1llr u.l'ltd
•baseball in flight abo decreasu. 8tc1ustol this 11<1, •
P~• dnipMd btthr bkmaUOOJll S,-Man }.I (~t.tmw lnwm.1l'lna.Uoi ~1«-~
nwrt k lbt ,..""'(Pal." htrir I p.a111i2J "the 10t"' Cit I ,,.,_WI 1k lift:I «I a Mia.«
baseball hit at Denver's Coors Fttld wJa tr•vel firth tr than
oi I ...,,,'" mrtr• .\more -:nmmon UNI b 1ht -1~fhPaJ. • I h.aapac-al one hit at sea level
«JMlt I mdlbit.
0.w._....,... _ ... ,...._...., ... 01~....t-llh .._ _....... ~H·•......••-"'"'

(.,.....,,. »IUM..,.t-t Ml ........_ _ . ., ,.._................. ~........... 1'1t ...llM ......, ...
....................,..._, ..._ .......................... _ .. _.,. ..,.......t... , .....~----·111a··-..u-"'-·.... --...~ .... ¥ .. -·-·Mf'-"
we move upward.1 hi~ would increase or steepen the lapse rate.
30 50 On other days, the air temperature would decrease more slowly
with height, and the lap.se rate would be les.~. Occasionally, the
air temperature may actually increase with height, producing a
condition known as a temperature inversion. So the lap.se rate
40
fluctuates, v-arying from day to day and season to season.
Jn Fig. 1.10, the region of the atm<>-~phere from the surface
up to about l l km contains all of the weather we are familiar
with on earth. Also, this region is kept well stirred by rising and
descending air currents. Here, it is common for air molecules to
circulate through a depth ofmore than 10 km in just a few days.
This region of circulating air extending upward from the earth's
10 Above90% surface to where the air stops becoming colder with height is
called the troposphere -from the Greek tropein, meaning to
I - 10
turn or change.
I j\ _.•. Notice in Fig 1.10 that just above II km the air tempera-
: &~1 :
ture normally stops decreasing with height. Here, the lap.w
0 1
0 rate i4) zero. '111is region. \vhere.• on average, the air temperature
10 100 300 500 900 1000 remains con~tant with height, is referred to as an isothermal
Presoore(mb) (equal temperature) zone.• The bottom of this zone marks the
top of the trO!'°'~phere and the beginning of another layer, the
• FI GURE 1 .9 Atmospheric pressuredeoeasesrapidly\vith height.Oimb- stratosphere. 'Jlte boundary separating the trol'°'~phere from
ing toanattitudeofonlyS.5 km, \vhere thepressureisSOO mb, would put you
above one· hatf of the atmosphere's molecules.
the stratosphere i~ called the tropopause. ' llte height of the tro-
popau.se varies. Jt is normally found at higher elevations over
equatorial regions. and it decreases in elevation as \\•e travel
At an elevation approaching the summit of Mt. Everest poleward. Generally, the tropopau.se is higher in summer and
(about9 km, or29,000 ft-the highest mountain peak on earth), lower in \\inter at all latitudes. In some region~. the tropopause
the air pres~ure would be about 300 mb. The smnmit is above "breaks" and i~ difficult to locate and, here, scientists have ob-
nearly 70 percent ofall the air molecules in the atmosphere. At an served trop<>-spheric air mixing with strat<>-~pheric air and vice
altitude approaching SO km, theair pressure is about l mb, which versa. These breaks al~o m.trk the p<>-~ition ofjet streams- high
means that 99.9 percent of all the air molecules are below this \\finds that meander in a narrO\\' channel. like an old river. often
level. Yet the atmosphere extends upwards for many hundreds at speeds exceeding 100 knots. (For reference, a knot is a nauti-
of kilometers, gradually becoming thinner and thinner until it cal mile per hour, where one knot equals 1.15 miles per hour
ultimately merges with outer space. (Up to now, we have con- lmi/hr] or 1.9 kilometers per hour [km!hrJ .)
centrated on theearth~ atmosphere. For a brief look at the atmo- From Fig. 1.10 notice that, in thestrat<>-sphere, theair tem-
spheres ofthe other planets, read the Focussectionon pp. 14- 15.) perature begins to increase \\1th height, producing a temperature
inversion. The inversion region, a long with the lower isothermal
LAYERS OFTHE ATMOSPHERE Up to this paint, we've looked layer, tends to keep the vertical currents ofthe tropasphere from
at how both airpre.ssureand density decrease with height above spreading into the stratosphere. 1 he inversion also tends to re-
the earth -rapidly at first, then more slowly. Air temperature, duce the amount of vertical motion in the strato_sphere itself;
however, has a more complicated vertical profile.• hence, it i~ a stratified layer.
l ook closely at • Fig. l .10 and notice that air temperature Even though the air temperature is increasing with height,
normally decreases from the earth's surface up to an altitude of the air at an altitude of 30 km is extremely cold, averaging less
about 11 km, which is nearly 36,000 ft, or 7 mi. 1 hi~ decrease than -<J6•C (-5 l"F). At this level above polar latitudes, air
in air temperature with increasing height is due primarily to temperatures can change dramatically from one week to the
the fact (investigated further in Chapter 2) that sunlight wanns next. as a :-:udden 1varn1i11g can raise the temperature in one
the earthSsurface, and the surface. in turn, \\'arms the air above week by more than SO"C. Such a rapid wanning, although not
it. The rate at which the air temperature decreases with height well understood, is probably due to sinking air associated with
is called the temperature fapse rate. 'Jlte avemge (or standard) circulation ch:tnges that occur in late winter or early spring as
lapse rate in this region of the lower atmosphere i~ about 6.S°C well as with the poleward displacement of strong jet stream
for every I 000 m or about 3. 6"F for every 1000 ft rise in eleva- winds in the lower strat<>-sphere. ('Jlte instrument that measures
tion. (See • Fig. 1.11.) Keep in mind that these values are only the vertical profile of air temperature in the atm<>-~phere up to
averages. On some days, the air beromescolder more quickly as an elevation sometimes exceeding 30 km fl 00,000 ft] is the
•Air tetJtptmrurc is Lhe degr« o(hotncssorcoldne$ oithc air and. as we wiU s.cein "In nlany instances. the lsothennal layer is not pre.senl. and the air te1npcroture
C'.haptcr 2. ii is nlso a nleasure of the average.speed of I.he air nlolecules.. begins to increase \\'ii h incre.-ising height.
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U . ......................... " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''*.. "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl """"" .........
C'1'1'rif* ) ) ·~ On~'-""~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i
<1<n11...i ., ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c .. ...
'll'tl..1~ 'll-....... .,~,.,i..
....,, """'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r..........i....
.,,..,....,,..u,.,.,,.•.,.,.... ,.,,..,,.,... o1,..,""I...,.,. n<i•• ..,,,,-.11........,,,.,...
• FI GURE 1.10 Layersof theatmosphereasrelated to
the average profile of air temperature above the earth's
surface.The heavy line illustrates hO\vthe average tern~
perature varies in each layer.
40
! ~
"
'O
~"'
~ 30 ~
.. 10
10
0
-80 .6Q .40 -20 0 20 40 60 "C
-148 -112 -76 -40 -4 32 68 104 140 •F
Temperature
radiosonde. More information on this instrument is given in

the Focus section on p. 16.)
'Jbereason for the inversion in the stratosphere is that the
gas ozone plays a major part in heating the air at this altitude.
Rec.all that ozone i~ important bee.au.~ it absorbs energetic ultra-
violet (UV) solar energy. Some of this absorbed energy warms
the stratosphere, which explains why there is an inversion. lf
ozone were not pre.~nt, the air probably would become colder
"1th height, as it does in the troposphere.
Notice also in Fig. 1.10 that the level of maximum O'LOne
concentration is observed near 25 km (at middle latitudes),
yet the strato.~pheric air temperature reaches a m.1ximum near
SO km. '!be reason for this phenomenon is that the air at 50 km
i~ less dense than at 25 km, and so the absorption of intense
soltr energy at 50 km raises the temperature of fewer molecules
to a much greater degree. Moreover, much of the solar energy
responsible for the heating is ab-~rbed in the upper part of the • FIGURE 1 . 11 Near theearth'ssurface the air temperature lapse rate is often
stratosphere and, therefore., does not reach down to the level of dose to 3.S" F per 1000ft. If this temperature lapse rate is present and the.Ur
ozone maximum. And due to the low air density, the transfer temperature at thesurface {O ft) is-46" F, the air temperature about 4000ft above
ofenergy downward from the upper strato.~phere is quite slow. thesurface\vould beat freezing,andsl'IO\v and ice might be on theground.
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,...., .._,~..,,*_ ..
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.,. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
The Atmospheres of Other Planets
Earth is unique. Not only does it lieatjust be accompanied bywind.s of several hun-
the right distance from the sun so that life dreds of kilometers per hour. These winds
may flourish, it also provides its inhabitants carry fine dust around the entire planet. The
with an atmosphere rich in both molecular d ust gradually settles o ut, coating the land-
nitrogen and oxygen- two gases that are scape with a thin reddish veneer.
not abundant in the atmospheres of either The atmosphere of the largest planet.
Venus or Mars, our closest planetary Jupiter, is much different from that of
neighbors. Venus and Mars. Jupiter's atmosphere is
The Venusian atmosphere is mainly mainly hydr ogen (H,) and helium (He),
carbon dioxide (95 percent) with minor with minor amounts of methane (CH4 ) and
amounts of water vapor and nitrogen. An ammonia (NHJ. A prominent feature on
opaque acid--<: loud deck encircles the
• FI GURE 2 The Martian sky and landscape
planet hiding its surface. The atmosphere photographed by the Spirit Rover during April,
is quite turbulent as instruments reveal 200S.
twisting eddies and fierce winds in excess
of 125 mi/ hr. This t hick dense atmosphere Thus, surface temperatures on Mars are
produces a surface air pressure of about much lower, averaging around - 60°(
90,000 mb, which is 90 times greater than (- 76°F ). Because o f its thin cold atmo-
that on earth. To experience such a pres- sphere, there is no liquid water on Mars
sure on earth, one would have to descend and virtually no cloud cover -only a bar-
in the ocean toa depth of about 900 m r en desertlike landscape (see Fig. 2). In ad-
(2950 ft). Moreover, this thick atmosphere dition, this thin atmosphere produces an
ofcol produces a strong greenhouse ef- average surface air pres.sure of about 7 mb,
fect, with a scorching hot surface tempera- w hich is less t han o ne-hundredth of that
ture of 480°C (900°F). experienced at the surface of the earth.
The atmosphere of Mars, like that of Such a pres.sure on earth would be ob-
• FI GURE 3 A portion of Jupiter extending
Venus, is mostlycarbondioxide, with only served above the surface atan altitude
from the equator to the southern polar latitudes.
small amounts of other gases. Unlike Ve· n ear 35 km (22 m~. The Great Red Spot, as \Vell as the smaller ones,
nus, the Martian atmosphere isvery thin, Occasionally, huge dust storms develop are spinning eddies similar to storms that exist in
a nd heat escapes from the surface rapidly. near the Martian surface. Such storms may the earth's a tmosphere.
Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere (middle sphere). into an incoherent state, neither realizing nor caring what is
The boundary near SO km, which separates these layers, isctlled happening to them. Ofcourse, ifthis oxygen deficiency persists,
the sh·atvpause_ The air at this level is extremely thin and the a person will lapse into unconsciousne,-t~. and death may result.
atmospheric pressure isquitelow, averaging about I mb, which In fact, in the mesosphere, we would suffocate in a matter of
means that only one-thousandth of all the aunosphere'.~ mol- minutes.
ectdes are above this level and 99.9 percent of the aunosphere'.~ 1 here are other effects besides suffocating that could be
mass is located below it. experienced in the meso_sphere. Expo.~ure to ultraviolet solar
The percentage of nitrogen and oxygen in the meso_~phere energy, for example, could cause ~vere bums on exposed parts
i~ about the same as at sea level. However, given the air'.~ low of the body. Also, given the low air pressure, the blood in one's
densiry in this region, we would not survive breathing this air vein~ would begin to boil at normal body temperatures.
for very long. Here, e<1ch breath of air would contain far fe,ver The air temperature in the mesosphere decreases with
oxygen molecules than it would near theearth'ssurface. Con~e height, a phenomenon due, in part, to the fact that there is little
quently, without proper breathing equipment, the brain would ozone in the air to absorb solar radiation. Consequently, the
soon become oxygen-starved - a condition known as hypoxia. molecules(especially those near the top of the meso.~phere) are
Pilot~ who fly above 3 km (10,000 ft) for too long without able to lose more energy than they absorb, which results in an
oxygen-breathing apparatus may experience thi~. With the first energy deficit and cooling. So we find air in the meso_sphere
symptom.~ of hypoxia, there is usually no pain involved, just becoming colder with height up to an elevation near 85 km. At
a feeling of exhallstion. Soon, visual impairment sets in and this altitude, the temperature of the auno.~phere reaches its low-
routine tasks become difficult to perform. Some people drift est average value, -90•c (- 130•f).
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Jupiter is the Great Red Spot-a huge at- driven by the sun, Jupiter's massive swirl- exist on other planets, too, such as on
mospheric storm about three times larger ing clouds appear to be driven by a collaps- Saturn and Neptune. Studying the atmo-
than earth - that spins counterclockwise ing core of hot hydrogen. Energy from t his sphericbehavior of other planets may give us
in Jupite(s southern hemisphere (see Fig. 3). lower region rises toward the surface; then added insight into the workingsof our own
Large w hite ovals near the Great Red Spot it (along with Jupiter's rapid rotation) stirs atmosphere. (Additional information about
are similar but smaller storm systems. Un - the cloud layer into more or less horizontal size, surface temperature, and atmospheric
like the earth's weather machine, w hich is ba nds of various colors. Swirling storms composition of planets is given in Table 1.)
Y TABLE 1 Data on Planets and the Sun
DIAft\ETER AVERAGE DISTANCE FROM SUN AVERAGE SURFACE TEMPERATURE MAIN ATMOSPHERIC COMPONENTS
l(domete1s Millions of KJlomete1s ~c "F
Sun 1.392 x 10' 5,800 10.SOO
Mercury 4,880 SS 260' 500
Venus 12,J J2 108 480 900 co,

Ea.r th 12,742 15-0 15 59 Ni' 0 2
Mars 6,800 228 -60 -76 co,
Jupiter 143,000 778 - 110 - 166 J-1,.He
Saturn 121,000 1.427 - 190 -310 J-1,. He
Uranus 51,800 2,869 - 215 - 355 H,. CH,
Neptune 49,000 4.498 - 225 -373 N1 ,CH..
Pluto 3,100 5,900 -235 -391 CH,
•sunJi1 side.
The "hot layer" above the mesosphere is the lhermosphere. Because the air densiry in the upper thermosphere is so
The boundary that separates the lower, colder mesosphere low, air temperatures there are not measured directly. They can,
from the warmer lhermO-~phere is the mesopause. In the ther- however, be determined by observing the orbital change ofsat-
m0-~phere, oxygen molecules (0,) absorb energetic solar rays, ellite,~ caused by the drag of the atm0-~phere. Even though the
warming !he air. Because there are relatively few atOJll.$and mol- air is extremely tenuous, enough air molecules strike a satellite
ectdes in the thermosphere, !he absorption of a small amount of to slow it down, making it drop into a slightly lo,ver orbit. (For
energetic solar energy can cause a large increase in air tempera- !his reason, the spacecraft Solar Max fell to earth in December,
ture. Furthermore, because the amount ofsolar energy affecting 1989, as did the Russian space station, Mir, in March, 2001 .)
this region depends strongly on solar activity, temperature,~ in The amount of drag is related to the density of the air, and the
thethermospherevary from day to day (see • Fig. 1.1 2). The low den.~ity is related to the temperature. 'lherefore, by determining
density oflhe lherm0-~phere aLo;o means !hat an air molectde "ill air density, scientists are able to construct a vertical profile ofair
move an average distance (called mean free patlr) of over one temperature as illustrated in Fig. 1.12.
kilometer before colliding with another molecule. Asimilar air At thetopofthethennosphere,about 500 km(300 mi)above
molecule al the earth's surface will move an average distance of !he earth's surfall!, mole.cute,~ can move distances of JO km be-
le,ot~ than one millionth of a centimeter before it collides with IOre !hey collide with other molecules. Herc, many of the lighter,
another molecule. Moreover, it i~ in the therm0-~phere where faster-moving molecules traveling in the right direction actually
charged particles from the sun interact with air molecules to escape the earth's gravitational pull. The region where atoms and
produce dazzling aurora displays. (We "111 lookat !he aurora in molecules shoot off into space is sometimes referred to as the
more detail in Chapter 2.) exosphere, which represent~ the upper limit .....W ,............... " ' "f>•lrc<><in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl poo-1)' •"'""• ""1 boo "'l••-..i ..,.,,,h ~dl ... :.1J>• .0."l'nV o f:1"'-i..rtn1•"'!....
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,.,_
C'1')'rif•
<1<noo....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._
The Radiosonde
The ver tical distribution of temperature, a ver tical profile of winds.• (When w inds
pressure, and hum idit y up to an altitude of are added, the observ ation is called a
about 30 km (about 19 mi) can be obtained rowinsonde) When plotted on a graph,
with an instrument called a radiosonde.* the v er tical distribution of temperature..
The radiosonde~ a small, lightweight box humidity, and wind is called a sounding.
equipped with weather instruments and a EYentually, the balloon bursts and the
radio transmitter. It is attached to a cord radioso nde returns to ear th, its descent
that has a parachute and a gas-filled bal- being slowed by its parachute.
loon tied tightly at the end (see Fig. 4). As At most sites, radiosond es are released
the balloon rise s, the attached radiosond e twice a day, usually at the time that corre-
measures air temper ature w ith a small elec- sponds to midnight and noon in Green -
trical thermometer- a thermistor- w ich, England. Releasing radiosondes is an
located just o utside the box. The radio- expensiveo peration because man y o f the
sonde measures hum idityelectrically by instrum ents are never retrieved, and many
sending an electric current across a carbon- of those thatare retrieved are oft en in poor
coated p late. Air pressure is obtained by a working condition. Tocomplement the ra-
small barometer located insid e the box. dios.onde, modern satellites (using instru-
All of this information is transmitted to ments that measure radiant energy) are
the surface by radio. Here, a computer providing sc ientists w ith v ertical tempera-
rapidly reconverts the various frequencies ture profiles in inaccessible regions.
into v alues of temperature, pressure, and
moisture. Special tracking e quipment at •A modern development in the radiosonde is the
the surface may also be used to prov ide use o f satellite Global Positioning System {GPS)
equipment. Radiosondes are no\v equipped \Vi th
aGPSdevice that providesaccura te positioning of
the instrument- information that can be fed into
• FIGURE 4 The radiosondewil h p arachute and
•A radiosonde that is d ropped by parachut e f rom
balloon.
an aircraft is called a dropson de. a computer for \Vind computat ions.
Up to this point, we have ex:unined the atmospheric layers

based on the vertical profile of temperature. 'lb e atmosphere,
however, may also be divided into layers based on its composi-
Exosphere
tion. For example, the composition of the atm<>-~phere begins to
I
l
500 Active 300 slowly change in the lower part ofthe thermo.sphere. Below the
sun
therm<>-~phere, the composition of air remains fairly uniform
Average
400 sun (78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen) by turbulent mixing.
'E 'Ib is lower, well-mixed region is known as the homosphere
c. ~ (see Hg. 1.12). Jn the thermo.~phere, collisions between atoms
Thetmos~e 200 ';'
-8 300 and molecules are infrequent, and the air is unable to keep iLself
.E "~
stirred. As a result, dilfosion takes over as heavier atoms and
:i! ~ molecules (such as oxygen and nitrogen) tend to settle to the
200 Hete<osphere bottom of the layer, while lighter gases (such as hydrogen and
100 helium) float to the top. The region from about the base of the
100
- / Mesosphere J_ thermo.sphere to the top of the atmosphere is often called the
__ Stratosphere t -- heterosphere.
_ .....-: Troposp1>e1e Hcm;sphare
0 0
.,500 0 500 1000 1500 • FIGURE 1.12 (left) Layers of t he at mosphere based o n temperaturetred
Temperature ("C) line}, composition (green line}, and electrical properties {dark blue line}. (An
act ive sun is associated \Vith large numbersof solar erupt ions..}
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..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..
....,,
<1<n11....i fl ,....., .._,~..,,._ 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
THE IONOSPHERE The ionosphere is not really a layer, but radio programs. At sunrise,as the D region intensifies, the power
rather an electrified region within the upper atm0-o;phere where supplied to AM radio transmitters is normally increased. FM
fairly large concentrations of ions and free electrons exi~t. Jons stations do not need to make these adjustment~ because FM ra-
are atoms and molecules that h'we lost (or gained) one or more dio "'aves are shorter than AM "'aves, and are able to penetrate
electrons. Atoms 10-~e electrons and become pO-~itively ch,trged through the ion0-~phere without being reflected.
when they cannot absorb all of the energy transferred to them
by a colliding energetic particle or thesun'.~ energy.
1 he lower region of the ion0-~phere is uSt••lly about 60 km
abovetheearth'ssurface. From here(GO km), the ionosphere ex- BRIEF REVIEW
tends upward tothetopoftheatm0-~phere. Hence, as we can see We have, in the last several sections, been examining our atmo-
in Fig. 1.1 2, the bulk of the ionosphere is in the therm0-~phere. sphere from a vertical perspective. A few ofthe main points are:
111" ion0-~phere plays a major role in AM radio commtmi-
• Atmospheric pressure at any level represents the total mass
cations. The lower part (called the D region) reflects standard
of air above that level, and atmospheric pressure al ways de-
AM radio waves back to earth, but at the same time it seriously
creases with increasing height above the surface.
weakens them through absorption. At night, though, the Dre-
gion gradually disappears and AM radio waves are able to pen- • The rate at which the air temperature decreases with height
etrate higher into the ionosphere (into the Eand F regions-see Is cal led the lapseratt. A measured increase in air tempera-
• Fig. 1.13), where the waves are reflected back to earth. Because ture with height is called an inversion.
there is, at night, little absorption of radio waves in the higher • The atmosphere may be divided Into l ayers (or region.s) ac-
reaches of the iom~phere, such waves bounce repeatedly from cording to Its vertical profile of temperature, its gaseous
the ionosphere to the earth's surface and back to the ionosphere composition, or Its electrical properties.
again. In this way.standard AM radiowavesare able to travel for • The warmest atmospheric layer Is the therrnosphere; the
many hundreds ofkilometers at night. coldest is the mesosphere. Most of the gas ozone is found In
Around sunri~e and stmset, AM radio stations usually make the stratosphere.
"necessary technicaladjustments"to compensate for the chang-
• We live at the bottom of the troposphere, which is an atmo-
ing electrical characteristics of the D region. Because they can spheric l ayer where the air temperature normally decreases
broadcast over a greater distance at night, mo_~t AM stations
with height. The troposphere Is a region that contains all of
reduce their output near sunset. 1 his reduction prevents Mo the weather we are familiar with.
stations- both tran~rnitting at the same frequency but hun-
dreds of kilometers apart-from interfering ";th each other's • The ionosphere Is an electrified region of the upper atmo-
sphere that normally extends from about 60 km to the top
of the atmosphere.
We will now turn our attention to weather events that take
place in the lower atmosphere. As you read the remainder of
thi~ chapter, keep in mind that the content serves as a broad
overview ofmaterial to rome in later chapters, and that many of
the concepts and ideas you encounter are designed to familiarize
you "'th items you might read about in a newspaper or maga-
zine, or see on television.
Weather and Climate

When we tal k about the weatbe.r , we are talking about the
e FIGURE 1.13 At night, the higher region o f the ionosphere (f region}
condition of the atmosphere at any particular time and place.
strongly reflect s AM radiowaves,allo\ving t hem to be sent over g reat dis· Weather-which is al ""yschanging- is comprised of the ele-
tances. During t he day, the IO\\ler D region stronglyabsorbsand \veakens ments of:
AM radio\vave. preventing them from being picked up by distant receivers.
I. air temperahire- the degree ofhotness or coklnes.~ of the air
Look at the right side of this
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION
illustration and come up w ith an 2. air pressure-the force of the air above an area
explanation as to how, ~t night, an indivi dual more than 1000 miles 3. humidity-a measure of the amount ofwater vapnr in the air
away from an AM radio station may pick up the station's broadcast
very clearly, whereas an individual only several hundred miles away 4. clouds-a vi~ible mass of tiny water droplets and/or ice crys-
may not pick up the station at all. tals that are above the earth's surface
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niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i., .....,.._,~ ..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c.. 'll'tl..1~...'ll-....... .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,.,... o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH METEOROLOGY - A BRIEF HISTORY Meteorology is the
study of the atmo.sphere and its phenomena. The term itself
During the 1960s and 1970s, powerful AM radio stations
located in Mexico used the nighttime ionosphere to help
goes back to the Greek philo.sopher Aristo<le who, about 340 B.c.,
broadcast rock and roll music over a large area of North
wrote a book on natural philosophy entitled Meteorologica. 1 his
America. Disk jockeys became celebrities as the broad- work represented the sum ofknowledge on "-eather and climare
casts were picked up by millions of peop le. at that time, as well as material on astronomy, geography, and
chemistry. Some ofthe topic.~ covered included cloud~. ra in,snow,
wind, hail, thunder, and hurricanes. In tho.~days, all substances
5. precipitation- any form of warer, either liquid or solid (rain that fell from the sky, and anything seen in the air, "-ere called
or snow), that fall~ from clouds and rt>ache.~ the ground meteors, hence the term meteorology, which actually comes from
the Greek \\'Ord meteoros, meaning "high in the air."Today, \\'e
6. visibility- the greatest distance one can see
differentiate beh•oeen tho.~metoors th'lt come from extraterres-
7. wind- the horizontal movement of air
trial sources outside our atmo.sphere (meteoroids) and particles of
If \\'e me.asure and observe these 1veatlier ele1nents over a water and ice observed in the armosphere (hydrometeors).
specified interval of time, say, for many years, we would obtain Jn Meteorologica, Aristotle attempted to expkiin atmo-
the "average weather" or the dim ate of a particular region. Cli- spheric phenomena in a philo.sophical and speculative m.mne.r.
mate, therefore, represents the accumulation of daily and sea- £ven though many ofhisspecularions were found to be erro-
sonal weather events (the average range ofweather) over a long neous, Aristotle~ ideas \\'ere accepted without re.servation for
period of time. The concept of dim ate is much more than thi~. almo.~t two thousand years. In fact, the birth of meteorology as a
for it also includes the extremes of we<~her- the heat waves of genuine natural science did not take place until the invention of
summer and the cold spell~ of\\inter- that occur in a particuk1r weather instruments, such as the thermometer at the end of the
region. TheJreque1ny of these extremes is what helps us di~tin si.xteenth century, the barometer(formeasuring air pressure) in
guish among climaresthat have similar avera!,>eS. 1643, 'Uld the hygrometer (for measuring humidity) in the lure
ff we were able to watch the earth for many thousands of 1700s. With observations from instruments available, attempts
years, even the climate would change. We "'ould see rivers of were then made toexpktin certain \\'eather phenomena employ-
ice moving down stream-cut valleys and huge glaciers-sheets ing scientific experimentation and the physical laws that "-ere
of moving snow and ice-spreading their icy fingers over lar!,>e being developed at the time.
portions of North America. Advancing slowly from Canada, a As more and better instruments were developed in the
single glacier might extend as far south as Kansas and !Uinois, 1800s, the science of meteorology progressed. 'Jlte invention of
with ice several thotc~ands of meters thick covering the region the telegraph in 1843 allowed for the transmission of routine
now occupied by Chicago. Over an interval of2 million years weather observations. The understanding of the concepts of
or so, \\'e would see the ice advance and retreat many times. Of wind flow and storm movement became clearer, and in 1869
course, for this phenomenon to happen, the average tempera- crude weather maps with isobars (lines of equal pressure) "-ere
ture of North America \\'Ould have to decrease and then rise in
a cyclic manner.
Suppose we could photograph the earth once every thou-
sand years for many hundrecl~ of millions of years. In time-
la(>Se film sequence, these photo.~ "'ould show that not only is
the climate altering, but the whole earth itself is changing as
well: Mountain~ would rise up only to be torn down by ero.sion;
isolated puffs of smoke and steam would appear as volcanoes
spew hot ga~sand fine dust into the atmo.~phere;and the entire
surface of the earth would undergo a gradual transforma!ion as
some ocean basins widen and others shrink.~
In summary, theearth and its atmo.sphere are dynamicsys-
tems that are constantly changing, While major transformations
of the earth~surface are completed only afterlongspansof time,
the state of the atmosphere can change in a matter of minutes. Doppler radar images are used extensively throughout thisbook.
Hence, a watchful eye turned skyward will be able to ob-~rve From thevery briefintroduction presented in the previous section,
many ofthe,~ changes. it may be difficult to dedpherv1hat the colors on the radar image in
Up to this point, we have looked at the concepts of weather Fig .1.14 actually mean. So to betterund<!rstand Doppler radar images,
you may wish to go to the (engage Course Mate website at:www.
and climate without discus.~ing the word meteorology. What
cengagebrain.comandview Part A of theanimation entitled: Doppler
does this term actually mean, and where did it originate? radar. The animations at thiswebsite are referenced throughout the
bookandare intended to provide you v1ith a visual interpretation of
•1be nlovcroent of the ocean floor and continents Is explained In I.he widelyac- some of the more difficult concepts found in your text
dninled theoryofp/ctft' tt'cto11ics.
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<1<n11....i fl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,.., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
the twenty-first century, even more sophisticated satellites were
developed to supply computer> with a far greater network of
data so that more accurate forccast> - perhnps up to two w"eks
or more-will be available In the future.
With this bricl'history of meteorology'"' are now ready to
observe \\'l!ather C\'enl> that occur at the earths surface.
A SATELLITE'S VIEW OFTHEWEATHER A good view oftbc

weather can beSttn from a we:ithersatellite. • Figure Ll6 is a
satellite image showing a portion of th<? Pacific Ocean and the
North American rontincnt. 1 he Im•&<' was obtained from a !§!O·
stationary satellite situated about 36.000 km (22,300 mi) above
the earth. At thiselevot ion, the sa1dli1e travels at the same rate as
the earth spins, which allows it ll' remain positioned above the
same spot so it can continuously monitor what is taking place
beneath it.
The thin solid black line• running from north to south on
the satellite image are calk!d mericlit11rs, or lines of longitude.
e FIGURE 1.14 Doppler radar image showing prtdplt.J1lon over ponlons Since the zero meridian (or prime meridian) runs through
d lndltn.ton April 1'4. 2006.The areas shaded ~glngtten lndltatl Ughter rain. Greenwich, England, the /011git11tle of any place on earth is sim·
whetNS yfllow ndlcates heavier rain The dark red~ aiut represent the
"-:.iYltSI ,..Jn Ind tM possibility of hail and intens e th~ r1iormL
ply how far east or we•t, in degrees, it is from the prime me-
Weather tends to mow from Wfft 10
ridian. North America~ west of Great Britain and most of the
CRmCAl THJNKJHG QUESTION United Slates lies between 75"\V and 125•w longitude.
easL Knowing this 11<~ uplaln why
P"Oi* living In ~nt•no1l• would jl(obably not be concomtd 1bout The solid black line~ that parallel the equator are called
the thunderstorm just to th• right of ~n. but very concerned about parallels ofllllitude. 1he Llthud<! of any place is how far north
the large Intens• thundemonn (large red and y•llow re9lon) just
east of Indianapolis. If this intense thunderstorm Is m0Yin9toward
or south, in deg,....,,,
it i; from the equator. The latitude of the
Centerville at 40 ml/hr, a boot how long will it take the •<!lion of hall equator is o•, when'asthe latltudcof the North fuleis 90•N and
Qlght purple shade just ..st of Indianapolis) to reach Centeivllle. that of the Southl'olc is90°S. Mos1of1he United States is located
assuming the sionn !sable to hold together! between latitude 30°N and 50'N,n r<.ogion commonly referred 10
as the middle lall tudes.
dmwn. Around 1920, the concepts of air mt\SSl!S 11nd weather Storms of All Sizes Probably the mo>t prominent feature in
froms were formulated in Norway. By the 19-10>, daily upper· Fig l.16 is the white cloud m..Ses of all shapes and sizes. The
(tit ballo<in <ii» ervntions of temperature, humidity. nnd pressure clouds appear white because sunlight is reflected back to space
gave a three-dimensional view of the atmO>phcrc, nnd high · from their tops. 'fhc largest of the organized cloud masses are
llyingmditary aircraft discowred the exhtenccofjct streams. the sprawling •torn1>. One such storm appears as an extensiw
.Meteorology took another step forward in the 1950s. when band of cloud$, over 2000 km long. west of the Great Lakes.
high -speed computers """e developed tosohii the mnthcmnti·
c;J equ.1tions that describe the beha,ior of the atmosphere. At
the same time, a group of scientists in Princeton, ::.lcw JmC);
de\-eloped numerical means for predicting the \Wather. Today.
computers plot the observations. draw the lines on the map.and
i>recasl thes1a1eoflheatmosphcrcfor some deslf\-d time in the
future.
After World War 11, surplus military radar> lx>ca me av:.1il·
tlblc, and many were l ransfonned into prccipitntiOn· measuring
tools. In the mid· I990s,theseconventionai rttdarswtTC rcpinced
by the more sophisticated Doppler racit1rs, which hove the ability
to peer into a ~evere thunderstorm and w1vcil its wlncis, ns well
as •how prl'Cipitntion intensity (see • Fig. 1.111).
In 1960, the first weather satellite, 1iros /, was launched,
ushering In space-age meteorology. Subsequent satdlites pro-
vidl-d a wide range of useful information. ranging from day ~ .__ _ _
and night time-lapse images of clouds and •tonns to images FIGURE t.15 Thlu•t<llU> lrN9.,ho..., lhedynJrricnal1Ueohheatmo-
that depict swirling ribbons of water vapor flowuig around the sphefeas ribbonsofYUterv•pat lgr.ty rtg~s) swstcountercbd::.wfie .bout
globe, as>hown in • Fig. LIS. Throughout the 1990s.and into huge stonns owr thl> Noc1h Pao6c Octen
0..•-- ,......_ ............ _

C'o..,tllflJ )itlC.-...-t-f....._.,... .......... Mii,•llo.,.,,......__...j_,.,1,....... .........,. .... , ...
_ ............,......_ ......... _........ ..... _ • ..,.... ...._.,.,...,t-...,-..,..i. ... -.w-.. -- -~ _...
~-·!Rf-<1 .....- . . . --..-.........
...............jl\o "°'•1111.>I £ ........,...._. ....
• FI GURE 1.16 Thissatelliteim~
age (tak.en in visible reflected light)
sh<:Avs avarietyofcloud patterns and
storms in theearth'satmosphere.
Superimrosed on !he satellite image is the storm's center (indi- Smaller storms are seen 'l~ white spots over !he Gulf of Mex-
cated by !he large red L) and its adjoining weather fronts in red, ico. 'Jlwse srots represent dusters of towering cumulus clouds
blue, and purple. This middle-latitude cyclonic storm system !hat have grown into thunderstonns, that is, tall churning
(or extratropical cydo11e) forms outside the tropic~ and, in the clouds accompanied by lightning. thunder, strong gusty winds,
Northern Hemisphere, has wind~ spinning counte.r dockwise and heavy rain. If you look closely at Hg. l.J 6, you will seesirni-
about its center, which is presently over Minnesota. larcloud forms in many regions. 1 here were probably rhousands
A slightly smaller but more vigorous storm is located over of rhunderstorms occurring throughout the world at !hat very
the P.acificOcean ne,irlatitude 12' N and longitude 11 6' W 'Jl1is moment. Although they cannot be seen individually, there are
tropical storm system, wirh its swirling band of rot:lling clouds even some rhunderstorms embedded in the cloud mas.~ west of
and surface wind~ in excess of 64 knots" (74 mi/hr). is known !he Great Lakes. Late.r in the day on which thi~ image '"'s taken,
as a hurricane. 'Jbe diameter of the hurricane is about 800 km a few of these storms spawned !he most violent disturbance in
(500 mi). 'J11e tiny dot al its center i~ called the eye. Near the the atmosphere- !he tornado.
surface, in the eye, winds are light,skies are generally clear, and A tornado is an intense rotating column of air that extend~
the atmospheric pressure is lowest. Around !he eye, however, is downward from the base of a rhunderstorm. Sometimes called
an extensive region \••here heavy rain and high surface winds are twisters, or cyc/011es, !hey may appear 'l~ ropes or as a large cir-
reaching peak gusts of JOO knots. cular cylinder. The majority are less rhan a kilometer wide and
many are smaller than a football ftdd. Tornado wind~ may ex-
~ R ocall fm1n p. 12 th.:it I knot equ.lls- I.IS nlilcsper hour. ceed l 75knotsbut most probably peak at les.Hhan I JO knois. The
°*"'"''".. "IJb.""*"' llo.nl poo-1)' ,.,,..,. ""1 W "'l••-..i ..,n.,h ~dl ... :.1J\ • .0."l'nV I f:1W.....rtn1<'"''!....
C'1')'rif• ) ) I~ On~ l.cmn~ All l!itJ!af(_...,41 M")' ""tbuq10.U >.....W ,............... 111"f>•lrc111in p.... ll<to i;1
<l<nl1nl fl •..., .._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,n... .t"b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,n.
I
.:;.o I I
~/
t H I.. 42~
490.....
\
\
45
}
Cool,
dry air
'
47 f
KEY
......,,. Cold rront
&&a Warmfrorn
~ Stationary rroo1
x 1 :;.-'--'
WarCJl, humid aJr
"""' Occluded front
~ Thunders10tm
•83
·i ••
~
Ltght fain
Rain shower
Gulf of Mexico
r- Willd direction (N)
r- Windspeed
I> (tO kno1s)
• F I GURE 1 .1 7 Simplified surface \Veather map that correlates\vith the satellite image shO\vn in Fig. 1.t6. The shaded green area rep·
resents precipitation. The numbers on the map representair temperatures in "F.
rot:1tion of some tornadoes never reaches the ground, and the Notice how the wind blows around the highs and the lows.
rapid! y rot:1ting funnel appears to hang from the base ofits parent The horizontal pressure differences create a force that starts the
cloud. Often they dip down, then rise up before disappearing. air moving from higher pressure toward lower pressure. Because
of the earth's rotation, the winds are deflected from their path
A look at a Weather Map Wecanobtaina better picture of the toward the right in the Northern Hemisphere.*Th is deflection
middle-latitude storm system by examining a simpl ifiedsu rfoce c1use.s the "1nds to blow clockwise and outward from the center
weather map for the same day that the satellite image was taken. ofthehigh.s, and counterclockwise and inwrmJ toward the center
'Jhe weight of the air above different regions varies and, hence, oft he low.
so does the atm0-o;pheric pressure. In • Fig. l.17, the red letter L As the surface air spins into the low, it flows together and
on the map indicates a region of low atm0-spheric pressure, rises, much like toothpaste does when its open tube is squeezed.
often called a lo 1v, which marks t hecent er ofthe middle-latitude The rising air cools, and the water vapor in the air rondense.s into
storm. (Comparethecenter ofthe storm in Fig, 1.17 with that in clouds. Notice on the weather map th:it the area of precipitation
Fig, 1.16.) '!he two blue letters H on the map represent regions (the shaded green area) in the vicinity of the low corresponds
of high atmospheric pressure, called highs, or tmticyclones. The to an extei>sive cloudy region in the satellite image (Fig. l.1 6).
circles on the map represent either individual weather stations Also notice by comparing Figs. l.1 6 and 1.1 7 that, in the
or cities where observations are taken.1lw wind is the horizon- regioi>~ of high pressure, skie.s are generally dear. As the surface
tal movement of air. The wind direction -the direction from air flO\\'S out'\\ ard ;l.\\'ay from the center of a high, air sinking
1
wl1ich the wind is blowing• -is given by lines that para Ikl the from above must replace the laterally spreadingsurface air. Since
wind and extend outward from the center of the station. The sinking air does not u.sually produce clouds, we find generally
wind sp eed-therakat which theair is moving past a station- dear skies and fair weather associated with the regioi>s of high
ary observer-is indicated by barbs. :11mospheric pressure.
·tr you sre fildng no11 hand the wind is blowing In your fuce. the wind would be •This deflecting !Orce. known as the C.oriolisforce. is discuss.ed 1nore co1npletely in
caUed a .,north wind" Chapter8. as are the \\'inck.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i...
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WEATHER WATCH
On Saturday, April 24, 2010, a violent tornado packing
winds of 15 0 knots roared throug h t he t own of Yazoo
City, Mississippi. The t ornado caus e d millions of dollars
in damage, killed 10 peopl e, and amazin gly stayed on
t he g round for 149 miles- from Tallulah, Louisiana , to
Okt ibbeha County, Mississippi - making this on e of the
longes t tornado paths on record.
The swirling air around areas of high and low pressure are
the m ajor weather producers for the middle latitudes. Look
'"the middle-latituM storm and the surface temperatures in
Fig. 1.1 7 and notice that, to the southeast of the storm, south-
erly winds from the Gulf of Mexico are bringing warm, humid
air northward over much of the southea stern portion of the
nation. On the storm's western side, cool dry northerly breezes
combine with sinking air to create generally dear weather over
the Rocky Mountains. '!he boundary that separatesthewarm 3lld
cool air appears as a heavy, colored line on the m ap - a front,
across which there is a sharp change in temper3lure, humidity,
'md "1nd direction.
Where the cool air from Canada replaces the warmer air
from the Gulfof Me.xico, a cold front is drawn in blue, with ar-
rowheads showing the front'.s general direction of movement. • FIGURE 1 .19 The \\leather front in Fig. 1.17 shows upon Doppk!-r radar as
Where the warm Gulf air is replacing cooler air to the north, a a line o f d ifferent colors.. In t his com posite image. theareas shaded g reen and
blue indicat e w here light· to-m oderate rain is falling . Yellow indicates heavi er
rainfall.The red--shaded area represents the heaviest rainfall and the possibility
ci intense t hunderstorms.. Notice that a thunderstorm isapproaching Chicago
from the \Vest.
wam i fro nt is d rawn in red, with half circlessho"1ng its general

direction of movement. Where the cold front has caught up to
the warm front and coldairisnow replacing cool air, an occluded
front is drawn in purple, with alternating arrowheads and half
circles toshow how it is moving. Along each ofthe fronts, warm
air is rising. producing clouds and precipit3lion. Notice in the
sateUite image (Fig. 1.1 6) that the occluded front and the cold
front appear as an elongated, curling cloud band that stretches
from the low-pressure area over Minnesota into the northern
part of Texas.
In Fig. l.1 7 o bserve that the we31her front is to the west of
Chicago. As the westerly "1nds aloft push the front east" "ard, a
person on the outskirts of Chicago might observe the approach-
ing front as a line of towering thunderstorms similar to those in
• Fig. I.I S. On a Doppler radar image, these advancing thun-
derstorms may appear as those shown in • Fig. 1.19. In a few
hours, Chicago should experience heavy showers with thunder,
lightning. and gusty "'°d~ as the front passes. All of this, how-
ever, should give way to clearing skies and surface winds from
the west or northwest after the front has moved on by.
Observing storm systems, we see that notonly dothey move
but they constantly change. Steered by the upper-level " 'esterly
winds, themidcUe-l31itudestorm in Fig. I.I 7 gradually weakens
• FIGURE 1.18 Thundersto rmsdeveloping and advancing along an ap ~ and moves east ward, carrying its clouds and weather with it. In
pro.aching mid fronL advance of thissystem, a sunny day in O hio will gradually cloud
°*"'"''"..
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.. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
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over and yield heavy showers and thunderstorms by nightfall.
Behind thestorm,cool dry norlherl y winds rushing into eastern
Colorado cause an overcast sky to give way to clearing condi-
tions. Farther south, the thunderstorms presently over the Gttlf
of Mexico in the satellite image (Fig. 1.16) expand a little, then
dissipate as new storms appear over water:tnd land areas. To the
west, the hurricane over the Pacific Ocean drifts northwestward
and encounters cooler \\•ater. 1-fere, 3\\"JY from its \\'arm energy
source, it loses its punch; win<ts taper off, :tnd the storm soon
turns into an unorganized mass of doudsandtropicalmoisture. j
WEATHER AND CLIM ATE IN OUR LIVES Weather and climate
play a major role in our lives. Weather, for example, often dic-
tates the type of clothing we wear, while climate influences the
type ofcl-Othing we buy. Climate determines when to pkmt crops
as well as what type ofcrop.~can beplinted. Weather determines
ifthesesamecrop.~ will grow to maturity. Although weather and
climate affect our lives in many ways, perhap.~ their most im-
mediate effect is on our comfort. Jn order to survive the cold
ofwinter and heat ofsummer, we build homes. heat them, air
• FI GURE 1 .20 Ice storm near Oswego, Nei.vYork., caused utility poles and
condition !hem, insulate them -only to find that when""' leave
po\ver tines to be\veighed do\vn, forcing road c.losure.
our shelter, we are at the mercy ofthe \\'eat her elements.
£ven when we are dressed for the weather properly, wind,
humidity, and precipitation can change our perception of how and lreat exlwustion or lreat stroke may result. Those most likely
cold or "".!rm it feels. On a cold, windy day the effects of wind to suffer these maladies are the elderly with impaired circulatory
chill tell us that it feels much colder th:m it really is, and, if not systems and infant.~. whose heat regulatory mechanism~ are not
properly dressed, we nm the risk of frostbite or even hypother- yet fully developed.
mia (the rapid, progressive mental and physical collapse that ac- Weather affect.~ how we feel in other ways, too. Arthritic
companies the lowering ofhum.m body temperature). On a hot, pain i~ most likely to occur when rising humidity is accompa-
humid day we normally feel uncomfortably warm and blame it nied by falling pressures. ln ways not well understood, weather
on the humidity. lf we become too warm, our bodies overheat does seem to affect our health. 111e incidence ofhe-.irt attacks
shows a statistical peak after the passage of warm fronts, when
rain and wind are common, and after the passage of cold fronts,
when an abrupt change takes place as showery precipitation is
accompanied by cold gtc~ty winds. 1-!eadaches are common on
days when we are forced to squint, often due to hazy skies or a
thin, bright overcast layer ofhigh clouds.
For some people, a warm dry wind blowing downslope (a
c.liinook wind) adversely alfucts their behavior (they often be-
come irritable and depressed). Hot, dry downslope San/fl Ana
\\fads in Southern C-tlifornia can turn burning dry vegetation
into a raging firestorm.
When the weather turns much col Mr or warmer than nor-
mal, it impacts directly on the lives and pocketbooks of many
people. For example, the exceptionally warm January of2012
over the United States saved people million~ of dollars in heat-
ing co.~ts. On the other side of thecoin, the colder than normal
December of 2009 over much of North America sent heating
costs soaring as demand for heating fuel escalated.
Major cold spells accompanied by heavy snow and ice can
play havoc by snarling commute.r traffic, curtailing airport ser-
In the last section we Si!N/ th.at air rises above an area of low
atmospheric pressure and-sinks above an area of high atmospheric vices, closing schools, and downingpower line.~. thereby cutting
pressure. For a visual picture of thisconcept, log in to the Cengage off electricity to thousands of customers (see • Fig, 1.20). For
CourseMate website at: W\Wl.cengagebrain.comand view the example, a huge ice storm during January, 1998, in northern
animation entitled Converging and Diverging Air. New £ngland and Canada left millions of people without power
and caused over a billion dollars in dama&>es, and a devastating
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,..... i....
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What Is a Meteorologist?
Most people associate the term "meteorol- e FIGURES Amodei that
ogist" w ith th e weatherperson t hey see on simulates a 3·dimensional
view o f the atmosphere. Th~
television o r h ear o n the r adio. Many televi -
computer model predicts
sion and radio weathercaster sare in fact
h°'" \'finds and clouds over
p rofessional meteoro logists, but some are the United Stat es \Viii change
n ot. A p rofessional meteorologist is usually \vith t ime.
considered to be a person who has com-
p leted t he requirements for acollegede-
9 ree in meteorology o r atmospheric sci-
ence. This individual has strong,
fundamental knowledge concerning how
t he atmosphere behaves, along with a
substantial backgr ound o f coursework in
mathematics, p hysics, an d chemistry.
A meteorologist uses scientific prin ci-
p les to explain and to forecast atmospheric
p henomena. About half o f the approxi-
mately9000 meteorologists and atmo-
spheric scientists in the United States work
doing weather fo recasting for t he National ocean ographers, mathematicia ns, and en- such interc hange might have o n p lanet
Weather Ser vice, the military, or for a televi - v ironmental scient ists to determ ine how Earth many year s from now.
sion or radio station. The other half work t he atmosphere interacts w ith the entire Meteorologists also p rovide a variety
mainly in research, teach atmospheric sci- ecosystem. Scientists doing work in physi- of ser vices not only to the general pub lic in
ence courses in colleges and universities, cal meteoro logymaywell study h ow radi- t he form of weather forecasts but also to
or do meteoro logical consulting work. ant energy warms the atmosphere; those city plann ers, contractors, farmers, and
Scientists who do atmospheric reat work in the field of dynamic meteorol- large corporations. Meteoro logists working
search maybe investigating how t he cli- ogy m ight be using th e mathematical for privateweather firms create th e fore-
mate is changing, how snowflakes form, or equations that describe air flow to learn casts and graphics that are found in news-
h ow pollution impacts temperature pat- more about jet streams. Scientists working papers, o n television, and on the Internet.
terns. Aided by supercomputer s, much o f in operational meteorol09y m ight be pre- Overall, there are many exciting jobs that
t he work of a r esearch meteorologist in- paring a weather forecast by analyzing fall under the head ing of "meteorologist" -
volves sim ulating the atmosphere to see upper-air infor mation over Nor th America. too many to mention here. However, for
h ow it behaves (see Fig. 5). Researc hers A climatologist, or climate scientist, might more information o n this topic:, visit this
of ten work c losely w it h scientists from be studying the interaction of the atmo- website: http://www.ametsoc.org/ and
other fields, such as ch emists, physicists, sphere and ocean to see w hat influence click o n ''Stu dents;''
snow storm during March, 1993, buried parts of the East Coast the climate turns hot and dry, animals suffer too. Jn 1986, over
with 14-IOot snow drifts and left Syracuse, New York, paralyzed 500,000 chickens perished in Georgia during a two-day period 'tt
with a snow depth of36 inches. When the frigid air settles into the peak ofasummer heat wave. Severe drought also has an effect
the Deep South, many millions ofdollars worth of temperature- on '"'ater rtServes, often fordngcommw1itie,s to ration ""ater and
sensitive fruits and vegetables may be ruined, the eventual con- restrict its use. During periods of extended drought, vegetation
sequence being higher produce prices in the supermarket. often becomes tinder-dry and, sparked by lightning or a careless
Prolonged drought, especially when accompanied by high hwnan,such a dried-up region can quickly become a raging in-
temperatures, can lead to a shortage offood and, in some places, ferno. During the "inter of2005- 2006, hundreds of thousands
wide.spr<»tdstarvation. Parts ofAfrici, for example, have periodi- of acres in drought-stricken Oklahoma and northern '!has were
cally suffered through major droughts and famine. During the ravaged by wildfire. And during the spring andsummer of20 11,
swnmer of2007, the southeastern section of the United States "1ldfires destroyed millioi>~ of acres of tre<s and grassland over
experienced a terrible drought assearingswnmer temperatures parche.d areas d Arizona, New Mexico, and West Texas.
wilted crops, causing losses in excess of a biUion dollars. When
'°"">' ""'buq10.U , ........,,.. ,....,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i
<1<n11....i fl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
£very summer, scorching heat wt1ve< take many lives. Dur- a re in the Midwest know the storv ofsomeone who \\"JS severe! v
ing the past 20 years, an annual average of more than 300 deaths injured or killed by a tornado. Tornadoes have not only take~
in the United States were attributed to excessive heat expo.~ure. ln many lives, but annually they cause damage to buildings and
one particularly devastating heat wave that hit Chicago, !Uinois, property totaling in the hundreds of millions of dollars, as a
during July, 1995, high temperatures coupled with high humid- single large tornado can level an entire section of a town (see
ity claimed thelive.r nfmore than 700 people. During the sum- • Figs. 1.21and1.22).
mer of2003, Europe suffered through a dev'3stating heat wave Although the gentle rains of a typical summer thunder-
when many people died, including 14,000 in France alone. In storm are welcome over much of North America, the heavy
California during July, 2006, morethan 100 peopledied asairtem- downpours, high winds, and large hail of the severe thunder-
peratures climbed to over <t6•C ( 11 s•F), and in western Russia, stonns are not. Cloudbursts from slowly moving, intensethun-
during the summer of 20 I(), an extreme heat wave engulfed derstorms can provide too much rain too quickly, creating
the region, with Moscow experiencing its warmest July ever. flash floods as small streams become raging rivers composed
£very year, the violent side of weather influences the lives ofmud and sand ent,lllgled with uprooted plants and trees (see
of millions. It is amazing how many people whose family roots • rig. 1.23). On average, more people die in the United States
e FIGURE 1.21 Ughtn;ng

Oashes inside a violent tornado
that tore through Joplin,
Missouri on May 22, 20 t1 .
The tornado ripped through a
hospital and destra,,ed entire
neighborhoods.. {See tomado
damage in Fig. 1.22.}
e FIGURE 1.22 Emergency

personnel \Valk through a
neighborhood in Joplin,
Missouri damaged by a violent
tornado, \Vilh \Vindsexceeding
174 knots {200 mi/hr}, on
May 22. 2011. The tornado
caused hundredsof millions
ofdollars in damage and took
159 lives, making this single
tornado the deadliest in the
United State.ssince 1947.
°*"'"''"..
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..
<1<n11....i fl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""",,..~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
of these people are profossionally trained in meteorology, and
many stations require that the weathercaster obtain a seal of ap-
proval from the American Meteorological Society (A.MS), or a
rertificate from the National Weather Association (NWA). To
make their weather presentation as up-to-the-minute as pos-
sible, 'Ul increasing number of stations are taking advantage
of the information provided by the National Weather Service
(NWS),such as computerized weather forecasts, time-lapse sat-
ellite images, and color Doppler radar displays. (At thi~ Point it's
interesting to note that m.my viewers believe the weather person
they see on TV is a meteorologi~t and that all meteorologist~
IOrecast the weather. If you are interesll'd in learning what a me-
teorologist or atmosphericscientist is and what he or she might
do for a living (other than forecast the weather) read the Focus
section on p. 24.)
For mmy years now, a staff of trained professionals al "1be
Weather Channel" have provided weather information twenty-
four hours a day on cable television. And finaUy, the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Admini~lration (NOAA), in coop-
eration with the National Weather Service, sponsors weather
radio broadcasts at selected locations across the United State.~.
Known '1s NOAA 1Veatlter radio (and transmitted at VHF- FM
frequencies), this service provides continuous weather inli>rm.1-
tion and regional forecast~ (as well as special weather adviso-
ries, including watches and warnin~) forover90 percent of the
United States.
• FI GURE 1. 23 Flooding during May, 20 10, inundated Nashville, Tennessee.

Flood \Vatersof the Cumberland River extend over much of thet~vn. inc:lud..
ing the Grand OleOpry.
from floods and flash floods than from eitherlightning or torna-

does. Strong downdrafts originating inside an intense thunder-
storm (a do1V11burst) create turbulent winds that are capable of
destroying crops and inflicting damage upon surfac-e structures.
Several airline crashe.s have been attributed to the turbulent
1Vi11d slie<lr (a rapid change in wind speed andi or \<fad direc-
tion) within the down burst. AnnuaUy, haildamtges crops worth
miUioi>~ of dollars, and lightning takes the lives of about eighty
people in the United States and starts fires th'lt destroy many
thousands of acres of valuable timber (see e Fig, 1.24).
Even the quiet side of weather has its influence. When
"1ndsdie down and hwnid air becomes more tranquil, fog m'IY
IOrm. Dense fog can restrict vi~ibility at airports, causing flight
delays and canceUation~. Every "inter, deadly fog-related auto
accidents occur along our bu.'l)' highways and turnpikes. But fog
has a positive side, too, especially during a dry spell, ..sfog mois- ~
ture collect~ on tree branches and drip.s to the grow1d, where it ~
provide.s water for the tree'.s root system. ii lr,i~""ll
Weather and climate have become so much a part of our ~ l:.llllliilll
livest hat the first thing many of u.sdoin the morning is to li~ten • FI GURE 1 .24 Estimates are that lightning strikes the earth about
to the local weather forecast. For this reason, many radio and 100 times everysecond.About2S million lighlning strikes hil the United
television newscasts have their own "weatherperson'' to present States each year. Here, lightning strikes the ground and illuminates the
weather inform"tion and give daily forecasts. More and more sky over Phoenix.Arizona.
SUMMARY
'Jli i> chapter prov Kie» ;in 1wcrvicw of the can h '• ntmo>phcl'l'. thcrmospbere, 15 middlc·lnlitud<: cyclonic
Our utrno;,phcre 1;, oor rich in nltroi,"'n and oxyg<?n as well exosphere, 15 Sturm •y>lcm. 20
»smaller amount;, of other g•..c>o ;,ucil a;, water v-apor. car- bomosphere, 16 hurncane, 20
bon d1oxkle, and other g"""'hou..c !!"><!> who;.e 111crca5'lng heterosphere, 16 thunder>torm. 20
lewis are l'l'>Ult1ng m adcLt1onal global warm111gand dumtc ionosphere. J 7 tornado, 20
dtanl!t'. We examined the earth's carlyatmo>phettand found \\-1ler, 17 wmd. 21
it to be much diffcrmt from the .ur we brrathetoda\\ djmate, 18 wmd d1ttct1on, ll
We 1m'Ol1pted the vatiou> 13)"" ofthe atmosj,h.tt: tht meteorology. JS wmd 'l'ee<l, 21
troposphcrc(thc 1o....--. b)'ttl. "hcrulm~ all ,..nthcr t\Tnts midcOe latitudes. 19 front. 22
occur. and the ~ratoophett, "here ozone prole<H us from a
ponion of the sun'> hanntul ra)> Jn the 'trat<l6phcrc. ozonr
appars to be dn;ttuan1 on ct""mtrallon O\'tt parts oflht QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
Non hem and Southern Hcrnllflhere. , Ab.,.e the watosphttt
lio the me><>\phett, "httt the .ur h.~<r•llurtd rop>dramati- J. \\'hat is tht primM) sour<e o( Cll"'l!Y for the earth..
abnosphttt?
calfy" ~hhaght. Al><>'e theme>O!fhett h.. the wann~ J"lrt
2. List the four most abundant g~ m to1by"> auooqihctt
ol the atmosphne. the thffln°'phae. Al the top oltbe thcr-
3. Of the fow moot abundani g~ 111 our atmo'!'hrrc.
mosphttt i> the exosphere." hrtt colb>><»l:> between~ mol-
e cu~ and atom> are'° mfrtqu.:nt that fast-mov111g lighter wbidt one shows the grtatC'Sl \".lt1Jllun JI the earth"•
molecules can actually es.ape thc earth~ gravotoonal pull surfuce?
4. What are some of the imponam ru1.. that water pla)~
and shoot olTimo •pacr. 'lht IO<losphcre ""'"'"'"'"that por-
in our atmosphere?
tion ofthe uppcrntmosphcre whcrc large numbcn ofions and
frre elcctronHxbt. S. Briefly explnin the production and naturnl destruct1un
We looked brieflynt the "'~·llh.:r rnup nnd n .atcDite Im- of carbon dioxide near the earth'> ;urfoce. Give two
reasons for the increa1e of carbon choXJdc over the pn>t
age and ob.crvcd th.ll d1spcr>ed throughout the auno>phcre
nre •lClrm> nnd clotKb of nll >lzc~ u 1KI ohupc>. ' l he movement, LOO-plus years.
6. List the two most nbunclunt greenhouse gn>c> In the
intc1i,if1cntion. and wenkcnlng vf thc>c >yotcm>, us well a> the
d ynnmic n01 urc ofn lrll.clf. produce u varlet y ofwclllhcr events earth's aunosphere. What makes them grccnhou;c
thnt we dc:;crincd In tcrni' ofweather dcmcnh. ' lhc>um totnl gases?
7. Explain how the atmo.1phcre "protects" lnhnbltnnL' Ill
of went her and it• cxtrcmco owr u lon8 period of time is what
the earth's surface.
we cull dinrnte. Although ;uddc'll dHmgcs in went her may oc-
8. What are some of the aerosol1 in our a1111c1>phcrc?
cur inn 1110111ent,cllmn1ic dtungc tnkcs pince gradually over
9. How ha1 1he composi1ion of the earth'> tllrno,pherc
many year.. 'I hcMudy oft he Mm1l>phcrc nnd nil ofit> related
phenomena iHn Ued mrteornllljl)\ a tcnn "'ho;.e origin dates changed over 1irne? Briefly ou1Hne the evolution of the
back to thcdaY'of Arl>totlc. 1'1nally, wcd1>eui.><.-d >0mcoflhe earth's atmosphere.
10. (a} E..xplnin the concept o( •1r pres.ure in ternt1 of
many wa)" ""at her and climate lnllucnc:e ourll\\'j,.
mass of air above some level
(b} Why does air pressure alwayio dcctta\C with m·
creasing height abo"e the surface?
KEY TERMS I l. What is standard abnosphenc prosutt at sea ltvd 1n
(a} inches of' mtrrul}'
1he follo\nng ttnru are lnttd (with rise numbeO 111 the or-
(h) milibars, and
der they appnrin the text . l>dint ach. Doing'° will aid
(c) hectofmcals?
)'Dll in rev1C\\·111gthe moittr•I cowrtd m th» chapter.
12. What is tht a\'tt~ or 5Und.ud temperature bp>e rate
atm06phttt, I dtnWl). JO in the tropospbere?
nitroS<'n. I pl't'\-orc, I J 13- Brieft)' describe how the air tanpera!Ure chanjp from
OX)'gm. S air pre--ure, II the earth's surfitt to the lower thennOl'phctt.
water '"'f'O<. S l•p>< rott, 12 14. On the basis of' ttmperature, hst the la)tnO( the atrno•
carbon dio11de. 6 tm'f'erat Utt 1m·m.10D. 12 sphae &om the lowesi la)tt to tht h1gl!N.
ozone. 8 t ropu..phtrt. 12 I S. What atmospberic layn con1.un~ al of our wtathcr?
OlOnt hole, 8 \lr.lll>\\'.lhctt• 12 16. (a) In '\\hat atmospheric la)tt do "'<find the lo..~
~ol, 8 l ropop•ll.\t. 12 a\'erage air temperature?
pollutanl, 9 rndu~onJe, 13 (h) The highest average temperature?
OUl~sing, I0 mC)ll\ph.:rc, I I (c) The highest concentrati(ln o( Olooe?
c:..,.•• )tl)o .. ..,._..., ~-....._,.. Moot ....11........._ ..io..,.; .. 11...,......_1oo,...,..... , ... 111at "'......,_"""_,_...,,..,,_... ...,. ......,..._,_..,,....,.,.,.. •..-,...;11~~1 ••........,.._._
.,..,,.,. .. ''"l""'...I '"''••• .._.. ,, .,,........, •-•lflw_M...,._tt......,... c:.,.••.._,..._.,,,,1, ..._..ai_,,,.,•.,. •--......-,_ ¥• -·•·11, .. ,.,,,...,.r1
,.~
17. Above what region of the world would you find the 2. A standard pressure of 1013.25 millibars i~ also known
ozone hole? as one atmosphere ( I ATM).
18. How does the ionosphere affect AM radio tran~mis (a) Look at fig. 1.9 and determine at approximately
sion during the day versus during the night? what levels you would record a pressure of0.5 ATM
19. Even though the actual concentration of oxygen is and 0.1 A1"M.
close to 21 percent (by volume) in the upper strato- (b) 'Jbe surface air pre.~sure on the plmet Mars is about
sphere, explain why, without proper breathing appara- 0.007 A1"M. If you were standing on Mars, the
tu.~, you would not be able to survive there. surface air pressure would be equivalent to a pre.~
20. Define meteorology and discus~ the origin of this word. sure observed al approximately what altitude in
21. When someone says that "the wind direction today is the earth's atmosphere?
south; does this mean that the wind is blo"1ng towanl 3. If you were suddenly placed at an altitude of 100 km
tile south or from the south? (62 mi) above the earth, would you ei.:pect your stom-
22. Describe at least six features observed on a surface ach to expand or contract? Explain.
weather map.
23. Explain how wind blows around low- and high-pressure
areas in the Northern Hemisphere. PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES
24. How are front~ defmed?
I. Keep track of the weather. On an outline map of North
25. Rank the following storms in size from largest to
America, mark the daily po.~ition of fronts and pre.~
smallest: hurricane, tornado, middle-latitude cyclonic
sure systems for a period of several weeks or more.
storm, thunderstorm.
{'Ibis information can be obtained from newspapers,
26. Weather in the middle latitudes tends to move in what
the TV news, or from the Internet.) Plot the gener.11
general direction?
upper-level flow pattern on the map. Observe how the
27. How does weather differ from climate?
surface systems move. Relate this information to the
28. Describe at least seven ways "'eather and climate influ-
material on wind, fronts, and cyclone,~ covered in later
ence the lives of people.
chapters.
2. Compose a one-week journal, induding <laity newspa-
per " 'eather maps and weather fore.casts from the
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT newspaper or from the Internet. Provide a commen-
I. Which of the follo"1ng statements relate more to tary for each day regarding the coincidence of actu.11
weather and which relate more to climate> and predicted " 'eather.
(a) The summers here are warm and humid. 3. Formulate a short-term climatology for your city for
(b) Cumulus clouds presently cover the entire sky. on~ month by recording maxi1num and minimtLm
(c) Our lowest temperature last winter was -29•c temperature.~ and precipitation amounts every day. You
(-1s°F). c'm get this information from television, newspapers,
(d) 'The air temperature outside is 22°C (72°P). the Internet, or from your 0\\11 measurements. Com~
(e) December is our foggiest month. pare this data to the actual climatology for that month.
(f) '!be highest temperature ever recorded in Phoenix- How can you ei.:plain any brge differences bet1"een
ville, Pennsylvania, was 44•c ( I J I°F) on July 10, thi? t\\'O?
1936.
(g) Snow is falling at the rate of 5 an (2 in.) per hour.
(h) 'fl1e average temperature for the month of January
in Chicago, fllinois, is -3°C (26°1').
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... ..i M:.y ta>thc ....,icd >........J ,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;ko• in .,.... floe .., ch<,....., ..... - 11...i 1-'1 '" ,._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.h n flLU;,,.,J\o «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
C. GEOSCIENCE u I Go to the News section of the Meteorology Portal. Use thesearch box at left to
bring uparticlesrelatedtotheterm "storm." Of the first 25 articles, what are the various kinds ofweatherphenomenamentione.d
(dust, tornadoes, etc.)? Which ones are mentioned most often> What terms precede the word "storm"?
ONLINE RESOURCES
/!'\ Log in to the CourseMate website at: www.cengagebrain.com to view the concept animations as noted in the text, as
~ well as additional resources, including video exercises, pmctice quizzes, an interactive eBook, and more.
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y ta>thc....,icd >........J ,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;ko•in.,.... floe .., ch<,....., ..... -11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.h nfl LU;,,.,J\o «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
?'''! ·a·=
Energy: Warming the Earth

and the Atmosphere
CONTENTS
Energy, Temperature, and Hea t
Temperature Scales
A t high latit udes after darkness has fallen, a faint, whit e glow
may appear in the sky. lasting from a few minutes to a few
hours, the light may move across the sky as a yellow green arc
Speci fic Heat
latent Heat -The Hidden Warm th much wider than a rainbow; or, it may faintly decorate the sky
HeatTransfer in the Atmosphere wit h flickering draperies of blue, green, and purple light that
Conduction
constantly change in form and location, as if blown by a gentle
The Fate of a Sunbeam breeze.
Convection For centuries curiosity and superstition have surrounded
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC these eerie ligh ts. Eskimo legend says they are the lights from
Rlsing Air Cools and Sinking Air Warms
demons' lanterns as they search the heavens for lost souls.
Radiant Energy
Radiation and Temperature Nordic sagas called them a reflection of fire that surrounds the
Radiation of the Sun and Earth seas of the north. Even today there are those who proclaim that
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAUSSUE the lights are reflected sunlight from polar ice fields. Actuall y,
Wave Energy, Sunburning, and UV Rays
this light show in the Northern Hemisphere is the aurora
Radiation - Absorption, Emission, and
Equilibrium borealis- the northern lights- which is caused by invisible
Selective Absorbers and the Atmospheric energetic particles bombarding our upper atmosphere. Anyone
Greenhouse Effect
Enhancemen t of the Greenhouse Effect who wi tnesses this, one of nature's spectacular color displays,
Warming the Air from Below will n ever forget it.
Shortwave Radiation Streaming from
the Sun
Blue Skies, Red Suns, and White Clouds
The Earth's Annual Energy Balance
Solar Particles and the Aurora
Characteristics of the Sun
Summary
Key Terms
Questions for Thought Facing page: As the sun rises behind a layer of haze..
it spreads a blanket of radiant energy over asno\V
covered landscape.
31
°*"'"''"..
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... .al M:.y ta>thc ...icd >........J ,,.. .l....wod,"' "f>•lrc<><in p.... ll<to i;1 "IJb. "*'"'
llo.nl poo-1)' ,.,,..,. ""1 W "'l••-..i ..,.,.,h~dl ... :.1.l\o .0."l'nV I f:1W....rtn1<" '!....
<>.;•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
.._,.,..,,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''"... ..,..,,,.,.. -...J4f•nt.•1e_.Jl~""'""l"TIC'>-"c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll""'....., .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,..
nergy is everywhere. It is the basis for life. ll comes in vari- mass, a volume ofwater and an equal volume ofair may be mov-
E ous forms: lt can warm a house, melt ice, and drive the at-
mosphere, producing our everyday weather events. When
the sun's energy interact~ with our upper atmosphere we see
ing at the same speed, but, because the water has greater mass, it
has more kineticenergy. The atoms and molecules that comprise
all matter have kinetice.nergy due to their motion. This form of
energy at work in yet 'tnother form, a shimmering di~ph1y of kinetic energy is often referred to as lreM energy. Probably the
light from the sky-the aurora. What, precisely, is thi~ com- m<>-~t important form ofe.nergy in terms of weather and climate
mon, yet mysterious, quantity we call "energy"? What is its pri- is the energy \\"I? receive from the sun- radiant energy.
mary source? How does it warm our earth and provide the driv- Energy, therefore., take~ on many forms, :tnd it can ch;tnge
ing force for our atlllQ~phere? And in what form does it reach from one form into another. But the total amount of energy in
our atm<>-~phere to produce a dazzling display like the aurora? the universe remains comtant. Energy cannot be created nor can
To answer these questions, we must first begin with the conii be destroyed. It merely ch:tnges from one form to another in
cept of energy itself Then we will examine energy in il~ various any ordinary physical or chemical process. Jn other words, the
forms and how energy is tr<tn~ferred from one form to another energy lost during one process must equal the energy gained
in our atmo_~here. Finally, we will look more closely at the sun's during another. This is wh:I! we mean when we say that e.nergy
energy and its influe.nc-e on our atm<>-~here. is conserved. This statement is known as the law ofconservllt ion
ofenergy, and is also called the first law of tlrem1ociy11amics.
We know that air is a mixture of countless billions ofaroms
and molecule,~. Jf they could be seen, they wottld appear to be
Energy, Temperature, and Heat moving about in all directions, freely darting, twisting, spinning,
and colliding with one another like an :tngry swarm of bees.
By definition, energy is the ability or capacity to do work on Close tor he earth'ssurface, each individual molecule "111 travel
some fonn of mailer. (Maller i~ anything that has mass and only about a thousand times its diameter before colliding with
occupies space.) Work is done on matter when mailer iseither another molecule. Moreover, we would see that all the atoms and
pushed, pulled, or lifted over some distance. When we lift a molecules are not moving at the same speed, as some are moving
brick, for example, \\"I? exert a force against the pull ofgraviry- faster than others. The temperature of the air (or:tny substanc.e)
we "do work" on the brick. The highern-e lift the brick, the more is a measure of its average kinetic energy. Simply stated, tem-
work we do. So, by doing workonsomething, we give it "energy," pe.rature is a measure oftire average speed (average motion) oftire
which it can, in turn,"~ to do work on other rhings.1 he brick atoms a11d molecules, where higher temperatures correspond to
that we lifted, for ins1<1nce, can now do work on your toe-by faster averagespeeds.
falling on it. Supp<>-se we examine a volume of surface air about the size
111e total amount ofenergy stored in 'tnyobject (internal e.n- ofa large flexible balloon, as shown in • Fig. 2. la. ff we warm
ergy )determines how much work that object i~c1pableofdoing. the air inside, the molecules would move faster, but they also
A lake behind a dam contains energy by virtue of its position. would move slightly farther apart-the air becomes less dense,
Thi~ is called gravitational potential energy or simply potential as illustrated in Fig. 2.J b. Conversely, if we cool the air back to
energy bec1use it represents the potential to do work-a great its original temperature, the molecule,~ would slow down, crowd
deal of destructive work if the darn were to break. The potential d0-~rtogether,and the air would become more dense. Th i~mo
energy (Pli) of any object i~ given as lecular behavior is why, in many places throughout the book,
\\'t> refer to surface air as either 1vt'.lrn1;. less-tJense air or as cold,
P£ = mgh, 1n ore-dense ail:
where mis the object's m'1ss,gis the acceleration of gravity, and TheatlllQ~here and oceans contain intemal energy, which
Ii is the object's height above the ground. is the total energy (potential and kinetic) stored in their mol-
A volume of air aloft has more potential energy than the ecules. A~ we have just seen, the temperature ofair and water is
same size volume of air just above the surface. This fact i~ so determined only by the.t1veragekinetic energy (averagespeed)of
because the air aloft has the potential rosinkand "".irm through all their molecules. Since temperature only indicates how "hot"
a greater depth of atm<>-~phere. A substance also po_~ses.~s po- or "cold" something i~ relative to some set stand;1rd value, it does
tential energy if it ctn do work when a chemical ch:1nge takes notal\\"aystell ushowmuchinternalenergy that something pos-
place. 'lbus, coal, natural gas, and food all contain chemical poses.~s. For example, two identical mugs, each half-ftlled with
tential energy. \\•ater and each \vi th the same temperature.contain the sam~ in-
Any moving subst:tnce possesses energy of motion, or ternal energy. Ifthe water from one mug is poured into the other,
kl.nelic energy. The kinetic energy (K£) of an object is equal to the total internal energy of the filled mug has doubled because
half its mass multiplied by il~ velocity squared; thus its mass has doubled. Its temperature, ho\\<ever, has nor changed,
since the aver.1ge speed ofall of the molecules isstill the same.
KE = 'l, mv'.
Now, imagine th:I! you are sipping a hot cup oftea on asmall
Consequent! y. rhe faster something moves, the greater its kinetic raft in the middle of a lake. The tea has a much higher tempera-
energy; hence, astrong wind possesses more kinetic energy t h:t n ture than the lake, yet the lake contains more internal e.nergy
alight breeze. Since kinetic energy also depends on the object's because it is composed of many more molecules. lfthecup oftea
C'1')'rif• )) ·~On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i

<l<nlonlfl•....,.._,~..,,._
'*"'.......
'°"">' .....buq10.U . ......................... "',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, "" "'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
.i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i.,.,_,u""""""""~C.,'ll>tJ"l~"''ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• ""''"""..,,....,,..,n.
is allowed to float on top of the water, the tea would cool rapidly.
'fheenergy that would bHransferred from the hot tea to the cool
water (because of their temperature difference) i~ called !real.
Jn essence, heat is energy in the process of being fransferred
from one objeel to another because of the lempemture difference
between tlrem. After heat is transferred, it is stored as internal
energy. How is this energy transfer process accompli~hed~ Jn the
atmosphere, heat is transferred by co11duit ion, convecfion, and
mdilltio11. We "ill examine these mechanisms ofenergy transfer
after we look at temperature scales and at the important con-
o~pts of specific heal and lafent huit.
TEMPERATURE SCALES Suppo.se we take asmall volmneof

air(such,1stheoneshownin Fig. 2.la) andallowit to cool. As the
air slowly cool~. its atoms and molecules would move slower and
slower until the air reaches a temperature of -273•c (-4S9•F),
which is the !owe.st temperature po.~sible. At this temperature,
called absolute zero, the atoms and molecules wottld possess a
minimum amount of energy and theoretically no thermal mo-
tion. At absolute zero, we can begin a temperature scale called
the.tibsolufescale, or Kelvin scale after Lord Kelvin (1824- 1907),
a famous British scientist who first introduced it. Since the Up to this point, v1e've looked at a volume of air an<! found that when
the air is viarmed its nlOlecules move faster and the air expands and,
Kdvinscale begins at absolute zero, it contains no negative num- v1hen the volun-.e of air is cooled. its molecules move more slov1ly and
bers and is, therefore, quiteconvenient for scientific calculations. the air contracts. To bettervisualize thisconcept, go to the Cengage
'l\voother temperature scales commonly used today are the CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com and view the
Fahrenheit and Cel.~ius (formerly centigrade). 'lbe Fahrenheit animation en titled Temperature versus Molec.uJar Moven1ent.
scale was developed in the early 1700s by the physicist G. Daniel
Fahrenheit, who assigned the number 32 to the temperature at
which water freezes, and the number 212 to the temperature at
which water boils. The zero point was simply the lowest tem- space between fret<.ting and boiling is divided into JOO equal
perature that he obtained with a mixture ofic.e, water, 'md salt. degrees. 'Jberefore, each Celsius degree is 180/ 100 or I. 8 times
Between the freezing ;md boiling points are 180 equal divisions, larger than a Fahrenheit degree. Put another ""ay,an increase in
each ofwhich is called a degree. A thermometer calibrated with temperature of 1•c equals an increase of l.8°F. A formuli for
this scale is referred to asa Fahrenheit thermometer, for it mea- ronverting•F to•c is
sures an object's temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (<F).
'fhe Celsius scale was introduced later in the eighteenth
•c = 'J. (•F-32).
century. The number 0 (zero) on this scale is assigned to the On the Kelvin scale, degrees Kelvin are called Kelvins (abbrevi-
temperature at which pure water freezes, and the nmnber I 00 ated K). £ach degree on the Kelvin scale is exactly the same size
to the temperature at which pure water boils at sea level. 'lbe asa degreeCeL~ius, and a tlmperature ofO K is equal to-273•c.
• F I GURE 2. 1 Air temperature isa measure o f the average

speed {motion) of the molecules. In the cold volume of air,
the moJec-utes move more slo\vty and a<1\vd closer tog et her.
In the warm volume, they move faster and farther apart.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,i.,.,_,u~n~Cn'll'tl"'~"''ll"""......, fl~••"-.,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,.
Converting from 'C to K can be made by simply adding 273 to • TABLE 2.1 Specific Heat of Various Substances
the Celsius temperature, as SPECIFIC HEAT
(Cal/g x ·c> ·ct
K= •c + 273. SUBSTANCE J/(kg x
el'igure 2.2 compares the Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit scales. Water (pure) 1.00 4186
Converting a temperature fromonescale to another can be done Wet mud 0.60 2512
by simply reading the corresponding temperature from the ad-
jacent scale. ' thus, 303 on the Kelvin sc'tle is the equivalent of Jee (O'C) 0.50 2093
30•c and s6•F.•
Sandy day 0.33 1381
ln most of the world, temperature reading~ are taken in •c.
Jn the United States, however, temperatures above the surface are Dry air (sea level) 0.24 1005
taken in•c , while temperatures at the surface are typically read in
•F. Currently, then, temperatures on upper-level mapsareplotted Quartz sand 0.19 795
in •c, while, on surface weather maps, they are in •F. Since both Gr.inite 0.19 794
scales are in use, temperature readings in this book will, in most
cases, be given in 'C followed by their equiv;\lent in •F.
SPECIFIC HEAT A watched pot never boils, or so it seems. ' lhe absorbed by that substance to its corresponding temperature
reason for this is that water requires a rek1tively large amount of rise. 'J11e heat capacity ofa substance perunit mass isc-~lled spe-
heat energy to bring about a small temperature ch<l nge. 'Jhe bea l cific beat. In other words, specific h«lt is the amount of heat
capacity ofa substance is the ratio ofthe amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram (g) of a sub-stance
one degree Celsiu.s.
·A nlore co1uplcte tabJe o( conversions isgiven in Appendix A.
If we heat I g ofliquid water on a stove, it would take about
I calorie (cal)' to raise its temperature by 1•c. So water has a
specific heat of I. If, however, we put the same amount (that is,
same mass) of compact dry soil on the flame, we would see that
it would take about one-fifth the he'll (about 0.2 cal) to raise
K ·c 'F
iL~ temperature by 1•c . 1lie specific heat of water is therefore
373 -100 - 212 Bolling polnl ol ptKe Waief 5 times gre;1ter than th'lt of soil. In other word~. water must ab-
- 194 at sea lavet
363 90 - sorb 5 times as much heat as the same quantity of soil in order
353 80 - 176 to raise its temperature by the same amount. The specific heat of
3•3 - 70 - 158 SS°C ( 136'F) Highesl various substances is given in •"'fable 2.1
333 - 60 - - 140
temperatll'e recorded ui
the v.OOd El Azizla. Libya. Not only doe.s water h«lt slowly, it cools slowly as well. It has
323
313 -
w-
•O -
- 1n
104
Septemtier, 1~2
A hoc day
a much higher capacity for storing energy than other common
substances. such as soil and air. A given volume of '"'ater can
Average body temperatufe store a large amount of energy while undergoing only a small
303 30 - ll6 37'C (98.6'f)
293 20 - - 88
temperature change. lkcau.seofthisattribute, water has a strong
283 - 10 - 50
modifying effect on we.tther and climate. Near large bodies of
\\'Utf'r. for example. \\'inters usually remain "''armer and su1n-
273 0 - - 32 Fr"""'19 (melting) poinl
mers cooler than nearby inland regions-a fact well known to
of water (Ice} a1sea levt11
263 - - 10 - 14
people who live adjacent to oceans or large lakes.
253 - ~o - -<I
243 - -30 - -22 A billet COid ctay
LATENT HEAT - THE HIDDEN WARMTH We know from
233 - -<IQ - - 40 Chapter I that ""lter vapor is an invisible gas that becomes vis-
223 - -SO - -58 ible when itchangesintolargerliquid or solid (ice) particles. Thi~
213 - - -60 - -76 process oft ranslOrmation is known as a clumge ofsttlteor,simpl y,
203 - - -70 - --94 aplwse change. ' Ihe heat energy required to change a substance,
193 - -80 - - - 112 -S9'C (- 129'F) lowest such as water, from one state to another is called latent heal. But
1emperature reootded In why is this heat referred to as "l,ltent"?1b answer this question,
183 - -90 - - - 130 lhe WOrid Vostok. An1arctica
173 - - 100 - - - 148 July. t9e3 we wiU begin with something familiar to most of u.~- thecool
ing produced by evaporating water.
·sy de6nition. a calorie is Lhc amount o( hc.ll required to raise the te1nperoture oi
l g of \W1tcr fro1n 14..S"C to I S.S"<::. The ldlocnlorie is 1000 calories and is the heat
required to raise l kiJogranl (kg) oi water l"C. In the lntcrnationalSyste1n (Systi!nle
• FI GURE 2.2 Comparison of Kelvi11. Celsius, and Fahrenheit scales, along lntcrnotional. SI) . the unilofenergy is the joule U). \\•here I calorie = 4. 186 J. (For
\Vith some wald temperatureextremes. pronwlciation: jouk- rhy1nes \\ilh pool)
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Suppo-~e "~ micr0-o;copically examine a small drop of pure grams of water evaporating from the body, it i~ no wonder that
water. At the drop's surface, molecules are con~tantly escaping after ashower we feel cold before drying off
(evaparating). Because the more energetic, faster-moving mole- Jn a way, latent heat is responsible for keeping a cold drink
cules escape mo.st easily, the average motion ofall the molecules "'th ice colder th'Ul one without ice. As ice melts, its tempera-
left behind decreases as each additional molecule evaparates. ture does not change. ' llte reason for this fact is that the heat
Since temperature is a measure ofaverage molecular mot ion, the added to the ice only breaks down the rigid crystal pattern,
slo\ver motion suggests a lO\\'t"r \\•ater temperature. Evaport,tio11 changing the ice to a liquid without ch,mging its temperature.
is, therefore, a cooling process. Stated another way, evaparation 'Jlte energy used in this process is called lat mt heat offusion
is a cooling process because the energy needed to evaporate the (melting). Roughly 80 clli (335 J) are required to melt a single
water- that is, to change its phase from a liquid to a gas-may gram of ice. C'.onsequently, heat added to a cold drink with ice
come from the '"tter or other sources, including the air. primarily melts the ice, while heat added to a cold drink with-
ln the everyday world, we experience evaporational cool- out ice wanns the beverage. If a gram of water at o•c changes
ing as we step out of a shower or s"imming pool into a dry backintoice at o•c, this same amount of heat (80 cal) would be
area. Because some of the energy used to evaporate the water released as sensible heat to the environment. Therefore, when
comes from our skin, we may experience a rapid drop in skin ice melts, heat is taken in; when water freezes, heat i~ liberated.
temperature, even to the point where goose bumps form. Jn fact, 1 he heat energy required to change ice into vapor (a process
on a hot. dry. \Vindy day in 'TUcson. Arizona, cooling may be so caUed sublimation) is referred to as ltllent hellt of sublimation.
rapid that"~ begin to shiver even though the air temperature is For a single gram of ice to transform completely into vapor at
hovering around 3s•c ( 10o•F). 0-C requires nearly 680 cal-80 cal for the kllent heat of fusion
1 he energy 10-st by liquid water during evaporation can be plus 600 clli fort he latent heat of evaparation. Ifthis same vapor
thought of as carried a\\•ay by, and "locked up" within, the water tr<msformed backintoice(aprocess caUed deposit'io11), approxi-
vapor molecule.1 he energy is thus in a "stored" or "hidden" mately 680 cal (2850 )) would be released to the environment.
condition and i~. therefore, called lat mt heat. It islatent(hidden) • Figure 2.3 summarizes the concepts examined so far.
in that the temperature of the substance changing from liquid When the ch;mge of state is from left to right, heat is absorbed
to vapor is still the same. Ho"~ver, the heat energy will reap- by the subst<1nce and taken away from the environment. ' llte
pear as sensible heat (the heat"~ can fed, "sense; and measure processes of melting, evaporation, and sublimation au cool the
with a thermometer) when the vaparcondenses back into liquid environment. When the change ofstate is from right to left, heat
water. 'Jlterefore, condei!S!•tion (the oppo-~ite of evaporation) is energy is given up by the substance and added to the environ-
a •vtlnning process. ment. ' the process of freezing, condensation, and depo_~ition au
1 he heat energy released when "'Jter vapor condenses to '"trm their surroundin(}S.
form liquid droplets is called latent heat of condensation. Con- Latent heat is an irnpartant source of atmospheric ener&'Y·
versely, the heat energy used to change liquid into vapor at the Once vapar molecules become separated from the earth~ sur-
same temperature is called lateitl heat of evapomtion (vapariza- face, they are swept away by the \\ind, like dust before a broom.
tion). Nearly 600 cal (2500 J) are required to evaporate a singk Rising to high altitudes where the air i~ cold, the vapor changes
gram of water at room temperature. With many hundreds of into liquid and ice cloud particle,~. During these processes, a
• FIGURE 2.3 He.at energy absorbed and re·

leased.
HEAT ENERGY TAKEN FROM ENVIRONMENT
Sublimation
Melling Evaporation
foe Freezing Condensation

Uquid
Vapor
Deposition
HEAT ENERGY RELEASED TO ENVIROfllMENT
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)
• F I GURE 2. 4 Every time a cloud form s, it warms theatmosphere. Inside
this developing thunderstorm avast amount o f staed heatenergy (latent
heat} is given up to the air, as invisible\vater vapor becomes countless billions
of \Val er droplets and ice oystals.. In fact. for the duration of this storm alone. • FI GURE 2 5 Thetransferof heat from the hot end of the metal pin to the
more heat energy is released inside thiscloud than is unleashed by a small cool end by molecular contact is called conduction.
nuclear bomb.
tremendous amount of heat energy is released into the environ- How well theyconduct heat depends uPon how their molecules
ment. Thi~ heat provides energy for storms, such as hurricanes, are structurally bonded together. • Table 22 shows that solids,
middle kttitude cyclones, and thunderstorms (see • Fig. 2.4). such as metals, are good heat conductors. Jt is often difficult,
Water vaPor evaporated from warm, tropical water can be therefore, to judge the temperature of metal object~. For exam-
carried into Polar regions, where it condenses and gives up its ple, ifyougrab a metal pipe at room temperature, it will seem
heat energy. ' thus, as we will see, evaporation-tr<tn.~portation to be much colder th'm it actually is because the metal conduct~
condensation is an extremely imPortant mech,mism for the heat away from the hand quite rapidly. C'.onversely, 11ir is a11 ex-
relocation of heat energy (as well as water) in the ati=~phere. tremely poor r.o11ductor of Jie11t, which is why most in.~ulating
(Before going on to the next section, you may wish to read the
Focus section on p. 37, whichsummarizessome of the concepts
considered thus far.) Y TABLE 2.2 Heat Conductivity* of Various Substances
HEAT CONDUCTIVITY
SUBSTANCE !Watts' per meter pet ~ c >
StiUair 0.023 (at 20•q

Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere
Wood 0.08
CONDUCTION The tntnsfer ofheat from molecule to molecule
within a substance iscalledconduclion. Hold one end ofa metal Dry soil 0.25
straight pin between your fingers and place a flaming candle un- \Vater 0.60 (at 20'C)
der the other end (see • Fig. 2.5). Because ofthe energy they ab-
sorb from the flame, the molecules in the pin vibrate faster. The SnO\\T 0.63
faster-vibrating molecules cause adjoining molecules to vibrate Wet soil 2.1
faster. These, in turn, pass vibrational energy on to their neigh-
boring molecules, and so on, until the molecules at the fmger- Ice 2.1
held end of the pin begin to vibrate rapidly. 'Jhese fast-moving
Sandstone 2.6
molecules eventually cause the molecul es ofyour fmger to vibrate
more quickly. Heat isnowb<'ingtransferred from the pin to your Granite 2.7
finger, and both the pin and your finger fed hot. lfeno.1ghheat is
transferred, you will drop the pin. 'fhetransmission ofheat from lron 80
one end of the pin to the other, and from the pin to your finger, Silver 427
occurs by conduction. Heat tntnsferred in this fashion always
flows from wanner to colder regions. Generally, thegreater the "Heat (Lhernul) co nduciivity de.scrib£'$ a substanceSabilily 10 conduct hC.ll as a
tlmperaturedilference, the more rapid the heat transfer. consequenceofnlolccul:tr 1notion.
When materials can easily pas~ energy from one molecule 1A watt ( \\T) is.a uni1of power\,•here one \\'.l it equals one j oule (1) per second
to another, they are considered to be good conductors of heat. (J/s). One joule equnls.0.2il caJories..
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The Fate of a Sunbeam
Consider sunlight in the form of radiant en-

ergy striking a large lake, as shown in
Fig. 1. Part of the incoming energy heats
the water, causing greater molecular mo-
tion and, hence, an increase in the water's
kinetic e nergy. This greater kinetic e nergy
allows more water molecules to evaporate
from the surface. As each molecule es-
capes, work is done to break it away from
the remaining water molecul es. This en-
ergy becomes the latent heat energy that is
carried with the water vapor.
Above th e lake, a lar ge bubble* of
warm, moist air rises and expan ds. In order e
for this expansion to take place, the ga.s !
molecules inside the bubble must use
some of their kinetic e nergy to do work
against the bubble's sides. Thisresults in a • FIGURE 1 Solar energy striking a large body of \vater goes through many tran~formations.
slower molecular speed and a lower tem-
perature. Well above the surface, the water energy w hen these droplets grow into rain- electrical energy, which is sent to cities.
vapor in the rising, cooling bubble of moist drops that fall earthward . There , it heats, cools, and lights the build-
air condenses into clouds. The condensa- When the drops reach the surface, ings in which people work and live. Mean-
tion of water vapor releases latent heat e n- their kinetic energy erodes the land. As while, some of the water in the lake behind
ergy into the atmosphere, warming the air. rain swollen streams flow into a lake be-
4
the dam evaporates and is free to repeat
The tiny suspended cloud droplets possess hind a dam, there is a buildup of potential the cycle. Hence, th e energy from the sun-
potential energy, w hich becomes kinetic energy, w hich can be transformed into ki - light on a lake can undergo many transfor-
netic energy a.s water is harnessed to flow mations and help provide the moving force
•A bubble of rising {or sinking) air about the sizeof down a chute. If the moving water drives a for many natural and human made 4
a large balloon isoflen called aparcf'l ofair. generator, kinetic energy is converted into processes.
materials have a large nwnberofair space.~ trapped within them. air flows toward the surface to replace the rising air. This cooler
Air issuch a poor heat conductorthat, in calm weather, the hot air becomes heated in turn, rises, and the cyde is repeated In
ground only warmsashallow layer of air a few centimeters thick meteorology, this vertical exchange of heat is called convettion,
by conduction. Yet, air can carry this energy rapidly from one and the rising air bubbles are known as lhennals (see • Pig. 2.6).
region to another. How then does this phenomenon happen? 1 he rising air expands and gradually spreads outward. It
then slowly begins to sink. Near the surface., it moves back into
CONVECTION The transfer of heat by the mass movement of the heated region, replacing the rising air. In this way, a convec-
a fluid (such as water and air) is called com·ection. '!his type of tive circulation, or thermal "cell;· is produced in Lhe atmosphere.
heat transfer takes place in liquids and gases because they can ln a convective circulation, the '''arm>rising air cools. Jn our
move freely, and it is possible to set up currents within them. atmosphere, any air /hat rises will expand and cool, and any air
Convection happens naturally in the atmosphere. On a 1Ju1t sinks is compressed and warms. Thi~ important concept is
warm.sunny day, certain areas of the earl~ surface absorb more detailed in the Focus section on p. 38.
heat from the sun than others; as a result, the air near the earth's Although the entire process of heated air rising, spreading
surface is heated somewhat unevenly. Air molecules adjacent to out,sinking. and finally flowing back toward its original location
these hot surfaces bounce ag;tinst them, thereby gaining some i~ known as a convective circulation, meteorologists usually re-
extra energy by conduction. The heated air expands and becomes strict the term conve<tion to the process of the rising and sinking
less den~e than the surrounding cooler air. The expanckd \\".trm part of the circulation (see • Fig. 2.7).
air is buoyed upward and rises. In this manner, large bubbles of 'fhe horizontally moving part of Lhe circulation (called
warm air rise and transfer heat energy upward Cooler, heavier wind) carries properties of the air in that particular area with
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Rising Air Cools and Sinking Air Warms
To understan d why rising air cools an d parcel. Reca II from Chapter 1 that air p res- If the parcel is lowered to the earth (as
sinking air warms we n eed to examine sure always decreases as we move up into sh ovvn in Fig. 2), it returns to a region
some air. Supposewe place air in an imagi- the atmosphere. Conseq uently, as the par- w h ere th e air pr essure is high er. T h e high er
n ary thin, elastic w rap abou t t h e size o f a cel rises, it en ter s a region w h ere th e sur- ou tside pressure sq u eezes (compresses)
large balloon (see Fig. 2). This invisible ba 1- rounding air p ressure is lower. To equ alize t he parcel back to its original (sma ll e~ size.
loonlike "blob" is called an air parcel. The th e pressure, th e pa rcel molecules inside Becau se air molecules h ave a faster r e-
air parcel can expand and cont ract freely, pu sh th e parcel walls ou tward, expa n ding bound velocity after striking th e sides of a
bu t n eith er extern al air n or h eat is able to it. Becau se th ere is n o oth er energy source, collapsing parcel, th e average speed of th e
mix w ith th e air inside. By t h e same token,. th e air molecules inside u se some o f th eir molecules inside goes up. (A Ping-Pon g
as the parcel moves, it does not break own energy to expan d t h e parcel. T his en - ball moves faster after striking a paddle
apart, but remains as a single unit. ergy loss sh ONs up as slovver molecular t h at is moving towar d it.) T his increase in
At th e ear th 's surface, th e parcel h as speeds, w hich represen t a lower parcel molecular speed represen ts a war mer par-
th e same temperature an d p ressure as temperature. H en ce, any air that rises al- cel temperature. Th er efore.. any air that
th e air surroun ding it. Suppose we lift th e ways expands and cools. sinks (subsides), i.mrms bycompression.
e FI GURE 2 Risingairex~
pand.s and cools; sinking air
is compressed and \var ms..
Parcel ol air I
\
-Warm-
I
- Cool
I
Cool
Warm -
1
I
it The transfer of these properties by horizontally moving air is (the t ransformation of vapor Into liquid ) Is a warming pro -
called ad veclion. For example, wind blowing across a body of cess that can warm t he air.
water will "pick up" water vaPor from t he evaporating surface • Heat is energy In t he process of being t ransferred from one
and tranSPortitelsewherein theatm0-~phere. Jf theaircooL~. the object to another because of the temperature di fference be-
water vaPor may conde1tse into cloud droplets and release latent tween them.
heal. In a sense, then, heat is advected (carried) by the water va-
• In conduction, which Is t he t ran sfer of heat by mol ecul e-to-
por as it is swept along wit h the wind. Earlier we SO\vthat this is
molecul e contact, heat always flows from warmer to cold er
an important way to redist ribute heat energy in the atmosphere.
reg ion s.
• Air is a poor conducto r of heat.
BRIEF REVIEW • Convection Is an Importan t mech ani sm of heat t ransfer, as It
represents t he vertical movement of warmer air upward and
Before movin g on to t he next section, here Isa summary of co oler air downward.
some of the importan t concepts and facts we have covered:
• The temperature ofa substance Is a measure of t he aver- ' lb ere is yet anot her mechanism forthe t ra1t~fer cl energy -
ag e kin etic energy (average motion) of its atoms and radiation ~ or radiant energy, \\1hich is \\•hat \\~ receive from the
molecul es. sun. In this method, energy may be tra1t~ferred from one object
• Evaporatio n (the transformation of liquid In to vapor) Is a to another without the space between t hem nece,'lSarily being
co oling process t hat can cool t he air, whereas condensatio n heated.
°*"'"''"..
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...
"IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I•• - ..........h~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r..........i....
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,... """""",,..~c 'll'tl..1~ 'll - ....... .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,, ..... o1,..,""I...,.,. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
Hot
air ,./ Conveclion Convec11on ConveCliOn
Thermal
l r..--_) \___ j Hot surface

• FI GURE 2. 7 The rising of hot air and the sinking ofcool air sets upa con-
vective circulation. Normally, thevertical part of the circulation iscalled convec-
liol\ \Vhereas the horizontal part is called wind Near the surface the \Vind is
advecting smoke from one region to another.
• FI GURE 2 .6 The development ofa thermal.A thennal is a risin9 bubble of

air thatc.arries heat energy upward by<.onvec-rion.
travel at a constant speed of nearly 300,000 km (186,000 mi) per
second-the speed oflight.
• Figure 2.8 shows some of the different wavelengths of ra·
d iat ion. Notice that the wavelength (which is usually expressed
Radiant Energy by the Greek letter lambda, A) is the di~tance measured along
a wave from one crest to another. Also notice that some of
On a summer day, you may have noticed how warm and flushed the ""aves have exceedingly short lengths. For example., radia·
your face feels as you stand facing the sun. Sunlight travels lion that we can see (visible light) has an average wavelength
through the surrounding airwithlittleeffect upon the air itself. of less than one-millionth of a meter- a distance nearly one-
Your face, however, absorbs this energy and converts it to ther· hundredth the diameter of a human hair. When describing these
mal energy. 1 hus, sunlight warms your face without actually short lengths, weintroducea new unit ofmeasurement called a
warming the air. The energy tr;insferred from the sun to your microm eter (represented by the symbol µ m). which is equal to
faceiscalle.d radiant ener gy, or r adiation. Jt tr<welsin the !Orm one-millionth of a meter (m);thus
ofwaves that release energy when they are absorbed by an object.
Because the.o;e waves have magnetic and electrical properties, I micrometer(µm) = 0.0 00001 m = JO... m.
w<· call them electrom agnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves Jn Fig. 2.8, notice that the average wavelength of radiation we
do not need molecule.~ to propagate them. Jn a vacuum, they can see (called visible light) is about 0.0000005 rn, which is Lhe
• F I GURE 2.8 Radiation characterized according to

'
TYPE OF RELATIVE TYPICAL ENERGY CARRIED wavelengt h.As the wavelength decreases, the energy
RADIATION WAVELENGTH WAVELENGTH PER WAVE OR carried per wave increases.
(meters) PHOTON
WEATHER WATCH Objects that have a very high temperature emit energy a1 a
greater rotcorintensityth<tnobjccts at a lowertemperoture. 'fhw,
Some birds aro wear her savvy. Hawks, for example, seek as tire tempemh1re of an object i11aet1Sl!S, more toltll rndiotitm is
out risJng thermals a_nd ride them up into the air as thty m1it terl eaeli socond. This c::m be exprcSM.'11 mathematically as
.can tho landscape for prey. In doing so, these birds con ·
sorve a great deal of energy by not having lo flap their E= cf1' (Stefan- Boltzmann l:M),
wings u thoy clrclo higher and higher inside the rising air
current. where Eis the maximum rat• ofraclJ.uion emitted by each square
meter ofsurfacearea of the object, tr (the Creek leuer sigma) is the
Stefun-llol12mann constant,• and ns 1hc object'> surface 1em·
peraturein degrees Kdvin. 1hi;. rcl<11ionship. called the Stdan-
same as 0.5 µm. To give you a common object for compa ri>01\ Bolt-.mann law after Josef Stefan (1835- 1893) and Lud,vig
tho average height of a lei rer on this page is about 2000 fl"'• or Bolt-.mann (1844-1906). who deriv<>d it, >tntc.< that all objects
2 millim•ters (2 mm), wherea.~ the thickness of this page isnbout w~.h temperatures above ub...olutc zero (0 K 11r-273'C) emit
JOO pm. radiation al a rate proportional to the fourth power nf their ah·
We can al><> .ce in Fig. 2.8 that the longer wuve> carry less solute 1cmpera1ure. Consequenl ly, u sm:i 11 increase in tempera·
energy thun do the sh<~rter wav•S. When comparing the energy lure results in alurgeincrcascin thc'1nl0un1ofradiation l?rnitted
carried by various waves, it is useful to give clectromng11clic ra- bocausc doublingthe absolute tcmpttoturc ofan objecl increases
clinlion ch:trac1cristicsofpar ticks in order to explain ><>me oftlic the maitin1um energy output by n factor of 16, which is 2'.
waves' behavior. We can actually think ofradiotion as str.•nmsof
particles or photons that ore discrete packets of energy.• RADIATION OF THE SUN AND EARTH Most oflhesun's en-
An ultraviolet photon carries more energy than nphOlonof ergy is emitted from its surface, wherethetempera1ure is nearly
visible light. In fact, certain ultraviolet photons have enough en· 6000 K (I0,500°f). The earth, on the other hand, has an aver-
ttgy to produce >unbumsand penetrate skin tissue, >0mctimes •!JI' surface temperatutt of288 K ( 1s•C, 59"1'). 'fhe sun, there·
cauSingskln c::mcer. As we discussed in Chapter I, rt i>o:mnc m iire, radiales a great deal more energy than does the earth (see
the stratosphere that protects us from the vast m'9orityofthe>e • Fig. 2.9).Atwhat wavdength!. do the sun and the earth radiate
hannful ray>. most of theirencrgy? Fortunately. the ~un and the earth both
rove characteristics (discussed in 0 later section) that enable us
RADIATION AND TEMPERATURE All things (11~1ost tcmptl'a· to use the follo"~ng relationship called Wien's law (or Wien's
ture is tlbOt'C absolute uro), no 1nntter lion' big or snJnfl, 1t1uit displacement law) after th< German phy>ici!.t Wilhelm Wien
mdit1tio11. ' I hi; book, y1)ur body. flowers, trees, air. the enrlh, (pronounced Ween, 1864-1928), whodbcovem! it:
the >tars a.re all radt11 ing a wide range of electromagnetic waves.
' Lheenergy origirn.ucs from rapidly vibrating electrons, billions , constant (W' , 1 )
" mu = T 1cn s aw
ci which cxi;t in every objecL
"Lhe w~1vcll'l!gth. tha1 cnchobject emits depl'l!d primnrilyon where).. is the ''"ivelength in micromc1crs at which maxinmm
the objecti: temperature. ' I he higher the temperature, the faster rooiation~·l?rnission occurs, Tis the object'S l~mpernturein Kelvins,
the electrons vibrate, and the shorter are the "''"''lengths of the and the constanl is 28!17 µ.m K. To make the numbetteasyto deal
<milted radiation. 'I hi>c::m be visualized by ottaching one end of with, \\'e will round olfthtconstarrt to the number 3000.
a rope ton post ond holding the other end. If the rope is shaken For the sun, with a surface temperature of about 6000 K, the
"1lidly (higlt temperature). numerous short wa\'1.'S travel nlong equation becomes
the rope; if the ropei>shalo,nslowly (lowertemperatutt~ lonscr
wa\'CS appear on the rope. Although objects at a temperature of , = 3000 µmK • O.S m.
oboul SOO"C radiate \\'BV<S with many lengths, oomt of them arr "- 6000K µ
9lortcnough lO>t lmulate the sensation of vision. We actually see
these objects glO"' red. Objects cooler than thi> radiate at wave- 1nus. the sun emits a maitimum amount of radial ion at wave-
lengths th.JI are too long for us to see. The page of this book. for lengths near0.5 µm. 1n e cooler earth, wi1h an avernge surface
aample, b radia1ing electromagnetic waves. But becnu>e its tcm· Mnperaturecf 288 K(row1dcd to 300 K),emilS maximwn ra-
pernturc Is only olx1u1 20°C (68°F), the waves emiucd nrc much diation near "'welengths of JO ftm, since
too long tO>limulntc vision. We ore able to see the page. however, , = 3000 µmK IO
becwsc light waves from other sources(such aslightb1dbsorthc "m 300 K = µm.
sun) are being refl«ctcd (bounced) off the paper. lfthis book were
carried Into a completely dnrk room, it would continue to mdintc, ' Lhus, the earth emits most ofits radL1tion at longer wavelengths
but the pages would appear black because there arc no vi>iblc between about 5 and 25 fl"'• while the sun emits the majority of
light wa\<eS in the room to reflect ofTthe pages.
'TM S1ebn-8oll-unann coru:eam a In SI uniu. ii 5.67 10 • \\'Jm:k"'. A "'-'lll (\\1)
4
P~blJ ol phouuu nuke- up Wat~ and groups, <i -.it.ft.S rnllf' up I b<1m al a a mu ofpoi--er•'h~reOM .-.in rqu.abooc pot.N (f) ptrWMd (JI•). OM pije ts
od.Lition. cqu.al1aO.l.aa.l~t<nmn\"miklmaarga\"Cll In A~k A.

_ ............,.... . .,.,_ ....... .. _........ . . . . . _ ...............- . , ......,1-.. . . , _ .., . .'" ... -.w-..
0..•-- ,......_ ............ _ ---~_... ...............jl\o "°'•1111.>I £ ........,...._.....
~- • I R f - <1.....- ...... - - · · - · ........
Since our cy~s ttt~ scnsitivt: to radiation bet\\'i!en 0.'I and
0.7 µm , these wJves reach lhc C)'C and s1bnula1e the sensa1ion
ofcolor. '.lhisportion ofthespecirurn is referred to as the visible
region, and the radinnt energy lhat reaches our eye is called vis-
ible ligl1t. The sun emits nearly 4'1 percent ofits radiation in this
zone, with the peak of energy Oulput found at the wavelength
corresponding to the color blue-green. ' Ille color ,·iolet is the
shortest wa,..Jength of v6iblc lighl. W..velengtbs shorter than
violet (0.4 µm) are ull.nlviolet (UV). X-rays and gamma rays
"'th e•..:eedingly short w:svelcngi hs also fall into tbi~ category.
1besun emits only about 7 percent of iL~ 1oial energy at ultra ·
violet wavelengths.
111e longest wovelengths of vii.Ible light correspond to the
color red. Wavelength> longer 1han red (0.7 µm) are infrared
(IR). 1bese waves cannot be seen by humans. Nearly 37 percenl
ofthe sun~ energy is ttidtlled be1wccn 0.7 µm and J.5 µm, wi1h
only 12 percent radiated al Mwelengths longer than 1.5 µm.
• FI GURE 2.9 The hotter sun not only radiates moreel'llugy th4n thiu o f Whereas the hol >1111 emits only a part of its energy in the
lht cooltr earth (the area under the curve}. but It al-w radiates the m.aj0tityof
lt.itnrrgyat muc:h shorterwavelengths. ll'he afe.a u~ t t hecurws ls equal to
infrared portion of the spcc1rurn, lhc relatively cool earth emits
tht totaltnergyemitted. and the scales for the lWO(ll'V$5 differ by. r.1etor of almost all ofitsenagy :at infrared wavelengths. Although wl!Can·
IOO.OCOJ not see infrared rndiutiorL there are instruments called infmmi
se1isors that can. Weather satellites thal orbit the globe use these
sensors too bscn" rndiat ion emiued by the earth, the douds, and
ils radlationa1 wavelengths Jess than 2 µm. For this rcason, 1he the atmosphere. Since object> of different temperatures radiaie
cal'lh's radiation (terrestrial radiation) is often tall<'<i longwa\'e tbeirm:Wmum ..-nefg)' Jt d ifTcrent "'"'-elengths, infrared photo·
rad iation, whereas the sun's <.'nttgy (solar radiation) is referred graphs can distinguish among objects of di/krent 1emperntures.
to a~ .s:horl\\1ave radiation. Clouds always radiate infrattd energy; thus, cloud images using
Wiens law demonstrat..-s that,ru. the lcmpcr:uu reofon obje<:t infrared sensors can be tuk.ln during both day and night
bicreases, the wovclength al which maxlmwn emission occurs Jn summary, both the sun ,md earth emi1 radiation The hot
l~ shift~d 1oword shorier values. For example, if the sun's sur- sun (6000 K) radi.1tcs near! y 88 percent of its energy at wave-
face lempcralure were to double to 12,000 K. its wavclcng1h of lengths le.o;.~ than 1.5 fUll, with m:udmum emission in the visible
maximum emission would be halved tonbout 0.25 flm. If, onihe region near 0.5 fLin. Look agllin nt µ;g. 2.9 and notice thal the
other hand, lhe sun's surface cooled to 3000 K, it would emit its cooler a1rth (288 K) r;1din1cs nearly all its energy bet \\'eCn 5 and
maximum amount of radiation near LO fLin. 25 µm "1th u peak intensity in the infrared region near 10 µm.
!;ven though lhesun radiates otnmnximumrntentnp.u ticu- '!he sun's surface is nearly 20 times honer than the earth's sur-
1.tr wavelength, it nonctheless emits some radiation nt nlmos1 nll face. from the Stefan-Bolt7.mann relationship, lhis fact means
oc.hcrwaveleng1hs. Ifwe look all he amount ofradiation given off that a unit area on the sun emits nearly 160,000 (20') times
by the sun 31 each wavelength, we obtain the sun~ •~«lromag· more energy during a giwn time period than the same size area
11t1icsputn11n. A portion ofthis spectrum is shown in • Fig. 2.10. on the earth. And since the sun has such a huge surface area
e FIGURE 2.10 Thesun'selec·

tmm19ne6c spectrum and sane
ol the de$aiplive names cl each
teglon. ThenumbefsundEfneath
the curve apprOK.imate the percent
of energythesun radiates in vari-
ous1egions.

_ ............,......_ ......... _........ ..... _ • ..,.... ...._.,.,...,t-...,-",..'" ... -.w-..
0..•-- ,......_ ............ _ ---~_...
~-·!Rf-I £ ........,...._. ....
Wave Energy, Sunburning, and UV Rays
Standing close to a fire makes us feel

warmer than we do w hen we stand at a
distance from it. Does this mean that, as
we move away from a hot object, t he
waves carry less energy and are, therefore,
weaker? Not really. T he intensity of radia-
tion decreases as we move avvay from a
hot object because radiant energy spreads
outward in all directions. Figure 3 illus-
trates that as the d istance from a radiating
object increases, a g iven amount of energy
is distributed over a larger area, so that the
energy received over a given area and over
a given time decreases. In fact, at twice the
distance from the source, the radiation is
• FIGUR E 3 The intensity, or amount. of radiant energy transported by electromagnetic
spread overfo ur times the ar ea. \vavesdeaeasesas \\le mC>le a\vayfrom a radiating object because the same amount of en-
Another interesting fact about radia- ergy is spread over a larger area.
tion that we learned earlier in this c hapter is
that shorter waves car ry m uch more energy amounts. Photons in this wavelength term skin damage that sh ONs up year s
than do longer waves. Hence, a photon of r ange have enough energy to produce later as accelerated aging and skin w rin-
ultraviolet light carries more energy than a sunb urns and penetr ate skin tissues, kling. Moreover, recent studies indicate
photon of v isible light. In fact ultraviolet sometimes causing skin cancer. About that longer UV-A exposures needed to
(UV) wavelengths in the r ange of 0.20 and 90 percent of all skin cancers are linked to create a tan pose about t he same cancer
0.29 µm (known as W-C radiation) are sun exposure and UV-B r adiation. Oddly risk asa UV-Bta nnin gdose.
harmful to living things, as certain waves enough, these same waveleng ths activate Upon striking t he human body, ultra-
can cause chromosome mutations, kill p rovitamin D in the skin an dconvert it v iolet radiation is absor bed beneath the
single""<:elled organisms, and damage the into v itamin 0 , which is essential to health. outer layer of skin. To protect the skin from
cornea of the eye. Fortunately, v irtually all Longer ultraviolet waves w ith lengths these harm ful rays, the body's defense
the ultraviolet radiation at wavelengths in of about 0.32 to 0.40 µm (called UV-Aradi- mechanism kicks in . Cer tain cells (when
the UV-C range is absorbed by ozone in ation) are less energetic, b ut can still tan exposed to UV radiation) produce a dark
the stratosphere. t he skin. Although UV-Bis mainly respon- pigment (melanin) that begins to absor b
Ultraviolet wavelengths between sib le for burning the skin, UV-A can cause some o f the UV rad iat ion. (It is the produc-
about 0.29 and 0.32 µm (known as UV-8 skin redness. It can also interfere w ith the tion of melanin that produces a tan.)
radjation) reach the ear th in small skin's immune system and cause long- Consequently, a body that produces little
from which to radia!e, rhe toral energy emil!ed by !he sun each i! absorbs more energy rhan i! emirs, i! gers warmer. On a sunny
minu!e amounts to a staggering 6billion, billion, billion calories! day, !he ear!h'.~surface warms by absorbing more energy from
(Additional information on radiation intensitv and ilS effect on rhe sun and !he armosphere rhan i! radiares, while at night the
humansi~given in !hel'ocussection above.) ' earth cools by radiating more energy than it absorbs from iissur-
roundings. When an object emits and absorbs energy at equal
rates. its temperature remain-; con')tant.
1 he rate at which something radiares and absorb-~ energy
Radiation -Absorption, Emission, depends s!rongly on il~ surface characteristics, such as color,
and Equilibrium texture. and moisture. as \\·ell as temperature. For example, a
black object in direct sunlight i~ a good absorber ofvisible radia-
lf theearrh and all !hings on it are continually radiating energy, tion. l!converlSenergy from !hesun inro internal energy, and ilS
why doesn'! everything get progre.ssively colder? The answer is temperature ordinarily increases. You need only walk barefoor
!hat all objeclS nor only radia!e energy, they absorb it as well. Jf on a black asphal! road on a summer afrernoon to experience
an objecr radiates more energy !han it absorbs, it gel~ colder; if this. At night, rhe blackrop road will cool quickly by emitting
°*"'"''"..
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl<'l~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
melanin-<>ne w ith pale skin- has little
natural protection from UV-B.
EXPOSUflE CATEGORY lNINDEX PROTECTIVE MEASURES
Additional p rotection can come from a Minimal AW-/ SPF 15 Sl.l'lSCreen

sunscreen. Unlike the old lotions t hat simply
moisturized the skin before it baked in the Low Wear a hat and apply SPF 15 $Un$Creen
sun, sunscreens today b lock UV rays from
Wear a hat, protoc11ve clothing, and sunglasses
ever reaching the skin. Some contain chemi- Wllh lN-A and UV-8 protection; ~ly SPF 15+
cals (such as zinc oxide) that reflect UV radi- ""1Sereen
ation. (These are the w hite pastes once seen
Wear 8 ha!, l)tOIOCllV8 ClOlh;ng, end SU~
on the noses of lifeguards.) Others consist of
stay on Sha<ly ar91lS: appty SPF 1s~ sunscoeen
a m ixture of chemicals (such as benzophe-
none and paraaminobenzo ic acid, PABA) WJryhogn 10+ Weat a hat, pro!ective cto«tnng. and sunglasses.
that actually absorb ultraviolet rad iat ion, use SPF 15 ~ SU15Creen· a\IOid being 111 SYn
between 10A.M 8fld4f-M
usua lly UV-B, although new products w ith
UV- A-absorbing qualities are now on the • FIGURE 4 The UV Ind""-
market. Th e Sun Protection Factor (SPF)
number o n every container of sunscr een t he sun is highest in t he sky an d its rays are
dictates how effective the product is in p ro- most direct.
tecting from UV-B- the higher the number. Presently, the National Weather Service
the better the p rotection. makes a daily prediction of UV radiation lev-
Protecting oneself from excessive ex- els for selected cities throughout the United
posure to t he sun's energetic UV rays is cer- States. The forecast, known as the UV Index,
tainly w ise. Estimatesarethat, in a single g ives t he UV l evel at its peak, around n oon
year, over 30,000 Americans w ill be diag- standard time or 1 f'..v... daylight savings time.
nosed with malig nant m elanoma, th e most The 15-point index corresponds to five expo-
deadly form of skin cancer. And w here the sure categories set by the Environmental ~
protective stratospheric ozone shield has Protection Agency (EPA). An index v alue of 1
weaken ed, th ere is an ever-increasin g risk between O and 2 is considered ..m inimal," ~
~
of problems associated w ith UV-B. Using a w hereas a value of 10 or g reater is deemed
good sunscreen and proper clothing can "ver y high" (see Fig. 4). Depending on skin
!
~
certainly help. The best way to protect your- type, a UV index of 10 means that in d irect
• FIGURE 5 lfthisphoto\vastakenaround li>M.
self from too m uch sun, however, is to lim it sunlight, (with out sunscreen p rotection) a
on aday\vhen the UV index \Vas 10, almostei.ery·
your time in direct sunlig ht, especially be- person's skin will likely begin to burn in one on this beach \Yithout sunsaeen \wuld experi·
tween the hours of l OA ~v. . and 4 P.M. w hen about 6 to 30 minutes (see Fig. 5). ence some degree of sunburning \<Athin 30 minutes..
infrared radialion and, by early morning, il may be cooler lhan solarenergycon~lantly bathes lheearth with radialion, while the
surrounding surfaces. earth)in turn) constantly crnit.c; infrared radiation. If \\<e as.')utne
Any objecl lhal is a perfrcl absorber (lhal is, absorbs all thal !here is no olher method of lransferring heal, !hen, when
lhe radiation thal slrikes il) and a perfecl eminer (emils lhe the rate of absorplion of solar radiation equal~ lhe rate of emis-
maximum radialion possible al ils given 1emperalure) is called sion of infrared eanh radialion, a slale of radiative equilibrium
a blackbody. Blackbodies do 1101 have 10 be colored black;
!hey simply musl absorb and emil all possible radialion. Since WEATHER WATCH
lhe eanh's surface and lhe sun absorb and radi.1le wilh nearly The large ears of a jackrabbit are efficient emitters of in -
100 percenl efficiency for !heir respeclive !emperalures, !hey frar ed energy. Its ears help the rabbit survive the heat of a
bolh behave as blackbodies. 1 his is lhe reason we were able 10 summer's day by radiating a great deal of infrared ener gy
use Wien~ law an<l 1heS1efan-Bollzmann law 10 delermine lhe to the cool er sky above. Similarly, the large ears of the
characlerislics of radialion emilled from lhesun and !he earlh. African el ephant greatly incr ease its radiating surface
When we look al lhe earlh from space, we see lhal half of area and promote cooling of its large mass.
il is in sunlighl, lhe olher half is in darkness. The outpouring of
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..nt,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c..'ll'tl.. 1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••""
....,,
.,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• ..,,,,-.11..,,....,,..,...
is achieved. ' lhe average temperature at which this occurs is infntred wavelengths). 'Jhe bark of a tree absorb-s sunlight and
called the radiative equilibrium temperature. At this tem- emits infrared energy. which the snow around it ab-sorb-s. Dur-
perature, the earth (behaving as a blackbody) is absorbing solar ing the absorption process, the infrared radiation is converted
radiation and emitting infrared radiation at equal rates, and intointernalenergy. and the snow mehsouf\\".lrd away from the
its average temperature does not ch:tnge. Because the earth is treetrunk, producing a small depression that encircles the tree,
about 150 million km (93 million mi) from the sun, the earth~ like the ones shown in • Fig. 2.11.
mdiMive equilibrium temperature is about 255 K (- Ul"C, 0°F). • Figure 2.12 shows some of the m<>-~t imPortant selectively
But this temperature is much lower than the earth's observed absorbing gases in our atmosphere. '!he shaded area represent~
average surfacetemperatureof288 K ( JS"C, 59°F). Why is there the absorption characteristics of each gas at various " "avelengrhs.
such a large diJTerence> Notice that both water vaPor (H,0) and carbon dioxide (C0 2)
1 he answer lies in the fact that /he earth'salmosphere 1ibsorbs are strong absorbers ofinfrared radiation and poor absorbers of
muJ emits i11frm·etJ radit1tio11. Unlike the earth, the atmosphere visible solar radiation. Other, less important, selective absorbers
does not behave like a blackbody, as it ab-sorbssome wavelengths include nitrous oxide (N 20). methane (CH) , and ozone (0,).
<:i radiation and is transparent to others. Objects that selectively which is most abundant in the stra10-sphere. As these gases ab-
absorb and emit radiation.such 'ts gases in our atm0-sphere, are sorb infrared radiation emitted from the earth's surface, they
known 'ts selective absorbers. Let's examine this concept more gain kinetic energy (energy ofmotion). 'Jhe gas molecules share
d0-sely. this energy by colliding ";th neighboring air molecules, such
as oxygen and nitrogen (both of which are PoOr ab-sorbers of
SELECTIVE ABSORBERS AND THE ATMOSPHERIC GREEN· infrared energy). 1 hese collisions increase the average kinetic
HOUSE EFFECT Just as some people are selective eaters of energy ofthe air, which results in an increase in air temperature.
certain foods. most substances in our e.nvironment are selec- Thus, m0-st of the infrared energy emitted from the earth's sur-
tive absorbers; that is, they absorb only certain wavelengths of face keeps the lower atm<>-sphere warm.
radiation. Glass isa good example of aselectiveabsorber in th:H Besides being selective absorbers, water vapor 'md CO,
it ab-sorbssome of the infrared and ultraviolet radiation it re- selectively emit radiation at infrared wavelengths.• '!his radia:
ceives, but nor the visible radiation that is transmitted through tion travels away from these gases in all directions. A Portion of
the glass. As a result, it is difficult to get a sunburn through the this energy is radiated toward the earth's surface and absorbed,
windshield ofyour car, although you can see through it. thus heating the ground. 1 he earth, in turn, constantly radiates
Objects that selectively ab-sorb radiation also selectively infrared energy upward, where it is absorbed and '"mns the
emit radiation at the same wavelength. This phenomenon is lower atm<>-sphere. l n this \\"ay, watervaPor andC0 2 ab-sorband
called Kirchhoff's law. This law states that good absorbers are radiate infrared energy and act as an insulating layer around
good etnitters at a p<Jrticular 1vavelengtli, tlnd poor absorbers are the earth, keeping part of the earth's infrared radiation from es-
poor e111itters at tlie stune 1vavefe11gth.* caping rapidly into space. Consequently, the earth~ surface and
Snow is a good absorber as well as a good emitter of infra- the lower atm0-sphere are much warmer than they would be if
red energy (white snow actually behaves as a blackbody in the these selectively absorbing gases were not present. In fact, as we
•Strictly spe.iking. Lhis law only applics 10 g3scs.
saw earlier, the earth's mean radiative equilibrium temperature
without CO, 'md water vaPor would be around - 1S°C (0°F), or
about 33-C (59°F) lower than at present.
The absorption characteristics of water vapor, CO,. and
other gases such as methane and nitrous oxide (depicted in
Fig 2. 12) were, at onetime, thought to be similar to the glass of
a florist'.s greenholkse. In a greenhouse, the glass allows visible
radiation to come in, but inhibits to some degree the passage
of outgoing infrared radiation. For this reason, the absorption
of infrared radiation from the earth by water vapor and CO,
is popularly called the g reenho use effect. However, s tudies
have shown th:tt the warm air inside a greenhouse is probably
C'1used more by the air's inability to circulate and mix with the
cooler outside air, rather than by the entrapment of infrared en-
ergy. Because of these fmdings, some scienti~ts suggest that the
greenhouse effect should be called the atmosphere effect. 1o ac-
rommodate-everyone.• \\'«? v. iU usually use the term <Jt111ospheric
1
• FIGURE 2.11 The melting of sno\voutward from the t reescausessmalld ~

greenhouse efJL>t1. when describing the role that water vapor, C02,
pressions to form. The mehing iscau.sed mainly by the ~now'sabsorption of the •Ni1ro mo xide, 1ne1Mne. and o zone also cnlit infrnrOO radhHion. bul their conccn·
infi'ared energy being emit1ed from the\varmer treeand its branches.The trees ll~ ti on In the at1nosphere is nloch s1uallcr than water vapor and cnrbon dioxide
are\varmer because they are better absorbers of sunlight than is thesno\v. (see TabJe l.l.p. S).
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11o.n1 poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
.w....... ., ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll"""....., .,~,.,i.. .,,..,....,,..u,.,.,,.•.,,.... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• ..,,,,-.11.... ....,,..,...
and other greenhouse gases• play in keeping the earth~ mean
surfac-e temperature higher than it othernise would be.
Look again at Hg. 2.U and observethat, in the bottom dia-
Nitrous oxide gram,thereisaregion between about 8and 11 flffi where neither
50 N,O '"'ter vapor nor CO, readily absorb infrared radiation. Because
these wavelengths of emitted energy pass upward through the
atmosphere and out into space, the wavelength range (bct"-een
0 Sand 11 µm) is known as the atmospheric window. Clouds can
0.1 Q3 Q5 07 5 10 15 20
100 enhance the atmospheric greenhouse effect. Tiny liquid cloud
droplets are selective absorbers in that they are good absorbers
of infrared radiation but poor absorbers of visible solar radia-
Melhane tion. Oouds even absorb the ""avelengths bct"-een 8 and l l µm,
50 CH,
which are otherwise "passed up" by water vapor and CO,. Thus,
they have the effect of enhancing the atmo~pheric greenhouse
effect by dosing the atmo.~heric window.
Clouds - especially low, thick one$- are excel lent emitters
100.---- - - - of infrared radiation. Their tops radiate infrared energy upward
o, o, o,". Molecular
Oxygen(OJ
and their bases radiate energy back to the earth's surface where
and
it i~ absorbed and, in a sense, radiated back to the douds.1 his
50 process keeps calm, cloudy nights '"irmer than calm,clearone.s.
Ozone(O,)
Ifthe clouds remain into the next day, they prevent much of the
sunlight from reaching the ground by reflecting it back to space.
Since the ground does not beat up as much as it would in full
sunshine, cloud y,calmdaysare normally cooler than clear,calm
days. Hence, the presence ofclouds tends to keep nighttime tem-
Water vapor peratures higher and daytime temperature.slower.
H,O In summary, the atmo.~pheric greenhouse effect occurs be-
50
cause water vapor, CO,, and other greenhouse gases are selec-
tive absorbers. They allow mo~t of the sun's visible radiation to
reach the surface, but they absorb a good portion of the earth's
outgoing infrared radiation, preventing it from escaping into
100 space. It is the atmo.~pheric greenhouse effect, then, that keeps
Carbon
the temperature of our planet at a level where life can survive.
dioXJde The greenhouse effect is not just a "good thing"; it is es.sential to
50
co, life on earth, for "ithout it, air at the surface wotdd be extremely
cold (see • Fig. 2.13).
ENHANCEMENT OFT HE GREENHOUSE EFFECT In spite of

j+lJV •I• •I Infrared (IR)----.i
100 ~~.....-..-~ the inaccuracies that have pbgued temperature measurement.~
~
in the past,studiesshow that, during thepastcentury,theearth'.~
50 "1he tcr1n "'grttnhous.c 8l'IS.el' derives fronl the sl:3ndlrd use of"grcenhouse t>ifccL"
Crt>enhousegttscs include:. runong 01hc:rs.. \\•atcr vapor. carbon dioxide. nlclhnnc.
nitrous oxide:. andomne.
0
0.1 03 Q5 07 5 10 15 20
WEATHER WATCH
'•Visible' ~Ap.tm.
vvtndow
:
' ' Wavelength (f•m)
1 1
What an absorber! First detected in the earth' s atmo·
sphere in 1999, a greenhouse gas (trifluoromethyl sulfur
pentafluoride, SFsCF 1) pound for pound absorbs about
18, 000 times more infrared radiation than C0 1 does. This
trace gas , which may form in high-voltage electical equip -
• FI GURE 2 .12 Absorption of radiation by gases in theatmosphere.The
ment, is increasing in the atmosphere byabout6 percent
dark purple shaded area represents the percent of radiation absorbed by each
per year, but it is present in very tiny amounts - about
gas.. The strongestabsorOOrsof infrared radiation are water vapor and carbon
dioxide. The bottom figure represents the percent of radiation absorbed by all 0.00000012 ppm.
of the atmospheric gases..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11o.n1 poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
to the negative effects ofdim ate ch'mge,such asa continuing rise
in sea level and a shift in global precipitation patterns.
'Jlte main cau.o;e of this type of climate change is the green-
house gas CO,. whose concentration has been increasing pri-
marily due to the burning of fossil fuels and to deforestation.
(Look back at Fig. 1.5, p. 8.) However, increasing concentration~
of other greenhouse gases, such as methane (CH), nitrous ox-
ide (N,0), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC~),' have collectively
been shown to have an effect approaching that ofCO,. Overall,
water vaPor accounts for about 60 percent of the atmospheric
greenhouse elrect, CO, accounts for about 26 percent, :md the
remaining greenhouse-gases contribute about 14 percent.
Pre.sently, the concentration of CO, in a volume of air near
the surface is about 0.039 percent. Climate models predict that
a continuing increase of CO, and other greenhouse gases "111
cause the earl~ current average surface temperature I 0 possibly
rise an additional 3•c (s.4• F) by the end of thi~ century. In fact,
theearth'saverage surface temperature during the first decade of
For a visual interpretation of the energy emitted by the earth v1ithou t this century rose by about o.24•c (0.43. F), indicating that if this
and v1itlla greenhouse effect., 90 to the CengageCourseMate
\\~trming trend continues:at its presrnt rate. the f \\'enty-first cen-
website at www.cengagebrain.com and view the animation entitled
Greenhouse. tury "1llhavewarmedby2.4•C (4.3• F). How can increasing such
a small quantity of C0 2 and adding miniscule amounts of other
greenhouse gases bring about such a ktrge temperature increase>
surface air temperature has undergone a wanning ofabout 0.6"C Mathematica Iclimate modds predict that rising ocean tem-
(J • F). Jn recent ye<1rs, this glob!ll warming trend has not only peratures will cause an increase in evaporation rates. The added
continued, but has increased. In fact, scientificcomputer dim.~te water vapor-the primary greenhou.o;e gas- will enhance the
modds that m,uhematically simulate the physical processes of
the atmosphere, oceans, and ice predict th:lt, if such a warming 'To refresh )Our nlcnlory. recall fro1n Chnpter I lh:H CFC.S w~ re once the nlosl
should continue unab:ued, we would be irrevocably committed \\idely used propdlnnt in sprttycnns..
lncanng
soler ellergy
(b) W~h greenhouse gases

• F I GURE 2.13 (a) Neat the surface in an atmosphere with little or no greenhouse gases, the earth's surface \Yould constanl lyemit infrared (IR}
radiation up·ward. both during the day and at night Incoming energy from t he sun \You Id equal outgoing energy from t he surface. but thesurf.xe
\\IOUld receivevir tualty no IR radiation from its lo\..er atmosphere.{Noat mospheric greenhouse effect) The earth's surface air t emperature \You Id
be quit e lo\v,and small amounts of \vater found on the planet would be in the form cJ ice. (b) In an atmosphere with greenhou.sega.ses, the earth's
surface not only receives energy from the sun but also infrared energyfrom the atmosphere. Incoming energy st ill equals outgoing energy, but t he
added IR energy from the greenhouse gases raises the eart h'saveragesurface temperature to a more habitable level.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,.... " ' " f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11....i poo-1)' ........ ....,. w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...~,,..l'""""""c ..'ll'tl..
1~..,'ll..,......., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,...,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
o11rn1>phcric greenhouse effect and double the 1c111pcrnturc ri>c • The earth's surface behaves as a blackbody, making it a
in what b known u;, a positiVf!Jeedbad. on the dlmntc sy.tent much better absorber and emitter of radiation than the
llut th<rc arc other feedbacks to consider.• atmosphere.
lh< two pocentiaDylargest and ltast undentooJ feedbacb • Water vapor and catbon dioxide are Importa nt atmospherk
in the cbmate ~y$Wn are the clouds and the ocmns. Ooo.b <Jn greenhouse gases that selec11wly absorb and emit infrared
dungrarn.depth.andra<liaionproptttle>~banaai<lyw•h radiation. thereby keeping the earth's average surfacetem-
d mat1C chanll"'- The net diect ofal these changn & noc wtal) peratwe warmer than It otherwise would be.
deu •I !has t.wne. Oct'aDS, on the other hand. ll>\'tr iO ptr<tnl of • Ooudy, calm nights are often wwmer than dear.calm
the pbnet. lhe response of ocean circulation-. ocnn ttmptn· nights because clouds strongly emit lnfrwed radiation back
turn. and~• u to global warming will d<tcnnint the global to the earth's surface.
pattcm Jnd ~ ofclimate change. Unfo1t1tnatcly. tt & not now
known howquiJUyeach of these rrooocl> will ..:•pond • It ls notthe greenhouse effect llSelf that Is of concern, but
Snlcllltc dnia from the Earth Rad11111011Bu1lgc11;,.pulmc11 the enhancemmtof lt due to Increasing levels of green·
(PRUE) •Uggc>t 1h>1 clouds overall appear 10cool1hc cnrthi. di· house gases.
nmtc, "'they reflect and radiate away more c11cr1.1y lhnn they • As greenhou se gases co n1lnu e to Increase In concentration,
1~tnl11. ('Ihe cnrlh wcn~d be warmer if cloud> were not prc>Clll.) the average surface air 1empernture Is projected to rise sub·
So nn lncrca>c in global cloudiness (if it were IO occur) might stantlally by the end of Ihis century.
otbct >Orne of the global warming brought on by nn enhanced
atni<.,.phcric greenhouse effect. lhe1efo1e, if douch were to net
w·llh thesecon°'pb in mind, we will fir..t =mine howtht
m thecbmat< >)'>tern in this manner, they woukl pnw1de • lleg.J·
In~ f«dbucl on climate change. Ho..ntt. the mO>t 1tten1 mod·
air neartht ground w;inm; !Mn we ,,,u
ronsider how the earth
and itsatmospbettm:11n1.11n J )~.Illy enngybalance.
ds tend to \ho-. that changes in douds would P""''de a wn311
J'O'll"-r fcabd on the dimatL"systmi. WARMING THE AIR FROM BELOW If you look back at
Un<ttl.l1nt1e> unquestionably aist abou& 1ht 1mpxt tha1 Fig. 1.U (p. 45). )Ou·u not1<t that the alm<Mphett d0ts not
incttasing lt\'dsofCO, andothtrgrttnh~ g~" ti ha\ eon readilyabsorl> rad1atron "''th w.wclengths btt.,,,....03 µmand
enh'11'1Clng the atmosphmc grttnhOUst' clfcct. Nonrthtlts>. tht l.Oµm, the region whctt thcwn cm1b most ofits entrgy.Con·
mo.I recent studies onclim:ucbange saythal d1mat• change 1s sequently. ona di-Jr day, l!Olar ene111y pass.e<> 1hrough the lo"'l'I'
pn:><:ntlyoccorring worldwide ducpnmarily 10 1ncrca>1ng lcv· atmosphere with bulc efTl"<:t upon Ihe a or. Ultimaiely it rcachc?;,
cl> of grccnhm•"' wi= The~idcncc fonhl>conclusion oomcs lhe surface, warming ii (>CC• Fig. 2.14). Air molecules inconlacl
from lncrcaJocs in global average air and ocean 1cmpcrn1urcs. as with thehc;~ltl •urfoccbuuncc ~gnh1>1 ii, gninenergy by amduc·
well"' from 1he \\i despread mehing of >now ond kc, 1111<1 rl9· lion, thenshool upward like frc•hly puppe<Ikernels ofcorn,cllr·
lng•cu levcls. (We will examine the importunl lupk: of climnle rying their energy wi1h d1l111. lk<01•..clhcnirncar1heground is
change In more dc1ail in Chapler L6.) very dense, the•c molecule> only travel n >hort distance (about
Ict'' m) bei>rt they collide wi1h other molecules. During the col·
lisinn, these more raptdly mo'ilng molecules share their energy
BRIEF REVIEW with less mergrtic niolo:cul<i, ro..ing1hea,erage lroiperailltt'ol'
In the IHI several sections, we have oplored eurnples of the air. But air is MiCh •poor heJI cooductor lhat this process is
som• of the WIYS radiation is absorbed And emitted by ~rl onlrimpor1ant wilh1n • fcwctnlm~of thcground.
oui ob~cts. Before we continue, here ¥ea few lmp0<1Anl Asthesuifaaarwann\, • &tually becomes lessdmsethan
fkU and principles: the air directly ;abo\'e • !he "'"nntr air nses and the coo Irr OU'
sinks, setting up tbernul., or/rrt! con1·«1 ion ulls, that transfer
• A#objt and CllOl>,Jnd, 1f;ufT1ciently moist. lhewattt
• The higher an object's temperature, the grealer the amounl vapor conden~ into cloud droplet>. relrasing latent heat that
of radiation emitted per unit surface areaand the shorter
the wavelength of maximum emission.
• The e&rth absorbs solar radiation only during the daylight WEATHER WATCH
hours: however, It emits infrared radial Ion con1lnuou sly, Since 1998, more lhan 500 lnfanu and ch ildren, along
both during the day and at night. with thousands of pell, have died of heatstroke when left
inside a vehicle in dlrtct sunlight with windows rolled
•11. k.UIM~k b .l pll0<6' -·tw:ret, .ln i.nl.tia.lch.an@'.C' 1n• pt(h;I.. wil wnJ tu cuhcr up. Just like a fk>rist's greenhouse, the interior o·f a car
•intoa;c lhr pm.:• lp:n••"? ~«Mam dw P""'"• (nq,iit1•• litai~ l. is warmed by the sun's rodlont tnergy. The trapped heat
nw .,,.,, ~..,,..,,. ......
lttdb.xkis .. poilb'fC' iltJbhl k:aut &tM initul tn+
inside can have dt.adJy consequences. as the temperature
i.i•w lnk~Jtuab amkltadb!f"tbr~oon ot1D1Wc . ..,,.,.... .• t..:htb-
litlf1'it mo•otthtC".,llit.nin.Rdent:~ 1hmttrCD:f1k9"f. dwp-ttn.howc cdto
inside the vehicl e can climb to mo,. th•n 14o• f.
.... •"-'a>• uw •Jnnttg..
,......,.. ,ll.IJ(••"-,.._.,....._• ....,_.......,..___. -~• .... lt••I''"" P...•-..... -

_... .... """ ...,,....._ - · · ...... · - · - · .........., .. ,...___ ( .... , ......... -
....
·--.. . . -.... -·-·. . -.......,.__
~-----------~""'~'._
llonf:. -~-..w-.i-
Latent heat released
t C<iiluelfOO
I I I
• FI GURE 2.14 Air in the lo\-.Er atmosphere is heated from the ground upward. Sunlight warms the ground. and the air ab we is
\var med by conduction, convection, and infrared radiation. Further\varming occursduring condensation as latent heat isgiven up to the
air insidethecloud.
warm~ the air. Meanwhile, the earlh constantly emilS infrared directions- forward, sideways, and backwards. 'J11e distribu·
energy. Some of this energy is absorbed by greenhouse gases lion ofligh1 in this manner is called scattering. (Sc.at1e.red lighl is
(such as ""at er vapor and carbon dioxide) tha1 emit infrared also calle.d diffuse light.) Because air molecule.~are muchsmaller
energy upward and downward, back 10 the surface. Since the 1han the wavelength.sof visible lighl, they are more effective scat·
concentration of water vapor decrease.s rapidly above the earth, 1erers of the shorler (blue) wavelengths lhan 1he longer (red)
most ofthe absorption occurs in a layer near the.surface. Hence, wavelengths (see • Fig. 2.15). Hence, when "'e look aw,ry from
the lower atmosphere is m:iinly heated from the ground upward. 1he direcl beam ofsunlight, blue lighl slrikcs our eye.s from all
direction~, turning the daytime sky blue. (More information on
SHORTWAVE RADIATION STREAMING FROM THE SUN As 1he effecl ofscat1ered lighland whal we see is given in the Focus
the sun's radiant energy travels through space, essentially noth· section on p. 49.)
ing interferes with it until it reaches the atmosphere. At the top Sunlight can be reflecled from objecis. Generali y, reflection
of the atmosphere, solar energy receive.d on a surface perpen· differs from scallering in that during the process of refleclion
dicular 10 the sun's rays appears to remain fairly constant at more lighl is sen1 backwards. Albedo is the pen:enl of radiation
nearly two calories on each square centimeter each minute or returning from a given surface compared 10 the amounl of radia·
1367 W/m'- a value called the solarconsbnt.• lion initially striking 1ha1 surface. Albedo, 1hen, represents the
When solar radiation enters the atmosphere, a numbe.r reflectivity ofthe surface. Jn YT.,ble 2.3,on p. 50 n01ice1ha1 thick
of interactions take place. For example, some of the energy is doudshaveahigheralbedolhan thin clouds. On the average, the
absorbed by gases, such as ozone, in the upper atmo.~phere. albedo ci clouds is near 60 percent. When solar energy strikes a
Moreover, when sunlight strikes very small objects, such 'ls air surface covered "'th snow, up 10 95 pe.rce.nl of the sunlighl may
molecules and dusl particles, 1he lighl itself is deflected in all be reflected. Most of this energy is in the visible and ultraviolet
""avelengths. Conse.quently,reflec1e.d radiation,coupled with di-
•Bydcfinition.1be solnrconst.101 (which, in actuality. is 11or°'constnnf") is 1hc ra1en1 rec1 sunlighl, can produce severe sw1burns on thee.xpose.d skin
which radllntencrgy fro1n the sun is received on a surface a1 the ou1eredgeor1he ciunwary sno"'skiers, and unpro1ec1edeyes can suffer the agony
:ttmosphere pe 1-p~n dkub r 10 the suns rays when !he earth is atan aw1'3ge distana cisnow blindness.
fro1n Lhcsun.S..'ltcllite 1ne.isu1i:1ncn1S fro1n the Earth Rodiatio11 B"dgerSate6itt sug·
gest Lhe solarconstan1 varies sJigluJyas the sun's radiant output varies. 1he aw raw Water surfaces, on the 01her hand, reflec1 only a small
isabou1 l.96cal/cm~/lnin , orbel\\•ttn 136S \"'/nl ~a n d 13n '"'Im ~ in the SI system amount ofsolar energy. For an entire day, a smooth water sur·
of 1neasurenlcnt. face "111 have an average al be.d o of aboul 10 percent. Water has
C'1')'rif• )) ·~On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U .......... ................ "',........in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••-..........h~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r..........i....
<1<n11....i.,,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll"""....., .,~,.,i.. ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
Blue Skies, Red Suns, and White Clouds
We know that the sky is blue because air e FI GURE 6 At noon.

molecules selectively scatter the shorter the sun usually appears
wavelengthsof visible light-green, vicr- a bright \Vhite.At sunrise
and at sun.set, sunlighl
let and blue waves-more effectively
must pass through a
than the longer wavelengths of red, or- thidt portionoftheat-
ange, and yellow (see Fig. 2.1 5). When mosphere. Muc:h of the
these shorter waves reach our e~s, the blue light is scattered
brain processes them as the color "blue." out of the beam (as illus-
trated by arro\...S), cau.s·
Therefore, on a clear day when we look up,
ing the sun to appear
blue light strikes our eyes from all direc- more red.
tions. makin g the sky appear blue.
At noon, the sun is perceived as white
because all the waves of visible sunlight
strike our eyes (see Fig. 6). At sunrise and
sunset the white light from the sun must
pass through a thick portion of the atmo-
sphere. Scattering of light by air molecules e FI GURE7 Aredsunset
(and particles) removes the shorter waves produced by the process of
(blue light) from the beam, leaving the scattering.
longer waves of red, orange, and yellow to
pass on through. This situation often cre-
ates the image of a ruddy sun at sunrise
and sunset. An observer at sunrise or sun-
set in Fig. 6 might see a sun similar to the
one shown in Fig. 7.
The sky is blue, but why are clouds
white? Cloud droplets are much larger
than air molecules and do not selectively
scatter sunlight. Instead, these larger
droplets scatter all wavelengths of visible
light more or less equally. Hence, clouds
appea rw hite because millions of cloud
droplets scatter all wavelengths of visible
light about equally in all directions.
the highest albedo(andcan 1herelorereflec1sunligh1 bes!) when changes only slightly from one year 10 !he next '!his foe! indi-
the sun is low on rhe horizon and rhe wnter i~a li!llechoppy. 'Jbi~ care.s rh:ll, each year, !he earth and irs a!m<>-'>phere combined
llk~Y explain why people who wear brimmed hal~ while fishing mus! sendoffin!o space just as much energy as !hey receive from
from a bo"! in choppy waler on a sunny day can still ger sun- rhe sun. 'Jl1esame type of energy balance mus! exist between
burne.d during midmorning or midafternoon. Averaged for an !he earth's surface and !he atmosphere. 'Ilia! is, each year, !he
entire year, !he earth and i!s atm<>-~phere (including i!s clouds) earth's surface mus! return 10 !he atmosphere !hesame amount
will redirect about 30 percent of rhe sun's incoming radiation <f energy Iha! irabsorbs. lf!hisdid no! occur,!heear!h's average
back lo space, which gives rhe earth and its "!m<>-'>pherea com- surface !empera!ure would change. How do rhe e:irrh and i!s
bined albedo of30 percent (see• Fig. 2.16). atmosphere maintain !his yearly energy balance?
Suppose JOO units ofsolar energy reach!he!op of!heear!h's
THE EARTH'S ANNUAL ENERGY BALANCE Ah hough the av- atmosphere. We can see in Fig. 2.16 !hat, on !he average, clouds,
erage !emper"turea! any one place may vary oonsiderablyfrom !he earth, and !he atmosphere reflect andsca!!er 30 units back
year lo year, !he ear!h'soverall average equilibrium !empera!ure rospace, and !ha! rhe "tm<>-'>phere and clouds together absorb
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,...., .._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c..'ll'tl.. 1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
19 absorbed
. by atmosphere
0 ll'&ct and clouds
and
diffuse
• FI GUR E 2 .1 6 On theaverage,,of all the solar energy that reaches the

• FI G URE 2 .15 The scattering of light by air molecules.Air molecules tend e.arth'satmos:phere annually.about 30 percent (.-liool is reflected and .scattered
to selectively .scatttY the shorter {violet, green, and blue}\vavelengt hs of visible back to space, giving the t?<J:rtli and its atmosphere an albedo of 30 percent.Of
\Yhite light more effectively than the longer (orange, yenow, and red}\vave· the remaining solar energy, about 19 percent is absorbed by the atmosphere
length.s. and clouds, and abouts 1 percent is absorbed at the surface.
If clouds were to increase worldwide,

19 units, which leaves 5 1 units of direct and indirect solar radia- how would this increase influence
the earth'salbedo? Ho~v wouJd this increase in cloudiness affect the
tion to be absorbed at the earth's surface. amount of solar energy reaching the earth's surface? Even though
• Figure 2. 17 showsappro.ximately what happens to the so- global cloudiness increases, why would the surface temperature not
lar radiation that is absorbed by the surface and the atmosphere. necessarily decrease?
Out of 5 1 unit~ reaching the surface, a large amount (23 units)
is used to evaporate water, and about 7 unit~ are lo.'ll through
conduction and convection, which leaves 21 unit~ to be radi-
., TABLE 2 .3 Typical Albedo of Various Surfaces a!ed away as infrared energy. look clo.o;ely at Fig. 2.17 and no-
tice Iha! theearth'ssurfaceactually radiates upward a whopping
SURFACE ALBEDO I PERCENTI 11 7 tmits. ll doe,~ so becau.o;e, although it receives solar radia-
tion only during the day, it constantly emits infrared energy
Fresh sno'" 75 to95
both during the day and at night. Additionally, the almo.~phere
Clouds (thkk) 60to90 above only allows a small fraction of this energy (6 units) to
pass through into space. The majority of it (1 11 units) is ab-
Clouds (thin) 3-0 to 50
sorbed mainly by the greenhouse gases water vapor and C02,
Venus 78 and by clouds. Much ofthi~ energy (96 units) is radiated back to
earth, producing theatmo.o;pheric greenhou.~eeffect. Hence, the
ke 30 to40 earth~surface receives nearly !\\ice 'ts much longwave infrared
Sand 15 to 45 energy from it~ atmosphere as il does shortwave radiation from
the sun. In all these exchanges, notice that the energy lo.~t at
F.arth and atn1osphere 3-0 the earth's surface ( 147 units) is exactly balanced by the energy
gained there (147 units).
Mars 17
A similar balance exist~ between the earth's surface and it~
Gra~<y field JO to 3-0 a1mosphere. Again in Fig. 2.17 observe that the energy gained
by the atmo.~phere (160 unit~) balances the energy lo.~t. More-
Dry, plowed field 5 to20 over, averaged for an entire year, the solar energy received at
Water 10· the earth'.~ surface (51 tmits) and that absorbed by the earth's
a1mo.o;phere ( 19 tmits) balances the infrared energy lo.~! to space
Forest 3 to 10 by the earth's surface ( 6 units) and it~ atmosphere ( 64 unit~).
N1oon 7 We can see the effect that conduction, convection, and la-
tent heat play in the " "arming of the atmo.~phere if we look at
•Daily aver:ige. the energy balance only in radiative terms.1 he earth's surface
lr.u11tiisi:uge 1sttl Ceig:igcJJl1

C'1'1'rif* :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,..,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
e FIGURE 2.17 The
earth-..atmosphere en·
ergy balance. Numbers
represent approxima-
t ions based on surface
observations and
satel6te data. WhHe the
actualvalueof each
process may vary by
several percent.. it is the
relative size of the num·
be rs that is importanl
-v-
ss~
lnlrated
~~$
-117 +96
"' +51 /
-147 (Energy lost
v (Energy gained
+147
atear1hsurla<:e at eat1h surface
rece.ives 147 units of radiant energy from the sun and its own for th<\~ gains and losses of energy, \\1nds in the atmosphere
:nmosphere, while it radiates :rway 11 7 units, producing a sur- and currents in the oceans circulate \\'itrm air and "'ater tO\\•ard
plus of 30 units. The atmosphere, on the other hand, receives the poles, and cold air and water toward the equator. '!bus, the
130 units ( 19 units from the sun and 111 from the earth), while transfer ofheat energy by atmo.~phericand oceanic circulation~
it loses 160 units, producing a deficit of 30 units. 1 he balance prevents low latitudes from steadily becoming warmer and high
(30 units) is the warming of the atmosphere produce.d by the
heat transfer processes of conduction and convection (7 units)
and by the release oflatent heat (23 units).
And so, the earth and the atmosphere absorb energy from
the sun, as weU as from each other. Jn all oft he energy e.xchanges,
a de.licate balance is maintained. £ssentially, there is no yearly
gain orloss of total energy. and the average ternper:tture of the
- 38'
earth and the atmosphere remains fairly constant from one year
to the next. Thise.quilibrium does not imply that the earth's aver-
age temperature does not change, but that the change-~ are small
from year to year (usually less than one-tenth ofadegree C'.-elsill~)
and become significant only when measured over m'uiy years.•
£ven though the earth and the atmosphere together main-
tain an annual energy balance, such a balance i~ not maintained
:ll each latitude. High latitudes tend to lose more energy to space
each year than they receive from the sun, while low latitudes 90" 60" 30" O" 30° 60" 90"
North latirude South
tend to gain more energy during the course of a year than they
lose. From • Fig. 2.1 8 we can see th:tt on! y at middle latitudes
near 33• does the amount of energy rece.ived each year balanc.e • FIGURE 2 .18 The average annual incoming solar radiation (yello\v lines)
absorbed by the earth and the at mo-sphere along \Yith t he average annual in~
the amount lost. J' rom this situation, we might con dude that po- frared radiation {red lines} emitted by the earth and theatmosphere.
lar regions are growing colder each year, l••hile tropical regions Climate models predict that as the
are becoming warmer. But this does not happen. 'lb compensate CRITICAL THINKINGQUESTION
earth warms, higher latitudes w ill
w~rm mor e thain lower Jatitudes. If lower latitudes hardly warm at all,
·Rectlll lhn1 the e:ir1hSMirfoce \\\1rnll?dbyabou1 0.6°C( 1°F) during the last century. would you expect the detkit in energy at higher latitudes to increase
During 1he first 1cn ~.-irsof this century 1he wa nning h.1s bee n about 02-l<lC, or or decrease? How do you fee l this change i nenergy might affect the
OA.3°F. rate at which heat is transferred poleward?
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<1<n11....i ., ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll"""....., .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
Characteristics of the Sun
The sun is our nearest star. It is some 150 that typically average more than five t imes
million km (93 m illion mO from earth. The the diameter o f t he earth. Although sun -
next star, Alpha CentaurL is more than spots are not well under stood, th ey are
250,000 times far ther away. Even though known to be regions of strong magnetic
the ear th only receives about one two- fields. T hey are c~lic1 w ith the maximum
billionths of the sun's total energy output, it number of spots occurrin g approximately
is this energy that allows life to flourish. Sun- ever y eleven year s.
light determines the rate of photosynthesis Above the photosphere are the chro-
in plants and strongly regulates the amount mosphere and t he corona (see Fig. 8). The
of evaporation from the oceans. It warms chromosphere ("color sphere") acts as a
this p lanet and drives theatmosphere into boundar y between th e r elatively cool
the dynamic patternswe experience as ev- (6000'0 photospher e and th e m uch hotter • FIGURE 8 Variousregionsof thesun.
eryday w ind and weather. Without the sun's (21000,000°0 corona, the outermost en ve-
radiant energy, the earth would gradually lope o f th e solar atmosphere. D uring a so- electr ons, which stream o utward away from
cool, in time becoming encased in a layer of lar eclipse., the corona is v isible. It appea rs the sun at extremely high speeds.
ice! Evidence of life on the cold, dark, and asa pa le, m ilky c loud encircling the sun. Al- A number o f adverse effects can occur
barren surface would be found only in fos- though much hotter than the photosphere, d uring v iolent solar activity. High energy ra- 4
sils. Fortunately, the sun has been shining the cor ona radiates much less energy be 4
d iation can endanger pilots and passengers
for b illions o f year s, and it is likely to shine cause its density is extremely low. T his ver y in high-flying aircraft. Moreover, an intense
for at least sever al billion more. thin solar atmosphere extends into space solar flare can d isturb the ear th's magnetic
The sun is a giant celestial furnace. Its for many m illions of kilometers.* field, producing a so-<:alled magnetic storm.
core is extremely hot, with a temperature Violent solar activity occasionallyoc 4
Because these storms can intensify the elec-
estimated to be near 15 million degrees curs in the reg ions o f sunspots. The most trica I proper ties of the upper atmosphere,
Celsius. In the core, hydrogen nuclei (pro 4
dramatic of th ese events are prominences they are often responsib le for interruptions
tons) collide at such fa ntastically high and flares. Prominences ar e huge cloud like in radio, television, GPS, and satellite com-
speeds t hatth eyfuse together to form he- jets of gas that often shoot up into the co- munications. O ne such storm knocked out
lium nuclei. This t hermonuclear p rocess rona in the form of an arch. Sola r flares are electricitythro ug hout the p rovince of Q ue 4
gener ates an enormous amount of energy, tremendous, but brief, eruptions. T hey bee, Canada, during March, 1989. And in
w hich gradually works it sway to the sun's emit large quantities of high-energy ultra- rvlay, 1998, after a period of intense solar
outer luminous sur face- the photosphere v iolet radiation, as well as energized activity, a communications satellite failed,
("sphere of light "). Temperatures here are charged par ticles, mainly pr otons and causing 45 m illion pagers to suddenly go
much cooler than in th e interior, generally dead.
•During a solar eclipse or at any other time. you
near 6000'C. We have noted already that a should not look at thesun' scorona either \Yith On Halloween, 2003, v iolent solar activ 4
body with this surface temperature emits sunglasses or through exposed negatives. Take ity produced an enormous flare that sent par-
radiation ata maximum rate in the v isible this\varning seriously. Vie\ving just a smallareaof ticles streaming toward the earth at nearly
the sun directly permits large amounts o f UV racHa-
region of the spectrum. The sun is, ther e- 6 m illion m iles per hour. This energy caused
tion to enterthe eye. causing serious and perma·
fore, a shining example of such an object. nent damage to t he retina. View the sun by pro.
power o utages in Sweden, d isturbed aircraft
Dark blemishes on the p hotosphere jecting its im.lgeontoa sheet o f paper, using a routes around the world, and damaged
called sunspots ar e huge, cooler regions tek>scope o r pinhole camera. 28 satellites, ending the ser vice life o f two.
latituMs from steadily gro"fog colder. These circulations are

extremely important to weather anddimate, and be treated ""II Solar Particles and the Aurora
more completely in Chapter 10.
Up to this point we have con.~idered radiant energy of the From the sun and its tenuous atmosphere comes a continuous
sun and e.arth. Before \\'l" turn our attention to hO\\' incoming discharge of particles. ' Ibis discharge happens because, al ex-
solar energy, in the form of partides, produces a dazzling light tremely high temperatures, gases become stripped of electron.~
show known astheaurora, you may wish 10 read about the char- by violent wllisions and acquire enough speed to e,o;cape the
acteristics ofthe sun in the Focussection above. gravitational pull of the sun.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' ,....1rc...in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl 1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
As these charged particles (ions and electrons) travel
through space, they are known as plasma, or solar wind. When
the solar wind movesdo.seenough to the earth, it interacts with
the earth's magnetic field.
The magnetic field thatsurrounds the earth is much like the
field around an ordinary bar magnet (see • Fig. 2.19). Both h:we
north and south magnetic p<>les, and both have invisible lines
of force (field lines) th:1t link the poles. On the earth, these field
lines form dosed loops as they enter near the magnetic North
pole and leave near the magnetic South pok Mo.st scientists
believe that an electric current coupled with fluid motions deep
in theearth~ hot molten core is responsible tOr its magnetic field.
1 his field protects the earth, to some degree, from the onslaught Bar magnel Earih
of the solar \\1nd.
Observe in o l'ig. 2.20 that, when the solar wind encounters • FIGURE 2 .19 A magnetic held surrounds the earth just as it does a bar
the earth's magnetic field, it severely deforms it into a teardrop- magnet.
shaped cavity known as the magnetosphere. On the side facing

the sun, the pressure of the solar \\1ndcompresses the field lines.
On the opposite side, the magnetosphere stretches out into a
long tail-the mag11etotail- which reaches far beyond the
moon's orbit. Jn a way, the magneto.sphere acts as an obstacle to
the solar wind by causing some of its particles to flow around
the earth.
Inside the earth's magneto.sphere are ionized gases. Some of
these gases are solar wind particles, while others are ions from
the earth's upper atmo.sphere that have moved up'"trd along
electric field lines into the magnetosphere.
Normally, the solar wind approaches the earth at an aver-
age speed of 400 km/sec. However, during periods of high so-
lar activity (many sunsp<>ts and flares), the solar wind is more
dense, travels much faster, and carries more energy. When the,se
energized solar particlesreach the earth, they c1t1se a v'3riety of
elrects, such as changing the sh:ipe of the magnetosphere and
producing auroral displays.
'fhe aurora is not reflected light from the polar ice fields, nor • FIGURE 2 .20 The stream of charged partides fro.m the sun-called the
isit light from demons' lanterns as they search for lost souls. The so/otwind-distorts the ea1th's magnetic field into a teardrop shape known as
the mognerosphere.
t111rora is produced by the solar wind disturbing the magneto-
sphere. The disturbance involves high-energy particles within
the magnetosphere being ejected into the e:1rth's upper atmo-
sphere, where they excite atoms and molecules. The excited at-
mo.spheric gases emit visible radiation, which c1uses the sky to
glow like a neon light. Let's examine this process more closely.
A high-energy particle from the magneto.sphere will, up<>n
colliding with an air molecule (or atom), transfer some of its
energy to the molecule. The molecule then becomes excited (see
orig. 2.21). Just as excited football fans leap up when their favor-
ite team scores the winning touchdown, electrons in an excited
molecule jump into a higher energy level as they orbit its center.
As the fans sit down after all the excitement is over, so electrons
quickly return to their lower level. When moleetdes de-excite,
they rele:tse the energy originally received from the energetic
particle, either all at once (one big jump), or in steps (several
• FIGURE 2.21 Wh?nanexcitedatom, ion, or moleculede-.e.xcites. it can
smaller jumps). 'Ibis emitted energy is given up as radiation. If emit visible light. (a) The electron in itsnormalorbit becomese:Neited bya
its wavelength is in the visible range, we see it as visible light. In charged particle and {b} jumps into a higher energy level When the electron
the Northern Hemisphere, we call this light show the aurora retums to its normal orbit, it (c}emits a photon of lighl.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
borealis, or nortlrem lights; its counterpart in the Southern
Hemisphere is the aurora australis, or southem lights.
Since each atmospheric gas h'ls il~ own set of energy levels,
each gas has its own characteristic color. For example, the de-
excit ati on of atomic oxygen can emit green or red light. Molecu-
lar nitrogen gives off red and violet light. 1h e shades of these
rolors can be spectacular as they brighten 'md fade, sometimes
in the form of \vaving draperies. sometimes as unmoving.
yet flickering. arcs and soft coronas. On a dear, quiet night the
aurora is an eerie yet beautiful spectacle. (See • Fig, 2.22.)
1 he aurora is most frequently seen in polar latitudes. En-
ergetic particles trapped in the magnet0-sphere move along the
earth~ magnetic field lines. Because these lines emerge from the
earth near the magnetic poles, it is here that the particles in-
teract with atmospheric gases to produce an aurora. Notice in
• Fig. 2.23 that the zone of m<>-st frequent auroral sightin&s
(aurora belt) is not at the magnetic pole (marke.d by the flag
MN), but equatorward of it, where the field line.s emerge from
the earth's surface. At lower latitudes, where the field lines are
oriented alm0-st horizontal to the earth's surface, the chances of
seeing an aurora diminish rapidly. How high is the aurora> ' lbe
exact height varies, but it is almQ~t always in the thermosphere,
more than 80 km (50 mi) above the earthhurface.
On rare occasions}ho"·ever. the aurora is seen in the south-
ern United State,s. Such sightings happen only when the sun is
• FIGURE 2. 2 2 The aurora borealis isa phenomenon that formsasener·
very active-as giant flares hurl electrons and protons earth-
getic partid~ from the sun interact with theearth'satmosphere. ward at a fantastic rate. Th ese particles move so fast that some
of them penetrate um•~ually deep into theearth'smagnetic field
before they are trapped by it. In a pro~ss not fully understood,
particles from the magneto_sphere are accelerated toward the
earth along electrical field lines that parallel the magnetic field
lines. The acceleration of these particles gives them sufficient
energy so that when they enter the upper atmQsphere they are
capable ofproducing an auroral displiy much farther south than
usual.
Jn summary, energy for the aurora comes from the solar
wind, which disturbs the earth's magneto_sphere. This distur-
bance causes energetic particles to enter the upper atmosphere,
where they collide with atoms and molecules. ' rhe atmQspheric
gases become excited and emit energy in the IOrmofvisible light.
But there is other light coming from the atm<>-sphere-a
faint glow at night much weaker than the aurora. ' rhis feeble
luminescence, called airglow, is detected at all latitudes and
shows no correlation ";th soktr wind activity. Apparently, this
light comes from ionized oxygen and nitrogen and other gases
that have been excited by solar radiation.
• FIGURE 2.2 3 The aurora belt (solid red line} represen ts the region \vhere
)OU would most likely observe the aurora on a c·lear night. lThe numbers repre·
~nt the average number of nights per year on \Vhich you might .see an aurora
if the sky\vere dear.} The flag MN denotes the magnetic North Pole, where the
earth's magnetic field lines emerge from the earth. The flag NP denotes the
geographic North Pole, about\vhich the earth rotates.
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SUMMARY
In thi> chnpter. 1w l\Llve ...ccn how the wnccpts of heat and radiative equilibrium SOlttering, 48
temperature differ and how he.it" tramferrcJ 111 Ollr envi- temperature. 44 reflected (light). 18
ronment. We learned that IJtcnt heJt 1>an importllnt so1irce selective absorl>ers, 44 albedo. 48
ofatm<>l>phcricheatenttgy. Wc•holramcJ that conduction, Kirc:hholf'.s law, 44 solar wind. SJ
thr tramfet- ofhtat by muicculJr c<~u>1on>. 1> most dfectJ\'e greenhouse dfttt. 44 aurora bottah.., SJ
in ~do. llcca11>c air i> a poot ht-at conductor, conduction in greenhouse gases, 4S aurora aui.trah" S I
thr atmO<phttt 1H>nly 1mport.tnt m thr !.hallow laya of air atmospheric window, 45 airglo"· SI
in conuct •uth t ht- n rth '• w rfoc.e A mott 1mpor1an1 process solar constant, 48
ofatrno.phenc htat tnni!cr "' mrm.'ct llln," lucb 111wl1-n the
ma~ ~cment of air (or lh\ fkuJ) with u CO«tt)' from oor
rogion IO another Another wgn1fan1 htat lnrufcr process QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
is radiation - the tr.u.,ferol'cnrrg) b)· mcm> ofdcctromag-
I. How does IM a\nage<pttd (motion) o( air molt.:uln
ndi~ "''1:\n.
Thr hot sun nnh mo\! o( 11> radlilllon u !.hortwan ra- mate ID tM air lmlpenture?
dwion A poruonuft luHnMi). ~ .. the nrth.Olnd tM earth.
2 . Distinguish bttwttn ~era! Utt anJ heal
3. (a) How does 1hr KeMn ltmptr.itutt s.oalt d11fer from
in tum. "Jrm. thr a1rab.>\'\'. 1he coolnrth an11> IDO>t ofits
radiauona>li>ngwavemfrattd radliltlOO. Sd"CtJ\'\' •ori>crs the Cdsius seal~
(b) Why is the Kefo.·in scale often u~ in >CJt'nl1f11: cJI
in thr atmosphtte, mch Ill ....uer v•ror anJ C\lrboo woxidt,
culations?
absorb .omc of the earth'> mfr•r.-d r.J1auon •nd rawatc a
portion ol'it back to the >urfacc. where 11 WJrm> lhe .urfact, (c) Based on your expentnc<. "'ould a ltrnp<'talutt of
250 K be considered warm or cold? lxpl.un
produd ng the alm<.,.pho!rt.. grcenhou.\c eti"<:t. llcc.lu~ clouds
a rc both g<Klorbttund good emi!lcr:. ol infrared rudi:i- 4. Explain how heat is 1ran>ferred In 1he car1h'• ntmu
tion, theykccp calm, ck1udy night> \\'Jrm<r than calm, clear sphere by:
(a) conduction;
night>. ·1hcnvcrngcc<1u1hhr111m tc1npcrn111re ofthe earth and
(b) convection;
the atmosphere rcm.1h1> fairly tiln>tunt from one year lo the
( c) radiation.
ncxl b l.'COll><' the nmnunt 11( energy they absorb each year is
5 . How is latent heal an importnnt ; mmc of nt1lkl>Jlhcrk
•<1ual to the nmount of energy they hi:.e.
l'innlly, we cx.1mlncd how the >1111's e11e1·11y Int tw form of energy?
6. Jn the atmo.~phere, how docs lldvccthm differ from
solnr wind pnrtlclcs Internet>with our tUllkl>phcrc to produce
auroral di.play•. convection?
7 . How does the temperature of tm object Influence the
radiation that it emits?
KEY TERMS 8. How does the amoun1 of rndiation emitted by thcc~n h
dilkr from that emiucd by the sunr
1be following tttnb .1rrll•tc'\l (with page numbers) Ln the or- 9 . How do the wavelengths of m~ of the rad1allon emu
d.,. theyappearsn the ltAL OcfinccJch. L>o1rqpowi0 aid ted by the sun differ from those crn11tcd by the >urface
)'OU in reviewing the material covcn-d in llm chapter. of I.he earth?
JO. Which photon carries 1hr most energy snfrattJ, v1>·
energy, 32 aJ\"<<t1on, 37
ible. o r ultraviolet?
potential energy. 32 radiant energy
I I. When a body reaches a radi•1tvc equ1ubra1m tempera·
laneoc entrg)'· l2 (radaatmn), 39
lure. what is taking place?
temperatutt, 32 elc.troniagnroc 39 "'"'·cs. u. If the earth's sumer concinuall)' radiates cncrg) "hr
heat. 33 "•1elrngth. 39
doesn't ii btcome colder and colder!
ab>Olute zero. 33 microm~. 39
Kth·m >.:;alt, 3J photon, 10 13. Whr are carbon dioxide and "akr vapor uDtd kltx·
li\·c absorbing grttnhou<e g;a,n>
hthrenhnt .wit, 33 Sttf•n Bolwnann law, 40
CdSJU• ll<:alt. 33 \\' om·.1.,..
10
14. Expbin bow the earth's atmosphenc grttnhOU>ttlrc1
works.
heat cap;i.:1t). 3 1 longw••" ro.hauon. 41
l S. Whal grecnhoose gases ap~ar 10 be ~pon>1ble f.,..
sp<Cilk heat. 3 I !.hort"•'" raclo.ition. II
!hr enhanc<ml!Dt of the earth'> gttenhOU>e t~ct?
lotenl heat. 3·1 n\lble "'ti'°"·
·I I
16 . Why do most c6mate modd. pml1ct thJl thr earth'>
sensiblt hrat, JS uhrarn>lct (UV} rad1abon,
II average surfiice temperature will U'lettA>< by an udclo
conduction, 36
tional 3.ll°C (5A°F) by the end uf 1h1> cen1ury?
cOm"<clion, 37 infrJrcd (JR) ndialJoo. II
therm.1b, 37 bl11<kbody. 13
o .. ..,._..., ~-....._,.. Moot ....11........._ ..io..,.; .. 11...,......_1oo,...,..... , ... 111at "'......,_"""_,_...,,..,,_... ...,. ......,..._,_..,,....,.,.,.. •..-,...;11~~1 ••........,.._._
c:..,.• •)tl) .,..,,.,. .. ''"l""'...I'"''••• .._.. ,, .,,........, •-•lflw_M...,._tt......,... c:.,.•• .._,..._.,,,,1, ..._..ai_,,,.,•.,. •--......-,_ ¥• -·•·11, .. ,.,,,...,.r1
,.~
17. Whar processes con!ribure !o !he earth's albedo being 10. Which will show !he greares! increase in !empera!ure
30 percen!? when illuminated wi!h direct Slmlighr: a plowed field
18. How is rhe lower atmosphere warmed from rhe surface or a blanker of snow? fa:plain.
upward? I I. Why does !he surface rempera!ure of!en increase on a
19. Explain how rhe ear!h and irs abnosphere balance in· clear, calm nigh! as a low cloud moves overhead?
coming energy wi!h our going energy. 12. Which would have !he grearesr effecr on rhe ear!h's
20. If a blackbody is a rheorerical objec!, why can bo!h rhe greenhouse effect: removing all of !he CO, from rhe
sun and ear!h be rreated as blackbodies? abn°"l'here or removing all of !he warer vapor? Ex-
21. Whar isrhesolar "ind? plain why you chose your answer.
22. Explain how rhe aurora is produced. 13. Explain why an increase in cloud cover surrounding
!he ear!h would increase !he ear!h's albedo, ye! no!
necessarily lead ro a lower ear!h surface rempera!ure.
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT 14. If !he sun's surface rempera!ure suddenly cooled ro
I. Explain why !he bridge in !he ruagram is !he firs! !O
20oo•c. explain why rhe sky would probably appear
more red !han blue?
become icy.
IS. Why is i! !ha! auroral displays above C..olorado can be
fore.casr sever.ti days in advance>
16. Why does rhe aurora usually occur more frequently
above Maine rhan above Washington $rate?
PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES

I. Suppose !ha! 500 g of waler vapor condense ro make a
cloud abour !he size of an average room. If \\'e assume
rhar !he la!en! hear of condensation i~ 600 cal/g, how
much hear would be released ro rhe air? If !he !oral
mass of air before condensation is 100 kg, how much
warmer would !he air be afrer condensation? Assume
't FI GURE 2 . 24 rhar rhe air is nor undergoing any pressure changes.
(Hin!: Use !he specific hear of air in Table 2.1, p. 34.)
2. Explain why rhe firs! snowfall of rhe winier usually 2. Suppose planer A is exac!ly tlvice rhe size (in surface
"sticks" beuer !o !ree branches rhan ro bare ground. area) of planer B. If bo!h planers have rhe same exac!
3. Ar nigh!, why do material~ !ha! are poor hear conduc- surface rempera!ure (1500 K). which planer would be
tors cool !o remperarures les.~ rhan !he surrounding emitting thi? mo..:;t radiation? Determine the \\•ave~
air? leng!h of maximum energy emission of bo!h planers,
4. Explain how, in winier, ice can form on puddles (in using Wien's law on p. 40.
shaded areas) when !he rempera!ure above and below 3. Suppose, in question 2, !he !empera!ure of planet B
rhe puddle is slightly above freezing, doubles.
5. ln nor!hern larirudes, !he oceans are warmer in sum- (a) Whar would be irs wavelength of maximum energy
mer rhan !hey are in winier. Jn which season do rhe emission?
oceans lose hear mos! rapidly ro !he atmosphere by (b) ln whar region of !he electromagnetic specrmm
conduction? Explain. would !his wavelength be found?
6. How is hear rransferred away from !he surface of rhe (c) If rhe !empera!ure of plane! A remained rhe same,
moon? (Hint The moon has no atmosphere.) determine which planer (A or B) would now be
7. Why is ul!ravioler radiation more successful in dis- emiuing !he mosr radiation (u.~e rhe Srefan-
lodging ele.c rrons from air aromsand molecules rhan is Boltzmann relarion~hip on p. 40). Explain your
visible radiation> ans\;,'er.
8. Why mus! you s!and closer ro a small fire ro experience 4. Suppase your surface body !empera!ure averages 9o•f.
rhe same warm!h you ger when standing far!her away How much radian! energy in W/m2 would be emiued
from a large fire> from your body?
9. If waler vaPor were no longer present in !he atmo-
sphere, how would rhe earth's energy budget be af-
fected?
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... ..i M:.y ta>thc ....,icd >........J ,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;ko• in .,.... floe .., ch<,....., ..... - 11...i 1-'1 '" ,._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.h nfl LU;,,.,J\ o «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
GEOSCIENCE I If Go to the Arctic Circle portal. Under Websites and Biogs. access "Arctic
Change: A Near-Realtime Arctic Change Indicator website." On the left-hand index. dick on "Clouds." What is the trend in
springtimedoudine,~s (March, April, May) over the Arc1ic>Would this trend act to reduce or increase the amount ofsolar radia-
tion reaching the Arctic? Whal ifI he same trend were observed in December>
ONLINE RESOURCES
I!'\ Log in to the CourseMate website at: www.cengagebrain.com to view the concept animations as noted in the text, as
~ weU as additional resources, including video exercises, practice quiz-1.es, an interactive eBook, and more.
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Seasonal and Daily Temperatures

CONTENTS he sun doesn't rise or fall: it doesn't move, it j ust sit s there,
Why the Earth Has Seasons
Seasons in the Northern Hemisphere
T and we rotate in front of it. Dawn means that we are rotating
around into sight of it, while dusk means we have turned an ·
other 180 degrees and are being carried into the shadow zone.
Is December 21 Really the First Day of Winter?
Seasons in t he Southern Hemisphere The sun never"goes away from the sky."lfs still there sharing the
local Seasonal Variations same sky with us; it's simply that there is a chunk of opaque
Daily Warming and Cooling Air Near
earth between us and the sun which prevents our seeing it.
t he Surface
Daytime Warming Everyone knows that, but I really see it now. No longer do I drive
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTALISSUE down a highway and wish the blinding sun would set; instead
Solar Heating and the Noonday Sun
I wish we could speed up our rotation a bit and swing around
Nighttime Cooling
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC into the shadows more quickly.
Record High Temperatures
Michael Collins, Corryjng thefjre
Cold Air at the Surface
Protecting Crops from the Cold Night A ir
Record LowTemperatures
Daily Temperature Variations
Regi anal Tern peratu re Variations
When It Comes to Temperature, What's
Normal?
Applications of Air Temperat ure Data
Air Temperature and Human Comfort
AThousand Degrees and Freezing to Death
Measuring Air Tern peratu re
Why Thermometers Should Be Read In the
Shade
Summary
Key Terms
Problems and Exercises Facing page: The approach of\Vinter and cold night
air turns Aspen leaves into brilliant shades of yello\v
in Uncompahgre National Forest, Colorado.
59
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s you sit quietly reading this book, you are part of a mov- warmest weather should occur in January and our coldesl
A ing experience. The earth is speeding arotmd the stm

at thousands of kilometers per hour while, at the same
time, it is spinning on its axis. When we look down upon the
weather in July. But, in the Northern Hemisphere, we nor-
mally experience cold weather in January when we are closer
to the sun and warm weather in July when we are farther away.
North Pole, we see that the direction of spin is counterclock- J f nearness to the sun were the primary cause of the seasons
"1se, meaning that we are moving to"'"d the east at hundreds then, indeed, January would be warmer than July. However,
of kilometers per hour. We normally don't think of it in that nearnes.~ to the sun is only a small part of the story.
\\iay. but, of course, this is \vhat causes the sun. moon. and stars Our seasons are regulated by the amount of solar energy
to rise in the east 'tnd set in the west. Jt is these motions cou- received at the earths surface. This amount is detennined pri-
pled with the fact that the earth is tilted on its axis that causes marily by the angle at which sunlight strikes the surface., and by
our seasons. Therefore, we will begin thi~ chapter by exam- how long the sun shines on any latitude (daylight hours). lets
ining how the e;1rth's motions and the sun's energy work to- look morecl0-sely at these factors.
gether to produce temperature variations on a seasonal basis. Solar energy that strikes the earth's surface perpendicular! y
Later. \\'t? \vill examine ten1perature variation.; on a daily basis. (directly) is much more intense than solar energy thatstrikes the
same surface at an angle. Think ofshining a flashlight straight at a
wall -you get a small, circular spot of light (see . Fig. 3.2). Now,
tip the flashlight and notice how the spot of light spreads over a
Why the Earth Has Seasons larger area. ' lbesame principle holds for sunlight. Sunlightstrik-
ingtheearthat an 'tngle spreads out and must heat a k1rger region
The earth revolves completely around the sun in an el lipti- than sunlight impinging directly on the e:1rth. Everything else
cal path (not quite a circle) in slightly longer than 365 days being equal, an area experiencing more direct solar rays will re-
(one year). As the earth revolves ;1round the sun, it spins on ceive more heat than the same size area being struck by sunlight
its own axis, completing one spin in 24 hours (one day). The at an angle. Jn addition, the more the sun's rays areslanted from
average distance from the earth to the sun is 150 million km the perpendicubr, the more atmosphere they must penetrate.
(93 million mi). Because the e'trth's orbit is an ellipse instead And the more atmosphere they penetrate, the more they can be
of a circle, the actual distance from the earth to the sun varies scatteredandabsorbed(attenuated). As a consequence, when the
during the year. The earth comes closer to the sun in January sun is high in the sky, it can heat the ground to a much higher
(147 million km) than it does in July (152 million km)' (see temperature than when it is low on the horizon.
• Fig. 3. 1). From this observation we might conclude that our 1 he second important factor determining how warm the
"1be Iin:ie around Jnnuory 3rd. when the earth is d osesl to the sun. is atllcd peri· earth's surface becomes is the length of time the sunshines each
l...Jio11 (fro1n the Grttk peri. menning ...ne<'lr" nnd helios. 1ne.-ining°'sun"). 1he ti1nc day. Longer daylight hours, of course, mean that more energy is
when thee:ir1h is furthes1fro1n1hc sun (around Suly41h) is cnUcd aphdic>11 (fmm available from stmlight. ln a given location, more sobr energy
the Cr« kap. ~ "'" Y fronf"). reachestheearth'ssurfaceon adear, longd,1y th:tn ona day that i~
de:tr but much shorter. Hence, more surface heating take,~ pbce.
From a casual observation, we know that summer days
have more daylight hours than winter days. AL~o. the noon-
time summer sun is higher in the sky than is the noontime
\\inter sun. Both of these events occur because our spinning
planet is inclined on ils axis (tilted) as it revolves around the
sun. As • Fig. 3. 3 illustrates, the angle of tilt is 2311,• from the
perpendicular drawn to the plane oftheearths orbit. The earths
axi~ points to the same direction in space all year long; thus,
the Northern Hemi~phere is tilted to"'"d the sun in summer
• F I GURE 3.1 The elliptical path (highly exaggerated} cJ the e..uth about the (June), 'tnd away from the sun in winter (December).
sun brings the earth slighdycloser to the sun in January than in July.
• FIGURE 3.2 Sunlighl thatstrikesasurfaceat

an angle is spread over a larger area than sunlight
that strikes the surfacedirectty.Obliquesun rays
deliver less energy fare less intense} toa surface
than di1ect sun rays.
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• FIGURE 3 .3 Ast he earth revolves about the sun, it is tilted on its a xis by an angle of 23!.';"· Theearth'saxisalways points tot he
same area in space tas viewed from adistant star).Thus, in June. \'lhen the Northern Hemisphere is tipped toward the sun. more direct
sunlightand lon9 hours of daylight cause \Vit.rmer \'leather than in December, \Yhen the Nort hern Hemisphere is tipped a\ vayfrom the
sun. (Diagram. of course. is not to scale.)
If the earth were nottilted on its axis, how would average summer temperatures and
average wi nter t emperatures change where you live?
SEASONS IN THE NORTHERN HEM !SPHERE Let's first discuss for 24 hours. Notice in Fig. 3.3 how the region above 66Y,•N
the wami summer season. Note in Fig. 3.3 that, on June 21, the never gets into the "shadow" zone as the earth spins. At the
northern half of the world is directed toward the sun. At noon North Pole, thesunactmltyrises above the horizon on March 20
on thisday,solar rays beat down upon the Northern Hernisphen.> and hassix months until itsetsonSeptember22. Nowonder this
more directly than during 'UlY other time of year. The sun is at region is called the"J..and of the Midnight Sun"! (See • Fig. 3.4.)
its highest position in the noonday sky, directly above 23 •;,• Do longer days near polar latitudes mean that the high-
north (N) latitude(TropicofCancer). Ifyou werestandingat this est daytime summer temperatures are experienced there? Not
latitude on June21, the sun at noon wottld be directly oveihead. really. Nearly everyone knows that New York City (41• N)
'fhis day, called the summer solstice, is the astronomical first day "enjoys" much hotter summer weather th'm Barrow, Alaska
of summer in the Northern Hemisphere.• (7 1•N). 'Jbe days in Barrow are much longer, so why isn't
Study Fig. 3.3 clo.sely and notice that, as the earth spins on BarrO\\' \\'armer? To figure this out, \\'t? mu.~t ex...1.mine the inc.om~
its axis, the side facing the sun is in sunshine and the other side ing solar radiatio11 (c.alled i11solMio11) on June 21. • Figure 3.5
is in darknes.s. 'Jbtts, half of the globe is always illuminated. If
the earth's axis were not tilted, the noonday sun would always WEATHER WATCH
bedirectlyoverhead attheequator, and there would be 12 hours
The Land of Total Darkness. Does darkness (constant
of daylight and 12 hours of darkness at each latitude every day
night) really occur at the Arctic Circle (66 11>° N) on the
of the year. l-IO\\'f!ver, the earth is tilted. Since the Northern
winter solstice? T he answer is no. Due to the bending and
Hemisphere faces t0\\•.1rd the sun on June 2 1, each latitude in scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere, the sky i.s not
the Northern Hemisphere will have more th'm 12 hours of totally dark at the Arctic Circle on December 21. In fact,
daylight. The farther north we go, the longer are the daylight on this date, total darkness only happens north of about
hours. When""' reach the Arctic Cirde ( 66 •J,•N), daylight lasts 82° latitude. Even at the North Pole, total darkness does
•As \\'e will -see la1cr in this chap1er, the seasons are reversed in the Southern not occur from September 22 through March 20, but
Hemisphere. Hence. in the Southern He1nlsphere, thiss;;une day is the winter rather from about November 5 through February 5.
sol>t ice. or the a.s1rono1nic.ll hrst day of winter.
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e FIGURE 3 .4 Land of the Midnight Sun.Ase·
ries ofexposures of the sun taken before. during,
and after midnight in northern Alaska during July.
shO\\'S l\\10 curves: 'll1e upper curve represents th~ amount gases. What remains reaches the surface. Generally, the greater
of insolation at the top of the earth~ atmosphere on June 21, the thickness of atmosphere that sunlight must penetrate, the
while the bottom curve represents the amount ofradiation that greater are the chances that it will be either scattered, reflected,
eventually reaches the earth's surface on the same day. or absorbed by the atmosphere. During the summer in far
The upper curve increases from the equator to the pole. This northern latitudes, the sun is never very high above the horizon,
increase indicates that, during the entire day ofJune 21, moreso- so its radiant energy must pass through a thick portion ofatmo-
lar radiation reaches the top of the earth's atmosphere above the sphere before it reaches the earth's surface (see • Hg. 3.6). And
poles than above the equator. True, the sun shines on these polar because of the increased cloud cover during the arctic summer,
latitudes at a relatively low angle, but it doe_sso for 24 hours, caus- much of the sunlight is retlecte.d before it reaches the ground.
ing the maximum to occur there. 'Jhe l<Mercurve shows that the
amount of solar radiation eventually reaching the earth's surface
on June 21 is maximum near 30°N. From there, the amount of
insolation reaching the ground decreases as we move poleward.
'Jhe reason the two curves are different is that once sun-
light enters the atmosphere, fme dust and air molecules scatter
it, clouds reflect it, and some of it is absorbed by atmospheric
• Top ol almOSplWe
-------._:E~alih~·s sorfaoe
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 • FIGURE 3.6 During the No rt hem Hemisphere summer, sunlight that

reaches the earth's surface in far northern latitudes has passed t hrough a
Equator l.atitude ('N) thicker layer cJ absorbing,scattering,and reflecting atmosphere than sunlight
that reaches the eart h's surface farther south. Sunlight is lost through both the
• FIGURE 3. 5 The relative amount of radiant energy received at the top of the thic:knessof the pure atmosphere and by impurities in the atmosphere.As the
earth'satmo-sphereand at the earthSsurfaceon June 21 - the summer solstice. sun's rays become more oblique. these effects become more pronounced.
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Soktr energy that eventually reaches the surface in the far fewer hours of daylight, and the noon sun is slightly lower in
north does not heat the surface effectively. A p<>rtion of the sun's the sky. Less direct sunlight and shorter hours of daylight spell
energy is reflected by ice and snow, while some ofit melts frozen cooler weather for the Northern Hemisphere. Re.duced radia-
soil. ' rhe amount actually absorbed is spread over a large area. tion, lower air temperatures, and cooling breezesstimulate the
So. even though northern cities. such as llarrO\\'• experience beautiful pageantry of fall colors (see e Fig. 3.7).
24 hours ofcontinuoussunlight on Jtme 21, they are not warmer In some years around the middle of autumn, there is an
than cities farther south. Overall, they receive less radiation at tmseasonably warm spell, especially in the eastern two-thirds
the surface, and what radiation they do receive does not effec- of the United States. 1 his warm period, referred to as Indian
tively heat the surface. summer,' may last from several days up to a week or more. ll
ln our discussion of Fig. 3.5, we saw that, on June 21, so- usually occurs when a large high-pressure area stalls near the
ktr energy incident on the earth's surface is maximum near lati- southeast coast. The clockwise flow of air around this system
tude 3o•N. On this day, the sun isshining directly above latitude moves warm air from the Gulf of Mexico into the central or
23 1J,•N. Why, then, isn't the most sunlight received here> A quick eastern half of the nation. 'Jlte '"trm, gentle breezes and smoke
look at a world m.1p shows that themajordesertsofthe world are from a variety ofsources respectively make for mild, hazy days.
c-entered near 30"N. Cloudless skies and drier air predominate 'Jlte warm weather ends abruptly when an outbreak of polar air
near this latitude. At latitude 23 1J,• N, the climate is more moist reminds us that \\'inter is: not far a\..'3y.
and cloudy, causing more sunlight to he scattered and reflected On December 21 (three months after the autumnal equi-
before reaching the surface. Jn addition, day length is longer at nox), the Northern Hemisphere is tilted as far away from the
3o•N than at 23 1J,• N on June2 1. For these reasons, more radia- sun as it will he all year (see l'ig. 3.3, p. 61). Nights are long and
tion falls on 3o•N latitude than at the TropicofCancer(23 1f,•N). days are short. Notice in TTable 3.1 that daylight decreases from
Each day past June 21, the noonstm is slightly lower in the sky. 12 hours at the equator to 0 (zero) at latitudes above 66 1/,•N.
Summer days in the Northern Hemisphere begin to shorten. June This is the shortest day of the year,calledthewinter solstice, the
eventually gives way to September, and fall begins. astronomical beginning of winter in the northern world. On
Look at Hg. 3.3 (p. 61) again and notice that, by this day, thesunshinesdirectly above latitude 23 '/i°S (Tropic of
September 22, the earth will have moved so that the sun is Capricorn). In the northern half of the world, the sun is at its
directly above the equator. £xcept at the poles, the days and lowest position in the noon sky. Its rays pass through a thick sec-
nights throughout the world are of equal length. This day is tion of atmosphere and spread over a large area on the surface.
called the autumnal (fall) equinox, 'md it marks the astro- With so little incident sunlight, the earth's surface cools
nomical he ginning of fall in the Northern Hemisphere. At the quickly. A blanket of dean snow covering the ground aids in
North Pole, the sun appears on the horizon for 24 hours, due the cooling. 1 he snow reflects much of the sunlight that reaches
to the bending of light by the atmosphere. Th e following day •'Jbe oligin of the t('rnl is un ce rt~n. as it d:ues back 10 I.he eigh1ccn1h cen1ury. ft
(oratleast within several days), the sun disappears from view, nuy hnvc origin.llly re t"erre:d to the good weather Iha tallowed the Indians tinle to
not to rise again for a long. cold six months. Throughout the h31vest1heir crops. Nonnally. a period of cool au1unln \\'ruthcr nHlSI prec«le the
northern half of the world on each successive day, there are "'.lrm we.11.hcr period 10 be called Indian sunl1ner.
• FI GUR E 3. 7 Thepageantryoffallcolors in
New England.The\Yeather most suitable for an
impressive display of fall colors is \Varm,sunny
days followed by clear, cool nights with tempera ~
turesdroppin9 below 7'C {45°F}, but remaining
above freezing.Contrary to popular belief, it is
not the first frost that causes the leaves of decidu·
ous trees to change color. The yello\V and orange
colors.. \Vhidi are actually in the leaves. begin
to sho\V tlvough several \\eeks before the first
frost, as shorter days and cooler nights cause a
decreaw in tlie production of tlie green pigment
chlorophyU.
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,. TABLE 3.1 Length of Time from Sunrise to Sunset for Various these cold spells arrive well before the winter solstice-the
Latitudes on Different Dates in the Northern Hemisphere "official" first day of \\inter-bringing with them heavy snow
LATITUDE MARCH 20 JUNE 21 SEPT. 22 DEC. 21
and blustery "'°M
(More information on this "official" first day
of winter is given in the Focussection on p. 65.)
O' l2 hr 12.0 hr 12 hr 12.0 hr On each "inter day afier Derember 21, the sun climbs a bit
higherinthemidday sky. The period~of daylight grow longer until
JO' 12 hr 12.6hr 12 hr I 1.4 hr
days and nights are of equal length, and""' haveanOlher equinox.
20' 12 hr 13.2 hr 12 hr 10.8 hr The date of March20, which marks the astronomical arriv-al
ofspring. i~ called the vernal (spring) equinox. At this equinox,
30' 12 hr 13.9 hr 12 hr JO.I hr the noonday sun is shining directly on the equator, while, at the
40' 12 hr 14.9 hr 12 hr 9.1 hr North Pole, the sun (after hiding for six months) peek~ above
the horizon. Longer days and more direct solar radiation spell
50' 12 hr 16.3hr 12 hr 7.7 hr warmer \\'eat her for the northern world.
60' l2 hr 18.4 hr 12 hr 5.6 hr Three months after the vernal equinox, it is Juneagain. ' lb e
Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun, which shines
70' 12 hr 2 nlOnths 12 hr Ohr high in the noonday sky. The days have grown longer and
warmer, and another summer season has begun.
80' 12 hr 4 nlOnths 12 hr Ohr Up to now, we have seen that the seasons are controUed
90' 12 hr 6 nlOnths 12 hr Ohr by solar energy striking our tilted planet, 'ts it makes its annual
voyage around the sun. 1 his tilt of the earth causes a seasonal
variation in both the length of daylight 'tnd the intensity of
the surface and continually radiates away infrared energy dur- sunlight that reaches the surface. ' rhese facts are summarized
ing the long nights. In northern Canada and Alaska, the arctic in • Fig. 3.8, which shows how the sun would appear in the sky
air rapidly becomes extremely cold as it lies pnised, ready to do to an observer at various latitudes at different times of the year.
battle "'th the milder air to the south. Periodically, this cold arc- Earlier we ieMned that at the North Pole the sun riws above the
tic air pushes down into the northern United States, producing horizon in March and stays above the horizon for six months
a rapid drop in temperature called a cold wave, which occasion- until September. Notice in Fig. 3.Sa that at the North Pole
ally reaches far into the south during the winter. Sometimes, even when the sun is at its highest pnint in June, it is low in the
June
Epinox '!'
s
N N
( E E
(a) Nor!h Pole, 90 N (b) Acetic Circle, 6611;N (c) Middle latitudes, 40. N
w
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s - .t. s- s j
N -N -N
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E E
(d) Tropic o f CMcer. 23 1r.z°N (e) Equator. o• Cl) Tropic ol Caprioom. 231,.'s
• FIGURE 3. 8 The apparent path of the sun across the sky as observed at different latitudes on the June solstice {June 2 1), the
December solstice (December 2 0,a nd the equinox (Mard i 20 and September 22).
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Is December 21 Really the First Day of Winter?
On Decemb er 21 (or 22, depending o n t he caused mainly by the upper-level w inds February. Autumn would be September,
year) after nearly a month of cold weather, directin gcoldor wa rm air into a region. October, and November- the transition
and perhaps a snONstorm or two (see Fig. 1), In the middle latitudes, summer is de· between summer and winter. And spring
someone on the radio or television has the fined as thewarmest season and winter the would be March, April, and May-the tran -
audacity to proclaim that "today is the first cold est season. If the year is divided into sition between winter and summer.
official day o f w inter." If during the last four seasonswith each seas.on consisting of So, the ne.xttimeyou hear s.omeone
several weeks it was not w inter, then what three months, then the meteorological (or remark on December 21 that "winter offi-
season was it? dimoto/ogical) definition of summer <:Ner cially begins today," remember thatthis is
Actually, December 21 marks the much of the Northern Hemisphere would the astronomical definition of the first day
astronomical first day of winter in the be the three warmest monthsof June, July, of winter. According totheclimatological
Northern Hemispher e (NH), just as June 21 and August. Winter would be the three definition, winter has been around for
marks theastronomka/flrst day of summer coldest months of December, January1 and several weeks.
(NH). The earth is tilted on its axis by 23\.'1°
as it revolves around the sun. This fact
causes the sun (as we view it from earth)
to move in the sky from a point where it is
d irectly above 23'l1° South latitudeon
December 21 to a point where it is directly
above 23'h0 North latitude on June 21. The
astronomical firstdayof spring (NH) occurs
around March 20 as the sun crosses the
equator moving northward and, likewise,
the astronomical first day o f aut umn (NH)
occurs around September 22 as the sun
crosses the equator moving southward.
Therefore the "official" beginning of
any season is simply the day on which the
sun passes over a particular latitude, and
has nothing todowith how cold or warm
the following day w ill be. In fact a period
of colder or warmer than normal weather • FIGUR E 1 A heavy snavfall covers Ne\vYork Crty in early December. Since the sno\v-storm occurred
before or after a solstice or eq uin ox is before the \Vintersol!otic:e, is this a late fall storm or an early\vinter storm?
sk')'-Only23 'J,• above the horizon. Farther south, at the Arctic At this point it is interesting to note that although sunlight
circle (Fig. 3.8b), the sun is always fairly low in the sky, even in is most intense in the Northern Hemisphere on June 21, the
Jtme, when the sun stays above the horiwn for 24 hours. '"U'mest weather in middle latitudes normally occurs weeks
ln the middlelatitu<les (Fig. 3.Sc), notice that in December later, usually in July or August. Thissitu,rtion (called the lllg in
the sun rises in the southeast, reaches its highest point at noon seasonal lempemt11re) 'U'ises becau.o;e although incoming energy
(only about 26• above the southern horizon), and sets in the from the stm is greatest in June, it still exceeds outgoing energy
south\\•est. 1 his apparent path produces little intense sunlight from the earth for a period of at least several weeks. When in-
and short daylight hours. On the other hand, in June, the sun roming solar energy and outgoing earth energy are in balance,
rises in the northeast, reaches a much higher Position in the the highest average temperature is attained. When outgoing en-
sky at noon (about 74• above the southern horizon) 'md sets ergy excee<ts incoming energy, the average temperature drops.
in the northwest. This apparent path across the sky produces Because outgoing earth energy exceeds incoming solar energy
more intense solar he,rting. longerdaylight hours, and, of course, well past the "1nter solstice(December21), \\'<'.'normally find
warmer weather. Figure 3.Sd illustrates how the tilt of the earth our coldest weather occurring in January or February. A~ we will
influences the stm's apparent path acros.~ the sk'Y at the Tropic of sedater in this diapter, thereisasimilarlag in daily temperature
Cancer (23 'J,•). Figure 3.Se gives the same information for an between the time of most intl!llse sunlight and the time of high-
observer at the equator. est air temperature for the day.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' ,....1rc... in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
you are tired of the cold, December weather in your Northern
Hemisphere city, travel to the summer half of the world and en-
joy the "'armer weather. The tilt of the earth as it revolves around
the sun makes all this possible.
We know theearth comes nearer tot he sun in January th:tn
in July. Even though this differencein distanO'! amounts to only
about 3 percent, the energy that strike.~ the top of the earth's
atmosphere is almost 7 percent greater on January 3 than on
July 4. 'Jltese statistics might lead us to believe that summer
should be warmer in the Southern Hemisphere than in the
Northern Hemisphere, which, however, is not the case. A dose
examination of the Southern Hemisphere reveals that nearly
81 percent of the surface is water compared to 61 percent in
the Northern Hemisphere. The added solar energy due to the
closeness of the sun is absorbed by large bodies of "•ater, becom-
ing well mixed and circulated within them. This proces.~ keeps
the average summer (January) temperatures in the Southern
Hemisphere cooler than average smnmer (July) temperatures
For a more complete picture of the earth revolvin9 around the sun in the Northern Hemisphere. Because of water's large heat
as it is tilted on it saxi ~ log in to the Cengage CourseMate website at
V/Ww.cengagebrain.comandview the animation entitled Seasons.
capacity, it also tends to keep \\faters in the Southern Hemi-
Whileviewin9 thisanimation, look closely at hov1the sun isviewed by sphere warmer than we might expect.•
a mid·latitudeobserver at various times of the year. Another difference between the seasons of the two hemi-
sphere.~ concerns their length. Because the earth describes an
ellipse as it journeys around the sun, the total nmnber of days from
SEASONS IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE On June 21, the vernal (March 20) to the autmnnal (September 22) equinox is
the Southern Hemisphere is adjusting to an entirely different about 7 dayslonger than from theautmnnal to vernalequinox(see
season. Again, look back at Fig. 3.3, (p. 61), and notice that this • Fig. 3.9). 1 hi~ means th:ll spring and smnmer in the Northern
part of the world is now lilted away from the sun. Nights are Hemisphere not only last about a week longer th:tn northern fall
long, days are short, and solar rays come in at an angle (see and winter, but aL~o about a week longer than spring and sum-
Fig. 3.Sf). All of these factors keep air temperature.~ fairly low. mer in the Southern Hemisphere. Hence, the shorter spring and
The June solstice marks the astronomical beginning of winter summer of the Southern Hemisphere somewhat offset the extra
in theSouthern Hemisphere. In this part oftheworld,summer insolation received due to a closer proximity to the sun.
will not "oflici:tlly" begin until the sun is over the Tropic ofCap- Up to now, we have con~idered the seasons on a global scale.
ricorn (23 11,•s)- remember that thi~ occurs on December 21. We "111 now shift to more local considerations.
So, when it is winter and June in the Southern Hemisphere, it
i~summer and June in the Northern Hemisphere. Conversely,
when it is summer and DeO'!mberin the Southern Hemisphere,
it is winter and December in the Northern Hemisphere. So, if Local Seasonal Variations
Look back at Fig. 3.8c, (p. 64), and observe that in the middle
latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, objects facing south will
receive more sunlight during a year than those facing north.
·n us fact becomes strikingly apparent in hilly or mountainous
country.
Hills that face south receive more sunshine and, hence,
become warmer than the partially shielded north-facing hiUs.
Higher temperatures usually mean greater rates of evaPoration
:mdslight ly drier soil conditions. 1lm.~,south-facing hilL~ides are
u.~ually warmer and drier as compared to north-facing slopes
at the same elevation. In many areas of the far west, only sparse
vegetation grows on south-facing slopes, while, on thesamehill,
dense vegetation grows on the cool, moist hills that face north
(see . Fig. 3. 10).
In northern latitudes, hillsides that face south u.~ually have a
• FIGURE 3. 9 Because the earth travels more sk)\vly\vhen it is fa1ther
from the sun, it takes the earth a little more than 7 days longer to travel from
longer growing season. Winemakers in western New York State
March 20 to September 22 than from September 22 to March 20. •for a co1nparison ofjnnu.1ryand fuly te1nperatores. see Figs.3.1.land 324, p. 80.
°*"'"''".. niJb."*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni>, t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i M")' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1
<1<n11....i fl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""",,..~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
weather should be planted on the >Huth •klc, where .i111llght
reflected from the hOLLle can even 11dd to the wnrmt h.
1be dcsignof a home can be importont on reducing heating
and cooling costs. Uirge window;. ;.hould fo<t Mlut h, :ii lowing
Sllllsltine to penetrate the home in winter. JO block out exec»
swilight during the swnmer. a >mall eave or overhang >hould
be built A kitchrn with windows facing ea>t w~I kt m enough
warm morning sunlight to help htat tht. area. Beca~ thcwe>t
side w3JlllS rapidly in the afternoon. room' hJ\1ng ,.,iau wm
dows(such as garages) should be placed hrrc to act au therm.ii
buffer. Deciduous trtts planted on the "e>t or MlUth •tde ola
home prm>ide shaM in tht swnmcr. In "tnlrr, thty dn>r their
lta•-.s, allowing the winter sunshine to" um the hou><! If )W
llitbc bcdroomsligbtlycooll!' thanthtrnt ofthrhome,fxe1t
toward tbcnortb..lt'I nature help "'th thchtallt«anrl airtond1·
tioning. Proper house design. onmtluon, and LtnJ.c.ipmg <.ut
bdp cut thed<mand forclcctriat)>as "d t i fc>r natur.tl pund
i>ssil fuels. which arc rapidly being Jepleicd.
From our reading oftht bst sn=I Sttt1on\, ~ >hould bt
e flGURE J.tO 1n ..... oltlloMo-lo11.-olthoHotNmllolftlf'he•
~parent that. when sobr h.,,_tng a home, pn>pl!' roof ouigle ~
...tw.. VNI Wft'IPIQCU.. c:h.W'9f•CM'I (.Utenwfotch.inge., 101 nobture.
~ewgettlO"I on 1het0ut~f«ng ~""' ofWncanttMt wdl hah wg- important in capturing much of tht wulltr >Un'> tn<tg). ('lhc
mll)n on chenonh f1ong ~" infonnation needed toda ... minctheangte at ..tla:h !Unlight will
Would tht lullt vegeudon In !trike a roof is gh"'n in the focus >ecuon on Jl 61\).
atmCAL THINKING 0Uf.5TION
flguro ltO 1ppe1r on tht north.focing
'1dt 0t th# 1outh.f1<ing ti~ ol tht hills II this figure reprtstnted • ~- ~
region In the mlddlt lotltudtt ol tht Southtrn Hemlsphtrtl
-
Daily Wanning and Cooling Air

do Mt plnnt SJ'npC> on the tKlrlh •iclc of hilb. Grape> from vines Near the Surface
grown on the wnrmcr .outh •idc mnkc better wine. Moreover,
beci\usc nir tcmpcrt\l urc> normally dccrcajc with incrca.ing Jn a way, each sunny clay is like a tiny scnson O> thl' nir HOCS
height, trees found nn the C\Hlk r 11(11'th .focing ;klc ofmounhlins through a daily cycle of worming nnd cooling. ' Ihe nlr wurn1s
are often tho.c t ht\I u>11nlly !!ftlW tll higher clcvatlu11>, while the during the morning hours, a.~ the sun grndunlly rbcs higher in
warmer south·foclng •hie of the mtJuntnin olicn ;upports trees the sky.spreading a bit> nkct of hent energy owr the HrourKl. ' Ihe
u.~uully found ot lowc!I' clev,lll<llb, sun reaches its highest point around nom. nftcr which it bcgiri•
In the mountnin.,, i.now ''""' Uy lh1gcr• on the ground for a its s low journey toward the we>tcrn horiim. It i> nround noun
l<mgcr time on north •lope' than on rhc warmer .outh ilipes. 11hen the earth's surface receive• the mo>t int en"" •Olar ray>.
flor thisrca.m, 'kl ru11> arc built faclrig rK>rth whcl\'\'C.rpo~ible. However, somewhat surprisingly, nount inlC I• u;ua lly not the
Also. home> and cabb1> built 011 the n<lrth >idc ofa hill usually wannest part of the day. Rather, the air ainunue;.to bC' hcal<'<I.
lu\'t a \1ccp pitchtd roof ;u well ~ a remforccd deck 10 wilh- often reaching a maximum temperature later 111 the aftcn10m•
SAand thcaddt.'caM>nal chanSC' 1n tht wn'• po~ion during the }'l'af ine a shallow la}ffof airin contact" ch thtground
can ha\'t' an clTtct on tht \tgrtation around the home. In wi.nter,
al~ tW0·51<lr)' homt C.ut WUdettS O•rn north ~t, i<tq>mgit DAYTIMEWARMING A<thc>11nruo1nthtmom1ng,l>Wllight
much cooler than ti> >OUth ...de. 1 reel that ttqUU't'" iUDl. SUllllY wanns the ground, and the ground "amu tht 11r 1n contut
"ith ii by mnduction. Ho"n't'I', ;111"' ltlch a poor heat cmd11<tor
that this proassonfy ta""5 pbce" dun a ft" ctn11111e1tn.of the
WEATHER WATCH ground. •.\.s the sun ri<H higher in t ht i.k), t ht air 1n contact "~ h
Seuon1t ch1ngts un 11fect how we fut For eumple, the ground becomes n·m warmer, and there cxi'1> a thermal
some people 11<• e1eh w inter with 1 sense offortbod · boundorysqrarating the hot surf3'e air from the wrghtfy cooler
Ing, especlllly 11 high t11nudes where doys ue shon .,,d air abO\"'- Gi\-en their randan mot ron, ~air moltcub "111
nights ire tong 111d cold. II the depresS<on Is lostlng •nd cros.s this boundaf}' Tu.. "h0t" moltculcs bdo.. bnng grc-•ter
diQbling, the problem Is cotted uuoMl1ffectiw di101- kinetic energy to the roder air; the"cool" moltcub abo\'t' bnng
d~r(SAD). People with SAD tend to slttp tonger, overe.i, a deficit of energy to the hot, .urface air Mowewr, oo • wmd
and feel t ired and drowsy during tht day. The treatment is less day, this form of heat exchange" >IO\\, and a >Ui»tant1al
usually u111 doses of bright light. temperature difference u>ually exi>t> JUSt ubow the groond
(see • Fig. 3Jl). This explain> why JOl!ll<<> on n de.ir, w111dle,..,
A11111· ~• l 'I~ Gt·,1111.-;.

('.,,.....,. )llh.... , . . . _ , .........._ ... ,..,,. .............. '""'"""" ............... - ........, ... , ... .,."' .....-~_.....,fW••"-""'t""
1i.-.1tol .... ,... "~•J•++ol ,,.,. .., ,... ,.,. _......., . . .,,.._ _.,...._,..~(:..... a.--.-
.."'"'-............
dl ........1•• '4,llofH'lltl ............ -i..
...i....,,,,•.,,..,. • ..,_,.""'"'I-¥••-·•"•"''""''.,..
lo••'fl• .,,_ _
Solar Heating and the Noonday Sun
The amount o f solar energy that falls o n a

March20
typical Amer ican home each summer day
is many times the energy needed to heat
the inside for a year. Thus, some people
are turning to the sun asa clean, safe, and
virtually inexhaustib le sour ce o f energy. If Oecembe<21
solar collectors are used to heat a horn~
they should be p laced on south -facing
roofs to take maxim um advantage of the
energy provided. The roof itself should be
constructed as nearly perpendicular to
w inter sun r ays as possible. To determine
the proper roof angle at any latitude, we
need to know how high the sun will be
above the southern horizon at noon. South
The noon angle of the sun can be cal-
culated in the following manner: • FI GURE 2 The roof of a solar·heated home constructed in Denver, Colorado, at an angle of
45" absorbs the sun's energy in michvinter at nearty right angles.
1. Determ ine the number o f degrees be-
tween your latitude and the latitude
th edate is December 21. The difference Denver), building costs, and snow loads.
w here t he sun is currently d irectly
between your latitude and w here the sun Figure 2 illustrates that a r oof constructed
overhead.
is currently overhead is 63° (39Y2°N to in Den ver, Colorado,. at an angle of 45° will
2. Subtract the number you calculated in 23WSl. so t he sun is 27" (90"-63")above be nearly perpendicular to much of the
step 1 from 90°. This w ill give you the
the southern horizon at noon. On March 20 w inter sun's energy. Hence, the roofs of
sun's elevation above the southern
in Denver, the angle o f the sun is 50~0 (90° solar-heated homes in middle latitudes
horizon at noon at your latit ude.
- 39Y1°). To determ ine a reasonable roof are generally b uilt at an angle between
For example, suppose you live in ang le, we m ust consider the aver age alti- 45" a nd so•.
Den ver, Colorado (latitude39~2°N), and tu de o f the m idwinter sun (about 39° for
summer afternoon may experience air temperature-s of over

Thermometer so•c (U2°F) at their feet and only 32°C (90°F) at their waist.
Near !he surface, convection begins, and rising air bubbles
(thermals) help to redistribute heat. Jn calm weather, thesether-
malsaresmall and do not elrectivelymixtheairnear!hesurface.
Thus, large vertical temperature gradients are able 10 exist. On
I T
"1ndy days, however, turbulent eddies are able 10 mix hot sur-
face air with the cooler air above. This form of mech,micalstir-
ring, sometimes called forced convection, helps the thermals 10
tr<msfer heat away from the surface more efficiently. Therefore.,
on sunny, windy days the molecule,~ near !he surface are more
1.Sm
(5.5 fl) quickly carried away th<tn on sunny, calm days. • Figure 3.1 2
shows a typical vertical profile of air temperature on windy days
and on calm days in swnmer.
We can now see why the warmest par! oflheday isusmlty in
the afternoon. Around noon, the sun~ rays an; most intense. How-
35 40 45 50 'C
ever, even though incoming solar radiation decn;ases in inten~ity
90 100 110 120 <i'
Temperature • FI GURE 3.11 (lefr} Onasunny, calmday, theair near the surface can be
substantially \ViHmer than the air a met~ or so above the surface.
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..
....,,
<1<n11....i fl ,....., .._,~..,,._ 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH
Death Valley, Call lorn lo, had o high temperature equal 3 10
to or exceeding lOO ' F on 134 days In 1974, and, In 1998,
the air tempueturt ruched a scorching 129' F, only 7' F
below the world rKord high temperature of 136' F stt in
El Azlzla, Libya, in 1922•
.iter noon. 11 MJll U<fi' ootgong htat tnttg)" from the surface
bra~. lhiunwlll>n )11!1JUnCfl<18ywtplus for two tofoor
boon after noon w
...i..tanu311y con1ribu1es to• bg b<t""""
tbt ume d m;wmum '<liar ht.tung and the time of muimum
airtmipmtlUttl<'\mil mrt<n•bow thrsurfa.;<'(- . Fig. 3.13).
1he C'JQCI tme o( tht h1glltil tempttJlurt' tta.ling ,..,.;es
0 I I
~ lw. Wiim- the 'Wnmrt \k)· ttmUU doud-frtt al afttt· ~ -00 ~
I I I
noon,thcnwamum l<'nlp<".-.turt'm~ occur ~mebetween 9J 100 110
3'00 and S:OO P,\t. Whett there" afttm00n cloudiness or haze,
the tcmpn-.11.utt mum um u>wll) occwun hour or twoearliec.
In Dtmcr, aftnnoon ck>ud>. 1;hJch buid O\'<'f the moun~
drift ~ward early 1n the •ftemoon lht1oe cloud. relltct sun- e FIGURE 3.12 Ver1»a1llempa-Mur•peof\ltiav.an~1,wt1<e for a
hgbl. >e>mctmc;au>Ulll the ma:umum temper.ilUtt to occur as windy and a calm summer Mtemoon.
arly a> noon. If duuJ• ptN>t throughout the day, the O\'era!l
daytime temperature<. are muallylo""'· Both the ground and rur above cool by radi•tmg infr•ttd
AJ1a<en1 to IJ"!l" boJ1c; 11f water, cool air moving inland
energ)I a process called rad.iatlonaJ cooling. lhc gr()und, be
may modify the rhythm of temperature change such that the
inga much beuer radiator than air, iublr 10 cool 11111rrquld.Jy.
warmc~l pan of the day occurs al nonn or before. In \\inter,
Consequently, shonly after su11>ct, 1hc eanh" ,urf~cc I• >lightly
:itmo;phcrk >1orn1Hirrnln1 inH worm air northward can even
1'llu>C the hlghc;11e111plTnturc h> occur lll night.
)USI how worm the nlr becomes dcpcn<l< on sum foc1ors ;c•
the type ofsoil, its moioturc content, nnd vegcrntion cover. When
the soil isn poor heul cu11duLl11r(1is lc111;dypack..'CI S;tnd is), heat
energy doc>not readily trnn;forl1110 111<' wound. ·1his fact allows
the >Ur face layer !O r•·n•h n higlwr lcmpernturc, nv:1iling more en·
crgy 10 warm the uir nbow. On the other h1ultL if the soil is moist
or covered with \'cgctulion, much of the ovoiL1blc energy cvapn·
rate:. w.1tcr, lcaving le.s to hc.u thc nlr. A' )'Oii migltt expect, the
higltc.t >um mer tcmper.iturcs 11>1•1Uy occur O\'Cr desen regions,
where clear okic> couplt.-d w11h low hum1d1t1es and meager wg·
l'talion perm• thowfoct•nd the air above to warm up "l'idly.
Where the air i>hunud, 11.ill andcloudmr-slowttthe max-
anum temperature by f"'"Hllllng \omc of the sun's ra)'S from
ttadung thegrouncL In humid AdJOla. C'.eorgia, the•'""'&"
owamum tempn-m1re for Jul) i> 30.S'C (87"f'). In contrast.
Phoma. Anz.on• - m the dottuouthwt>t ill the same htiludt
u Allanl•-opmcncn"" ••ttagc July m'1JQmum of40.S-C
( IOS"F~ (Acldiuon.t mformauon on higll J;ayumel<'rnptt3luttS
is gl\·m in the l«u> ;a;t1onon p. ill.) 12 2 • 6 8 10 Noon 2 • 8 8 10 12
NIGHTTIME COOLING \\'t I.no" that nighu are typically r...
much cooltr than day>. lhc tt;Uc)ll br thi> fJCt t> tlut. as theaf:
ttmOOO sun lo"'Cf>. •>entrgy1s <ptt3d O\'Cfl bri!l""•=· which
ttducc; the hcat •"•1lablr to "•rm the ground, Looi< again at • FIGURE 3.13 ThedolJ-e>n•n• ,.,,,.,.....,.._•ohdlJil1n
Fig. 3.13 •nd ob..:n't that ;ometunt 1n bte afternoon or early
mmng magy (primonly lfom IM >un) one! ou'90*'9 •""'9' loom IM -lh\
t\'l'Jllng. the corth \surface and air ahow begin to lose mott
surfa12.Wlere i'lccming t'IM'fgySUICb CM.19C)ing .Wf9Y'°''• ~th.
air terrpemure O!ia. WhereOU1QOl"9 tntr9Y•CRtdi ~cming tn«QY IQllf'
mcrgy than they n'<cive hm«, 1h1'Y \tan 10 cool shadel. theaS-temperatun!'f..s..
-.u. . . . ,....
l'"+ .111,H•. . '--1 All ..t.. li_..111 M..,1t••l>••*"...I ,,.,..w .. 11..-.-....1 ,. ..;.,.,.,,,.,., a... ... -...._. ..... -lhool,..-y..,_ _ ._.,,,.._. ...."i.~•""'•"~"'11"""°'' I-..,•..,,._._
.....................-..... .;.......................,. ..... ,... - · --.,. ...r--. "..."'.., __..,._ ,..,..,i. ......-.w.-.t...- ·--··;.""'- ••
Record High Temperatures
Most people are aware of the extreme heat

that exists during the summer in the desert
southwest of the United States. But how hot
does it get there? O n July 10, 1913,
Greenland Ranch in Death Valley, California,
reported the highest temperature ever
observed in North America: 57'( "34'F).
Here, air temperatures are persistently hot
throughout the summer, w ith the average
maximum for July being 47'( (11 6' F).
During the summer of 1917, therewas an
incredible period of 43 consecutive days
when the maximum temperature reached j
120' F o r higher. s
Probably the hottest urban area in the g~
United States is Pa Im Springs, California,
• F I GURE 3 The hottest place in North America, DeathValley, california,. where the air temperature
where the average high temperature
reoched S7'C (134" F).
during July is 108"F. Another h ot c ity is
Yuma, Ar izona. Located along the California-
Arizona border, Yuma's high temperature These readings, however, do not hold a Dallol was 34°( (94°F). In comparison, the
during July averages 107"F. In 1937, the candle to the hottest place in the world. average annual temperature in Yuma is
high r eached 100°F or more for 101 That distinction probably belongs to Dallol, 23°( (74°F) and at Death Valley, 24'( (76°F).
consecutive days. Ethiopia. Dallol is located near latitude The highest temperature reading on earth
In a more humid climate, the maximum 12°N, in the hot, dry Danakil Depression (under standard conditions) occurred
temperature rarely climbs above 41°( (see Fig. 3). A prospecting company kept nor thwest of Dallol at El Azizia, Libya (32'N),
(106'0 F). However, during the record heat weather records at Dallol from 1960 to when1 on September 13, 1922, the tempera-
wave of 1936, the air temperature reached 1966. During this time, the average daily ture reached a scorc hing 58'( (136°F). In
12·1°F near Alton, Kansas. And during the maximum temperature exceeded 38"C fact, as we can see in Fig. 4, temperatures
heatwave of 1983, which destroyed (l OO' F) every month o f t he year, except exceeding 120°F have occurred on all
about $7 billion in crops and increased during December and January, w hen the continents except Antarctica.
the nation's air-conditioning bill by an average ma ximum lo.vered to 98°F and
estimated $1 billion, Fayetteville reported 97°F, respectively. On many days, the air
North Carolina's all-time record high temperature exceeded 120°F. The average
temperature when the mercury hit 110°F. annual temperature for t he six years at
cooler than the air directly above it. ' lbe surface air transfers Cold Air at the Surface A strong radiation inversion occurs
some energy to the ground by conduction, which the ground, when the airnear the ground ismuchcolderthan theair higher
in turn, quickly radiates away. up. !Mal conditions for a strong inversion (and, hence, very lo'"
A~ the night progresses, the ground and the air in contact nighttime temperatures) exist when the air is calm, the night is
with it continue to cool more rapidly than the air a few meters long, and the air is fairly dry and cloud-free. Let'sex:uninethese
higher. The wanner upper air doest ransfer some heat down ward, ingredients one by one.
a process that is slow due to the air's poor thermal conductivity. A windless night is essential for a strong ra<lialion inver-
Therefore, by late night or e..-ly morning. the coldest air is found sion because a stiff breeze tends to mix the colder air at the
next to the ground, with slightly " 'armer air above (see. Fig. 3.1 4). surface with the warmer air above. '! his mixing.along with the
'Ibis measured increase in air temperature just above the cooling of the warmer air as it comes in contacl "1th the cold
ground is knO\\'O as a radiation inversion because it forms ground, causes a vertical temperature profile that is almost
mainly through radiational cooling of the surface. Since radia- i~othermal (constant temperature) in a layer several meters
tion inversio1t~ occur on most dear, calm nights, they are also thick. In the absence of wind, the cooler, more dense surface
called nocturnal inversions. air does nol readily mix \\•ith the \\'armer, less den;;e air above.
<1<n11...ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
.... '"'
,,..
.....
llO'
....
90' 120' 150' ,..,.
• FI GUR E 4 Record high temperatures throughoutthev1orld.
and rhe inversion i~ more srrongly developed, as illus1ra1ed in rerarding rhe rare of surface cooling. Also, on humid nighL~.
• Fig. 3.1 5. oondensarion in !he form of fog or dew will release la1en1 heal,
A long nighr al~ con1ribu1es 10 asrrong inversion. Gener- \\•hich \\•arms the air.So. radiation inversions may occur on any
ally, !he longer !he nigh1,1helonger1he1imeofradiarional cool- night Bu1,duringlongwin1er nighrs, when rheair issrill,doud-
ing and !he beuer are !he ch,mces Iha! rhe air near !he ground free, and relarively dry, rhese inversions can become srrong
will be much colder lhan rhe air above. Consequently, winier and deep.
nighL~ provide rhe bes! condirion.~ for asrrong radial ion inver- On winier nighrs in middle laliludes, ii i~ common 10 ex-
sion, olher facrors being equal. perience belo,v-freezing 1empera1ures near rhe ground and air
Finally, radiarion inversions are more likely wilh a dear S"C (9"F) warmer al your waist Jn middle la1i1udes, 1he rop of
sky and dry air. Under lhese condirions, rhe ground is able !he inversion -rhe region where rhe air 1empera1ure srops in-
10 radiare irs energy 10 ourer space and !hereby cool rapidly. creasing wilh heighr- is usually nor more rhan JOO m (330 fr)
However, wilh cloudy weal her and moisl air, much of !he oul- above Ihe ground. In dry, polar region.~. where winier nighrsare
going infrared energy i~ absorbed and radialed 10 !he surface, measured in mon1h.~. 1he rop of !he inversion i~ oflen 1000 m
may initial! y bring rold air into a region, the coldest nights usu-
ally occur when the air is dear and relatively calm.
There are, however, other factors that determine how cold
the night air becomes. For example,a surface that is wet or cw-
ered with vegetation can add water vapor to the air, retarding
nighttime cooling. Likewise, if the soil i~ a good heat conductor,
heat ascending tO\\"ard the surface during the night adds warmth
to the air, which restricts cooling. On the other h'md, snow cov-
ering thegroundactsas an insulating blanket that prevents heat
stored in the soil from reaching the air. Snow, a good emitter of
infrared energy, radiates away energy rapidly at night, which
helps keep the air temperature above a snow surface quite low.
Look back at fig. 3.13, (p. 69), and observe that the lowest
temperature on 'my given day is usually observed around sun-
rise. However, the cooling of the ground and surface air may
even continue beyond sunrise for a halfhour or so, as outgoing
energy can exceed incoming energy. Thissituation happens be-
Cfilose light from the early morning sun passes through a thick
section of atmosphere and strike,~ the ground at a low angle.
C'.onsequently, thesun'senergy does not effectively heat the sur-
• F I GURE 3.14 On a clear, calm night, the air near the surface can be muc:h face. Surface heating m.1y be reduced further when the ground
colder than theair above. The increase in airtemperaturewith inaeasing is moist and available energy is used for evaporation. (Any duck
height above the surface is called a radiation temperature inversion.
hunter lying flat in a marsh knows the sudden cooling that oc-
curs as evaporation chills the air just after sunrise.) Hence, the
lowest temperature may occur shortly after the sun has risen.
Cold, heavy surface air slowly drains downhill during the
3 10
night and eventuaUy settles in low-lying basins and valleys.
Valley bottoms are thus colder than the surrounding hill~ides
(see • Fig. 3.16). In middle latitudes, these warmer hillsides,
caUed thermal belts, are less likely to experience freezing tem-
2
peratures than the valley below. This encoun1ges farmers to
plant on hillsides tho~e trees unable to survive the valley's low
g g
.. temperature.
~ s On the valley floor, the cold, dense air is unable to rise.
.~ ""~ Smoke and other pollutants trapped in this heavy air restrict vi~
lf <
ibility. Therefore, vaUey bottoms are not only colder, but are also
more frequently polluted than nearby hillsides. Even when the
land i~ only gently sloped, cold air settles into lower-lying areas,
such asriverbasinsand floodplains. Because the flat floodplains
are agriculturally rich areas, cold air drainage often forces farm-
0 0 ers to seek protection for their crops. (Before going on to the
-2 0 2 4 •c next section, you may wi~h to read the Focus section on p. 74
that describes some of the coldest places in North America and
~6
I I
de 32 34 the lowest temperature ever measured in the world.)
Temperatixe
Protecting Crops from the Cold Night Air On cold nights,
• f I GUR E 3.15 Vertical temperature profilesjustabove the ground on a
windy night and on ac:alm night. Notice that the radiation inversion develops
many pkrnts may be damaged by low temperatures.1b protect
better on the calm night. sm.'11 plant~ or shrubs, cover them with straw, cloth, or plastic
sheeting. This prevents ground heat from being radiated away
to therolder surroundings. lf you are a household gardener con-
(about 3300 ft) above the surface. It may, however, extend to as cerned about outside flowers and plants during cold weather,
high as 3000 m (about I 0,000 ft). simply wrap them in plastic or cover each with a paper cup.
It should now be apparent that how cold the night air be- On cold night~. certain crops may also be damaged by the
comesdepend~ primarily on the length ofthe night, the moi~ture low temperature,~. lf the cold occurs over a widespread area for
content of the air, cloudiness, and the \\ind. Even though \\ind a long enough timetodamagecertain crops, the extreme cold is
1500
1000
500
• FIGURE 3. 16 On cold. clear nights. the settling of cold air into valleys makes them colder than surrounding hillsides. The region
along the side of the hill \Vhere the air temperature is above freezing is known asa lherma/belr.
calle<l a freeze.' A single freeze in California, Texas, or Horida Another way to protect trees i~ to mix the cold air at the
can cause crop losses in the million~ or even billions of dollars. ground with the warmer air above, thusrai~ing the temperature
In fact, citrus crop los.~es in Florida during the hard freeze of of the air next tot he ground. Such mixing can be accomplished
January, 1977, exceeded $2 billion, and lo.~s exceeded millions by using wind machines (see • Fig. 3.18), which are power-
of dollars during the freeze of December, 2009. In California, driven fans that resemble airplane propellers. One significant
several freezes during the spring of 2001 cause<l millions of benefit of wind machines i~ that they can be thermo.~talically
dollars in damages to California's north coa.~t vineyard~. which controlled to turn off and on at prescribed temperatures. Farm-
resulted in higher wine prices. ers \•,iithout their O\vn \\•ind machines can rent air mixers in the
Fruit treesareparlicularlyvldnerableto cold weather in the
spring when they are blo.~soming The protection of such trees
presents a seriou.~ problem to the farmer. Since the lowest tem-
peratures on a dear, still night occur near the surface, the lower
branches of a tree are the mo.~t susceptible to damage. There -
fore, increasing the air temperature do.o;e to the ground may
prevent damage. One way thi~ increase can be achieved i~ to use
orchard beaters, or "smudge pots; which warm the air around
the trees by setting up convection currents do.~e to the ground
(see • Fig. 3.17). ln addition, heat energy radiated from oil- or
gas-fire<l orchard heaters i~ intercepted by the buds of the trees,
which rai~es their temperature.
•A frtt?A.' occurs over -a widespread area when I he su1{1Ceair tcinp~ra ture rc1noins
below freezing for a long e nough time to J~1n agc certain ag:rkuhuraJ crops. lhe
tenns frost .ind frt·eu are oltcn used interchange3bly by wriousseg1ncntsof .society.
However. to the grower of perennial crops (such as apples and citrus) who Ills to
protect the crop apinst di1naging low tc1upcratures. it nlokcs no diffe1e nce if vis·
iblc ..frost" is p1t!.sento r not The concern is whether o r not lheplnnt tissue h;tS bcicn
a-posed to tem_pcratures equ3J to or bt:low J2°F. The actual frttzing point of the
plant. hO\\'eVCr, ctin v.lry bccausc pcrc nni ~d pbntscan dew lop hardiness in the full e FIGURE 3. 17 Orchard heaters circulate the air by setting up convection
lh.11 usunlly Ins.ts through the winter, then \\-Ctirs offgraduolly in the spring. currents..
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U .......................... "',........in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••-..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I f:·"'*'"'•......... i....
<1<n11....i.,,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,,
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c ..'ll'tl.. ...'ll""".....,
1~ .,~,.,i...,,.......,:.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
Record Low Temperatures
One city in the United States that experi -

ences very low temperatures is Interna-
tional Falls, Minnesota, w here the aver age
temperature for January is - 16°C (3°F). Lo-
cated several hundred m iles to t he south o f
International Falls, Minneapolis-St. Paul,
w ith an aver age temperature of - 9°C (16°F) }
for the three w inter months, is th e coldest
major urban area in the nation. For d ura-
tion of extreme cold, Minneapolis repor ted
186 consecutive hours of temperatures be-
low 00F during the winter of 1911-1 912.
~
e ...~~~~~~~~~~~'
! ~.. ~- [;/ 't;, ~-
Within the forty-eight adjacent states, • FI GURE 5 Antarctica, the coldest continent on eart h. \Vhere air temperatures
however, the record for t he longest d ura- often drop below· 100'F.
tion of severe cold belongs to Langdon,
North Dakota, where the ther mometerre-- The coldest areas in Nor th America are At the geographical South Pole, over
mained below a:>F for 41 consecutive days foun d in the Yukon and Northwest Territo- 9000 feet above sea level, w here the
during th ewinter of 1936. ries of Ca nada. Resolute, Canada (latitude Amundsen-Scott scient ific station has been
The most extensive cold wave in the 75°N), has an average temperature of - 32'C keeping records for more than fifty ~ars,
United States occurred in Februar y, 1899. (- 26°F) for t he month of January. t he average temperature for the month o f
Temperatures during this cold spell fell The lowest temperatures and coldest July (winter) is -59°C (- 74°F) and the mean
below <f'F in every existing state, including w inter s in the Nor thern H emisphere are annual temperature is -49"C (-57' F). The
Florida. Thisextremecold e~ n twa.s the foun d in the interior of Siberia and l owest temper ature ever recorded there
first and only o f its kind in recorded history. Greenland. For example, the average (-83°( or - 117°F) occurred under clear
Record temperatures set during this ex- Ja nua ry temperature in Ya kutsk. Siberia skies w ith a light w ind on the morning of
tremely cold outbreak still stand today (latitude62' N), is - 43°C (-46'F). There, June 23, 1983. Cold as it was, it was not the
in many cities of the United States. The the mean temperature for the entire ~ar record low for the world. T hat belongs to
official record for the lowest temperature isa bitter cold - ll°C (12' F). At Eismitte, t he Russian station at Vostok, Antarctica
in the forty-eight adjacent states belongs Greenland, t he average temperature fo r (latitude 78°S), w here the temperature
to Rogers Pass, Montana, where o n the February (the coldest month) is - 47'C p lummeted to - 89°C (- 129"F) o n July 21,
morning o f January 20, 1954, the mercury (-53(1F), w ith the mean annual temperature 1983. (Figure 6 p rovides more information
dropped to -src (-70'FJ. T he lowest bein g a frigid - 30'C (- 22'F). Even though on record low temper atures throughout
official temperature for Alaska, -62°( these temperatures ar e extremely low, th ey t he world.)
(- 80'F), occurred at Prospect Creek on do not come close to t he coldest area of
January 23, 1971. the world: the Antarctic (see Fig. 5) .
IOrmofhelicopters. Although helicopte.rsareelfoctivein mixing orchard. Because water has a high heat capacity, it cool~ more
the air. they are expensive to operate. slowly than dry soil. C'.onsequently, thesurfacedoesnot become
Ifsufficient water is available, trees can be protected by ir- as cold as it \\ 0uld if it \\rere dry. 1:.;urthermore, \\•et soil has: a
1
rigation. On potentially cold nights, farmers might flood the higher thermal conductivity than dry soil. Hence, in \••et soil
heat is conducted upward from subsurface soil more rapidly,
WEATHER WATCH which helps to keep the surface \••armer.
When the surface air temperature dipped t o its all -time lf the air temperature both at the surface and above fall
record low of - 127°F on the Antarctic Plateau of Vostok below freezing, farmers are left with a difficult situation. Wind
Station, a drop of saliva falling from the lips of a person machines won't help because they would only mix cold air at the
taking an observation would have frozen solid before surface with the colder air above. Orchard heaters and irriga-
reaching the ground. tion are ofliule value as they would only protect the branche~
just above the ground. Ho"•ever, there is one form ofprotection
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl.. 1~..,'ll..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
"'""
Oc•nl•'S 1own1
temperature: • t l"CC 12"F)
Mm.IN fr.ae, Ml, USA
EllfWIOon: ~20& m ( 13,$00 II)
t.q. 17, 1979
./
($1' $)'
/
UIO' 150" 120' O' llO' 120' 180'
.....
• F I GURE 6 Record k>w temperature~ throughout the \Yorld.
Iha! does work: An orchard's sprinkling system may be !urned !he air is dry, as a good deal of!he waler may belos! through
on so !ha! ii emits a fine spray of waler. In the cold air, !he wa· evaporation.
!er freezes around !he branches and buds, coaling !hem \\1!h a So far, we have looke.d a! how and why the air 1empera1ure
thin veneer of ice. As long as !he spraying continue.~. !he la!en! near !he ground changes during !he course of a 24-hour day.
heal-given off as the waler changes in!o ice-keeps !he ice
iempera!ure a! o•c (32•F). 'Jl1e ice ac!S as a protective coaling
against !he subfreezing air by keeping !he buds (or frui!) a! a WEATHER WATCH
1empera!urehigher1han !heir damaging poin! (see • Fig. 3.19). One of the greatest temperature ranges ever recorded in
Care mus! be !a ken since 100 much ice can cause !he branches the Northern Hemisphere (100° F) occurred at Browning,
1obreak. 'l11e frui! may be saved from the cold air, while!he!ree Montana, on January 23,. 1916, when the air temperature
itself may be damaged by 100 much pro!ec!ion. Sprinklers work plummeted from 44°F to - 56°( in less than 24 hours.
well when !he air is fair! y humid. 'Jlwy do no! work well when
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~,,..~c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
2
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010' 15' 20' 25' 3(J> 35' 40" 4S' 'C

' ' • • •
50" 60' 70" SO" 90" 100" 110" 'F
Temperature
J
l • FIGURE 3 .20 An idealized distribution ofa ir temperature abote the
"
B
ground during a 24-hour day. The temperature curves represent the variations
in average air temperature above a grassy surface for a m id~lati tu de city during
• FIGURE 3.18 Wind machines mix cooler surfaceair\vi thwarm er air the summ ~ underc:le.ar,calm conditions.
above.
We saw that during the day the air nearthe earth's surface can
become quite warm, whereas at night it can cool offd ramatically. BRIEF REVIEW
• Figure 3. 20 summarizes these observations by illustrating how
Up to this point we have examined temperature variations on
the average air temperature above the ground can change over
a seasonal and dal ly basl.s. Before going on , here is a review of
a span of 24 hours. Notice in the figure that ah hough the air
some of the important concepts and facts we have covered :
several feet above the surface both cools and warm~. it does so
al a slower rate than air at the surface. • The seasons are caused by the earth being tilted on its axis
as It revolves around the sun. The t il t causes annual varia-
tions In the amount of sunlight that strikes the surface as
well as variations In the length of time the sun shines at
each latitude.
• During the day, the earth's surface and air above wi ll con-
tinue to warm as long as Incoming energy (main ly sunlight)
exceeds outgoing energy from the surface.
• At night, the earth's surface cool s, mainly by giving up more
Infrared radiation than It receives-a process called radla-
tional cooling.
• The coldest nights of winter normally occur when the air Is
cal m, fairly dry (low water-vapor content), and cloud-free.
• The highest temperatures during the day and the l owest
temperatures at night are normall y observed at the earth's
surface.
• Radiation Inversions exist usually at night when the air near
the ground I sco lder than 1he air above.
• FIG URE 3 .19 Ice coverscitrus trees in Clermont, Florida. that were spra)ed
• An important way to protect certain crops from damaging
\Vilh \Vaterd uring the early mo rning to protect them fro m damaging lo.v tem~ low temperatures at the surface Is to mix the col d surface air
peratures that dipped into the 20's {"Fj on December 1S, 2010. with the warmer air above.
°*"'"''*..
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
lie1~tiij@IJ~li&fJit.Jt11E=:=:=:=:=:=:=:=:=:=:3
300--17"--
10 §: 200 - - 185'-
OS
I 100 - - 19.5 ' - -
0 21
Oally Oally
During a 24-hour da)\ air temperatures change more dramatically mal<irJu1I (-C) rn!nlrntlm ('C)
.i the surfjl!! 1han <hey do several feet above. For a vlsuaHutlon
of chis concopt, log in totheC.ngageCourseMate websk• at
www.cengagebrain.mm anddid:on theanima~on flltlt~ Oai/y • FIGURE 3.21 lhedaiyranged '°"'pert1ure deusses.,w..dimbaway
Ttmptrorut• Cl>angesAb<M' lhe 5urfaCL rrom tte earth\ ill' face. Hentt. thtft h leu dllt-to-night variatOn in air temper•
awre near the top of• high-fdlt .tpan_mtnl comptex than al the ground k!otel
DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS The greatest varia· the clouds pcl'Sist into the night, they tend 10 keep nighttime
lion in daily temperature occurs al the earth's surface. In temperatures h lgb<.'r, as cloud. are c:xallent absorbers and emit -
foct , the difference between the daily maximum and mini· 1ersofinfrared radiation- the cloud, actually emit a great deal
mum temperature-called the dail y (diu rn a l) ra nge o f of infrared energy oock 10 the surface. Clouds, therefore, have
t emperature- is greatest next to the ground and ht-comes the effect of lowering the daily rnngc of temperature. In clear
progrc>sivdy smaller as we mow away from the surface (see weather (fig. 3.22b), daytime air temperatures tend 10 be higher
e l'ig. 3.2 1). ' this daily variation in temperature is nlso much llS the sun's rays impinge directly upon I he surface., while night-
larger on clear days than on cloudy ones. time temperatures arc usually lower due 1.0 rapid radiational
' lhc lar1.-cst diurnal range of temperature occur. on high cooling. Th erefore, dear dt1ys and dear nights combine to pro·
desert.>, where the air is fairly dry, often doud-frcc, and there mote a l'lrge daily range in temperuture.
is little wnter vapnr to radiate much infrared energy back to the Humidity can also have an effect on diurml temperature
surface. By day, dear summer skies allow the sun'> energy 10 ranges. for e.xample. in humid regions, the diurnal temperature
quickly warm the ground which, in turn, warm'l the air abow range is usually small I lcrc, haze and clouds lower the maxi-
to a temperature ofkn e.~cttding .J8•C ( 1oo•f~ Al night, the mum temperature bypreventing someofthc SWl'senergyfrom
ground coob rapidly by radiating infrared energy to SfXICC, and re aching the surface. At night, the moist nir keeps the minimum
the minimwn temperature in these regionsoccasionallydips be· temperature high by absorbing the earth's infrared radiation
low 7'C (45°~'). thus giving an extremcly highd:uly temperature and radiating a portion of ~ 10 the ground An e.<arnple of a
range of more than 31°C (55"f). humid city with a small summer diurnal l<!mperature range is
A go.id example of a city "ith a large diurnal tcmpomiturc Charle~-ion. South Carolina, where the average July maximum
range is Reno, Nevada, which is located on a plateau al an eleva- temperature is 32'C (90' F), 1he average minimum is 22°C
tion of 1350 m (4400 ft) above sea level. Herc, in the dry, 1hin (72'F), and the diurnaJ range isonly IO"C ( 18'1').
summer t1ir, 1hc average daily maximum temperalurc for July is Cities near large bodies ofwntcrtypicaUyhavesmaUerdiur-
33•c (92°1') - short-sleeve weather, indeed. But don't lose your nal temperaltLre mnges than dtic.~ fort her inland. Th;s phenom-
shirt in Reno, for you will need ii al night, as the average daily enon is caused in part by the additional water vapor in the nir
minimum tempert1lure for July is 8"C {<17°F). Reno has n daily and by the fact that water warm> nnd cools much more slowly
rnngcof25°C (45°F)! than land
Cloucl~cun havcalargeeffecton thcdnily rangeb1 tcmp<'ra· Moreover, cities whose temperature readings are obtained
ture. As"" saw in Chapter 2, clouds (especially low, thick ones) at airports often haw larger diurnal temperature ranges than
arc good reflectors ofincomingsol:tr radiation, and SO they pre· those wbose readings arc obtlined in downtown areas. The rea-
vcnl much of the suns energy from reaching the surfncc. This son for this fact is that nighttime temperatures in cities tend to
effect tends to lower daytime tanpetatuO?S (Stt • Fig. 3.22a~ If be warmer than those in outlying rural areas. This nighttime
C'o..,tllflJ )itlC.-. . . - t -f....._.,... .......... Mii,•llo.,.,,......__...j_,. ,1,....... .........,. .... , ...

_ ............,......_ ......... _........ . .... _ • ..,.... ...._.,.,...,t-...,- -.w-..
0..•-- ,......_ ............ _
",..'" ...
- --~ _...
~-·!Rf -I £ ........,...._. ....
Warmer nigh!
(a) Small daily temJl«al\lfe range (b) Lruge daily tompe<aruro range
• FI GURE 3 .2 2 (a) Clouds tend to keep daytime temperatures lower and nighttime temperatures highe~ producing a small daily range in
temperature. (b} In the absence of douds,days tend to be\varmer and nightscooler, producing a larger daity range in temperature.
city warmth-called the urban heat island-forms as the sun's level) by adding to each station above sea level an amount of
energy is absorbed by urban structures and concrete; then,dur· temperature that would correspond to an average temperature
ing the night, this heat energy is slowly released into the city air. change "ith height.•
·1he average of the highest and lowest temperature for a Figures 3.23 and 3.24 show the importance of latitude on
24 -hour period is known as the mean (average) daily tempera- temperature. Notice that on both maps and in both hemi~pheres
ture. Most newspapers li~t the mean daily temperature along the isothermsareorientedeast -west, indicating that locations at
"ith the highest and lowest temperatures for the preceding day. the.same latitude receive near! y the same amount ofsolar energy.
'Jbeaverageofthe mean daily temperatures for a particular date Jn addition, the annualsolarheat that each latitude receives de-
averaged for a 30-year period gives the average (or "11orm11r) creases from low-to-high latitudes; hence, average temperatures
temperatures for that date. (More information on the concept in January and July tend todecre'l~ from low-to-high latitudes.
d "normal" temperature is given in the Focus section on p. 79.) HO\\ft"Ver~ because there is a greater variation in solar radia-
tion between low and high latitudes in winter than in summer,
REGIONAL TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS "Jl1e main factors notice that the isotherms in January (during the Northern
th:tt cause variations in temperature from one place to anothe.r Hemisphere winter) are do.~r together (a tighter gradient-
are called the controls oflemperature. Earlier we saw that the which represents a rapid change in temperature over a given
greatest factor in dete.r mining temperature is the amount d so- distance) than they are in July. "J11is circumstance means that
lar radiation that reaches the surface. This amount, of course, is if you travel from New Orleans to Chicago in January, you are
determined by the length of daylight hours and the intensity of more likely to experience greater temperature variations than if
incoming solar radiation. floth of these factors are a function you makethe same trip in July.
of latitude; hence, latitude is considered an important control Even though average temperatures tend to decrease from
of temperature.111e main controls are: low latitudes toward high latitude~. notice on the July map
I. latitude (Fig. 3.24) that the highest average ternperaturesdo not occur in
2. land and water distribution the tropics, but rather in the subtropical desertrnf the Northern
3. ocean currents Hemisphere. Here, sinking air associated with high-pressure
4. elevation areas generally produces dear skies and low humidity. These
conditions, a long with a high sun beating down upon a relat ivel y
We can obtain a better picture of these controls by examin· barren landscape, produce scorching heat.
ing • Fig. 3.23 and • Fig. 3.24, which show the average monthly For extreme cold, notice on the January map (Fig. 3.23)
temperatures throughout the world for January and July. (The that the lowest average temperatures are found in the inte·
average temperature for each month is the average of the daily rior of Siberia, where the average January temperature dips
mean temperature,~ for that month.) 'The lines on the map are
isotherms-lines connecting places that have the same temper-
1be ainount of change is usu3lly less thnn the sblnd.1rd te1npcnnure Jnpse rote of
ature. Because air temperature normally decreases "ith height,
JG'F per l<XX> feet (6S"C per 1000 1ne1crs). The reason is 1.hnt 1hc stand1rd J3pse rate
cities at very high elevations are much colder than their sea- isco1nputed tOra.ltitudesabme the carthS surf-ace in 1be ~n.'t'• at nlOSpherc. rn the less·
level counterparts. Consequent! y, the isotherm.~ in Fig. 3.23 and dcnseairat high t'ltv.ltions. the absorption of sol::tr radintion by theground aiusesnn
Fig. 3.24 are corrected to read at the same horizontal level (sea ow rail sligblly higher 1c1nperatu1\' lhn111.hn1o f the freeatnlOsphere at Lhc srune lewl.

<l<nlonlfl •...,.._,~..,,._
'*"'.......
'°"">' .....buq10.U . ......... ................ " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••-..........h~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
.i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
When It Comes to Temperature, What's Normal?
When theweathercaster reports that "the Remember t hat the word normal or temperature for this date is68'F (dashed
normal high temperature for to<lay is68'F." norm, refers to weather data averaged over line). Notice, however, that only on one day
does this mean that the high temperature a perio<l of 30 years. For example, Fig. 7 during this 30-year period d id the high
on this day is usually68°F?Or does it mean sho.vs the high temperature measured for temperature actually measure 68°F (large
thatwe should expect a high temperature 30 years in a southwestern city on March 15. red dot). In fact. t he most common high
near 68°F? Actually, we sh ould expect nei- The average (mean) high temperature for temperature (ca lied the mode) was 60"F,
ther one. this period is68°F; hence, the norma l high and occurred o n 4 days (blue dots).
So w hat would be considered a typical
high temperature for thisdate? Actually,
any high temperature that lies between
100 about 47"F an d 89"F (tw<J standard
deviations* on either side of 68°F) would
90 be considered typica l for this day. W hile a
hig h temperature of 80°F may be q uite
warm and a high temperature of 47°F
80
E may be quite cool, they are both no more
~
~ 70
1__ un common (unusual) than a high tempera-
ture of 68°F, w hich is the normal (average)
~ hig h temperature for the 30-year perio<l.
E 60 This same type of reasoning applies to
{!?
normal rainfall as the actual amount of
precipitation will likely be greater or less
50
than the 30-year average.
40
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Year •A !otandard deviation is a statistical measure of the
spread of the data. T\vostandard deviations for this
• FIGURE 7 The high temperature measured (for 30years}on March ts in ac:itylocated in the south- set of data mean that9S p~centof the time the
\vestern United States. The dashed tine represents the normal temperature for the 30-year periocL high temperature occurs bet\veen 47"F and 89''F.
below -SO'F. A~ cold as this region is, it is even colder over 1he Another reason for the sharp temperalUredifference between
Antarctic. Extremely cold surface air forms as relative! y dry oceans and interiorlocationsisthatit takes a great deal more heat
air, high elevations, and snow-covered surfaces allow fOr rapid to raise the temperature ofa given amount ofwater byonedegree
radiational cooling during the Antarctic'.~ dark winter montl.~. than it does to raise the temperature of the same amount ofland
Although not shown in Pig. 3.24, the average temperature for by one degree.• Water not only heal~ more slo"1Y than land, it
the coldest month at theSouthPole i~below-70'F.Andforabso roots more slowly as well, and so the oceans act like huge heat res-
lutecold, the lowest average temperature fOr any month (-1OOOF) ervoirs.1 hus, mid-ocean surface temperatures change relatively
was recorded at the Plateau Station during July, 1968. little from swnmer to winter compared to the much larger annual
So far "'e've seen that January temperatures in the Northern temperature changes over the middle of continenlS.
Hemisphere are much lower in the mid<lle of continents than As a result of the warming and cooling properties of water,
they are at the same latituM near the ocean~. No1ice on 1he July even large lakes can modify the temperature around them ln
map th'tt the reverse is true. One reason for these temperature summer, for example, the Great Lakes remain cooler than the
differences can be attributed to the w1equal heating and cooling land and refreshing breezes blow inland, bringing relief from
properties ofland and water. Foronething,solarenergy reaching the sometimes sweltering heat. As "inter approaches, the water
land is absorbed in a thin layer of soil; reaching water, it pen- roots more slowly than the land The first blast of cold air from
etrates deeply. Bec"1!se water is able to circulate, it di~tributes its • Recall fro1n Clup1cr'2 Ihm theanloun1 of hent needed to raise 1he 1e:1nperature o(
heat through a much deeper layer. Al~ some of the solar energy o ne gnun of a sub.stunce by one degree C'.elsim ~ cnJled 5pecificheat. and th:lt \ Wt tcr
striking the water is used to evaporate it rather than heat it. has a higher .spcdlic het11 than docs Lind.
C'1'1'rif• :tl 1~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'•••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
90 0 90 180
60
30
30 30
1-----
60 60
40 ! _. . . . . -rs:: 40
:.l 30
30
90 0 90 180
longitude
a FIGUR E 3.23 Averageair temperature near sea level in January rFl.
90 0 90 180
60
90
30
60
90 0 90 180
Longitude
• F I GURE 3. 24 Average air temperature near sea level in July (IF).
Canada is modified 'l~ it crosses the lakl!,~. and so the first freeze approach an ocean-continent boundary. Such bending of the
is delayed on thee'l~ternshores of Lakl! Michigan. isotherms along the margin of continents is due in part to the
Look closely at Figs. 3.23 and 3.24 and notitt> that in many unequal heating and cooling properties of land and water, and
places the isotherms on both maps tend to bend when they in par! to ocean currents. for exan1ple, along the e'l~tern margins
Temp Temp Temp Temp
•f J F M A M J J A s 0 N D •c •f J F M A M J J A s 0 N D •c
90 90
30 30
Annual temperature rB11gG:
80 80 8'C (14'F)
25 25
70
20 20
60 15 15
50 10 • 10
Penta Delgada
(Azores)
40 5 s
0 0
30 Annual temperature range' 30
28' C (SO"F)
-5 -6
20 20
J F M A M J J A s 0 N D J F M A M J J A s 0 N D
Mon1h Man1h
(a) St. Louis, Missouri, 39°N (b) Panta Delgacfa, Azores 38'N
• FIGURE 3.25 11.<\onthlytemperature data and annual temperature range for {a) St Loois.. MissourL a city located near the middle of a continenl
and fb) Ponta Delgada.a city located in the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean. Notice that theannual temperature range is much higher in SL Louis.
of continents \\'arm ocean currents transport \\'arm \\•ater pole· first seem that their temperatures throughout the year are quite
ward, whereas, along the western margins, they transport cold similar. How<'ver, often this is not the case. For example, San
water equatorward. A~ we will see in Chapter JO, some coastal Francisco, California, and Richmond, Virginia, are situated at
areas also experience upwelling, which brings cold water from the same latitude (37°N). Both have similar hours of daylight
below to 1he surface. during the year; both have the same mean annual temperature-
Al any location, the difference in average temperature be- J40C (57°F). Here, the similarities end. 11ie temperature differ-
tween the warmest month (often July in the Northern Hemi- ences between the two cities are apparent to anyone who has
sphere) and colMst month (often January) is called the annual traveled to San Francisco during the summer with a suitcase full
range of tem perature. As we would expect,annual temperature of clothes suitable for summer weather in Richmond.
ranges are largest over interior continental landmasses and much • Figure 3.26 summarizes the average temperatures for
smalkr overlarger bodies of water (see • Fig. 325). Moreover, in- San Francisco and Richmond. Notice that the coldest month
land cities have larger annual temperature ranges than do coastal for both cities is January. Even though January in Richmond
cities. Near the equalor (because daylight length varies little and averages only 8°C (14'F) colder than January in San Francisco,
the sun i~ always high in the noon sky), annual temperature people in Richmond awaken to an average January minimum
ranges are small, usu,tlly less than 3°C (5°F). Quito, £cuador- temperature of -3°C (27.F), which is the lowest tempera-
on the equator at an elevation of2850 m (9350 ft)-experiences ture ever recorded in San Francisco. Trees that thrive in San
an annual range of less than L'C. In middle and high latitudes, Francisco~ weather would find it difficult surviving a winter in
annual ranges are large, especially in the middle of a continent. Richmond. S~ even though San Francisco and Richmond have
Yakutsk, in northeastern Siberia near the Arctic Circle, has an the same mean annual temperature, the behavior and range of
extremely large annual temperature range of 62•c (l L2'F). their temperatures differ greatly.
1 he average temperature of any station for the entire year
is the m ean (average) annual k mper ature, which represents ·The 1uean annu31 1cn1pcrn1urc 1nay be obtlincd by laking the sun1 of the
the average of the twelve monthly average temperatures.• When 12n'IOnthly 1nc:msnnd dividing that 1otalby 12.or by obtaining theswu of the daily
t\\'O cities have the same mean annual temperature. it might nleaosand dividing th.lt tokll by 365.
Temp Temp Temp Temp
•f J F M A M J J A $ 0 N D 'C "F J F M A M J J A $ 0 N D 'C
90 90
Record high· R-rdlow- 30 Record tig,· Record low. 30
39 C (103 F) --3-C (27 Fl 41"C (1os•FJ -24 c (-12 F)
80 80
25 25
20 20
60 15 60 15
so 10 so 10
5
40
,_tu..
A119f1191 amua!
14'C(57"F)
Average annu8
lempe.Wra
5
0 1•'C(SrF) 0
JO JO
Annual lt~ralUre ranoe Annual lemper<llllfe range:
7 (12 FJ
22"C (42"F)
-6 -5
20 20
J F M A M J J A $ 0 N D J F M A M J J A $ 0 N 0
Monlh Monlh
(a) San Francisco, Cahlomia, 38'N (b) Richmond. Virginia. 38'111
• FI GURE 3. 26 Tempera1ured.at1i fo1 (a) San Fr 6n-tbc~ C411fonila (38.NJand (b) Richmond, Vlrginia t38'N}-twocitieswlth the same mean annual ten'lpera1ure.
eslimale lhe energy needl?<l lo cool indoor air 10 a comforluble

level. Theforecast ofmean daily temperalure is convened 1ocool·
Applications of Air Temperature Data big degree-days by subtracting 65"P from the mean. ' ll1e rcmtlin·
1liere are a varieiy of applico1ions for the m<>an daily temper- ing value is the number of cooling degree-days for lhatdny. l'orcx-
ature. An applicn1 ion developed by healing engineers in esti- runple,a day wilh a mean lemperJlureof 70' F would correspond
mating energy needs is the healing dcgr~oe-day. 1 he heating IO (70-65). orScoolingdegree-days. High valuesindia1te warm
degree-day is based on 1he asswnplion lh:ll people will begin weather and high power production for cooling (seee l~g. 3.28).
to u.~ 1hcir furnaces when the mean daily temperature drops Knowledge of the nwnher of cooling degree-days in an
below 65"F. Therefore, heating degree-day> arc determined area allows a buiklcr to plan the size and type ofequipment that
by subtracting the me-an temperature fort~ day from 65°F. should Ill' installed to provide adequate air conditioning. A !so,
Thus, if IM mean tempera! urc for a day iS 64°1'. there would Ill' the fol'OOlSting ofcooling dcgn..,-days during the summer gives
I heating degn...,-day on l hi& day.• power companies a way ofpredicting the energy demand dur-
On <hiys when the mean tcmper.nurc i; above 6S"F, there ing peak energy periods. A composite of heol ing plu> cooling
are no heating degrtt·days. I fence, the lower the .ivmige daily degree-days would give a practical indica1ion of the energy re·
lemperatutt, the more heating degrcc•days and the greater quirements O•n the year.
the predicted consurnp1ion offuel. When the number of heal- farmersusean indacalledgrowingdegrtt·daysasaguidc
ing degree-days for a whole )1'ar is calculated. the heating fud to planting and for determining the approximate dates when a
requirements for any location can be cstimat.-d. • figure 3.27 crop will be ready for han'l!Sting. A growing degree-day for a
shows the yearly a\1'rage number ofheating Jeg:t.'l'-days In \"Jri- particular croPisdefined asa day on which the m<'3n daUytcm·
ous locarions throughout the United Slules. peralutt is one degree above the brue temput1111n: (also known
As the mean daily temperature climbs above 6S"F, people as the zero temperature)-tht minimum lempcraturt «"quired
begin to cool their indoor environment. Consequently, nn index. ilr growth of that crop. For sweet com, the b~ temperature is
called the cooling dl-grec-day, is used during w(U'n1 w<ather lo so•F and. for peas. ii is 40"F.
On a summer day in Iowa, the mean lomperaturc might
•fo thrUnlkd SlJtt.1, lhe NnJionJI \\~llherS"nlcc :11\.I thc:Ocf'l1rUn(ntof Agricul- he SO"F. From YTable 3.2, we can see that, on this dav, sweet
ture ~dt"gR'CS F:.ibrcnhi!lt 1n thelf cr1rnpuw1lnttt. com would accumulate (SO - SO), or 30 growing degr~-dnys.
Theoretical! y, sweet corn can be harvested when it accumulates • TABLE 3.2 Estimated Growing Degree-Days for Certain
a total of2200 growing degree-days. So. ifsweet corn i~ planted Naturally Grown Agricultural Crops to Reach Maturity
in early April and each day thereafter averages about 20 growing BASE GROWING
degree-days, the corn would be ready forharvestabout l !Odays CROP !VARIETY, TEMPERATURE OEGREE·DAYS
later, or around the middle of July.• LOCATION! ("fl TO MATURITY
At one time, corn varietie~~ \\•ere rated in terms of"days to
Beans (Snap/South 50 1200- 1300
maturity." 'lhi~ rating system '"'s •msuccessful because, in actual
C-<1rolina)
practice, corn took considerably longer in some areas than in
others. This discrepancy ""JS the reason for defining "growing Corn (Sweet/Indiana) so 2200- 2800
degree-days." Hence, in humid JO\\"J, where summer night-
time temperatures are high, gro.,1ng degree-days accumulate Cotton (Delta Smooth 60 1900- 2500
much fas1er. Consequen1ly, the corn matures in considerably Leaf/ Arkansas)
li!werd,1ys than in the drier wesl, where summer nighltime lem- Peas (Early/ Indiana) 40 1100- 1200
peratures are lower, and each day accumulates fewer gro.,1ng
Rke (Vegold/Arkansas) 60 1700- 2100
•Afn poin1 ofin1eres1. in 1hc corn bch when the air 1e1npemturc clhnbsabovc 86°F.
the hot air puts added stress on lhe growth of 1he corn. C..onsequenlly, the corn \'/heat (Indiana) 40 2100- 2400
grows more slowly. Beel use of 1his fuc1, ~m y m:ix-ilnu1n 1enlpera1ure over 86"F is
reduced to 86°F when co1nputing the n'lt'an air 1enlpera1ure.
• FI GURE 3. 27 Mean annual total heating

degree-days across the United St.ates {base65"F}.
4000
2000
2000
1000
• FI GURE 3 .28 Mean annual totalcoolingdegree·days

across the United States (base 65\>f}.
500
1000 , 1000
2000
3000
A Thousand Degrees and Freezing to Death
Is there somewhere in our atmosphere corresponding to extremely high temper-

where the air temperature can be exceed- atures. However, in order to transfer
ingly high (say above 1000'1:: o r 1800°F) yet enough energy to heat something up by
a person might feel extremely cold?There conduction (exposed skin or a thermome-
is a region, but it's not at the earth's surface. ter bulb), an extremely large number of
You may reca II from Chapter 1 molecules must collide with the object. In
(Fig. 1.1 2. p. 16) that in the upperreaches the "thin.. air of the upper atmosphere, air
of our atmosphere {in the middle and molecules are moving extraordinarily fa st,
upper thermosphere), air temperatures but there are simply not enough of them
may exceed 1000°(. However, a thermom-- bouncing aga inst the thermometer bulb
eter shielded from the sun in this region of for it to register a high temperature. In
the atmosphere would indicate an ex- fact, when properly shielded from the sun,
tremely low temperature. This apparent the thermometer bulb loses far more en-
discrepancy lies in the meaning of air tem- ergy than it receives and indicates a tem-
perature and how we measure it. perature near absolute zero. This explains
In Chapter 2. we learned thatthe air whya nastron aut, when spacewalking, ~
temperature is directly related to the aver- will not only suivive temperatures exceed- ~
age speed at w hich the air molecules are ing 1000'C, but will also feel a profound
• FIG URE 8 Ho\vcan an astronau t survive \vlien
moving-faster speeds correspond to coldness w hen shielded from the sun's
the"'air"temperature is 10CKtC?
hig her temperatures. In the middle and radiant energy. At these high altitudes,
upper thermosphere (at altitudes the traditiona I meaning of air temperature
approaching 300 k1T1. or 200 mi) air (that is, regarding how"hot" o r"cold"
molecules are zipping about at speeds something feels) is no longer applicable.
degree-days. Although moisture and other conditions are not air and from the rapid transfer of heat. 1 hlL~, in cold weather,
taken into account, growing degree-days neverthelessserve asa when the air is calm, the temperature we perceive-called the
useful guide in forecasting approximate dates of crop maturity. sen sible temper ature -is often higher than a thermometer
might indicate. (Could the opposite effect occur where the air
AlRTEMPERATURE AND HUMAN COMFORT Probablyevery- temperature is very high and a person might feel exceptionally
onerealize,~that thesameairtemperaturecan fed d ifferently on cold' ff you are unsure, read the Focus section above.)
different occ'l~ions. For example, a temperature of20•c (6s•F) Once the wind starts 10 blow, the insulating layer of warm
on a dear windless March afternoon in New York City can air i~swept away, and heat is rapidly removed from the skin by
almost feel balmy after a long hard winter. Yet, this same tem- the constant bombardment of cold air. When all other factors
perature may feel uncomfortably cool on a summer afternoon are thesame, thefasterthe "'°d blows, the greater the heat loss,
in a stiff breeze. The human body'.~ perception of tempera- and the colder we feel. How cold the wind makes lL~ feel is usu-
ture obviously changes with varying atmospheric conditions. ally expressed as a wind<hill index (WCI).
'Jbereason for these changes is related to how we exchange heat The modern wind-chill index (see " 'fable 3.3 and
energy \\'ith our environment. Y1able 3.4) was formulated in 20Cll by a joint action group of
The body stabilizes its temperature primarily by convert- the National Weather Service and other agencies. 1 he new index
ing food into heat (metabolism). 'lb maintain a constant tem- takes into account the wind speed at about 1.5 m (5 ft) above
perature, the heat produced and absorbed by the body must be the ground instead ofLhe 10 m (33 ft) where "official" readings
equal to the heat it loses to its surrounding,~. '!here is, therefore, are usually taken. In addition, it tran~lates the ability of the air
a constant exchange of heat-especially at the surface of the 10 take heat away from a person's face (the air'.Hoolingpower)
skin -between the body and the environment. into a wind-chill equivalent temperature.• For example, notice
One way the body loses heat is by emitting infrared energy.
But we not only emit radiant energy, we absorb it as well. An-
"1he wind c.hill equb,".l.lent 1e1npcrt1turc fonn1das nn.• 3S follows.: \~Tin d c hill ("F) =
4
other way the body loses and gains heat is by conduction and
3S.74 + 0.6215 T - 35.75 (v•u<>) + 0Al75T ( \l'-.."'). where T is the air tenlpe rature
convection, which transfer heat to and from thebodyby air mo- in "F <'Ind V is I.he wind speOO in mi/hr. \Vind ch id ("C) = 13. 12 + 0.611ST - I 1.37
tions. On a cold day, a thin layer of warm air molecule.~ for~ (\."' ") +0.396ST (11" " ), where Tis the air leff1perO'll ure in "C, and V is the wind
1 1
close to the skin, protecting it from the surrounding cooler speed in kin/ hr.
<1<n11....ifl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,.,..,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
in Table 3.3 that an air temperature of LO"F with a wind speed actually depends on a number of factors, including the fit and
of JO mi/hr produces a wind-chill equivalent temperature of type of clothing we wear, the amount of sun.~hine striking the
-4°1'. Under these conditions, the skin of a person's exp0-sed body, 'md the actual amount of exposed skin.
face would lose as much heat in one minute in air "'th a tem- High winds, in below-freezing air, can remove heat from
perature of J0°F and a wind speed of JO mi/hr as it would in exp0-sed skin so quickly that the skin may actually freeze and
cilm air \\1th a temperature of-<rF. Of course, how cold we fed discolor. The freezing ofskin, called frostbite, u.~uall yoccurs on
,, TAB LE 3.3 Win d -Chill Equivalent Temperature (°F). A 20-ml/hr Wind Combined with an Air Temperature o f 20' F
Produces a Wind-Chill Eq ulvalentTemperature o f 4'F!
Al R TEf\.\PERATURE t~ F)
Calm 4-0 35 30 25 20 JS JO 5 0 -5 - JO - JS - 20 - 25 - 30 - 35 -40
5 36 31 25 J9 J3 7 -5 - 11 - J6 -22 - 28 - 34 - 4-0 - 46 - 52 - 57
JO 34 27 2J 15 9 3 - JO - 16 - 22 -28 - 35 - 4J - 47 - 53 - 59 -66
JS 32 25 19 13 6 0 -7 - J3 - J9 - 26 - 32 - 39 • 45 - SJ - 58 - 64 - 7J
20 30 24 J7 II 4 -2 -9 - J5 - 22 - 29 - 35 -42 -48 - 55 - 6J - 68 - 74
25 29 23 16 9 3 -4 - 11 - 17 - 24 - 31 - 37 - 44 - 51 - 58 - 64 - 7J - 78
30 28 22 15 8 -5 - J2 - J9 - 26 - 33 - 39 - 46 - 53 - 60 - Oi - 73 -80
35 28 2J J4 7 0 -7 - J4 - 2J - 27 - 34 -4J - 48 - 55 - 62 - 69 - 76 -82
4-0 27 20 13 6 -l -8 - JS -22 - 29 - 36 -43 -so - 57 - 64 - 7J - 78 -84
45 26 J9 J2 5 -2 -9 - J6 - 23 - 30 - 37 -44 - SJ - 58 - 65 - 72 - 79 -86
50 26 J9 J2 4 -3 - JO - J7 - 24 - 3J - 38 -45 - 52 - 60 - 67 - 74 - SJ - 88
55 25 JS II 4 -3 -ll - JS -25 - 32 - 39 -46 - 54 - 61 - 68 - 75 - 82 - 89
60 25 J7 JO 3 -4 - JJ - J9 -26 - 33 -40 -48 - 55 - 62 - 69 - 76 - 84 - 9J
·o.1rker shaded areas represent conditions where frostbite occurs in JO 1ulnutesor Jess.
"' TAB LE 3. 4 Wind-Chill Equivalent Tempera tu re (' C)*
AIR TEMPER•TURE l"CI
Calm JO 5 0 -5 - JO - JS - 20 - 25 - 30 - 35 - 4-0 - 45 - 50
JO 8 .6 2.7 - 3.3 - 9.3 - JS.3 - 21.1 - 27.2 - 33.2 - 39.2 -45.1 - SJ.I - 57.J -63.0
JS 7.9 1.7 - 4.4 - J0.6 - J6.7 - 22.9 - 29.J - 35.2 - 41.4 -47.6 - 51.6 - 59.9 -66.J
20 7.4 I.I - 5.2 - J l.6 - 17.9 - 242 - 3-0.5 - 36.8 - 43.J -49.4 - 55.7 -62.0 -68.3
25 6.9 0.5 - 5.9 - J2.3 - 18.8 - 252 - 31.6 - 38.0 - 44.5 - 50.9 - 57.3 -63.7 - 70.2
30 6.6 O.J - 6.5 - J3.0 - J9.5 - 26.0 - 32.6 - 39.J - 45.6 - 52.l - 58.7 -65.2 - 71.7
35 6.3 -0.4 - 7.0 - J 3.6 - 20.2 - 26.8 - 33.4 -40.0 - 46.6 - 53.2 - 59.8 -66.4 - 73.l
4-0 6.0 -0.7 - 7.4 - J4.J - 20.8 - 27.4 - 34.J -40.8 - 47.5 - 54.2 - 60.9 -67.6 - 74.2
45 5.7 - 1.0 - 7.8 - J4.5 - 21.3 - 28.0 - 34.8 -4J .5 - 48.3 - 55.J - 61.8 - 68.6 -75.3
50 5.5 - 1.3 - 8.J - J 5.0 - 21.8 - 28.6 - 35.4 - 422 - 49.0 - 55.S - 62.7 - 69.5 - 76.3
55 5.3 - 1.6 - 8.5 - J 5.3 • 22.2 - 29.J - 36.0 - 42.8 - 49.7 - 56.6 - 63.4 - 70.3 - 77.2
60 5.J - 1.8 - 8.S - JS.7 - 22.6 - 29.5 - 36.5 - 43.4 - 50.3 - 57.2 - 64.2 - 71.1 - 78.0
·o~rker shaded are.ls represent conditions where frostbi1e occurs in JO nlinutesor less.
<1<n11....i fl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll ..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH
Possibly the lowest wind-chill ever occurred In Antarctica
when, on August 25, 2005, the Ru.sslan Antarctic Station
of Vostok recorded an air temperature of .99•f and a wind
speed of 113 mi/hr. resulting In a wind-chill equivalent
temperature well below -lOO' F. Under these extreme con-
ditions. any exposed skin would freeze In a few seconds.
the body cxtremit its first because they arc the greatest distance • FIGURE l .29 A section of a maximum thermometer.
from the source of body heal.
ln cold weather, wet skin cnn be n foctor in how cold we
feel. A cold rninyday (drizzly. or cwn foggy) often feels colder thermometer has a glass bulb atrnched to a sealed. graduated
than n "dry" one because water on eJCPosed skin conducts heat tuhc •bout 25 cm (10 in.) long. A very small opening, or bore,
awnyfrom the body better than air does. In fact, in cold, wet, and e>tcnds from the bulb to the end of the tube. A liquid in the
windy weather a penon may actually lose body heat faster than bulb (usually mercury or red-color.'<l alcohol) is free to move
the body can produce it. This may even occur in relatively mild from the bulb up through the bore ond into the tube. When
weather w~h air temperatures as high as Ia'C (Sa'F). lbc rapid the air temperature increases. the liquid in the bulb expnnd.'>,
loss cl body heat may lower the body temperature below its nor- and rises up the tube. When the oir temperature decreases. the
mal level and bring on a condition known:~• hypothermia - the li<1uid contracts, and moves down the tube. Mcnee, the length
rapid, progressive mental and physicalcollnpse that accompanies ofthe liquid in the tube represents the air temperature. Uccouse
the lowering of human body tempermurc. the bore is very narrow, a small temperature change will show
The first symptom ofhypothermfa h exhaustion. If expo - up asu relotively large change in the length ofthe liquid column.
sure continues, judgment and reasoning power begin to dis;ip- Maximum and minintum thermometers are licpid-in -glass
pear. Prolonged exposure, especially at temperatures near or thermometers used for dctcr1nining daily maximum and mini-
below freezing, produces stupor. collapse. and death when the mum temperatures. The maximum thermometer looks lil<c
internal body temperature drops to 26"C (79°F). Most cases of any other liquid-in-glass themlometer with one exccptiort It
hypothermia occur when the :iir temperature is between o•c has a small constriction within the bore j ust above the bulb (Set
and IO'C (bet\\ttn 32"f and Sa'F). "Ibis may be because many • l'ig. 3.29). As the llir tcmpernturc increases, the mercury ex·
people apparent ly do not realize tht1! wet clothing in windy pands and freely moves past the con.~triction up the tube. umil
weather greatly enhances the loss of body heat, even when the 1h-: n1tncimum temperature occurs. 1lov.iever. as the air tc1npcra..
tcmperoture i~ well above fre1ning. ture bcgii>~ to drop, the small constriction prevents the mercury
Ln t"-Old weather, heat is more easily dissipated through the from flowing back into the bulb. ·1hus, the end of the ;tntion·
skin. To counteract this rapid heat loss, the peripheral blood ary m<rcury column indicates the maximum temperature for
vessels of the body constrict. culling off the flow of blood to the the day. The mercury will stay at this position until either the
outcrlayersoftheskin. In hot weather. the blood ,....sseJsenlarge. air warms to a higher reading or the thermometer is reset by
allowing a greater loss of heat energy to the surroundings. In "hirl!ng it on a special holder and pivot. Usually, the \\Uirling is
add~ion to this, we perspire. As ev•poration occurs. the skin sulfu:ient to push the mercury back into the bulb past the con·
cools because it supplies the large latent heat or vaporization strictilln until the end of the column indicates the present air
(about 560 cal/g). When the llir contab1s a great Mal of water tcrnperalure."
vapor (very humid), and il is dose to being saturared, perspira- A minimum thern1on1cter rne:isures the lO\\'t~t tc1npcra ·
tion docs not readily evaporate from the skin. Lessevaporational turc reached during a given period. Most minimum thcrinom·
cooling cnuses most people to feel honer than it really is, and a eters •••c alcohol as a liquid, since it freezes at a tempernturc of
number ofpeople start to complain about the "heat and hurnid- - J30°C compared to -39' C for mercury.The minimum ther·
itf. A closer look at how we feel in hot, humid weather will mometer is similar to other liquid-01 -glass thermometers except
be gh-en in Ch'l'ter 4 after we examine the concepts of relative that it contains a small batbcU -sh.1ped index marker in the bore
humidit)I dew point, and \•'et-bulb temperature. (>cc . fig. 3.30). The smnll index marker is free to slide oock
and forth wtthin the liquid. It cannot move out of the liquid
MEASURING AIR TEMPERATURE Thermometers"""' dC\"1· b<'OIUSC the surface tensiOn at the end of the liquid column (the
oped tomen>urcair ti:mperature. Eadt thermometer hasa ddi· menisms) h olds it in
nitescnlcnnd is calibrated so that a thcrmometcrreadingofO' C A minimum thermometer is mounted horizontally. As the
in Vermont will indicate the same temperature as a thcrmom· air temperature drops. the controcting liquid moves back into
etcr withtho samereading in North Dakota. If n particularre<td· the bulb and brings the index mttrker down the bore with it.
b1g wre to represent different degrt-csofhol or cold, depending
on locution. thermometers would be useless. "l.iquld· ln·gl.us themtonH~lt'n th;il ltl(.1\1.lrt OOdy u-.mper-.uure ~ e n1;a.xf n'lll1t'I
A wry common thermometer for measuring surface air thdmomrters, whkh is "''hr thC'f lh~ th:illn both be(oreand. after you t2k your
temperature is the liquid-in-glass thermomell!r. lhis tyP" of krn~llfe.
, , ,... ,.,.. ~·· r
c.......,.liroc...,..i.-."°'"""'.._'"'
._.._ ..., .......... _,.....,._llN-_....... ......,..• .__....- .... ,-. 0.....
_ _...,. .........
_. ~ ~C.., ~·~
.. .--.,.....-
-11.u,,.. .. .,..f'S'l'-
~_
-•·"'-"'__.._......._
....__._ •.,._._..,._ .........
--...........
.a..,.-. l ~• -•
Minimum teml*eture (62")
Cut~
I Another ekctricnl thermometer is the tliemiocouple. ·1bis
device operates on the principle that 1he 1emperalure difference
•1 • " ' r" "

I
' ""' ""
timl*alute (72")
""'""lo'~
between the junction of two db>lmilar metals sets up a weak
electriatlcurrenL When onccndofthejunction is maintained at
n temperature dilferent from that of the other end, an electrical
current will flow in the circuit.1his current is proportional to
• FIGURE 3. 30 Asectionofamirimumthermornete.rshow'19 balhtht

o.u,.rc Iii temperatureandthemirimum terrpeniturein "F.
-- Booe
the temperature differencebet\\~'en the junctions.
Air temperature ma)' also be obtained witlt instruments
calkd i11frand se11sors, or rad iomelel'$. Radloml'leIS do not me.a·
sure temperalure directly; rJther, they measure emitted radiation
(usually infrared). By mt"a>'Uri•l!l both the intensity of radiant
energy and the wavclcngth of maximum emission of a particu·
lar gas, radiometers in orbiting Mtelliic.< are now able to obtain
When the air temperature stops Mcrea>ing, the liquid and the temperature measureincnt' at selec1c'CI level< in the atm<>-<pherc.
index n1arker .stop 1noving dO\"'ll the bore. As the ~tir \\!llrn1s, I he A bimetnlllc thermometer con.,i>ts nf two different pieces
alcoholexpand<nndmovesfreelyup the tube ptlSt cheslll!ionary ofmetal (usm1lly brt\Ss tuxl iron) welded together to form a sin·
index marker. llccause the index m'1rkrr docs not move as the gle strip. As the temperature changes, the brass expands more
air warms. the minimum temperature is read by observing the than the iron, cnu•ing the strip 10 bend.1 he small amount of
uppl'r end of the marker. bending is amplified through a system of levers 10 a pointer on
Tore.et n minimum thermoml.'ler,simply tip~ upside down. a calibrated scale. ·nw bimetallic thermometer is usually the
' fhls allows the index martG,r to slide to the upper end ofthe nko· temperature·sensing part of the thcrmograph, an instrument
hol column. ""1ich is indicating the cwttnt au tcmpcr:tlu re.'rhc that measures and recoRb tcm~ture (see • Fig. 3.32).
thcnnometer is then remountedhorizontally,sothac the rmrker 1bennogn~~ are gradually being replaced with dt1111 log·
"ill mO\'e toward the bulb as the air temperature decreases. gus. These small inMruments m\'ta thermistorconnected loa
Highlyaccur.ue temperature measurcm...111> m.iy be mode circuit board inside the logger. A computer programs~ int«·
"ith tlectrical tl1ecmomelers. One type of ckctrica 1thcnnom- val al which reading' are taken. !be loggers are not only more
<1er b the dectrical resistance tl1m110111tter. '"hich docs not actu- responsive to air ternp<!ralurc than are thermographs, they are
ally measure air temper:llurc but rather the resistance of a "ire, less C:\J>ensive
u;,ually plotfoum or nickel, whose resistance increases as the Chances are, you may hnve heard som.-one exdaim some-
tcmpcrnture increases. An electrical meter mc:t>urcs the rcsis· thing like, "Today tl1c thermomc1ermcll~ured 90 degrees in the
tance, and is calibrated to represent air temperature.
l!leccrical resistance thermometers are the type of 1her·
mometcrs used in the measurement of air tempcrnturc nt the
over 900 fully automnted surface \\'t'ather ;tut ions (known ns
ASOS for Automated Surface Ob,,.,-ving System) that oxist at
airports and military facilities throughout the United Slntes (see
• Fig. 3.31 ). Hence, many of the liquid-in-glass thermometers
ha\'e been replaced with electrical thl'rmomctcn..
At this point it should be noted thac the replac~ment of
liquid·in·ghss thermometeis wilh electrical thcnnometm has
ral~ concernamongdimatologists. Foroncthing, the response
of the electrical thermometers to temperature change is fasttr.
1hus, electrical thennomt>teis may read! a brief CJ<treme rend·
Ing. which coukl hove been missed by the >lO\\'t'r-rcsponding
li<1uid·in·glass thermometer. Jn addition, many temperature
r~nding~. \\lhich \\'ere taken at airport \\'t':t.ther office~~. nrc nov.•
taken at ASOS locntions that sit near or bccwccn runways at
the airport. ' Ihis change in instrumentation and relOC(ttion of
the n1eas:urcmc-nt site can sometimes introduce o sn101l, but
significnn1, 1empcralurt> change at the reporting >llllion.
'lliennisturs are another type of electrical thermometer.
' l hey are made of ceramic material whose re>i>rnnce increases
as the temperature decreases. A thennistor is the temperature· i
me'1suring device of the radiosonde-the inotrument that •
m<';»ure$ air tanperaturefromthe!oUtfaceup to an alliludcnear e
30 kllomettrs. (For additional information on the radiosonde, e FIGURE 3.31 TheinwumtntS N1 carnprtu!theASOS system.The
read the focus section in Chapter I, on p. 16.) max--min tempeALUA! shder k N mlddit while box.
0..•-- ,......_ ............ _

_ ............,......_ ......... _........ ..... _ • ..,.... ...._.,.,...,t-...,- ..,..1o ... -.w-.. -- -~_...
~-·1Rf-I £ ........,...._.....
Why Thermometers Should Be Read in the Shade
When we measure air temperature with a • FI GURE 9 lnstrumentshelterssuchas the

common liquid t hermometer, an incredi- one sho\vn here serveasashady place for t~r·
ble number of air molecules bombard the mometer-s. Thermometers inside shelters measure
the temperatureof the air; \vherea-s thennometers
bulb, transferring energy either to or away held in direct sunlight do not
from it. When the air is wa rmer than the
thermometer, the liquid gains energy, ex- thermometer gains energy at a much
pands, and rises up the tube; the opposite faster rate than it can rad iate it away, and
will happen when the air is colder than the the liquid keeps expanding and risin g un-
thermometer. The liquid stops rising (or til there is eq uilibrium between incoming
falling) w hen equilibrium between incom-- and outgoing energy. Because of the
ing and outgoing energy is established. direct absorption of solar energy, the
At this point, we can read the temperature level of the liquid in the thermometer
by observing the height o f the liquid in in dicates a temperature much higher than
the tube. the actual air temperature, and so a state-
It is impossible to measure air temper- ment that says "today the air temperature
ature accurately in d ire ct sunlight measured 100 degrees in the sun," has no
beca use the thermometer absorbs rad i- meaning. Hence, a thermometer must
ant energy from the sun in addit ion to be kept in a shady place to measure the
energy from the air molecules. The temperature of the air accurately.
shade!" Does this mean that !he air temperature is sometimes earlier s ection, on a dear, calm night the air at ground level may
measured in theswi? lf you are wisure of!he answer, read the be much rolder than the air at !he level of the shelter. Asa result,
Focus section above before reading the next section on in~tru on dear winter mornings it is possible to see ire or frost on the
ment shelters. ground even though the minimum thermometer in the shelter
Th ennomerers and other instruments are <L~ually ho<c~ed in did not reach !he freezing point.
an instrument sheller. The shelter completely encloses the in- Theolderinstrwnent shelters(such as the one shown in Fo-
struments. protecting them from rain.snOV•'• and the sun~ direct cu.~ Fig. 9, above) are gradually being replaced by the Mrlx-Mi11
rays. I! is painted white to reflect sunlight, faces north to avoid Templ'Tafure Shelter of the ASOS system (!he middle white box
direct exposure to sunlight. and has louvered sides, so !hat air in Fig. 3.31).111e shelter is mounted on a pipe. and "1res from
i~ free to flow through it. This construction helps to keep the the electrical temperature sensor inside are run to a building. A
air inside the shelter at the same temperature as !he air outside. readout inside the building displays the current air temperature
The thermometers inside a standard shelter are mounted and stores the maximum and minimum temperatures for later
about 1.5 to 2 m (5 to 6 ft) above the ground. As we saw in an retrieval.
Becau.se air temperatures vary considerably above different
types ofsurfaces, where po.ssible, shelters are placed over grass
to ensure !hat !he air temperature is measured at the sameeleva-
tion over !hesametypeofsurface. Unfortunately, some shelters
are placed on asphalt, others sit on concrete, while others are
located on the tops of tall buildin{}~. making it difficult to com-
Exposed pare air temperature measurements from different locations. In
Ink ll'ace metallic fact. ifeither the maximum or minimum air temperature in your
area seems suspiciOLL~ly different from those of nearby towns,
find out where the instrwnent shelter is situated
• FI GURE 3. 32 The thermograph \Vi th a bimetallicthermometer.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i """>' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' " f>•lrco•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I•• -"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
--- -
SUMMARY
'[he earth hru. .e.isun,, be<.11u"' the c.1rth i> tilted on it swds as ii mean (a,uage) daily wind -chill lmb (WC I). 8 1
R?\'01\'tSaruund thc;un. 'I he Uh of the earth .:uu>esa>easonal temperature. 78 fr~1bi1e. 85
v.lriatiOn in both the length of Jaybght and the inlenlity of coatrols of temperature. 78 hypotMrnun, 86
sunlight that ..-.chrs tl\e aurfac. When tl\e Nonhem Hemi- isotherms, 78 bqwd-in glai.>
splwre I) tihl"1 tow•rd thc sun, the Southern flcmisphere is annual range of thermometer. 86
tilled away from thow1 l.ongrrhoof\ofda)iight :ind more temperaturt', 8 L ma:vmwn thrnnoml'trr. 86
inlcnsc sunlight pruduu )Ummer 10 thr N0tthern Hemi- mt':tn (awragc) annual muumum th<r mo meter. 86
splwre...tult. 1n the '>outhrm 11.'mnphttr. ~ttt da)iighl temperature, 8 L cltctnca I thermomtten. 87
hours and la. 1nl-<''>Unl1ghl produ<.< w1n1rr. On a more h<ating degret'-cby. 82 radoumcttr". 8i
localsnttng. th<'tanh» 1nd1n.tl1&>n onllurn.n thr amount of cooling degrtt-<by. 82 bimttalbc thermomtter, 87
solarmrrgy r«rm:Jon thr north and >OOth "dt ofa hill,:t> growing dtgret'·days. 82 thrrmogra.ph. 87
wdl as around a h<>mt' smsiblc ttmptratur<, 84 ID.Slrumcna ~chrr. ~
lbrda1h \arut1on 1n ;ur kmp<r.aturr neu thr earth's
surfa.:e ~controlled m;unl) by thr Input of ningy from thr
su.o and the output ofrnrrgy from thr surf.>«. On a clt':tr, QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
calm dav. thr wrf;icu .. wann>. u ~ uhcatinput (mainly I. In the :-lortbttn Henusphctt. why art )Uffimm
sunbgtU) o;cetdi. hut output (mainly co<m:ct1on and radi- wannrrtban winttrs, t\'<11 though lhc unh" 1<1uaUy
ated mframl cncrgy). Ihr 'u rCJ<.t air cool. .11 nigh~ as lmg as cl0<er IO the sun in Januat}-?
beat output cxcr..-J; 1nput. llccau;r the ground at night cooo 2. What are lhe main factor> that d.:tcnnme seasonal
more qwckly than the J1r ahrn't, the <olde>l air is normally temperature varialiom?
bund at thei.urfa<.ewhcre• rndintJon1n\'l!n.10n usually forms. 3. During lhe Northern Hcnusphcrc';. >ummcr. 1hc day-
When thcalrtrmpcrnture In ugrfcuhural area\ drops to dan· light hours in nonhcrn larnudc> Jrc krngcr 1hnn In
gero11>ly k>w teJ<ling>. fruit ll'<<'>. from mixing not '"•armer.
the air 1oi.prnylng 1hc tn·c• 11nd vine> with w11ter. 4. lfil is winter and January in New York City, wh111 I> the
' Ihe grcoteol doily v11rL11k1n In nlr 1cmpcn11urc occurs ;11 season in Sydney. AlL~lralin!
the earth .. ourfucc. Umh the dlurnnl nnd onnuol rnnges of S. Explain why Southern I lcmiophcrc summer> nrc nm
1empcrn1urc urc gl'cutcr In dry climnlc> thnn In humid ones. warmer than Northern I lcmisphcrc summers.
.Even 1huugh1 wo dlics m.1y httvc>lmlln r ovcrngcn nnunl tem· 6. Explain why the vegetation on the north· fnclng ;.itlc of
pcra1urcs, 1hc rnngc nntl extreme of their 1cmpcrn1urcs cnn a hill is frequently different from the vcgcmlion on the
differ grcntly. Tcmpcroturc lnformnlirn1 lmpnclS our lives in south·facing side of lhe same hill.
ma.ny ways, frt1111 lnRucnclng tlc.:hkm> on what clothes 10 7. Look at Figures 3. L2 and 3. 14, whkh ;how vcrtk.nl
t.ikc on a trip tu providing <rltm1l lnformatlon for energy· pronles of air temperature during d1trcrc111 time> of ll\e
ust predi.:tJon> .irid agrirnhurnl pl.inning. We revic\\'C'd some day. Explain why the temperature <utvcs •re i.liffercnt.
of the m.iny type• of thermnmcttf\ in u\e. 'lhooe designed 8. What are some of the factors lhJt detcrmuw thr d.1lly
to mcai.w.. 111r tem~mturc> ""'1r the >urface art housed in Ructuation of air tempera.lure JU" abo\'e the gn>w1d!
iMttumeol tl\eltcri. to ptOI•"< l them from dirtct sunlight and 9. Explain bow incollllllg energy anJ 0011101ng energy
pttCJp t;illon . regulate the daily \"alUllon in air tcmpctJturc.
10. On a calm. swmyday...tiy u thr a .. neu 10 the groutod
normall)• much wanntr lhan the air ri..i .ibO\e!
KEY TERMS II . bplcin wh)' lhe warm~ tmr of thr day 1s u<u.ill) 1n
llk' following tcnnurt h>ttd (woth P18t number) in thcor- tbr afitrn00n. <Vtn though thr )Un> r~)> mou =
dtt they appearon th• tcxt. Odintea..h. Doingso will aid ditt'Cl at noon.
)'OU rn m·•<" 1ng1hr m.il<tSll<O\'C'ttd 1n lhuchiptn. 12. bplain how rndiational cooling al night produo:r. a
radiation tm>p<r.UW't 111\·tr'Slon.
summtr ;obtict, 61 nocturnal 111.-ersion. 70 13. Whal weathtr cooditioru .,.. btu w11cd for lhc fonna
autumnal equinox. 63 lhcm1al btlb. 72 tion of a cold rughl and a urung rad.al.loo 111\cn>on!
Ind.an summrr. 63 frceu, 73 I~ bplain why tbtrmal bells .,.. found along h1ll>idn al
WUlltr !Obi t<t,
63 onhard hcattr>. 73 night.
wmal equinox. M "1nd maclun~ 73 15. Lisi some of the mtasul'C> farmm u>e to J"')lt'Ct their
radiallunal <oul1"'. 69 1blly (J1Umol) rnngc crops agaiusl the cold Ex.plain the ph)'wcal pnnctple
rndiallon 1n\'tr>ion. 70 of lempcraturt, 77 behind each method.
l
'" ..,,""1'"'"'...,.-...,. ,,_,....,,,.,..;..,..,...i
......11~•-••..--. ..,....--.e...,••1-...-""•'t*'•••
. . . .lllJ( . . . . . ' - -........... _.. •• .,...... ......... _ . i ....................... " . . ~
a.. ... -...._. .... _,.. .... ,.,,. ....._ _ ................. .......
...-..w-o1:...-•-•••~ ....-••-·•-1-.... ~
llh• ....,.,,...... ' .... - ...-"'"'
16. Why are the lower tree branches m<>-~t susceptible to 4. At the top of the earth's atmosphere during the early
damage from low temperatures? summer (Northern Hemisphere), above wh<tt latitude
17. Describe each of the controls of temperature. would you ei.:pect to receive the most solar radiation in
18. Look at Fig. 3.23 (temperature map for Janu.1ry) and one d:ty? During the same lime of year, where wotdd
explain why the isotherms dip southward (equator- you expect to receive the m<>-~l solar radiation at the
ward) over the Northern Hemisphere continents. surface? Explain why the two locations are diJferent. (ff
19. Explain why the daily ran£,>e of temperature is nor- you are having difficulty with this question, refer to
mally greater Fig. 3.5,p. 62.)
(a) in dry regions than in humid regions and 5. If a construction company were to build aso~tr-heated
(b) on clear days than on cloudy <lays. home in middle latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere,
20. Why is the k"gest annual range of temperatures nor- in which direction -~hould the solar panels on the roof
mally observed over continent~ away from large bod- be directed for maximum daytime heating>
ies of water~ 6. Aside from the aesthetic appeal (or lack of such), ex-
21. Two cities have the same mean annual temperature. plain why painting the outside north-facing wall of a
Explain why this fact does not mean that their tem- middle latitude house one color and the south-facing
peratures throughout the year are similar. wall another color is not a bad idea.
22. During a cold, calm, sunny day, why do we usually 7. How would the lag in daily temperature experienced
feel warmer than a thermometer indicates? over land compare to the daily temperature lag over
23. What atmospheric conditions can bring on hypother- \\later?
mi..'l? 8. Where would you expect to experience the smallest
24. During the winter, white frost can form on the vari,1tion in temperature from year to year and from
ground \\•hen the minimum thermometer in an in- month to month? Why?
strument shelter indicates a low temperature above 9. 1 he average temperature in San Francisco, California,
freezing. Explain. for De.cember, January, and February is 52"!'. During
25. Why do daily temperature ranges decrease as you the same three-month period the average temperature
increase in altitude? in Richmond, Virginia, is 39"F. Yet, San Francisco and
26. Why do the fLrst freete in autumn and the last freeze Richmond have nearly the same yearly total ofheating-
in spring occur in lO\\•-lying areas? degree-days. Explain why. (Hint: See Fig. 3.26, p. 82.)
27. Someone says, "The air temperature today measured I 0. On a warm summer day, one city ei.:perienced a daily
99•f in the sun." Why does this statement have no range of22•c (4o•F), while another had a daily range
meaning? of to•c (Js•F). One of thew cities is located in New
28. J3riel1y describe how the following thermometers Jersey and the other in New Mexico. Which location
measure air temperature: most likely had the highest daily range, and which one
(a) liquid-in-glass had the smallest? Explain.
(b) bimetallic I I. Minimum thermometers are usually read during the
(c) electrical morning, yet they are reset in the afternoon. Explain
(d) radiometer why.
12. If clouds arrive at 2 A.M. in the middle of a calm, clear
night, it is quite common to see temperatures rise after
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT 2 A.M. J low does this happen?
13. ln the Northern Hemisphere, south-facing moun1,1in
I. Explain (with the aid ofa diagram) why the morning
slopes normally have a greater diurnal range in tem-
sun shines brightly through a south-facing bedroom perature than north-facing slopes. Why?
\VindO\\! in December, but not in June.
14. If the Poles have 24 hours ofsurtlight during the sum-
2. lf the till of the earth"s axis suddenly increases to 45•,
mer, why is the average summer temperature there still
give t\..'O re-asons \\1hy average \\•inter temperatures in below o•F?
the middle k1titudes of the Northern Hemisphere 15. ln Pennsylvania and New York, wine grapes are planted
wottld decrease.
on the side of hills rather than in valleys. Explain why
3. Jn New York City, on October 21 and on February 21, this pr"ctice is so common in the~ areas.
the intensity of sunlight and the number of daylight
hours are abnost identical. Why, then, in New York
City i~ it usually much colder on February 21 ~
4-0•N, draw a proper roof angle for maximum solar
PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES heating. Design "1ndows, doors, overhangs, and rooms
I. Draw a graph similar to Fig. 3.5 p . 62. l nclude in it the with the intent of reducing heating and cooling costs.
amount of solar radiation reaching the earth's surface Place trees aro•lll<l the home th,11 will block out excess
in the Northern Hemisphere on the equinox. summer S•mlight and yet let winter sunlight inside.
2. Each day past the "1nter solstice the noon sun isa little Choose a paint color for the house that will add to the
higher above the southern horizon. home's energy efficiency.
(a) Determine how much change takes place each day 5. Suppose peas are planted in Indiana on May 1. lf the
at your latitude. peas need 1200 growing degree-days before they can be
(b) Does the same amo•mt of change take place at each picked, and if the average maximum temperature for
latitude in the Northern Hemisphere? £xplain. May and June is so•Fand the average minimum is 6o•F,
3. On approximately what dates will the sun be overhead on about what date will the peas be ready to pick? (As-
at noon at latitudes: sume a base temperature of 55•f.)
(a) 10•N? 6. What is the wind-chill equivalent temperature when the
(bl 15•s? air temperature is S"F and the wind speed is 35 mi/hr?
4. Design a solar-heated home that sits on the north side (Use Table 3.3, p. 85.)
of'"' east-west running street. lf the home is located 'II
CiEOSCIENCE ~ I Goto the DocumentsectionoftheSolar Energy partal. Access thetable"So-

lar Input Statistics for Various Countries." Using a world map,comparethelatitudesofeach country to the annual amount
ofsolar energy each country receives at midsummer, midwinter, and annually. Does the amount ofenergy received vary only
with latitude, or are there other differences andsimilaritiesamong countries that wouldneedtobeexplained in othe.rways?
ONLINE RESOURCES
I!'\ Log in to the OiurseMate website at: www.cengagebrain.com to view the concept animations as noted in the text, as
~ well as additional resources, including video exercises, practice <luizzes, an interactive eBook, and more.
Atmospheric Humidity
CONTENTS t's 9 A.Al. on April 26, 2005, in Bangkok, Thailand, one o f t he
Circulation of Water in the Atmosphere
The Many Phases of Water
I hottest and most humid maj or cities in the world. The streets
are clogged with traffic and on this hot, muggy morning perspi·
Evaporation, Condensation, and Saturation
Humidity ra tion streams down the faces of anxious people struggling to
Absolute Humidity get to work. Wha t makes this day so even tful is that a rare
Specific Humidity and Mixing Ratio
weather event is occurring: Presentl y, the air temperature is 91°F,
Vapor Pressure
Relative Humidity the relative humidity is 94 percent, and the heat index, which
FOCUS ONA SPECIAL TOPIC tells us how hot it really feels, is a staggering 130°F.
Vapor Pressure and Boiling-The Higher You
Go, the Longer Cooking Takes
Relative Humidity and Dew Point
Comparing Humidities
Relative Humidity in the Home
Computing Relative Humidity and Dew Point
Relative Humidity and Human
Discomfort
Which is "Heavler"-HumldAlror
Dry Air?
Measuring Humidity
Summary
Key Terms
Facing page: Here in Shenandoah National Park,

Virginia.as the air slo\'Jly cools, the relative humidity
increases a nd by morning the air eventually becomes
saturate d
93
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... .al M:.y ta>thc ...icd >........J ,,.. .l....wod,"' "f>•lrc<><in p.... ll<to i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb."*'"' llo.nl poo-1)' •.,,..,.""1 W "'l••-..i ..,.,.,h~dl ... :.1J\o .0."l'nV I f:1"'-i.rtn1•" '!....
.._,.,..,,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•te_.Jl~""'""l"TIC'>-"c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
e know from Chapter 1 !hat, in our atmosphere, the condensation. Under certain conditions, the liquid (or solid)
W concentration of the invisible gas water vapor is nor-

mally less than a few percent of all !he atmospheric
molecules. Yet water vapor is exceedingly important, for it
cloud particles may grow in size and fall to the surface as
precipitation -rain,snow, orhaiJ.• Ifthe precipitation falls into
anocean,the '"'ter is ready to begin its cycle again. If, on theolher
transforms into cloud particles- particles that grow in size and hand, the precipitation fulL~on a continent, a great deal of the wa-
fall to lheearlh as precipitation. The term humidity can describe ter re.turns to lhe ocean in a complex journey. This cycle ofmov-
lhe amount of water v:ipor in lhe air. To most of us, a moist ing and translOrming water molecule,~ from liquid to vapor and
day suggests high humidity. However, !here is usually more wa- back to liquid again is called the bydrologic (water) cycle. In lhe
ter vapor in lhe hot, "dry" air of lhe Sahara Desert th:\n in the form with which we are mo~t concerned, water molecules travel
cold, "damp" polar air in New England, which raises an inter- from ocean toatmosphereto land and then back to the ocean.
esting question: Does lhe desert air have a higher humidity? As • rigure 4 .1 illustrates lhe complexities of lhe hydrologic
we will see later in this chapter, the answer to this question is cycle. For example, before falling rain ever reaches lhe ground,
bolh yes and no, depending on lhe type of humidity we mean. a portion of it evaporates back into the air. Some of the precipi-
So th'lt we may better understand the concept of humidity, tation may be intercepted by vegetation, where it evaporates or
we "111 begin this chapter by examining the circulation ofwater drips to the ground long after a storm has ended. Once on the
in lhe atmosphere.1 hen, "" will look at different ""ays to express surface, a portion of the water soaks into the ground by perco-
humidity. At the end of lhe chapter, "" "111 investigate various lating downward through small openings in the soil and rock,
ways to measure humidity. forming ground water !hat can be tapped by ""!ls. What does
not soak in collects in puddles ofstanding water or runs off into
streams and rivers, which find !heir way back rolheocean. Even
the underground water moves slowly and eventually surfaces,
Circulation of Water in only to evaporate or be carried seaward by rivers.
Over land, a considerable amount of water vapor is added
the Atmosphere to lheatmo.~phere through evaporation from the soil, lakes, and
Within the atmosphere, there is an unending circulation of "'a- streams. Even plants give up moi~ture by a process called tm11-
ter. Since the oceans occupy over 70 percent of the earth'ssur- spir<•tio11. 'llte water absorbed by a plant's root system moves
fuce, we cant hink of this circulation as beginning over theocea n upward through lhe stem 'md emerges from the plant through
Here, the sun'.~ energy tran~formsenormousquantitiesof liquid numerous small openin~ on lhe underside of lhe leaf. Jn all,
water into water vapor in a process called evaporation. Winds evaporation and tr~mspiration from continental are.as amount
then tra n~port the moist air to other regions, where the water va-
por changes back into liquid, forming clouds, in a process called •Pn:cipit3tion is any fornl ofw:'ller that f.1lls fmm n d oud and renches lhe ground.
Wnd
Prei;lpitallon
e FI GURE 4.1 Thehy<lrologkcycle.
C'1'1'rif• :tl•~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
to only about 15 percent of the nearly LS billion billion gnllo1»
clwatervupor that annually evaporate into the atmosphere; the
remaining 85 percent evaporates from the ocean>. If all of this
wJter vapor were to suddenly condense and foll ns rain. it would
be enougli to cover the entire globe " 'ilh 2.5 centimeters (or
I inch) of water.· The total mass of water vapor stored in the
111mosphcrc atanymoment adds up to only a litdeovcr a week's
supply of the world's precipitation. Since this amount varies
ailysliglitly from d.:iy today, the hydrologicqde is exceedingly
l'fficient b1 circulating water in the atmosphere.
The Many Phases of Water

If we could see individual water molecules. we would find
1hn1, in the lower atmosphere, waler is everywhere. If we could • FIGURE 4. 2 Th•"""'' molecule.
ob:.erve just one single water molecule by magnifying it billion~
oftimcs, we would see an H ,0 molecule in the shape of a tiny
head that somewhat resembies Mickey Mou;c (se~ • ~ig. 4.2).
'I he bulk of the "head" of the molecukis the ox~-gen atom. 1he
"mouth"is a region ofexcess negative charge. The "t~rs· are par-
tially e.posed protons of the hydrogm atom. which arc regions
of excess posith" charge.
Whm welookatmanyH,O molecult$, wesecd1at,asa ll1'5>
watcrvupormO!.."CUlcs move about quite frct'ly, mixing well \•ilh
neighboringatoms and molecules(sec • Fig. 4.3). A;. we learned
in Chapter 2, the higher the temperature of the gas, the faster
the mok'Cules move. In the liquid >talc, the water molecules
arc doser together, const antly jostling and bumping into one
nnothcr. If we lower the temperature of the liquid, water
1nolccule~ v.•ould n1ove slO'\\'er and slO\\'~r until. '"'hen cold
enough, they arrange themo;elves into ;u1 orderly pattern with
each molecule more or less locked into a rigid po>ltlon, nble 10
vibrn1cbutnotable1omoveaboutfreely. inthis.olid>tatecnUed Gas (water V8p¢t) Ice
ice, the >hape and charge ofthe waler rnokcule help; arrange the • FIGURE 4.3 The thee .\lial f'S d man er Y.Qter .sagas."" a Liquid. and as
molec1~es into six-sided (hexagonal) crystals.
uolld.
As we 00.en-e the ice crptal in frttzing air, " 'e see an
ocrnsionnl molecule gain enough energy to brt~away from its
neighbors and enter into the air abow. 111<? molecule changes
from an ice molecule directly into a ,·apor mol«ulc without
passing through the liquid state. Th is ice-to-vapor phase change Evaporation, Condensation,
Is ailed sublimation. If a water vapor molecule should attach
itself to the ice crystnl. the vapor-to-ice phru.e change is called
and Saturation
depo;it ion. If we apply warmth to the ice cry.in l, Its molecules Suppose we were able lo observe individual water molecules
would vibr:tte foster. In fact, someofthe molecule> \\'OUld :tctu· in a beaker, as illu•lrotcd In o Fig. 4.4a. What we would see
nliy vibrntc out of their rigid crystal p:lllern into a disorderly are waler molecules jiggling. bouncing, and moving about.
condition - that i~,the ice melts. However, we would also see that the molecules are not all
And >0 waler v.1por i~ a gas that becomes vbiblc 10 ••~only moving al the same speed - some nrcmoving much faster than
when miUions of molecules join together to form tiny ckmd tthers. At the surface, molecules with enough speed (and travel·
droplets or ice crystals. In this process-known as n dw11ge of ing in the right direction) woukl occasionaUy break away from
state or, simply, pliase d1a11ge-water only changes its disguise, the liquid surface and cnterinto the air above. 'fhese molecules,
not its identity. changing from the liqmd state i11to tlie mpcx stale are empora/·
i11g. While some w3tl'r molecules are leaving the liquid, others
•n ~"".rur "'JP«in.lcotwm of .lk"condt.nw:s .trd b.b to lh.c<anh ;nr.lin. tht are rtt urning. 'Chosereturninga rcco11df11si11gas they are chang-
drpch of dw rain on thr ~is ultd ptttf&IVw«« ing from a ""I"''Slalt to a /iqwd stt1U.
0..•-- .,....._ ............ _

_ ............,......._ ......... _........ ..... _ • ..,.... ...._.,.,...,t-...,- ..,..1o ... -.w-.. -- -~ _...
~-·1Rf-I t:............. _ . ....
not change. Consequently, the temperature of the air does not
change. Mixed in with all of the air molecttles are microscopic
bits of dust, smoke, salt, and other particles called condensation
nuclei (so-called because water vapor condenses on them). Jn
the \\•arm air above the \\'ater. fast-moving \vater vapor mole-
cttlesstrikethenuclei with such impact that they simply botmce
away (see o Figure 4. Sa). However, ifthe air is chilled (Hg. 4.Sb),
the molecttles move more slowly and are more apt to stick
and condense to the nudei. When many billion~ of these ""ater
vapor molecules condense onto the nuclei, tiny liquid cloud
droplets form.
We can see then that condensation is more likely to hap-
pen as the air cools and the speed of the water vapor molecules
decreases. As the air temperature increases~ condensation is
less likely because most of the water vapor moleettles have suf-
ficient speed (sufficient energy) to remain as a vapor. As we "111
see in this and other ch<1pters, condensation occurs pl1marily
wlre11 the t1ir is coo/et/.•
• F I GURE 4. 4 (a} water molecules at l he surfaceof the\valer are evaporat- Even though condensation is morelikelytooccurwhen the
ing (changing from liquid inlovapor} and conden~ing {changing from vapor
in lo liquid}. Since more molecules are evaporating than condensing. net. evap-
air cools, it is important to note that no matter how cold the
oration is occurring. (b} When the number ofwater molecules escaping from
air becomes, there will always be a few water vapor molecules
the liquid {evaporating} balantes those retuming (condensing), the air above \\1th sufficient speed (sufficient energy) to remain as a v:ipor. 1t
the liquid is saturated with \Yater vapor. (For clarity, only\vater molecules are should be apparent, then, that with the same number of water
illustrated.} vapor molecttles in the air, saturation is more likely to occur in
oool air than in ""arm air. "Ibis idea often leads to the statement
that "warm air can hold more water vapor molecules before
When a cover is placed overt he beaker (see Fig. 4.4b), after becoming saturated than can cokl air or.simply, "warm air has
a while the total number of molecttles escaping from the liquid a greater capacity for water vapor than does cold air." At this
(evaporating) would be balanced by the number returning (con- point, it is important to realize that although these statements
densing). When this condition exi~ts, the air is said to be satu- are correct, the use ofsuch word~ as "hold" and "capacity" are
rated with water vapor. Under saturated conditions, for every misleading \\ hen de.scribing \\•ater vapor content, as airdoe-s not
1
molecule that evaporates, one must condense, and no net loss of really "hold" water vapor in the sense of making "room" for it.
liquid or vapor molecules resttlts. • AswewiU see huer.anotherw1--.yof upL1ining whyoooJing producescondensation
II we remove the cover and blow acrossthetopof thewater, is th:n Lhe s."lturation vapor pr~ure decreases \\ith low~r tc1nperatures..
some of the vapor molecules already in the air above wottld be
blown away, cre-Jting a difference between the actual number of
vapor molecules and the total number required for saturation.
This would help prevent saturation from occurring and would
allow for a greater amount of evaporation. Wind, therefore,
enhances evaporation.
The temperature of the water also influences evaporation.
All else being equal, warm water will evaporate more readily
than cool water. ' l11e re-ason for this phenomenon is that, when
heated, the water molecules will speed up. At higher tempera-
tures.a greater fraction of the molecttles have sufficient speed to
break through the surface tension of the water and zip off into
the air above. Consequently, the warmer the water, the gre-Jter
the rate of evaporation.
II we could examine the air above the water in Fig. 4.4b, we
would observe the water vapor molecttle.~ freely darting about
and bumping into each other as well as neighboring molecules
• FI GURE 4.5 Condensation is more likely to occur as the air cools. {a} In the
ofoxygen and nitrogen. When these gasmolecttlescollide, they
warm air, fast-moving water vapor molecules tend to bounce a\vay after collid-
tend to bounce off one another, constantly changing in speed ing \Villi nudei.{b) In the cool air, slo\Y..moving vapor moleculesare more likely
and direction. However, the speed lost by one molecttle i~ gained to j oin together on nudei. The condensing of many billions ofwater molecules
by another, and so the average speed of all the molecttles does produces tiny liquid water droplets.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i °*"'"''"..

'°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
niJb.
..
<1<n11....i., ......, .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... '"""'''"'"·
Humidity
We are now ready to look more closely al the concept of
humidity, which may refer to any one of a number of " 'ays of
specifying the amount of " 'aler vapor in the air.Since there are
several \''ays to express atmospheric \\ ater vapor rontent. there 1
are several mean in~ for the concept of humidity. The first type
of humidity we'll takea lookat is ah<o/ute humidity.
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY Suppose weencio_o;e a volume of air in

an imaginary thin elasticcontainer-ai"'rce/- about the size
of a large balloon, as illustrated in • Fig. 4.6. With a chemical
drying agent, we can extract the water vapor from the air, weigh
it, and obtain its mass. Ifo•ethl?ll compare the vapor's mass with
the volume of air in the parcel, we would have determined the
absolute humidity of the air- that is, the mass of " 'ater vapor
in a given volumeofair, whichcan beexpressedas
.d. mass of water vapor
Abso I ute h um1 11y = - - - - - - - ' ' - - • FI GURE 4. 6 Thewatervaporcontent (humidity) inside this air
volume of air
parcel can be expressed in a number of ways..
Absolute humidity represents the water vapor densily (mass/
volume) in the parcel and, normally, i~ expressed as grams of molecules (and, hence, the mass of the parcel) remains constant,
\\•at er vapor in a cubic 1neter of air. For example, if the \\ ater 1 even as the parcel expands or contracts (see • Fig. 4.8). Since
vapor in I cubic meter of air weighs 25 grams, the absolute changes in parrel size do not affect specific humidity and mixing
humidity of the air is25 gram~ per cubic meter (25 glm' ). ratio, these two concepts are u.o;ed extensively in the study of the
Welearnedin Chapter 2thatari~ing or descending parcel of atm0-~phere.
air "ill experience a change in itsvolumebecauseofthechanges • Figure •1.9 shows how specific humidity varie.s with lati-
in surrounding air pressure. Consequently, when a volume of tude. The average specific humidity is highest in the warm,
air fluctuates, the absolute humidity changes-even though muggy tropic;. As we move away from the tropics, it decreases,
the air's vapor content has remained constant (see • Fig. 4.7). reaching its IO\\'CSI average value in the polar latitudes. Although
Forthis reason, the absolute humidity is not commonly used in the major deserts of the world are located near latitude 30.,
atmospheric studies. Fig. 4.9 shows that, at this latitude, the average air contains nearly
SPECIFIC HUMIDITY AND MIXING RATIO Humidity, how-

ever, can be expressed in ways that are not influenced by changes
in air volume. When the mass of thewatervaporinthe air parcel
in Hg. 4.6 is compared with the mass of all the air in the parcel 2 rri' 10g 5 g/rri'
(including vapor), the result iscaUedthespecific humldity; thus
.f. h .d. m'•~s of water vapor 109 10 g/rri'
Spec1 1c um1 1ty =
total mass of air
Another convenient way to express humidity is to compare • FI GURE 4. 7 With the same amount of \Valer vapor in a parcel of air,
an increase in volume decreases absolute humidity, \Vhereasa decrease
the mass of the water vapor in the parcel to the mass of the rein volume increases absolute humidity.
maining dry air. Humidity expressed in this manner is called the
mixing r atio; thus
. _ . mass of water vapor
M 1x1ng ratio = ------~~
mass of d r y air 1 kg 1Q
Both spocifichumidityand mixing ratioareexpre,<to;ed as gram~
o( water vapor per kilogram of air (g/kg).
I kg 1g I gJl<g
The speciflC humidity and mixing ratio of an air parcel
remain constant as long as iv"ter vajXJr is not added to or
removedfrom the parcel. 1bi~ happen~ because the total number of a FI GURE 4.8 The specific humidity does not change as air ri~and descends..
C'1'1'rif• :tl•~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....i., ......, .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, ..~•.,i.. ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
Everything else being cqcml, the more nir moll•cul<• Inn
parcel, the greater the total air pres.~ure. When you blow up n
balloon, )'OU increase its pressure by pun ing in m11re nlr. Simi
lady, an increase in the number of water vnpar 1nol<'Culc• will
.. incrca,,.. Lhc total vapor pressure. I le nee, the actual vapor pre>-
sure isa fairlygood measure of the total amount of water vapor
m the air: Highac-tual ""por prrssun b1d1cattsl11Tgt 11111nbm of
Mlttr <'apor mokrule.s, whereas low act111d 1111porpr<ssurt 11ult
°'!?
~
12
rotes comparatillfiy smaD 11111nbas of •'Opor moltcults •
.?: 10 Jn summer across ~orth America, the highnt vapor pm
!i SUttS are obsen....i along the hwnid Gulf Cout, "hertti the
E lo" est values are e:rperirnud 0\1'r tht drier Gttal &sin, t\pt"·
~
2
8 <Wly Xn·ada. In \\ID!a, !ht higllesta\'tra!IL' \'ap<>f ~UttUtt
ii ag;tin obsen..,.J along !ht Gulf Coast with lo\\tsl \'allltiCJ\'trlhe
0
<> 8 northern Great Plains into Canada.
"' Actual ''apOT pttssurt indicat<S the air-. rota! water »aput
COlltmt. whereas saturation vapor P"'"""' dacnbe> hO\\
• much \\'3la '"P"r is necessary to mili tht air >.tlur.tted at .tn)'
""fX''
:Ll ~ ~ ~
giwn lt'lllperalutt. Put anothcr \\'a)" sat11rllt1011 prosurt' u
liiL pressure that the watzr iq>or moltnJk> would tXitfl if 1/1~ ""
1111' 50" 40" 306 20' 10" ()' 10" 20" 306 40" 50" llO'
I I ' I I I ..,,,... suturated with 1'0por at a gi»m 1nn~r.'111rr: •
We can obtain a bttterpictutt of the 'Oll<q>I of!o.llumbon
•apor pressure by imagining molecule; evapomllng from .i
'North ~llolude "Sc>Ylh
water surfacr. Look back at Fig. it.ab (p. 96) ond recnO thnt when
the air is saturated, the number of molecules e><aptng from the
• FIGURE 4.9 The--ot-lllc humldKy for ""h lotoludt The h9h4'1 ,..
eragevah.ie\ateobsetvtd In the ttOplc•tnd tht ION9't v1lue1 In polit ,.gloni.
w.iter's surface equals the number returning. Sin<c the num
ber of "fa.1-moving" molecules increase> us the wnpcrnturc
t\\ic:e the w;ucr vnpor than doc> the air at 1.1titudc SO"N. I lcncc, thc increases, the number of water molecules c;coplng per >e<ond
air cl a desert is certainly not "dry:· nnr b the waler vuporconWnl increases also. In order to maintain cquilibrlum, thi> •ltuotlon
extremely low. Since thehot,tbcort nlru(thcSulmrn oOc•n contain> cauM-s an increase in the number of v.1:Her vnpor llKllct:ul~:. in
more w;uervnporthnnthcoold, polnrnlr foth<'t north, "'Catn><1y the nir above the liquid. Consequently, tu higher nlr lcmpcrn ·
that sw1111111rti111e S1J111m 11lrl1tis a 11/~~H'l'S{N'tlflc /11111111/ity. (We will lures, it takes more \\•atcr vapor lO ~aluratc the nir. Ant.I nlore
see lat<T b1 what sense we 001i1ldcrdL'>Crl nirto be "dry.") vapor molecules e.xert a greater prc,.,,urc. ,<;,1t11n11/011 v11por p1rs·
sure, then, depends primarily 011 tire air lcmpemturc. Prom the
VAPOR PRESSURE The air> mol>turc con1cnl may also be graph in . Fig.4.10, we can>CC Lhatnl I o•c, 1he •:U urollon Vllpor
Mscribed by measuring the prc»urc cxcrtl'-ure is about 12 mb, whereas at 30°C It is 00011142 mb.
por in the air. Suppo.le the a Ir parcel In l'ig.<1.6 (p. 97) b near The insert in Fig. 4.10 show> Iha!, when both water and
sea il!vel.1be total pr&ure Inside the parcel 1> due to the colli- ice exist at the same temperat11re below fn'Cllng, thr s1u1m111on
sion of all the molccule>aga1n;11hc 011ide>urface of thcparccl '''''"pt?SSUrtjust abm'f! the wllltr is grellltr tl11111 tl1t s1U ur1111011
In 01herw<rds.1he1ocal pre;;ure in;idt the p.in:d,. equal to thc <'Opor pressure"'"'' the ia. In other words, at any tempt"ratutt
sum of the pressure> oft"" utdi•idual ga ~ ( I h,. phenomenon below frttZing. ii takes more vapor molecule<. to saturate air
is ltnorn os Da/11w1s/aw rfpartial prr<surt.) lfthe t<ial ~,.. dirrctly above water than it does 10 saturate air d1ttetly above
inside tht par«! i; 1000 miDmr. (mb~· arid the ga>n uwde in· ice. 1bis ttuation OCCUIS because it is harder for mlllecub to
dudtnibqien (78pC!Ctnl~Ol)'gnl (21 pt"r<cnl). andwat1r \-apc>I' escape an ice surfact than a wattr surface. Con>equo:ntl)-. fewer
(I pacml), then the parual p«"-<Utt exntt.'-apor phosr 10 maintain equ1bbnum L1l.tw1>t,
'-apor. Cl!ltd the actual "•por pmwre, would be onJv 10 ® salts in solution bind wata molecules. ttclucrig the nwnbtr
(I pactnl c( 1000~.. It l)t\t&nt. Ihm. that btGIUJ.tlhe;,wmtt escaping. lbeseconcepuarrimportant and (as wew1lbtt 1n
cl "....,,,.,pormoleculo1nani \\llumtof ~ir l!i ~lcon.,attd Cllaptcr i) play a role in !ht proceu of rain formation.
to tilt toUI numbtroh.ir mllla.-u~ 1n tht wlumt, the ~ual So faz. ,,.,;,~described the a~nt of m0tsiurt ...:twl)
'-aporpr=ureis nonnally a .mall froi..uon c( tho! toul ;u r ~· m the air. If""
waDI to report the moisture control <>f the air
"'b mar HUI Imm Ch.apkf I th&11hi: mlllhtr h dw unu ol p1t11•c lhClll G1111
around us, we"'"" several optiom:
monlybm.ion >d°IJi.c .. .,..,, m.ar"
.W 1b.1 ii csprcutt •tmoaphcrh. prOMan •11tman.btr1bua._1U.1.I npor pratUR" anly Ift lpptO•D.lh<"lftett lhr IOUl •.11por
ss.tlOIC~onr a pen rt-A. mDlcnL A d);u~ in &ou.I air pm.suR will aif«1 dw "'WI pr. .urc cwn ••put
""\\"hm wt ow th.fp«tt(ru.•.-ol •.iriollttpwtin • n.'6mcof .., O.alk>Rtl.i\llonl)' tbougb tbt II.ltd .amountoC •-ata apor l.n tM .llr 1trn..-n1i m., .amc:.
giva ta Jn 4f"ProsltNIM"ln ol thi: ik.lu..tl \'iiptlf' pro•u• ltw potnc Mc U du, rw;v ••\\'Mn thtair is.s:wur.ued.1bt amouru at -..·.ur •;ipcwb 1ht m.-almum JIO•lbt«" .it
thrtltlh'.i nsr(JLf, the Ji.IU.J lt;lfk'lr pw..,urc ltotwn l.IOW kl 10 mb lht al.St~ ll'lnpe:r.uure;:snd pessurL
('.,,.....,. )llh.... , . . . _ , .........._

ti.-.holM.. '°"'
... ,..,,. .............. '""'"""" .. .,........... - ........, ... ,.._.,."' ....._~_.....,fW••"-""'t""
"~lj•++ol•!!•o ..t , .....,. _......., ....,,... _..,...._,..~(:. . . . . a.--.- .."'"'-...........
lo•t'fl•"•--...i....,,,,,.,,..,. • . . , _ .........-
dl ........1•• '4,llofH'lltl ............ - i . .
¥•• _,, 11,.. ,...,,, ..,..
unfortunately, the most mh undcntood, ' Ihe ~0111,ept of rdutlw
90
('CJ · I&' . 10• ·6'
m
o• 1 hwnidity may at 6r.t ;ecm conf,.,,lng bccuu>c ii docs not lndl
rate the actual amount of water vapor In thculr. lnotetld,h tells
us howdoselhe air istobcing;aturaml. ·1he rclalh-e hum idity
80 6 mb (RH) is the m tio of tire t1mo11111of1vc1ter <'11por11a1111/ly 111 thr ulr
to the maximum amount of "'ti/tr vupur n:t(lllretifut' St1llmll lu11
•mb ell that partir:1darltmpm1111rc(cmtlpn:ssurt). h b thc rcrt IU of the
70
air's water vapor co11ttnl to its cupcmty. thw
;;; 3 mb
s 60 RH = water vapor cont<nt •
• 2mtl water vapor cupacuy
i• 50 We can thinkoftheactuahaporprn)Ur<UJ rrctnureoftht
.t I ml) air's actual water '"J'OI' ~t. and the utur ~uon v•pot pttS
~ ol() ·---·--------····--·--·--··-· SUtt as a mraSUtt ofairs Iota! Cllp"Cll)' for .... ter ,.. J><>r. Henct',
•
--
> the rdatn·e bwnidicy an be u~ a>
•
~
sr...r.: "'
•
3::
30
_,. RH = actual vapor pre~ure
saturaltoo vapor pres)Ure
X I 00 percen l.
20 Relative htmlldjy is given as a percent. Air wllh a SO petteni

relati\'e humidity actually conu1n> one· half the amount
10 required for saturatioo.Atr" db a IOOpctt<nl n:latwe humidity
is said to be saturattd htcausr d 1;. filled to '3pac11y"•ch water
0 vapoL Air with a rclative hwrudlty great a- than 100 prn:ent "'
said to be supersaturated. Siner n:latl\'c humidity 1> w.ed w
('C) .3(J ·20 ·10 0 10 20 30
'°
104
much in the "'~yday world, Jct's rxamine 11 morcdo.cly.
('F) ·22
-· ·1• 32 50 68 86 A change in rcbtive humidity can be brought about In two
lempe1e1u••
• FIGURE 4,10 5.alu1~Hlo n v•l)Or prm•u1• lncr11w.1wllh lncre15lng tempera·

J primary wai-s:
I. by changing the air's water vapor content
2. by changing the air temperature
1u1e.At n lon11>eft'tllftor 1a~ 1h• w.1un11lo11 vb1>01prc.H urt liilbout 12 mb, In • Fig, 4. l 1a, we can scc that tm lncrcnsc In the w1\lcrvn1>or
whet'Nio at 30"C il l)obout 42 1nb. 1h o1 11 ~1 1 lllu.'olffUti tlHUthe.w.turation vapor content of the air (with no change In air 1e111pcruturc) lncrcthC•
presluttow1wa101 llQ ' ~'' ' I h;111 1h1 w>I utdtlon vaf)OI' p1es.s:ureover lee.
the air's relative humidity, ·11w reU>On for thb lni;rcu;c n:.ldc•
Why would you noreKpect rhe
CRITICAL THINKINGOUISTION
tatunulon vapor pressure 10 fall to in the fact that, as more water vnpormolcculcs nrc added to the
.z:ero~ evtn 1t t.xtrtmely 'ow 11mper1tur1s7 air, there is a greater likelihood that wme of the vt1por molecule•
will stick together and condcl1.\e. Conden;ution ltlkc> pince In
saturated air. Therefore, ns more and more wutcr vupor mol
I. Absol11tt l111mitl11y tells us the 111t1S> o( w:uer v'l'or in a f1Xrd ecules are added to the air, the air grnd11.1Uy 11ppron<he> ..1tura
\'Ulurne ofoir. or the 11·t1lrr V11por tlr11>lty. tion, and the rel:tive humidity of the nJ r inacJ>es • • Clllwcri.ely.
2. Specific l1um11aty meo»urc; the rmus of w'11er v'1'or in a f1Xrd remo,·ing wattt vapor from tht air decrcai.c; the bkchhood of
1ut41/ n11w o( •ir, and the mlx111g r11110 dc>enbc$ the mass of saturation, which lowers the air's rdi11'" hunuddy ln,ununary.
waterv•por m • tixcd m.is.s of the ttmainangdl')· air. with noch:mge inairtempttature.addlng watcrv•por totheQJt
J. Ilic <1Cll•1/ 1'f'<J'" plt'.11Ult'o(a1te~the:unounc ofw.-ur increases therel:tivehumidll}~ ttmoving \\'Jtcr Y•pot lrom the
''3p« 1n tcrnn o( the lUllOU nc o( pmSllrt that tht water vapor
air lowers the rda1i\-e hwnichty.
malmrl<; Herl. figure 4-1 lb illustrates !hilt. u the aJr tcmpeuture 1n•
4. llk' Sc1lllr1man '"I'<" prosurt 1> the pttswre that the "'1!er creases ("ith no change 1n water v;apor contcnc). the relJIJ\"C
"~ rnolecub ...,..1J cJt«t 1f the aJr "'trl' s;iturated with
\'apont a giwn lm'IJ>O' _.ure.
Each oflbc>C' mei>Urfi ha> IU u.o but. a> we will Stt. thtcon-
ttplS o( '"ro<
pr~ and •.a urallon ' apor prNUrure critical .au! mums rlliO
RH: - - - ---'----)( IOOrtru-rf,
to an undcnunding of the •«tom• that fOllow. (Brlort look· U.bn.lloD mu.as JllO
mg al lht mmt commonly u•ed m0t.iure variable-rtbti,,, 11·bt.tt Wactnal m.lXlOJ, ntto u. dw mwns ralKt 11f &be au. •nd dw .. ur.flton
humidJty-you miy wash to rc>d tht k>cU> S«lion on vapor mWngra.Oist.htnumg mbool Wb&nkda1 • &t.1 p.nk-ul• ttmra•ur<
ptts.Urund boiling on p. IOO.) ·~\~canabo.sttm F1g..<1J la ch.II• die kul mtrbcr ot \'~ . , . ,.."" Uk.'f«••
(at aconsssu tt:~atull").dw MtuaJ,·•pc11 rit...tl"in~w•-•r\S •1,1.0.dlft tht
RELATIVE HU MIDITY Whllc rtl.lllvc humidity i> the most saturaionl·.aporptuSln II 20'"C.~t.hr ktU.. \'~ rro-Ul'f' ..l\Mlo.hn lhtWIU
common way of dc>erlbmg atmo>phcric moiqure, it is al«>, ration \'.apor ~lY. th~air ..,prollChci...u,111(11' .nd thf ft'lllht l•unklilt liw:i.
Alt •I ... ,, "QI •• () C.•t•IP! IG"
......................-.... ,.;.......................,. ..... ,••• - · --.,. ...r--. "..."'..,__... _ -.u. . . . ,. . .

l'"+ .111,H•. . '--1 All.,1.. 1_..111 M..,1t••l>••*"...I ,,.,..w .. 11..-......1 ,. ..;.,.,.,,,.,., a... ... -...._. ..... -lhool,..-y..,_ _ ._.,,,_._. ...."1o~•""'•"~"'1l"""°'i I...,,.,..,._'-
,..,..,i. ......-.w.-.t...- ___ ....;. ....- ••
Vapor Pressure and Boiling-
The Higher You Go, the Longer Cooking Takes
If you camp in th e mountains, you may h ave e FI GURE 1 Thelo\ver
noticed th at, th e high er you camp, th e lon - theair presure. lhe lo\ver
- Boiling point. s211c the saturation vapor
ger it takes vegetables to cook in boiling wa-
pressure and, hence, t he
ter. To understand this observation, we need
I0\\11.'rthe boiffng point
to examine th e relation ship between vapor temperature.
Elevation
pressure an d boiling. As water boils, bubbles 2400m
of vapor rise to th e top o f th e liquid an d es- 800
cape. For this to occur, the saturation vapor
pressure exerted by the bubbles mu st equ al
the pressure of th e atmosph ere; oth er wise,
the bubbles would collapse. Boiling, th ere-
fore, occurs w h en th e saturation vapor pres-
Boiling point • 100'C
sure o f th e escaping bubbles is equ al to th e
total atmosph eric pressure. "--.....
Becau se th e saturation vapor pressure
950
is directly related to th e temperature of th e
liquid, high er water temperatures produ ce
higher vapor pressures. Hence, any change 1000 '-~~~~~~~~~~~
in atmosph eric pressure w ill ch an ge th e tem- 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

perature at w hich water boils: An increase in Boiling Point Temperal\Jre (•C)
air pressure raises th e boiling poin t, w hile a
decrease in air pressure lower s it. Notice in O n ce water star ts to boil, its tempera- mu st boil for a lon ger time becau se th e
Fig. 1 th at, to make pure water boil at sea ture remains con stan t, even if you con tinue boiling water is cooler th an at I01Ner levels.
leve~ th e water mu st be h eated to a temper- to h eat it. This h appen s becau se en ergy In New York City, which is n ear sea level, it
ature o f 1 00~ (212'F). At Denver, Colorado, supplied to th e water is u sed to con ver t th e takes abou t five m inutes to h ar d boil an
w hich is situ ated abou t 1500 m (5000 ft) liquid to a gas (steam). NOIN we can see egg. An egg boiled for five m inutes in th e
above sea level, th e air pressure is n ear w h y vegetables take lon ger to cook in th e "mile high city" of Den ver, Colorado, turns
850 millibars, an d water boils at 95°( (203•F). mountains. To be th orou ghly cooked, th ey out to be runny.
humidity decreases. This decrease in relative humidity occurs humidity occurs in the early morning, during the coolest part of
because in the warmer air the water vapor molecuk~ are zip- the day. A~ the air warms during the day, the relative humidity
ping about at such high speeds they are unlikely to join to- decreases, with the lowest values usually occurring during the
gether:tnd condense. The higher the temperature, the faster the '"1rmes1part of the afternoon.
molecularspeed,the les.~ likely saturation will occur, and the lower These changes in relative humidity are important in
the relative humidity.' As the air temperature lowers, the water determining the amount ofevaporation from vegetation ttnd wet
vapormoleculesmovemoreslowly,condensation becomes more surfaces. If you water your lawn on a hot afternoon, when the
likely as the air approaches saturation, and the relative humidity relative humidity is low, much of the watern1llevaporatequickly
increases. ln swnmary. \\•ith no change in \\•ater vapor content. from the k1wn, i1>stead ofsoaking into the grotmd. Watering the
llll increase in air fe11Jperllture lo 1vers the relati11e hu111idity, 1vl1ile same lawn in the evening or during the early morning, when the
a det:rease in llir te111pert,h-1re mises the relative liu111idity. relative humidity is higher, will cul down the evaporation and
ln mttny places, the air's total vapor content varies only increase the effectiveness of the watering.
slightly during tin entire day, and so it is the chttnging air tem-
perature that primarily regulates the daily variation in rebtive RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND DEW POINT Suppose it i~ early
humidity (see • rig. 4.12). As the air cools during the night, morning and the outside air is saturated. The air temperature i~
the relative humidity increases. Normally, the highest rebtive IO"C (so•F) and therelntivehumidity i~ 100 perl't!n!. We.know from
•Anolh er way to look 31 this conctpl is to re.iJia> lhnl, <'IS the a ir tt nlpernture in· thepreviousseaion that rek1tive humidity canbeexpresst"1 as
crea~. the air's ~ turatl o n vapor pressure al so ir~reases. As the saturation vapor
pressure increases. with no c b..1nge in w~ te r wipor contenl, th e a ir nloves farihcr
. = actual vapor pressure X
RH . 100 percent.
away f rom S<'llUl'.11ion, ::ind the re lative hu1nidi1y dee re.lse.s. saturation vapor pressure
°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w"'I••-"" ..,,..,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i., ......,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c.,,in..
'°"">' ...,,buq•<...i , ........,,.......,.,..... " ',...,,• p.... ti..: i;1
'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~'•"' ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I"""' "<i•• """'"""... '"""'''"'"·
is called the d ew-point t emper ature oc, simply, the d ew point.
It represents tire temperature to which air would Jwve to be cool111J
(lvith 110 c:liange in air pressure or 1noislure content) for satura-
tion to occur. '!be dew point is determined with respect to a flat
surfaceofwater. When the dew point i~ determined with respect
toa flat surface of ice, it is called the frost point.
Th e dew point is an important measurement used in pre-
dicting the fonnation of dew, frost, fog. 'md even the minimmn
temperature (see. Fig. 4.13). When used with an empirical for-
mula (as illustrated in Chapter 6 on p. 159), the dew point can
help determine the height of the base ofa cumulus cloud. Since
atmospheric pressure v-aries only slightly at the earth~ surface.,
the dew point is a good indiet,tor of the air's actual wt1ter vapor
content. High dew points indicate high water vapor content; low
dew point.s, low 1vt1ter vapor content. Addition of water vapor to
the air increases thedev.• point; removing \\•ater vapar IO\\'ers it.
• Figure 4.14 shows the aver<1ge dew-point temperatures
across the United States and southern ('.anada for January.
Notice that the dew points are highest (the greatest amount of
water vapor in the air) over the Gulf Coast states and lowest
over the interior. Compare New Orleans with Fargo. Cold, dry
winds from northern Canad a flow relentlessly into the Central
Plains during the winter, keeping thi~ area dry. But warm, moist
air from the Gulf of Mexico helps maintain a higher dew-point
temperature in the southern states.
e Figure4. LS is asimilar diagram showing the averagede.,·-
point temperatures for July. Again, the highest dew points are
observed along the Gulf Coast, with some areas experiencing
• FIGURE 4.11 {a) At the same air temperature. an increase in the\vater average dew-point temperatures near 75•F. l n fact, most people
vapor content of the airinoeases the relative humidity as the air approaches consider it to be "humid" when the dew-point temperature
saturation. {b} With thesame\vatervaporcontent, an increase in air tempera- exceeds 6s• F, and "oppressive" when it equals or exceeds 75•f.
ture causes a decrease in relative humidity as the air moves farther a\vay from
Note, too, in Fig. 4. 15 that the dew points over the eastern and
being saturated.
central portion of the United States are much higher in July,
meaning that the July air contains between 3 and 6 times more
Looking back at Fig. 4. 10 (p. 99), we can see that air with a tem- '"' ter vapor than the January air. Th e reason for the high dew
perature of 10•c has a saturation vapor pressure ofl 2 mb. Since points is that thi~ region is almost constantly rec-eivinghumidair
the air is saturated and the relative humidity is LOO percent, the from the wann GulfofMexioo. ' lbe lowest dew point, and hence
actual vapor pressure must be the same as the saturation vapor the driest air, is found in the West, "'th Nevada experiencing
pressure (12 mb). since the lowest values-a region surrounded by mountains that
12mb
RH =- - X 100% = LOO percent.
12 mb
Suppose during the day the air wnrms to 30•c (86• F), with no
change in water vapor content (or air pressure). Because there
is no change in \\•ater vapor content, the actual vapor pressure
mu.st be the same (12 mb) as it was in the early morning when
the air \\•as saturated. 111e saturation vapor pressure, hO\\'eve.r.
has increased because the air temperature has increased. From
Fig. 4. 10, note that air with a temperature of 3o•c has a satu-
l 1
ration vapor pressure of 42 mb. Th e relative humidity of this

unsaturated. \\•armer air is 00\\' much lO\\'f'.r. as
. 12 mb
RH = - - X 100% = 29 percent. Midnight 6:00A.M N oon 6:00 P.M
42 mb
To what temperature must the outside air, with aternperatureof • FIG URE 4.12 When the air is cool (morning}, the relative humidity is high.
3o•c,be oooledsothat it is once againsaturated>Theanswer, of When the air is warm (afternoon), the relative humidity is lo\v. Theseconditions
course, is to•c.
For this amount of water vapor in the air, to•c exist in clear \'111;.'ather \Vhen the air is calm or of constant\vind speed
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....i., ....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""",,..~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., ..~•.,i.. ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• ..,,,,-.11.... ....,,.....
Dew-point l'emperature. 700F Oew~ix>int temperattre, SO°F Dew·pon temperature, 50°F
• FIGURE 4. 13 On a calm, c lear night. the lo\ver the dav~point tem perature. the lo\ver the expect ed minimum tem perature. Wilh the sam e
initial evening air t em perature (SOOF)and \Yi th no c hange in \Veather cond itions d uring the night.as the dew point 1<1'vers. theexpect ed m ini-
mum t em perature lowers.. This si tuation oa:urs because a 1<1'ver dew point m eans that t here is lesswater vapor in the air toabsorband radi.lt e
infrared e nergy back to t he surface. More infrared energy from the surface is able to escape into space, producing mo re rapid radiat ional cooling
a t the surface. {Dots in each diagram represent the amo unt of\Yater vapor in the air. P.ed \Yavy arro\YS represent infrared (IR) radiation.}
effectively shields ii fromsignificanr amounts of rnoisluremov- dew point are the same in rhe polar air, the air is saturated and rhe
ing in from !hesoulhwesr and northwest relative hwnidityis 100 percent On rheorher hand, rhe des err air
The difference between air remperalure and dew point can (Fig. 4. 16b), wilh a large separation between air lemperarure and
indicate whether !he relative humidity is low or high. When dew point, has a much lower relative humidity- 2 1 percent.•
rhe air temperature and dew point are far apart, rhe relative Ho,,·ever. since de'"' point is a measure of the amount of '"-ater
humidity is low; when they are dose 10 rhe same value, !he vapor in the air, !he desert air (with a higher dew point) mus!
relative humidity is high. When rhe air temperature and dew contain more water vapor. So even though rhe polar air has a
point are equal, !he air is saturated and rhe relative humidity is higher relative humidity, !he deserl air that contains more waler
100 percent
·lbe rel.Hive hu1nidity can be con1puted from Fig.. 4.10 (p. 99). 1be deser1rur \\it.h
Even though rhe relative humidity may be JOO percenr, rhe an air 1e 1nperatu 1~ of 3S..C has.i sal uration vapor presi;ure ofabout 56 1nb. A dcw-
air, under certain conditions, can be considered "dr( Observe, point te1npenlture of lifC gives the desert air an actual vapor pressure of about
!Or example, in • Fig. 4.1 6a lhar, because rhe air temperature and 12 n1b. Thes.e values produce a rd:ttiw huinidi ty of 12156 :X 100. or 21 percent
~ ~7 1
j
\· o
• FIGURE 4.14 Avera.gesurfacedew·
(' ~
point tem peratures (0 F} aaoss the United
Stat esand Canada for January.
J
10
0 ~
~°")
40 p
Denver •
~enlx
40 ;
I,\
Januaiy
~I •
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''"..
.. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,...,. i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. <>.;•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
• FIGURE 4.15 Averagesurfacede\Y..
point temperatures across the United
States a nd Canada {"'F) for Juty.
.\
,•
(b) DESERT AIR: Air temporal... 35•c (95'F)

Dew point 1o•c (50"Fl
Relative hullidity 21 percent
• FIGURE 4 .16 The polar air has the higher relat ive humidity, \Vhereas thedesertair, \Vith the higherde\v point.. contains more\vatervapor.
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c ..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
vapor has a higher water vapor den.~ity, or absolute humitlity, and
a higher specific humiclit y and mixing ratio as well.
Now we can see why polar air is often described as being "dry"
when the relative humidity is high (often dose to 100 perO!nt).
In cold, polar air, the dew point and air temperature are nor-
mally dose together. But the low dew-point temperature means
that there is little water vapor in the air. Consequently, the air is
said to be "dry" even though the relative humidity is quite high.
'!here is a misconception that if it is raining (or sno"fog),
the outside relative humidity must be 100 percent. Look at
oFig.4.1 7 and observe that insidethecloud therelativehumidity
i~ 100 percent, but at the ground the relative humidity is much
less than 100 percent. As the rain falls into the drier air near the
surface, some of the drops evaporate. a process that chills the
air and increases the air:o; \\"Jtf'r vaPor content. 'The lo,,iering air
temperature and rising dew point c.ause the relative humidity to
ri~e. lf the falling rain persists, the air at the surface may become
saturated and the relative humidity may reach JOO percent.
We know that the relative humiditydoes not represent theamount of

v1atervapor in the air, but rather how close the air is to being saturated.
BRIEF REVIEW
For a visual representation of this con<ept, go to the CouJSeMate Up to this point we have looked at the different ways of
website at vJWw.cengage.comand v1atch the animation entitled At describing humidity. Before going on , here is a review of
Temperarure, Oe1v fbjnr, and Relative Humidity.
some of the important concepts and facts we have covered:
• Relative humidity tells us how close the air i s to being
WEATHER WATCH saturated.
The highest dew point ever measured in the United States • Relative humidity can change when the air's water-vapor
(90° F) occurred at three locations: at New Orleans Naval Air content changes, or when th e air temperature changes.
Station on July 30, 1987, at Melbourne, Florida, on Ju ly 12, • With a constant amount of water vapor, cooling the air
1987, and at Appleton, Wisconsin, on July 14, 1995. raises th e relative humidity and warming the air lowers It.
• The dew-polnttemperature is a good Indicator of the air's
water-vapor content: High dew points indi cate high water-
vapor content; and low dew points, low water-vapor content.
• Where the air temperature and dew point are close
together, the relative humidity Is high; when t hey are far
apart, t he relative humidity Is l ow.
• Dry air can h ave a high relative humidity when the air is
very cold and the air temperature and dew point are close
together.
COMPARING HUMIDITIES • Pigure4.18 shows how the aver-

age relative humidity varies from the equator to the poles. High
relative humidities are normally found in the tropics and near
the poles, where there is little separation between air tempera-
ture and dew point. The average relative humidity is low near
latitude 30•- a latitude where we find the deserts of the world
girdling the globe.
• FIGURE 4.17 Inside the c.loud the air temperature {J}and de\v point {T) Of course, not all location.~ near 3o•N are deserts. 1ake, for
are the same,. the air is saturated, and the relative humidity IRH} is 100 percent example, humid New Orleans, Louisiana. During July, the air in
However, at the surface\vhere the air temperature and de\v point are no t the
New Orleans with an average dew-point temperature of 22•c
same, the air is not saturated (even though it is raining}. and the relative hu·
midity is considerably less than 100 percent.
(n•F) contains a great deal of water vapor- nearly so percent
lf the cloud remains in tt\e same spot more than does the air along the southern California coast.
for some time, why wouldyou expect Since both location.~ are adjacent to large bodies of water, why is
the cloud base to begfn to lower? New Orleans much more humid?
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,....,.._..,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,.....,.._,~ ..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""" ,,..~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• Figure 4. 19 shows a swnmertime situation where ~tir from
the Pacific Ocean is moving into southern California nnd rur
from the Gulf of Mexico is moving into the >0utheastcrn >tales.
Notice that the Pacific water is much cooler than the Gulf waler. .,.
Westerly winds, blowing across the Pacific, cool to ju;t about the ?: 80
~
same temper"ure as the "'ater. Like,vise. air over the \\'Unner E
:>
Gulfreaches a temperature near that of the water below it. Over ::I:
the water, at both locations, the air is neat!)' saturated w~h 1 70
water vapor. 1his means that the dew-point temperntur< of the ~
a:
air over the cooler Pacific Ocean is much low1~r than the dew·
point temperature tNer th<.> warmer Gulf. Consequently. the air
from theGulf of Mexico contains a great deal more w:uer vapor I
than the J'ncifte air. ID" 40' 60" 80"

A~ the nir moves inland, away from the source of mol>ture, Norlh Latllude South
the air temperature in both cases increases. llut thc nmount of
water vapor in the air (and, hence, the dcw-polnt tcmpcntture) • FI GURE 4.18 RelatIve humidity evcr&Qerd for latitudes north and south of
the equator.
hardly dtanges. Therefore, as the humid air moves into the south-
castcrn ;tOICS, high air temperatures along with high dcw·point
temperatures produce high relati>·e humidities, often greater value and the inhabitants nrc usually unaware of it. When cold
than 75 percent during the houest part of the day. On the other polar alr is brought indoors and ht'att>d, its relati•-e humidity
hand, over the southwestern part of the nation, high air tern· decreases dramatically. Notice in • Fig 4.20 that when outside
peraturcs and low dew-polot temperatures produce low relati'" air with a tempcraturto and dew point of - IS'C (S-F) is brought
hwnidki~ often less than 25 percent during the hottc51 Jl"rl of indoors and heated to 2o•c (68'1'). the relatiw humidity of the
the afternoon. Much of this inland area over the Southwest is a heated airdropsto8 pcrca>t- a vJlue lower than "hat you would
dcscn. I lowcver, keep in mind that although considered "dry,• nonnallyexpttience inn~ dunng the hottest time cl the day.•
this area, with a dew-point temperature above freezing.st ill con· Very low rclative bu nudities ma house can have an adverse
lains for more water vapor than does the cold. arctic air in polar effect on thin~ living inside. For example, house plants have a
regions. (For more infonnation on the computation of relative difficull time surviving bectlusc the moisture from their l~vcs
humidity and dew point, read the focus section on p. 106.) and the soil evaporates rapidly. Hence, house plants usually need
RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN THE HOME During the winter, the •RH= ~ X 101> = ~'6..
relative humidity inside a home can drop to an extremely l"w 23.4 m b
FI GURE 4 .19 A<fran the
55'F
Saa""""*>. CA
T : 100'F
T• = 53"'F
RH• 21~
- Pooria. 11.
T • llO'F
T •
~-
7(1'F
72%
~. PA
T • a:tf
T • 7rF
Paci fr Ocean is hot and dry
over land.whereas air from
the Gulf o(Mexko is hot and
muggy Oler land. For each cit)l
Tre~sent!i lhe air tempera·
wre.. r. tt-e dew point. ard RH
the te\a:tM h.Jmidl)t (AHdat'ii
(t3'C) • ~. rn. repteSentconcrtionsdurflg
'' • • • Juty .tiemoon at lP.M. bc:aa
Cool air '

Hot and do'/
High 1empera111e
Hot and ttumlc!
HIQll~e
" timeJ
tow clew point HlghdewpOOI
Weier
lotnPOtSlUre (13'C)
'
ss•F - • tawRH
•
HlghRH
• At1an1a, GA
T • 89'F
T" • 72'F
Llnle Rock. AR RH• 57'14
Riverside. CA
T • 98'F T • 9 1F
T., .. 55"F T., • 74 F - • ' 80"F
RH• !>S'i. (27'C)
RH• 24"'
, Water
, iemperawra.
80'F
(21'C)
..

_ ............,......_ ......... _........ ..... _ • ..,.... ...._.,.,...,t-...,-",..'" ... -.w-..
0..•-- .,....._ ............ _ ---~_...
~-·!Rf-I t:............. _ .....
Computing Relative Humidity and Dew Point
Suppose we want to compute th e air's rela- T TABLE 1 Saturation Vapor Pressure O ver Water for Various A ir Temperatures•
tive hum idity and dew point from Table 1.
Earlier, we learned that relative hum idity SATURATION SATURATION
AIR TEMPERATURE VAPOR PRESSURE AIR TEMPERATURE VAPOR PRESSURE
may be expressed as the actual vapor pres-
l"Q I 'fl IMBI \"Cl !"Fl IMBI
sured ivided by the saturation vapor pres-
sure t imes 100 per cent . If the actual vapor - 18 (O) l.S 18 (6S) 21.0
pressure is designated by the letter e, and
the saturation vapor pressure bye, then - IS (S) 1.9 21 (70) 2S.O
the expression fo r relative hum idity
- 12 (IO) 2.4 24 (7S) 29.6
becomes
-9 (IS) 3.0 27 (80) 3S.O
RH = ~ X 100%.*
.. -7 (20) 3.7 29 (SS) 41.0
Let's look at a p ractical exampl e of - 4 (2S) 4.6 32 (90) 48.1

using vapor pr essure to measure relative
- I (30) S.6 3S (9S) S6.2
hum idity and obtain dew point. Suppose
the air temperature in a room is 27°C (SO(IF). 2 (3S) 6.9 38 (100) <)S.6
Because the saturation vapor pressure (e)
is dependent on the temperature of t he air, 4 (40) 8.4 41 (!OS) 76.2
toobtain e~ from Table 1 we simply read 7 (4S) 10.2 43 (110) 87.8
t he value adjacent to the air temperature
m uch like we did in Fig. 4.10on p. 99. 10 (SO) 12.3 46 (11 S) 101.4
H ence, air w ith a temper ature o f 27°C has
13 (55) 14.8 49 (120) 116.8
a saturation vapor pressure of 35 mb.
Now, suppose that the air in the room 16 (60) 17.7 52 (125) 134.2
is cooled suddenly w ith no change in mois-
t ure content. At successively lower temper· "The data in Lhi$ t~b le can be o btained in Fig. 4.10, p. 99by reading where the ~lir tenlperature in1er.seru the
a tu res, th e saturation vapor pressur e de- satura tion vapor pressure c urve.
creases. As the low-erin g saturation vapor
p ressure (e) approaches the actua I vapor up that temperature in Table 1 and find the w hat is the dew-point temperature o f t he
pressure (e), the relative humidity increases. actual vapor pressur e. air? From Table 1,a n air temper ature of
If the air reaches saturation w h en t he air In essence, we can use Table 1 to obtain 270C produces a .saturation vapor pressur e
cools to 21°( (70"F), t hen the dew-point the saturation vapor pressure (e) and the (e, ) of 35 mb. To obtain the actual vapor
temperature in the room m ust be 21°C. actual vapor pressure (e) if the air tempera- pressure (e), we simply plug the numbers
Since the air is saturated, we can see from ture and dew point of theair are known. into the fo rm ula
Table 1 that both e an d e must be equal to With this information we can calculate rela-
e e
1
25 m illibars. If, then, we know the actual tive humidity. For example, w hat is the rela- RH = - X 100%; 60% = -
e:1 35
vapor pressure in a room, we can deter- tive humidity o f air w ith a temperature of
m ine the dew point by using Table ·1 to 29°Cand a dew point o f 18"C' e = 21 mb.
l ocate th etemperature at w hich air w ill be Answer: At 29°( , Table 1 shows e~ =
saturated w ith that amount of water va por. 4 1 mb. For a dew point of 18°( , the actual As we saw in the previous example,
Similarly, if we are told that the dew point vapor pressure (e) is 21 mb; therefore, the an actual vapor pr essure of 21 mbyields a
in the room has some value; we can look relative hum idity is dew-point temperature of 1aoc.
• Relative humidity may also be expressed as

e 21
RH = - = - X '100% = 5 1%.
RH = w!w, x t00%. where \Vis theactualmixing e1 41
ratio and"', is the saturation mixing ratio. Relative
humiditycomputationsusing mixing ratioand lfwe know th ea ir temperature is 2?0C
adiabatic chartsare given in Chapter 6. and the relative hum idity is 60 percent,
C'1'1'rif* :tl • ~On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' ,....1rc...in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
.w........ .,,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl.. 1~...'ll"""....., .,~,.,i.. ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.,. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
watering more frequently in winter th'm in summer. People
suffer, too, when the relative humidity is quite low. The rapid
evaparation ofmoisture fromexpased fksh catcsesskin to crack,
dry, flake, or itch. These low humidities also irritate the mucous
membranes in the nose and throat, producing 'Ul "itchy" throat.
Similarly, dry nasal passages permit inhaled bacteria to incu-
bate, causingpersistent infections. The remedy for most ofthe,se
problems is simply to increase the relative humidity. But how?
1 he relative humidity in a home can be increased just by
heating \\"Jter and allo"fag it to evaporate into the air. ' lbeadded
water vapor raises the relative humidity to a more comfortable
level. Jn modern homes, a humidifier, installed near the fur-
nace, adds moisture to the air at a rate of about one gallon per
room per day. ''lbe air. \vith its increased \\•ater vapor. i~ circu·
lated throughout the home by a forced air heating system. ln T • 2<l'C (68°F) T • - 15' C (5°F)
this way, all rooms get their fair sh are of moisture-not just the r•• -1s•c (5'FJ r,. -1s'c (5"F)
room where the vapar is added. RH • 100%
10 tO\\•er the air:~ moisture content. as \\1eil as thl> air tern·
perature, many homes are air conditioned. Outside air cools as
• FIGURE 4 . 20 When outside air\vith an air temperatureand ade\v point
it passes through a system of cold coils located in the air con- of - lS"C {S0 F} is brought indoors and heated toa temperature of 20"<: {68<>F)
ditioning unit. The cooling increases theair'.s relative humidity, {\vithoutadding \Vatervapor to the air}, the relative humidity drops to
and the air reaches saturation. ' lbe water vapar condenses into 8 percent.. placing adverse stress on plants.animals. and humans living inside.
liquid ""Jter, which iscarrie-0 away. 'fhec.ooler, dehumidified air {T represen ts temperature; r., dew point; and RH, relative humidity.}
is now forced into the home. How would boiling potatoes inside
CRITICAL THIN KING QUESTION
ln hot regions, where the relative humidity is low, evapom- this home raise the dev1·point
temperature and make the people inside feel more comfortable?
tive cooling systems can be used to cool the air. 1 hese systems
operate by having a frm blow hot, dry outside air acro.s.s pads
that are saturated with water. Evaporation cools the air, which is
forced intothehome, bringingsome relieffrom the hot weather. the relative humidity low, perspiration on the skin ev:iparates
Evaporative coolers. also kno\\'n as "s\vamp coolers; \\'Ork quickly, often making us feel that the air temperature is lower
best when therelativehumidiry is low andthe air iswarm.1 hey than it really is. However, when both the air temperature and
do not work well in hot, muggy weather because a high rela- relative humidity are high and the air is nearly saturated with
tive humidity greatly reduces the rate of evaporation. Besides, \\•ater vapor. body moisture does not readily evaporate> instead,
swamp coolers add water vapor to the air-something that is it collects on the skin as beads of perspiration. Les.sevaporation
not needed when the air is already uncomfortably humid. ' lbat means less cooling, and so we usually fed warmer than we did
is why swamp coolers may be found on homes in Arizona, but with asimilar air temperature, but a lower relative humidity.
not on homes in Alabama. A good measure of how cool the skin can become is the
wet-bulb temperature-the lowest temperature that can be
RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND HUMAN DISCOMFORT On a hot, retu:heti by evaporating water into the llir. • On a hot day when the
muggy day when the relative humidity is high, it is common to wet-bttlb temperature is low, rapid evaporation (and, hence, cool-
hear someone exclaim (often in exasperation), "It's not so much ing) takes place at the skin's surface. As the wet-bulb temperature
the heal, it's the Jwmidity." Actually, this statlment h:1s validity. approaches the air temperature, !es.scooting occurs, :md the skin
Jn warm weather, the main source of body cooling is through temperature may begin to rise. When the wet-bulb temperature
evaparation ofperspiration. Recall from Chapter 2 that evapara- exceeds the skin's temperature, no net evaporation oc.curs, and
tion is a cooling process,sowhen the air temperature ishigh and the body temperature can rise quite rapidly. Fortunately, mo.st
of the time, the wet-bulb temperature is considerably below the
WEATHER WATCH temperature of the skin.
When the weather is hot and muggy, a number of heat-
A low relative humidity can produce extremely high fire
danger. Ninety days of dry weather, an afternoon dew
rdated problems may occur. For example, in hot weather when
point of 15°F, and a relat ive humidity below 8 percent left the human body temperature rises, the hypothalamus gland
Bandon, Oregon, "bone dry'' on September 26, 1936. To the
•1bc \\'Cl·bulb tc1nperature and 1he dcw·poinl tc1nperoture are different. The \\'€1·
east of Bandon, loggers burning brush started fires that bnlh te1npe1-a1ure isnnaincd by ev11porari11g wort•.r in10 the air. \\•hfrens the d ew·
got out of control and roared through the city, burning it point te1nperature is reachOO bycoo!01g the 3ir. Abo. r« nU fro1u an e;,trlier discus ·
to the ground. Out of nearly 500 buildings, only a handful sion thn1 the de\\.. poinl 1c1npcra1ure is a nl casure of the anlount of water V'.lpor
were lefts tand ing. b1 the nirand !kit most poopJe begin to feel tha1 ii is hu1nid "·hen the dcw·point
aceeds6S"F -:indo ppressive when itequnls orexcttds ?S"F.
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' ,....1rc... in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ "'"""'' ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""",,..~Cn'll'tl 1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11 ,.,.,,.,.,.,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.,. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• F I GURE 4. 21 A ir tem·
perature ("Fland relati ve
humidity are combined
todeterminean apparent
temperatureor heat index
(HI}. A n air tempera ture o f
96"Fwith a relative humidity
of SS percent produces an
apparent tempera ture {H ~
--- .._
o f ll Z'F.
f •: I! . , • ' - -' L
~ ..
rn..;le crwnpa
E 103 106
•
:l
i
102 11)0 100
100 97 100 1()2 .. ,_. •'
-11<.iy
{!!.
98 95 97 99
-~
St.nslrOl<e
I 96 83 94 98 mu&c:IO C(911'lpS
I 94 90 91 93 8'ldlorlwa1
emausbon
I 92 88 89 90 92 94
IBll!Sllc.
pocsiblO
I 90 86 87 88 89 91 92 106
b_
88 8S 8S 86 87 88 89 100 1(13
llllllmt
56 83 83
82
m m " . ., r:m::ll3
84 85
83
81
85
83
81
87 89
84 es 86
82-f83•84
88 91
88
84
93
89
85
9S 97 100 1001
90 92 94 98 I 98
88 88 89 90 92
... ··,
101
94 1"
.
caution
Fmigue POSS!blO
' ......
80 90 80 ---------
81 81 82 82 83 84 84 8S 86 88 ,.
(a gland in the brain that regulates body temperature) activates ave.rage person for various combination.~ ofair tempe.rature and
the body's heat-regulating mechanism, and over ten million relative humidity. For example, in • Fig. 4.21 an air tempera-
s weat glands wet the body with as much as t"'O liters of liquid ture of 10o•F and a relative humidity of 60 percent produce an
per hour. As this perspiration evap<lrates, r apid loss of water apparent temperature of 129•f. As we can see in Fig. 4.21, heat-
and salt can result in a chemical imbalance that m ay lead to stroke or sun~troke is very likely when the index reaches this
painful heat cramp£ Excessive water los.~ through perspiring level. However, as " 'e saw in the prece.ding paragraph, heatstroke
coupled with an increasing body temperature m ay result in heat related deaths can occur when the heat index value is consider-
exhaustion-fatigue, headache, nausea) and even fainting. ably lower than l 30•F.
If one's body temperature rises above about 41•c ( I06• F), Tragically, m any hundreds of people died of heat-related
heatstroke can occur, resulting in complete failure of the circu- m aladies during the great Chicago heat wave of July, 1995. On
latory functions. If the bod y temperature continues to rise, death July 13, the afternoon air temperature reached 104•f. With a
may result. ln fact, each year across North America, hw1d reds dew-point temperature of 76•F and a relative humidity near
of people die from heat-related m aladies. Even strong, healthy 40 percent, the apparent temperature soared to 11 9•f (see
individuals can succumb to heatstroke, as did the Mi1mesota Fig. 4.21). In a van, with the "1ndows rolled up, two small
Vikings' all-pro offensive lineman, Korey Stringer, who col- toddlers fell asleep and an hour later were found dead of heat
lapsed after practice on July 3 1, 200 1, and died 15 hours later. exhaustion. fatimates are that, on a day like this one, tempera-
Before Kor«y fainted, temperatures on the practice field were in tures inside a closed vehicle could approach l 90•F "1thin an hour.
the 90s (<F) with the relative hwnidity above 55 percent. At this p<lint it i~ important to dispel a common myth that
In an effort to dra\'' attention to this serious vleather· seems to circulate in hot, humid weather. After being outside for
related health hazard, an index called the heal index ( HI) is awhile, peoplewills ay that the air temperature today is 90degrees
used by the National Weather Service. The index combines air and the relative humidity is 90 percent. We see in Fig. 4.21 that
temperature with relative humidity to determine an apparent this weather condition would produce a heat index of 122'F.
tem per ature - what the air temperature "feels like" to the Although this l••eather situation i~ remotely possible, it is highly
1111/ikely, 'ls a temperature of 9o•F and a relative humidity of
WEATHER WATCH 90 percent can occur only ifthedew-p<lint temperature is incred-
ibly high (nearly s7•f ), and a de.w-point temperature this high
In hot, mu ggy weather, people with naturally curly hair
often experience the "frizzies" as their hair increases in rarely occurs in the United States, even on the muggiest of days.
length. People with long, strai ght hair often experience Similarly, in hot, muggy weather, there are people who \\ill
a bad hair day as th eir hair goes ''limp" in the ho t, humid remark about how "heavy" or how dense the air feels. Is hot,
weather. humid air really more dense than hot, d ry air> ff you are inte.r-
ested in the answer, read the Focus section on p. 109.
C'1'1'rif* ) ) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i

<1<n11....i., ,...., .._.~ ...,·-
'*"'.......
'°"">' ..... buq10.U . ......... ................ " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1
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Which is "Heavier"-Humid Air or Dry Air?
Does a volume of hot, humid air weigh " TABLE 2

more than a similar size volume o f hot, dr y
NUMBER MOLECULAR PERCEFtlT
air? Th e an swer is n o! At th e same tempera - GAS WEIGHT Of ATOMS WEIGHT BY YOLU1'\E
ture and atth esame level, humid air
weighs Jess than dr y air. (Keep in m ind that Oxygen 16 x 2 = 32 x 21 %=- 7
we are re ferring strictly to water vapor- a
N itrogen 14 x 2 = 28 x 78% ~ 22
gas-;ind not suspended liquid d roplets.)
To understand why, we m ust first see what Molecular ' 'lfighr of dry air = 29
deter mines the weight of atoms and
molecules.
Almost all of t heweightof an atom is weight of about 29. H ow does t his compare This fact can have an important influ-
con cen trated in its nucleu s, w h ere th e pro- w ith humid air? ence on our weather. The lighter the air
tons an d n eu trons are found. Neu tron s Water vapor is composed of two atoms becomes, the more likely it is to rise. All
weigh nearly the same as protons. To get of h:,<Jrogen and o ne atom of oxygen (H,0). other factors being equal; hot, humid (less 4
some idea of how heavy an atom is, we sim- It is an invisib legas, j ust as oxygen and dense) air will rise more readily t han hot,
ply add up t he number of protons and neu- nitrogen are invisible. It has a molecular dry (more-dense) air. It is of course the wa 4
trons in the nucleus. (Electrons are so light weight; its two atoms o f h~rogen (each ter vapor in t he risin g air that cha nges into
that we ignore them in comparing weights.) w ith atomic weight of '1) and one atom o f liquid cloud dropletsand ice cr ystals,
The larger this total, the heavier the atom. oxygen (atomic weight 16) g ive water vapor w hich, in turn, grow large enough to fall to
NOWi we can compare one atom's weight a molecular weight of 18. Obviously, air, at t he ear th as precipitation (see Fig. 2).
w ith another 's. For example, hydrogen, the nearly 29, weighs appreciably more than Of lesser importance to weather but
lightest known atom,. has only 1 proton in water vapor. of greater impor tance to sports is the fact
its center (no neutrons). Thus, it has an Supposewe take a g iven volume of that a baseball w ill "carry" far ther in less-
atomic weight of 1. Nitrogen, w ith 7 protons completely dry air and weigh it, then take dense air. Consequently, w ithout the influ 4
and 7 neutrons in its nucleus, has an atomic exactly the same amount of water vapor at ence of w ind, a ball w ill travel slightly far-
weight of 14. Oxygen, with 8 protons and the same temper ature and "Weigh it. We w ill ther on a hot. hum id day than it w ill o n a
8 neutro ns, weighs in at 16. find that the dr y air weighs slightly more. hot, dry day. So when the sports announcer
A molecule's weight is the sum of the If we replace dry air molecules one for one proclaims " the air today is heavy because
atomic weights of its atoms. For example, w ith water vapor molecules, the total num - of the high humidity" remember that this
molecular oxygen, w ith two oxygen atoms ber of molecules remains the same, but the statement is not true and, in fact, a 404-foot
(0,). has a molecular weight of 32. The most total weight o f the d rier air decreases. Since home run on this humid day might simply
abundant atmospheric gas, molecular density is mass per unit volume, hot, humid be a 400-foot out on a very dry day.
nitrogen (N). has a molecular weight of 28. air at the surface is Jess dense (lighter) than
W hen wedeter mine the weight of air, hot dry air.
we are dealing w ith the weight of a m ix-
t ure. As you m ight expect, a mixture's e FI GURE 2 On this
summer afternoon in
weight is a little more complex. We cannot
M aryland, lighter {less--
j ust add th eweights of all its atoms and d ense) hot, humid air
molecules because the m ixture might con- risesancl its\vatervap or
tain more of one kind than another. Air, for condenses into to \vering
example, has far more nitrogen (78 percent) c umulus doud.s.
t han oxygen (21 percent) . We allow for t his
by m ultiplying the molecule's weight by its
share in the m ixture. Since dr y air is essen -
t ially composed of N, an d 0 1 (99 percent),
we ignore the other par ts of air for the j
rough aver age shown in Table 2. -:;:
The symbol ~ means "is approximately g
equal to." Therefo re, dry air has a molecular e "
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• F I GURE 4.22 The sling psychrometer. • F I GURE 4. 2 3 The hair hygrometer measures relative humidity by amplify·
ing and measuring dlanges in the length of human {or horse} hair.
MEASURING HUMIDITY One common instrument used to constructed on the principle that the length of human hair
obtain dew point and relative humidity is the psycbrometer, increases by 2.5 percent as the relative humidity increases from
which consists of two liquid-in-glass thermometers mounted 0 to 100 percent. This instrument uses human (or horse) hair to
side by siM and a!lached to a piece of metal that has either a measure relative humidity. A number of strands of hair (with
handle or chain at one end (see . Fig. 4.22). The thennometers oils removed) are attached lo a system of levers. A small change
are exactly alike except that one has a piece of doth (wick) in hair lengt h is magnified by a linkage system and transmit-
covering the bulb. The wick-covered thermometer-called the ted to a dial (see • Fig. 4.23) calibrated to show relative hmnid-
wet bulb-is dipped in dean (usually distilled) water, while the ity, which can then be read directly or recorded on a chart.
other thermomete.r is kept dry. Both thermomete.rs are venti- (Often, the chart isauached toa clock-driven rotating drum that
lated for a few minute.s,either by whirling the instrument (sling gives a continuous rerord ofrelative humidity.) Because the hair
psydirometer), or by drawing air past it with an electric fan hygrometer is not as accurate as the psychrometer (especially
(aspiratetJ psyc.hrometer). Water evaporates from the wick and at very high and very low relative humidities and very low tem-
the thermometer cools. The drier the air, the greater the amount peratures), it requires frequent calibration, principally in areas
of evaporation and cooling. After a few minutes, the wick- that experience large daily variations in relative humidity.
covered thermometer will cool to the lowest value possible. 1 he electrical hygrometer is another instrument that mea-
Recall from an earlier section that this is the wet-bulb tempera- sures humidity. It consists ofa flat plate coated with a fLlm ofcar-
ture- the lowest temper;~urethat can bea!lained by evaporat- bon. An electric current is sent across the plate. As water vapor is
ing \\•ater into the air. absorbed, the electrical re.s istanceof the carbon coating changes.
'Jbedrythermometer(commonly called the dry bulb) gives 'Jbese changes are translated into relative humidity. ' Ibis in-
the current air temperature, or dry-bulb tempert1h1re. 'Jbe tem- strument is commonly used in the radiosonde, which gathers
perature difference between the dry bulb and the wet bulb is at mo.spheric data at various levels above the earth. Still another
known as the wet-bulb tiepression. A large depression indicates instrument-the infrared hygrometer- measures atmospheric
that a great Mal of water can evaporate into the air and that the humidity by measuring the amount of infrared energy absorbed
relative humidity is low. A small depression indicates that Utile by water vapor in a sample of air, and the dew cell determines
evaporation ofwater vapor ispo.ssible, so the air is dose tosatu- the amount of \\':.tter vapor in the air by measuring the air:~
ration and the relative humidity is high. Ifthere is no depression, actual " "at er vapor pressure. FinaUy, the dew-point hygrometer
the dry bulb, the wet bulb, and the dew point are the same; the measures the dew-point temperature by cooling the surface
air is saturated and the relative humidity is JOO percent. (1ables of a mirror until condensation (dew) forms. ' Ibis sensor is the
used to compute relative humidity and dew point are given al l ype that measure,s dew-point temperature in the hundreds of
the back ofthe book in Appendix D.) fully automated weather stations-Automated Surface Observ-
Instruments that measure humidity are commonly called ing System (ASOS)-that exist throughout the United State,s.
hygrometers. One type-called the hair hygrometer -is (A picture of ASOS is shown in Fig. 3.31, on p. 87.)
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SUMMARY
This chapter examines the concept of atmospheric humid- absolute humidity, 97 frost point, 101
ity. The chapter begins by looking at the hydrologic cycle and specific humidity, 97 wet-bulb temperature, 107
the circulation of water in our atmosphere. Jt then looks at mixing ratio, 97 heatstroke, 108
the different phases of ""1ter, showing how evaporation, con- actual vapor pressure, 98 heal index (HJ), 108
densation, and saturation occur at the molecular level. 'Jhe saturation vapor pressure, 98 app,1Tent temperature, 108
next several section~ look at the many ways of describing the relative humidity, 99 psychrometer, 110
amount of water vapor in the air. Here we learn that there supersaturated (air), 99 hygrometer, 110
are many ""1ysofdescribing humidity. The absolute humidity dew-point temperature hair hygrometer, 110
represents the den~ity of water vapor in a given volume ofair. (dew point), 101
Specific humidity measures the mass of water vapor in a fixed
mass cf air, while the mixing ratio expresses humidity as the
mass of water vapor in the fixed mass of remaining dry air.
The actual vapor pressure indicatesthe air'.~ total water vapor
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
content by expressing the amount of water vapor in terms of L Briefly explain the movement of water in the hydro-
the amount of pressure that the water vapor molecules exert. logic cyde.
The saturation vapor pressure describes ho\\' much \\•ater va- 2. Basically, how do the three states of water differ?
por the air could hold at 'lny given temperature in terms of 3. What are the prim'ITY factors that influence evapora-
how much pressure the water vapor molecules would exert if tion?
the air were saturated at that temperature. A good indicator 4. Explain why condensation occurs prim,ITily when the
of the air'.~ actual water vapor content is the dew point-the air is cooled.
temperature towhichairwouldhaveto be cooled (at constant 5. Ho'" 'ITe evaporation and condensation related to satu-
pressure) for saturation tooo:ur. rated air above a flat water surface?
Relative humidity is a measure of how dose the air is to 6. How does condensation differ from precipitation?
being saturated. Air with a high relative humidity does not 7. Why 'ITe specific humidity and mixing ratio more com-
necessarily contain a great Mal of water vapor; il i~ simply monly used in representing atmospheric moisture than
dose to beingsaturated. With a constant water-vapor content, absolute humidity? What is the only way to change the
cooling the air causes the relative humidity to increase, while specific humidity or mixing ratio of an air parcel?
warming the air causes the relative humidity to decrease. 8. In a volume of air, how does the actual vapor pressure
When the air temperature and dew point are dose together, differ from the saturation vapor pressure? When 'ITe
the relative humidity is high. and, when they are far apart, the they the same?
relative humidity is low. High relativehumidit yin hot weather 9. What does saturation vapor pressure primarily depend
makes us feel holler than it really is by retarding the evapora- upon?
tion of perspiration The beat index is a measure of how hot IO. Explain why it takes longer to cook vegetables in the
it feel~ to an aver>lge person for various combinations of air mount,tins than at sea level.
temperature and relative humidity. Although relative humid- IL (a) \\/hat does the relative humidity represent?
ity c.an be confusing (because it can change with either air (b) When the relative humidity is given, why is it al.so
temperature or moisture content). it is nevertheless the most important to know the 'tir temperature?
widely used way of describing the air's moisture content. (c) Explain two ways the relative humidity may be
The chapter condudes by examining the various instru- changed.
ments that measure humidity, such as the psychrometer and I 2. Explain why. during a summer day, the relative humid-
hair hygrometer. ity will change as shown in Fig. 4. 12, (p. 101 ).
I 3. Why do hot and humid summer days usually fed hot-
ter than hot and dry summer days>
KEY TERMS 14. Why is the wet-bulb temperature a good measure of
how cool human skin can become?
The following terms are listed (with page number) in the
I 5. Explain why the air on a hot humid day is less dense
order they appe'IT in the text. Define each. Doing so will aid
than on a hot dry day.
)'Ou in revifwing the material covered in this chapter.
16. (a) What is the dew-point temperature?
evaporation, 94 sublimation, 95 (b) How is the difference between dew point and air
condensation, 94 deposition, 95 temperature related to the relative humidity?
precipitation, 94 saturated (air). 96 I 7. Why is cold polar air described as "dry" when the rela-
hydrologic cycle, 94 humidity, 97 tive humidity of that air is very high?
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18. How can a region have a high specific humidity and humidity of 90 percent while the other city has a
a low relative humidity? Give an example. relative humidity of only 40 percent?
19. Why is the air from the Gulf of Mexico so much 8. Suppose the dew point of cold outside air is the same
more humid than air from the Pacific Ocean at the as the dew point of warm air indoors. If the door is
same latitude? opened, and cold air replaces some of the "'1rm inside
20. How are the dew-point temperature and wet-bulb air, would the new relative humidity indoors be
temperature different? Can they ever read the same> (a) lower than before, (b) higher than before, or (c) the
Explain. same as before? Explain your answer.
21. When outside air is brought indoors on a cold win- 9. On a warm, muggy day, the air is dMcribed as
ter day, the relative humidity of the heated air inside "dose." What are several plausible ei.:plmatio1i~ for
often drops below 25 percent. E.xpl1in why thi~ situ- this e>tpression?
ation occurs. 10. Outside, on a very warm day, you swing a sling psy-
22. Describe how a sling psychrometer works. What chrometer for about a minute and read a dry-bulb
does it mea.~ure? Does it give you dew point and temperature of 38°C and a wet-bulb temperature of
relative humidity? E>tplain. 24°C. After swinging the instrument again, the dry
23. Why are human hairs often used in a hair hygrometer? bulb is still 38°C, but the wet bulb is now 26°C. Explain
how this could happen.
11. Why are evaporative coolers used in Arizona,
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT Nevada, and California but not in florida, Georgia,
or Indiana?
1. Would you expe.c t water in a glas~ to evaporate more
12. Devise a way of determining elevation above sea level
quickly on a windy, warm, dry summer day or on a
if au you have is a thermometer and a pot of water.
calm, cold, dry "inter day? Explain.
13. A large family lives in northern Minnesota. 'This fam-
2. How can frozen clothes "dry" outside in subfreezing
ily gets together for a huge dinner three times a year:
" 'eather? What exactly is taking place?
on Thanksgiving, on Christmas, and on the March
3. Explain how and why each of the following "'ill
equinox. 1be "lb;tnksgiving and Christmas dinners
change as a parcel of air with an unchanging '1mount
consist of turkey, ham, m'1shed potatoes, and lots of
of water vapor rise~. expand~. and cools:
boiled vegetables. The equinox dinner is pizza. 1be air
(;I) absolute humidity;
temperature inside the home is about the same for all
(b) rel1tive humidity;
three meal~ (7if P), yet everyone remarks about how
( c) actual vapor pressure; and
"warm, cozy, 'tnd comfortable" the air feels during the
(d) saturation vapor pres~ure. 1J1anksgiving and Christmas dinners, and how "cool"
4. Where in the United States and Canada would you
the inside air feels during the March meal. £xphlin to
go to e>tperience the le"st variation in dew point
the family members " 'hy they might feel "warmer"
(actu.11 moisture content) from January to July?
inside the house during 1banksgiving and Christmas,
(Hint: look at Fig. 4. 14 and Fig. 4.15.) and "cooler" during the March equinox. (1be answer
5. After completing a grueling semester of meteoro-
has nothing to do with the amount or type of food
logical course work, you call your travel agent to consumed.)
arrange a much-needed summer vacation. When
your agent suggests a trip to the desert, you decline
becau.~e of a concern that the dry air wilt make your
skin feel uncomfortable. ·1he travel agent assure~
you that almost daily "desert relative humiditie~ 1. On a bitter cold, snowy morning, the air temperature
are above 90 percent." C..ould the agent be correct? and dew point of the outside air are both -7° C. 1f
Explain. this air is brought indoors and warmed to 21•c, with
6. On a clear. c-alm morning. \\'ater condenses on the no change in vapor content, what is the relative
ground in a thick layer of dew. As the water slowly humidity of the air inside the home? (Hint: See
evaporates into the air. you measure a -s10\\! increase Table 1, p. 106.)
in dew point. Explain why. 2. (a) With the aid of Fig. 4. 15 (p. 103), determine the
7. (;I) 1\,•o cities ha\·e exactly the same amount of water average July dew points in St. Louis, Missouri; New
vapor in the air. '1he6:00 A.M. relative humidity in Orleans, Louisiana; and Los Angeles, California.
one city is 93 percent, while the 3:00 P.M. relative (b) If the high temperature on a particular summer
humidity in the other city is 28 percent. £xpl1in day in all three cities is 32"C (9o•F), then calculate
how this can come about. the afternoon relative humidity at each of the three
(b) lf two cities have exactly the same amount ofwater cities. (Hint: Either Fig. 4.10, p. 99 , or 1l1ble 1,
vapor in the air, how can one city have a rel1tive p. I 06, will be helpful.)
3. SuppQ-~e "ith theaid of a sling psychrometer you obtain 6. Jn Yellowstone National Park, there arenumerOtLS Ponds
an air temperature of 30•c and a wet-bulb temperature of boiling water. If Yellowstone is about 2200 m (7200 It)
of25•C. What is above sea level (where the air pressure is normally about
(a) the wer-bulb depression, 775 mb). what is the normal boiling point of water in
(b) the dew Point, and Yellowstone? ( Hint: See Fig I , p. HlO.)
(c) the relative humidity of the air? 7. 'Three cities have the folt0\•1ng temperature (7) and
(Use the table~ in Appendix 0 al the back of the book.) dew point('/~) during a July afternoon:
4. If the air temperature is 35• c and the dew point i~ 2 1• c , Atkmta, Georgia, T = 9o•F; ?~ = 75°F
determine the rek1tive humidity using Baltimore, Maryland, T = 80°F; T, = 7ifF
(a) Table l , p. 106; Norman, Oklahoma, T 7o•F; 1~ 65•f = =
(b) Fig 4.10, p. 99; and (a) Which city appears to have the highest relative
(c) TablesD.1 and D.2 in AppendixO. humility?
5. Supp0-se the average vaPor pre~sure in Nevada is about (b) Which city appears to have the lowest relative
8 mb. humility?
(a) Use 'fable I (p. 106) to determine the average dew (c.) Which city has the most water vapor in the air?
point of thi~ air. (d) Which city has the least water vaPor in theair?
(b) Much of the state is above an elevation of 1500 m (e) For each city LL~e Table l on p. 106 and the infor-
(5000 ft). At 1500 m , the normal pressure is about mation on the same page to calculate the relative
12.5 percent less than at sea level. lf the air over humility for each city.
Nevada were brought down to sea level, without (f) Using both the relative humidity calculated in (e)
any change in vaPor content, what would be the and the air temperature, determine the heat index
new water vaPor pre~sure of the air? for each city using Hg. 4.2 1 (p. 108).
I GEOSQENCE j Go to the News section ofthe Meteorology Portal. Use the search box at the left
to bring up articles related to "humidity." Out of the first 20 articles, how many of the excerpts refer to "relative" or "specific"
humidity? Choose one excerpt that includes neither term. Which type ofhumidity does the article discuss: rclative, specific,or
another type>
ONLINE RESOURCES
I!'\ Log in to the CourseMate website at: www.cengagebrain.com to view the concept animations as noted in the text, as
~ weU as additional resources, including video exercises, practice quiz-1.es, an interactive eBook, and more.
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?'''! "?'F
Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds

CONTENTS
T
he weather is an ever-playing drama before which w e are a
The Formation of Dew and Frost captive audience. With the I ower atmosphere as the stage, air
Condensation Nuclei and w ater as the principal characters, and clouds for costumes,
Haze
Fog the w eather's acts are presented continuously somewhere abou t
Radiation Fog the globe. The script is written by the sun; the production is
Advection Fog
directed by the earth's rotation; and, j ust as no theater scene
Why Are Headlands Usually Fogg ier is staged exactly the same way twice, each w eather episode is
Than Beaches? played a little di fferently, each is marked wit h a bit of
Upslope Fog individual ity.
Evaporation (Mixing) Fog
Foggy Weather Clyde Orr, Jr. Berween Earth and Space
Fog That Forms by Mixing
Fog Di spersal
Clouds
Classification of Clouds
Cloud Identification
High Clouds
Middle Clouds
Low Clouds
Clouds with Vertical Development
Some Unusual Clouds
Cloud Observations
Determining Sky Conditions
Satellite Observations
Measuring Cloud Ceilings
Satellites Do More Than Observe Clouds
Summary
Key Terms
Fa dng page: Oouds forming above a pond at sunset
in Denali National Park, Ala.ska.
115
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ave vou \\'alked barefoot across a la\\'11 on a summer
H
On the other hand, the cloudy, "1ndy weather that inhibits rapid
mor~ingand felt the wet grass under your feet? Did you cooling near the ground and the forming of dew often signifies
ever wonder how th0-o;e gli~tening droplets of dew could the approach of a rain-producing storm system. 'llteseobserva-
form on a clear summer night? Or why they formed on grass tions inspired the following folk rhyme:
but not on bushes several meters above the ground? Jn this
When d'e de''' is on the grass,
chapter, we "111 investigate first the formation of dew and frost.
rain 'A'iUne,t>r co111e to pass.
1hen we "111 examine the different types of fog. 1he chapter
When gras.'i is dr)' at 1norning light,
concludes with the identification and observation of cloud~.
look for rain befOre the night!
Visible white frost forms on cold, dear, calm mornin&~

when the dew-paint temperature i~ at or below freezin& When
The Formation of Dew and Frost the air temperature cools to the dew point (now called the frost
point) and further cooling occurs, water vapor can ch,mge
On dear, calm nights, objects near the earth'ssurfacecool rap- directly to ice without becoming a liquid first -a process called
idly by emitting infrared radiation. The ground and objects on deposilion. • 1he delicate, white crystals of ice that form in this
it often become much colder than the surrounding air. Air that manner are called lwarfrosl, while frost, or simply frost. Fr0-~t
comes in contact with these cold surface.~ cools by conduction. has a treelike branching pattern that easily distinguishes it from
Eventually, the air cools to the dew point-the temperature at the nearly spherical beads of frozen dew.
which saturation occurs. As surfaces such as twigs, leaves, and On cold winter mornings, frost may form on the inside of
blades of grass cool below this temperature, " "ater vapar begins a ,..1ndO\\•pane in much the same ,..-ay as it does outside~ except
to condense upon them, forming tiny visible specks of water that the cold glass chills the indoor air adjacent to it. When the
called dew (see • Fig. 5.1). Ifthe air temperature should drop temperature of the inside of the \\1ndow drops below freezing,
to freezing or below, the dew will fret"a>, becoming tiny beads water vapar in the room forms a light, feathery deposit of fr<>-~t
of ice called frozen dew. Because the coolest air is usually at (see e Fi& 5.2).
ground level, dew is more likely to IOrm on blades of grass than Jn very dry weather, the air temperature may become quite
on objects several meters above the surface. 1histhin coating of cold and drop below freezing without ever reaching the fr<>-~t
dew not only dampens bare feet, but is also a valuable source of paint, and no visible fr<>-~t forms. FreeZ£ and blackfrost are words
moisture for m any plants during periods of low rainfall. Aver- denoting this sit<•1tion. The,o;e conditions can severely damage
aged for an entire year in middle latitudes, dew yields a blanket aops (see Chapter 3, pp. 72-75).
d water between U and 50 mm (0.5 and 2 in.) thick. So, dew, frozen dew, and fr<>-~t fonn in the rather shallow
Dew ismorelikdy to form on nights that are dear and calm layer ofair near the ground on clear, calm nights. But what hap-
than on nights that are cloudy and windy. Clear nights allow pens to air as a deeper layer adjacent to the ground is cooled>
objects near the ground to cool rapidly by emitting infrared We've seen in Chapter 4 that if air cool~ without any change in
rad iation, and calm winds mean that the colMst air will be
located at ground level. 'f hese atmospheric conditions are usu- "R«all lhnt when the ice ch:mgtS bock into vnpor \\ilhout 1nclting. lhc process Is
ally associated with large fair-weather, high-pressure systems. caUcd st~blituario11.
• FI GURE 5.1 Dewformson clear nights\vhen objectson the surface cool

toa temperature below the dew point. If these beads of \Valer should freez e,. • FIG URE 5 .2 These are the delica1e ice<:rystal patterns that frost exhibits
they\vould become frozen dew. en a\vindO\vduring a mid winter morning.
C'1')'rif• )) ·~On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U .......................... "',........in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••-..........h~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r..........i....
<1<n11....i.,,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll-....., .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
water-vapor content, the relative humidity increases. When air ..- TABLE 5.1 Characteristic Sizes and Concentration
cools to the dew point, the relativehumidity becomes 100 percent of Condensation Nuclei and Cloud Droplets
and the air is saturated. Continued cooling condenses some of
APPROXIMATE NO. OF
the vapor into tiny cloud droplets. RADIUS PARTICLES
TYPE OF PARTICLE (A\I CROMETERSI IPER CA\ 11
Range Typical
Small (Aitken) conden- <O.J 1000 to JOOO

Condensation Nuclei s.ation nuclei J0,000
Actually, the condensation process that produces clouds is not Large condensation nuclei O.J tol.0 J to JOOO JOO
quitesosimple. Just as dew and frost need a surface to form on,
there must be airborne particles on which water vapor can con- Giantcondensarion nuclei > J.O < J to JO
den~e to produce cloud droplets.
Fog and cloud droplets >JO 10 to JOOO 300
Although the air may look dean, it never reaUy is. On an
ordinary day, a volume of air about the size of your index fin-
ger contains between l 000 and l 50,000 particles. Since many as oils. gasoline. and paraffin \\•axes - and resist condensa-
of these serve as surfaces on \\•hich \\•ater vapor can condense. tion even when the relative humidity is above 100 percent
they are called condensation nuclei. Without them, relative (see . Fig. 5.3). A~ we can see, condensation may begin on some
humidities ofseveral htmdred percent would be required before particles when the relative humidity is weU below 100 percent
condensation could begin. and on others only when the relative humidity is much higher
Some condensation nuclei are quite small and have a radius than LOO percent. However, at any given time there are u.~ually
less than 0.1 µm; these are referred to a.~Aitkm 11uclei, after the many nuclei present, so that haze, fog, and clouds will form at
Briti~h physicist who discovered th'll water vaPor condenses on relative humidities near or below 100 percent.
nuclei Particles ranging in size from 0.1 to l pm are called lm-ge
1111clei, while others, calledgia11t 11ucle; are much larger and have
radii exceeding 1 µm (see ..- 'fableS. l). 'fheconden~'rtion nuclei
most favorable for producing clouds(called cloud co11de11s!ltio11
nuclei) have radii ofO.l fITTl or more. Usually, between LOO and
Haze
LOOO nuclei of this size exist in a cubic centimeter of air. 1 hese Supp0-se you visit an area that has a layer of haze (that is, a layer
particles enter the atmosphere in a variety of ways: dust, vol- of dust or salt particles) suspended above the region. 1 here,
canoes, factory smoke, forest fires, salt from ocean spray, and you may notice that distant objects are usually more visible in
even sulfate particles emitted by phytoplankton in the oceans. the afternoon than in the morning, even when the concentra-
Ln fact, studies show that sulfates provide the major source of tion of particles in the air has not changed. Why? During the
cloud condensation nuclei in the marine atmosphere. Because warm afternoon, the relative humidity of the air i~ often below
most particles are released intotheatmospherenear the ground, the Point where water vapor begins to condense, even on active
the largest concentrations of nuclei are observed in the lower hygroscopic nuclei. Therefore, the floating particles remain
atmosphere near the earth's surface. smaU - usuaUy no larger than about one-tenth ofa micrometer.
Condensation nuclei are extremely light (many have a mass 'fhese tiny tlry haze part ides selectively scatter some rays of
less than one-trillionth of a gram), so they can remain sus- sunlight, while allowing others to penetrate the air. The scat-
pended in the air for many days. They are most abundant over tering effect of dry haze produces a bluish color when viewed
industrial cities, where highly poUuted air may contain nearly
I million particles per cubic centimeter. They decrease in cleaner
"country" air and over the ocean-;. \\•here concentration-;: may
dwindle to only a few nuclei per cubic centimeter.
Some particles are h)'groscopk ("water-seeking"), and
water vapor condenses upon these surface,~ when the relative
humidity i~ considerably lower than 100 perc-ent. Ocean salt is
hygroscopic, as is common table salt. In humid weather, it is
difficult to pour salt from a shaker because water vapor con-
den~es onto the salt crystal~. sticking them together. Moreover,
on a humid day, salty potato chip.~ left outside in an uncovered
bowl turn soggy. Other hygroscopic nuclei include sulfuric and
nitric acid particles. Not aU particles serve as good condensa-
tion nuclei Some are hydrophobic• ("water-repeUing")-such
• FI GURE 5. 3 Hygroscopic nuclei are~\vater·seeking; and \Yater vapor
•A .synthetic hydrophobic is PTFE. o rTetlon- lhe nutcri.11 used in rain-rcpcllcnl rapidly condenses on their surfaces. Hydrophobic nuclei are'\vater-repelling..
fabric. and resist condensation.
°*"'"''"..
..
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• FI GUR E S.4 The high relative humidityofthecotd
a
air above the lake is causing a layer haze to form on a
stilhvinter morning.
against a dark background and a yellowi~h tint when viewed droplet.~. the wet haze becomes a cloud resting near the ground,
against a light-colored background. which we call fog.•
As the air cools during the night, the relative humidity With the same " 'ater content, fog that forms in dirty city air
increases. When the relative humidity reaches about 75 percent, often is thicker than fog that forms over the ocean. Normally,
condensation may begin on the most active hygroscopic nuclei, the smaller number of condensation nuclei over the middle of
producing a wet haze. As water collect.~ on the nuclei, their size the ocean produce fewer, but larger, fog droplets. City air with its
increases and the particles, although still small, become large abtmdant nuclei produces many tiny fog droplets, which greatly
enough toscatterlight much more efficiently. Jn fact, as therela- increase the thickness (or opaqueness) of the fog and reduce
tive humidity increases from about 60 percent to 80 percent, the visibility. A dramatic example of a thick fog forming in air with
scattering effect increases by a factor of nearly 3. Since relative abtmdant nuclei occurred in London, Engkmd, during the early
humidities are normally high during cool mornings, much of 1950s. ' lb e fog became so thick, and the air so laden with smoke
the light from d istant object.~ i~ scattered away by the wet haze particle,~. that sunlight could not penetrate the smoggy air,
particles before reaching you; hence, it is d ifficult to see these requiring that street lights be left on at midday. Moreover, fog
distant o~ects. that forms in polluted air can turn acidic as the tiny liquid d rop-
Not only does wet haze restrict visibility more than dry lets combine "1th gaseous impurities, such as oxides ofsulfur
haze, it al~o appears d ull gray or white (see • Fig. 5.4). Near and nitrogen. Add fog poses a threat to human health, espe-
seashores and in dean air over the open ocean, large salt cially to people with preexisting respiratory problems. We'll
particles suspended in air with a high relative humidity often examine in more detail the health problems associated with acid
produce a thin white veil acr<A~S the horizon. li>g and other forms of pollution in Chapter 18.
A~ tiny fog droplets grow larger, they become heavier and
tend to fall tO""ard the earth. A fog droplet with a diameter of
25 µm settles toward the ground at about 5 cm (2 in.) each
Fog second. At this rate, most of the droplets in a fog layer I 80 m
(about 600 ft) thick would reach the ground in less than
By now, it should be apparent that condensation is a con- one hour. Therefore, Mo questions arise: 1-io'" does fog form>
tinuous process beginning \\•hen \\•ater vapor c.onden'):eS onto Mow is fog maintained once it does li>rm>
hygr0-scopic nuclei at relative humidities a.~ low as 75 percent. As I'og, like any cloud, usually forms in one of two ways:
the relative hwnidity of the air increases, the visibility decreases,
and the landscape becomes masked with a grayish tint. As the I. by cooling- air is cooled below its saturation point (de'"
relative humidity gradually approaches IOO percent, the h'1ze point)
particles grow larger, and condensation begins on the less-active 2. by evaporation and mixing-w:Jler vapor is added to the air
nuclei. Now a large fraction of the available nuclei have water by evaporation, and the moist air mixes with relatively dry air
conden~ing onto them, causing the d roplets to grow even big-
ger, until eventually they become visible to the naked eye. The
•lhis is the officiaJ intern.llional d efi nition of fog. The United Slates \\ie.i1hcr Ser,ice
increasing size and concentration of droplet.~ further restrict reports foiasa rcst riclion to visibility when fog 1estricts the visibility 106 1nacsor
visibility. When the visibility lowers to less than l km (0.62 mi), lc.ssnnd I.he sprc.ld between the;'lir te1upcrature and d ew point is 5"F o r less. \\then
and the air is wet with countless millions of tiny floating water the vi.sihilit y is less than one-quarter of a 1uilc. the fog is con.siderOO d ense.
Once IOgformsitismaintained by new fog droplets, which con-
stantly fonn on available nuclei. Jn other words, the air must
maintain its degree of saturation either by continual cooling or
by evaporation and mixing of vapor into the air. Let'.~ examine
both processes.
RADIATION FOG How can the air cool so that a cloud will
form near the surface> Radiation and conduction are the pri-
mary means for cooling nighttime air near the ground. Fog
produced by the earth's radiational cooling is called radiation
fog, or ground fog. It IOrms best on clear nights when a shallow
layer of moist air near the grotmd is overlain by drier air. Since
the moist k1yer isshallow, it does not absorb much ofthe earth's
outgoing infrared radiation. The ground, therefore, cool~ rap-
idly andsodoestheairdirectly above it, 'md a surface inversion
IOrms, with cooler air at the surface and warmer air above. The
moist lower layer (chilled rapidly by the cold ground) quickly
becomes saturated, and IOg IOrms.The longer thenight, the longer
the time of cooling and the greater the likelihood of IOg. Hence,
radiation fogs are mo~t common overland in late fall and winter.
Another factor promoting the formation of radiation fog is
a light breeze of less than 5 knots. Although radiation fog may
We know that fog (and clouds) often form as the air cools. To see
IOrm in calm air, slight air movement brings more of the moist how cooling the air can produce fog, v1atch the animation entitled
air in direct contact with the cold ground, and the tran~fer of Condensation at the Cengage CourseMate website at:v1v1W.
heat occurs more rapidly. A strong breeze tends to prevent radia- cengagebrain.conl:.
tion fog from IOrming by mixing the airnearthesurface\\1th the
drier air above. 'Jlte ingredients of clear skies and light winds are
associated with large high-pressure areas (anticyclones). Conse- may occasionally form after sunrise, especially when evapora-
quently, during the winter, when a high becomes stagnant over tion and mixing take place near the surface. This usually occurs
an area, radiation fog may fonn on many consecutive days. at the end of a clear, calm night as radiational cooling brings
Because cold, heavy air drains downhill and collects in the air temperature dose to the dew point in a rather shallow
valley bottoms, we normally see radiation fog fanning in low- layer above the ground. At the surface, the air becomes satu-
lying areas. Hence, radiation fog is frequently called valley fog. rated, forming a thick blanket of dew on the grass. At daybreak,
The cold air and high moi~ture content in river valleys make the suns rays evaporate the dew, adding water vapor to the air.
them susceptible to radiation fog. Since radiation fog normally A light breeze then stirs the moist air with the drier air above,
IOrms in lowlan<ts, hills may be dear all day long, while adjacent cm1singsaturation (and, hence, fog) to form in a shallow layer
valleys are fogged in (see • rig. 5.5). near the ground.
Radiation fogs form upward from the ground as the night Often a shallow fog layer will dissipate or bum off by the
progresses and are usually deepest around sunrise. However, IOg afternoon. Of course, the fog does not "burn"; rather, sunlight
• FI GURE 5. S Radiation fog nestled in a valley.
lfthefogisthick, with liulesunlight penetrating it, and there
is liule mixing along the outside edges, the fog may not dissipate.
This i~often the casein the C'..entral ValleyareaofCaliforniadur-
ing the late fall and winter. A fog layerover500m( 1700 ft) thick
settles: bet\\'tCn l\\'O mountain ranges. \\•hile a strong inversion
normally keeps the warmest air above the top of the fog. During
the day, much of the light from the low "farer sun reflects off
the top of the fog, allowing only a small amount of sunlight to
penetrate the fog and warm the ground. As the air warms from
below, the fog dissipates upward from the surface in a rather
shallow layer less th:tn 150 m (500 ft), creating the illusion that
the fog is lifting. Since the fog no longer touches the ground, and
a strong inversion exisL~ above it, the fog is called a higl1 inver-
sion Jog. (The low cloud above the ground i~ al~ called stratus,
or,sirnply, llighfog.) As soon as the sun sets, radiationalcooling
lowers the air temperature, and the fog once again forms on the
ground. ' Ibis daily lifting and lowering ofthe fog \\1th out the sun
ever breaking through it may last for many days or even weeks
during winter in California's Central Valley (see . l'ig. 5.6).
ADVECTION FOG Cooling surface air to its saturation point

may be accomplished by warm moist air moving over acoldsur-
• FIGURE 5.6 Visible satellite image ofdense radiation fog in the southern
halfof California's Central Valley on the morning of November 20,2002. The face. The surface must be sufficiently cooler than the air above
\vhite region to the east (right) of the fog is the snO\v-capped Sierra Nevada so that thetransferofheat from airtosurface will cool the air to
range. During the late fall and \'linter, the bg, nestled bel\veen two mountain its dew point and produce fog, Fog that forms in this manner i~
ranges,. can last for many days \Vithout dissipating. The fog on this day was called adveclion fog.
responsible forseveralau toacddents, including a 14-car pileup near Fresno.
A good ex.~mple of advection fog may be observed along
Notice in this satellite image that the
fog mainly covers the western (left)
the Pacific Coast during summer. The main reason fog forms
side of the valley and that the cities of Stockton and Fresno are not in !hi~ region is that the surface water near the coast is much
in the fog. Based on what you've learned so far about radiation fog 1 colder than the surface water farther offshore. Warm moist air
come up with at least one possible reason why, on this day, fog did from the Pacific Ocean is carried (advected) by westerly winds
not cover the eastern side of tile valley. over the cold coastal waters. Chilled from below, the air tem-
perature drop.s to the dew point, and fog forms. Advection fog,
penetrates the fog and warms the ground, causing the air tem- unlike radiation fog, always involves the movement of air, so
perature in contact \•otith the growld to increase. 'lbe \\•arm air when there is a stiffsummer breeze in San Francisco, it~common
rises and mixes with the foggy air above, which increases the to watch advection fog roll in past the Golden Gate Bridge (see
temperature of the foggy air. In the slightly warmer air.some of • Fig, 5. 7). Jt is also morecommon to see ad vection fog IOrming
the fog droplets evapor;~e, allo"1ng more sunlight to reach the at headlands that protrude seaward !h'm in the mouths of bays.
ground, which produces more heating. and soon the fog com- Jf you are curiOlk~ as to why, read the Focus section on p. 121.
plete! y evaporates and disappears. As smnmer winds carry the fog inland over the warmer
Satellite imagesshow that a bl,nket ofradiation fog tends to land, the fog near the ground dissipates, leaving a sheet oflow-
evaporate ('burn off") first around its periphery, where the fog lyinggray clouds that block out the sun. farther inland, the air
i~ usually thinnest. Sunlight rapidly warms this region, causing is sull\ciently warm so that even these low doudsevaporate and
the fog to dissipate as the warmer air mixes in toward the denser disappear. Since the fog is more likely to burn off during the
IOggy area. warmer part of the day, a typical summertime weather forecast
for coastal are,ts would read, "Fog and low cloudine.ss along the
coast extending locally inland both nights and mornings with
WEATHER WATCH sunny afternoons."
Ever hear of caribou fog? No, it's not the fog that forms
Because they provide moi~ture to the coastal red wood trees,
in Caribou, Maine, but the fog that forms around herds advection fogs are important to the scenic beauty of the Pacific
of caribou. In very cold weather, just a little water vapor Coast. Much of the fog moisture collected by the needles and
added to the air will saturate it. Consequently, the perspi · branches of the red woods drips to the ground (jog drip), where
ration and breath from large herds of caribou add enough it is utilized by the tree'sshallow root system. Without the sum-
water vapor to t he air to crea te a blanket of fo g that hov- mer fog. the coast'.~ red wood trees would have trouble surviving
ers around the herd. the dry California summers. Hence, \\'e find them nestled in
the fog belt along the coast.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
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Why Are Headlands Usually Foggier Than Beaches?
If you drive a long a high way that parallels

an irregular coastline, you may have
obser ved that advection fog is more likely
to form in certain reg ions. For example,
headlands that protrude seaward usually
experience more fog than do beaches that
are nestled in the mouths o f bays. W hy?
As air moves o nshore, it crosses the
coastline at near ly a r ight angle. T his
causes the air to flow together or converge
in the v icinity of the headlands (see Fig. 1).
This area of weak convergence causes the
surface air to rise and cool just a little. If t he
rising air is c lose to being saturated, it w ill
cool to its dew point, and fog w ill form.
Mean while, near the beach area,
notice in Fig. 1 that the surface air spreads
• F I GURE 1 Along an irregular coastline,,advection fog is more likely to form at the headland (the
apart o r diverges as it crosses t he coast- region of land extending sea\vard)\vhere moi!.1 surfaceairconvergesand rises t han at the beach \vhere
line. This area of weak d ivergence creates air diverges and sinks.
sinking and slightly warmer air. Because
the sinking of air increases th e separation Hence, t he headlands can be shrouded in
between air temperature and dew point, fog w hile th e beaches are basking in
fog is less likely to form in this region. sunshine.
Advection fogs also prevail where 1wo ocean currenls wilh frequently 1ha1fog occurs on aboul lwo oul of1hreedaysduring
differenl lemperalures flow nexl 10 one ano1her. Such is !he case summer.
in !he Allanlic Ocean off1he coasl of Newfoundland, where 1he Advection fog also forms over land. Jn \\inter, warm moisl
rold soulh ward-flo"1ng Labrador Curren! lies almosl parallel air from !he GulfofMexico moves northward over progressively
lo !he warm norlhward-flo"1ng Gulf SI ream. Warm soulherly rolder and slighily elevated land. As the air cools to itssa1un1-
air moving over1he cold waler produces fog in !hat region-so 1ion poinl, a fog forms in !he soulhern or central United Stales.
• FI GURE 5.7 Advection fog fonnsasthewind moves

moist air over a cooler surface. Hereadvection fog, having
formed over the cold, coas:tal\vat er of the Pacific Ocea I\
is rolling inland past the Golden Gate Bridge in San
Francisco.As fog moves inland, the air \var ms and t he fog
lifts above t he surface. Eventually, t he air becomes warm
enough to totally evaporate the fog.
°*"'"''"..
• FI G URE S .8 (a) Radial ion fog l ends to form
on clear, relatively calm nights \Vhen cool, moist
surface air is werlain by drier air and rapid radia-
l ional cooling occurs. {b} Advection fog forms
\Vhen the\vind moves moist air over a cold
surface and lhe moist air cools to itsde\v poinL
Because the cold ground is often the result of radiational enriches the air with water vapor. l'robabl y, a more appropri-
cooling. fog that forms in thi~ manner i~ sometimes called ;tte name for the fog is evaporation (mixing) fog. (Fora better
adveclion-radlalion fog. During this same time of year, air understanding of ho'v mixing can produce fog. read the Focus
moving across the warm Gulf Stream encounters the colde.r section on p.1 24.)
land of the British Isles and produces the thick fogs of £ngland.
Similarly, fog forms as marine air moves: over an ice or sno''' EVAPORATION (MIXING) FOG On a cold day, you may have
surface. In extremely cold arctic air, ire crystals form instead of unknowingly produced evaporation fog. When moist air from
""Jter droplets, producing an icefog. your mouth or nose meetsthecold airand mixes with it, theair
Keep in mind that advection fog forms when wind blows becomes saturated, and a tiny cloud forms with each exhaled
moist air over a cooler surface, whereas radiation fog form~ breath.
under relatively calm conditions. • Figure 5.8 visually summa- A common form of evaporation-mixing fog is steam fog,
rizes the formation of these two types of fog. which forms when cold air moves over "'arm water. 'This rypeof
fog forms above a heated outside S\\1mming pool in winter. A.~
UPSLOPE FOG Fog that forms'~~ moist air flows up along an long as the '"'ater is '''armer than the unsaturated air above. \\•ater
ele.vate.d plain, hill, or mountain is calle.d upslope fog. Typically, will evaporate from the pool into the air. Th e increase in water
upslope fog IOrms during the winter and spring on the eastern vapor raic;-es the devt point. and. if mixing ior sufficient, the air
side ofthe Rockies, where the.eastward·sloping plain~are nearly above becomes saturated. The colder air directly above the water
a kilometer higher than the land farther east. Occasionally. is hented from below and becomes warmer than the air directly
cold air moves from the lower eastern plains westward. 111e air above it. 'Ibis warmer air rises and, from a distance, the rising
gradually rises, expands, becomes cooler, and-ifsufliciently condensing vapor appears as "steam."
moist- a fog forms (see • Fig. 5.9). Upslope li>gs that form over It is common toseestemn fog forming overlakesonautumn
an extensive area may last for many days. mornings, as cold air settles over water still warm from the long
Up to now, we have seen how the cooling of air produces summer. On occasion, over the Great Lakes and other warm
fog. But remember that fog m'\Y also form by the mixing of bodies of water, columns of condensed vapor rise from the fog
two unsaturated masse-s of air. Fog that forms in this manner layer, forming whirling sream devil~ which appear similar to the
is usually called evaporation Jog because evaporation initially d ust Mvils on land. If you travel to Yellowstone National Park,
you win see steam fog forming above thermal ponds all year long
(see • Fig. 5.10). Over the ocean in polar regions, steam fog is
referred to as arctic sea smoke.
Steam fog may form above a wet surface on a sunny day.
This type of fog is commonly o bserved after a rainshower as
sunligllt shines on a wet road, heats the asphalt, and q uickly
evaporates the water. 'Ibis added vapor mixes "1th the air above,
producing steam fog. Fog that forms in this manner is short-
lived and disappears as the road surface dries.
A " 'arm rain falling through a layer of cold moist air can
produce fog. Remember from Chapter 4 that the saturation
vapor pressure depends on temperature: Higher temperatures
correspond to higller saturation vapor pressures. When a warm
raindrop fall~ into a cold layer of air, the saturation vapor pres-
• FI GURE S.9 Upslope fog focmsas moist air slowly rises.cools.and mn· sure over the raindrop is greater than that of the air. 'Ibis vapor-
den$e$ over elevated terrain. pre,~sure difference causes water to evaporate from the raindrop
<1<n11....i fl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,.., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
frontal fog. Snow covering the ground is an especially favorable
condition for the formation of frontal fog. The melting snow
extract~ heat from the environment, thereby cooling the already
rain-saturated air.
Foggy Weather
'Jlie foggie.~t regions in the United States are shown in • Fig. 5.l l.
Not ice that dense IOg is more prevalent in coasta I margins (espe-
cia ll y those regions lapped by cold ocean currents) than in 1he
center of the continent. In fact, the foggiest spot near sea level in
the United States is Cape Disappointment, Washington. Located
at themouthof theColumbia River, it averages 2556 hours(orthe
equivalent of106.5 twenty-four-hour days) ofdense fog each year.
• FIGURE 5.10 Even in sum me~ \Yarm air rising above thermal pools in Anyone who travels to this spot hoping to enjoy the sun during
Yello\YStone National Park condenses into a type of steam fog. August and September would find its name approiriate indeed.
Notice in Fig, 5. 11 !hat the coast of Maine is also foggy.
into 1he air. 'I his proc.es.~ may saturate the air and, if mixing In fact, Moose Peak Lighthouse on Mistake Island averages
occurs, fog forms. Fog of this type is often associated with warm 1580 hours (66 equivalent days) of dense fog. 1·0 !he south,
air riding up and over a mass of colder surface air. 'lhe fog usu- Nantucket Island has on average 2040 hours (85 equivalent
ally develops in the shallow layer of cold air just ahead of an days) of fog each year.
approaching warm front or behind a cold front, which is why Although fog is basically a nuisance, it has many positive
thistypeofevaporation IOg is also known as precipitation fog, or aspects. For example, the California Central Valley fog that
• FIGURE 5.11 Average annual

number ofdays with dense fog
{visibility less than 0.25 miles} across
North America. (Dense fog observed
in small mountain valleys and on
mountain tops is not sho\vnJ
Number ol days
with dense fog
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Fog That Forms by Mixing
• FI GURE 2 Milting hvo unsaturated air parcels
How can unsaturated bodies of air m ix
can produce fog. Notice that the mixed parcel has
together to prod uce fog (or a cloud)? To
an actual mixing rat io {W) that is greater t han the
answer this q uestion, let's first examine T =20'C T= ·10"'C saturation mixing ratio (W,}. This ptoduces an RH of
two unsaturated air par cels. (Later, we will =15"C
T, T, = -15"C 109%and results in fog.(As t he mixed parcel cools
W= 10.8 g/l<g W= I 2glkg
look at the parcels mixed together.) The below its dew point temperature. \Wt er vapor \viii
..
RH= 72' RH =67%
conden.se on to condensation nudei, producing the
two parcels in Fig. 2 are essentially the
liquid droplet s that c reate fog }
samesizeand havea massofl kg. Yet each
has a d ifferent temper ature and a different
relative humid ity. (We w ill assume that the parcel 's dew-point temper ature. For a dew-
parce ls ar e n ear sea level where the atmo- point temper ature of 1S°C, the actual m ix-
spheric pressure is close to 1000 mb.) ing ratio is 10.8 g/ kg. Consequently, the
ln Chapter 4 we used both the actual relative hum idity of the air in parcel A is
vapor pressure and the saturation vapor 72 percent because
to obtain the air's r elative humid ity (see
RH = ~ = l 0. 8 x 100% = 72%.
p. 99). H ere we w ill use another formula to w, 15.0
express relative humidity:
Air parcel Bin Fig . 2 is considerably
RH = actual mixing ratio (Iv} X lOO*>... colder than parcel A w it h a temper ature
saturation 1nlxl"9 ration bvf} of - 10°C, an d considerably drier w ith a
T= 5"C dew-point temperature of - 15°C. These
w, =5.5 g/l<g
Look closely at Fig. 2 and obser ve that W= 6.0g/l<g temperatures y ield a relative hum idity o f
parcel A has an air temperature (T) of 20°( RH= 109% 67 percent as:
and a dew-point temperature (T,Jof 1S°C. w 1.2
To obtain thesaturationmix.ingratio, we 2.01111 RH = - = - X 100% = 67%.
w1 1.8
look at Table 1 and readthevaluethat
Suppose we now thoroughly mix the
corresponds to the parcel's air tempera- two parcels in Fig. 2. After mixing, the new
•Recall from Chapter4 that t heactualmixing ratio pa reel's temperaturewill be close to the
ture. For a temperature of 20°C, t he satura-
(W) is the mass of\Yater vapor per kilogram {kg} of
tion mixing ratio is 15.0 g/kg . Likewise, the average o f parcel A and parcel 81 o r about
dry air, usualty expressed as grams per kilogram
fg/ kg},and t he saturation mixing ratio (w) is the actual mixing ratio is obtained in Table 1 by S°C. T he total water vapor content (the
mix.ing ratio of saturated air, alsoexpre.s:sed asg/ kg. read ing the value that corresponds to the actual m ixing ratio) of t he mixed parcel will
many people scorn is extremely important to the economy of Unfortunately, fog also has many negative aspects. Along
that area. • Fruit and nut trees that have finished growing dur- a gently sloping highway, the elevated sections may have excel-
ing the summer and fall require winter chilling- a large num- lent visibility, while in lower regions-only a few kilometers
ber of hours \\ith the air temperature below 7•c (45•f) be.fore away-fog may cause poorvi~ibility. Driving from the dear area
trees will begin to grow again. The "inter fog blocks out the sun into the fog on a major freeway can be extreme! y dangerous. In
and helps keep daytime temperatures quite cool, while keeping fact, every \\inte.r many people are involve.d in fog-related auto
nighttime temperatures above freezing: 'lhe more continuous accidents. 1 hese usually occur when a c.ar enters the fog and,
the fog. the more effective the chilling. Consequently, the agri- because of the reduce.d visibility, the driver puts on the brake~
cultural economy of the region depend~ heavily on the fog, for to slow down. The car behind then slam~ into the slowed vehi-
without it and the "inter chill it stimulates, many of the fruit and cle, causing a chain-reaction accident with many cars involve.d.
nut tree~ would not grow well. During the spring, when tree,~ are One such accident actually occurre.d near Fresno, California, in
in bloom, fog prevents nighttime air temperatures from dipping February, 2002, whe.n 87vehiclessmashedintoeach other along
to dangerously low readings by trapping infrared energy that is a stretch of foggy Highway 99. 'l11e accident left dozens ofpeople
radiated by the earth and releasing latent heat to the air as fog injured, three people dead, and a landscape strewn "ith cars and
droplet~ form. trucks t"isted into heap.~ ofjagged steel.
Extremely limited visibility exim while driving at night in
"Fdr ret'ere na. ll>ok bock n1 Fig. S.6 (p. 120). an d see how the fog C>ln oo~ r -a vasl thick IOg with the high-beam lights on. 111e lightsc.ittered back
region. AJsio. note lh.l1 the fog con last for ro.lnr dlyson e nd to the driver's eyes from the fog droplets makes it difficult to
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c.. 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
,. TABLE 1 Saturation M ixing Ratios 6 .0 g/kg, is above that required for satura-
of Water Vapor for Various Air tion and that the parcel is supersaturated
Temperatures (Air Pressure Is 1000 mb) with a relative humidity of 109 percent. 20 SUPERSATURATED Saturation
mixing-....
Of course. such a high relative humidity is fatio
AIR SATURATION
almost Impossible to obtain, as watervapor
TEfl.\PERATURE MIXING ~ 15 Clou<I QI fog
{'Cl RATIO (g/kgl would certainly condense on condensation fcxms
20 IS.0
nude~ producing liquid water dropletsas
the two parcels mix together and the rela-
~ 10
Final
.·
.. ·Parcel A
.
15 10.8 tive humidity approaches 100 percent.
Hence, mixing two initially unsaturated
fs mixed
parcel
UNSAJURA1ED
IO 7.8 mass.es of air can produce fog or a cloud.
5 5.5 Another Witf to look at this mixing 10
process is to place the two unsaturated air Teml*ature {-C)
0 3.8 pa rcels into Fig. 3, w hich isa graphic rep re~
sentation of Table 1. The solid blue line in
-5 2 .6 • F I GURE 3 The blue line is the saturation milling
Fig. 3 represents the saturation mixing ratio. The mixing of two unsaturated air parcels (A
- IO 1.8 ratio. Any air parcel w ith an air temperature a nd B)can produce a saturated air parcel and fog.
and actual mixing ratio that falls on the
- IS 1.2
blue line is saturated w ith a re lative humid-
ity of 100 percent. If anair parcel is located line, indicating that water vapor inside the
- 20 0 .8
to the right of the blue line, the air parcel is mixed parcel w ill condense either into fog
unsaturated. If an air pa reel lies to the left or a cloud. Fog that forms in this manner is
be the sum of the mixing ratios of parcel A of the line, the parcel is supersaturated, listed under t he heading Evaporation (Mix-
and parcel B, o r and condensation will occur. ing) Fog (p. 122). As you read t hat section,
Notice that w hen parcel A and parcel B keep in mind that although evaporation ha.s
120 •
10.8 %9 + 1·2 %9 = ~ 2 = 60
· •1
/'icg from Fig. 2 are plotted in Fig. 3, both unsat- a part in fog formation, mixing plays the
urated air parcels fa ll to t he right of the blue dominant role.
look at Table 1 and observe thatthe line. However, w hen parcel A and parcel B
saturation mixing ratio for a saturated parcel are mixed, the mixed air parcel (with an air
at S'C is only 5.5 g/kg. This means that the temperature of 5°C and an actual mixing
watervapor content of the mixed parcel, at ratio of 6.0 g/kg) fa lls to the left of the blue
see very far down the road. However, even in thick fog. there is no wonder that scientists have been seeking w'tys to d isperse,
is usually a drier and therefore dearer region extend ing about or at least "thin; fog. (For more information on fog-thinning
35 cm ( 14 in.) above the road surface. f>e.o ple who drive a great techniques, read the Focus section entitled "Fog Dispersal"
deal in foggy ,,,e,tther take ad vantage of this by installing extra on p. 126.)
head lamps- called Jog lamps- just above the front bumper. Up to this point, we have looked at thediffi.rent forms ofcon-
'lbese lights are d irected downward into the dear space where densation that occur on or near the earth's surface. In particular,
they provide improved visibility. we learned that fog is simply many biUions of tiny liquid drop-
Fog-related problems are not confined to land. Even with lets (or ice crystal~) that form near the ground. Jn the foUowing
sophisticated electronic equipment, dense fog in the open sea sections, we " 'U see how theses,u.ne particles, forming well above
hampers navigation. A Swedish liner rammed the luxury liner the ground, are classified and identified as clouds.
Andrea Doria in thick fog off Nantucket Island on July 25, 1956,
causing 52 casualties. On a fog-covere.d runway in the Canary
islands, two 747 jet airliners collided, taking the lives of over WEATHER WATCH
570 people in March, 1977. The foggie..st place in the world (aside from some mountain-
Airports suspend flight operations when fog causes vis- tops) is Cape Ra ce, Newfoundland, in Canada. Here, dense
il>ility to drop below a prescribed minimum. ·n1e resulting de- fog i.s reported on avera ge3792 hours a year, which is
lays and cancellations become costly to the airline industry and equi valent to 158 full days, or 43 percent of the ti me.
irritate passengers. With fog-caused problems such as the,se, it
In any airport fog-clearing operation t he As we will see in Chapter 7, these cr ystals droplets evaporate and v isibility improves.
problem is to improve v isibility so that air- then g row lar ger at the expense o f the Tested at Los Angeles International Airport
craft ca n take o ff and land. Experts have remaining liquid fog dropl ets. Hence, the in the early 1950s, this technique was aban-
tried various methods, w hich can be fog droplets evaporate and t he larger ice doned because it was smoky, expensive,
gro uped into fo ur categories: (1) increase cr ystals fall to t he ground, w hich leaves a and not very effective. In fact, the burning
the size o f the fog droplets, so that they "hole" in the fog fo r aircraft takeoffs and of hundreds of dollars worth of fuel o nly
become heavy and settle to the gr ound landings. cleared the runway for a short time. And
as a light drizzle; (2) seed cold fog w ith Unfortunately, most of the fogs that the smoke particle~ released during the
dry ice (solid carbon dioxide), so that fog close airports in the United States are WOlm burning of the fuel, provided abundant
droplets are converted into ice cr ystals; fogs that form w hen the air temperature is nuclei for the fog to recondense upon.
(3) heat the air, so that t he fog evaporates; above freezing. Since dry ice seeding does A final method o f warm fog d isper-
and (4) m ix the cooler saturated air near not work in warm f09, other techniques sal uses helicopters to mix t he air. The
the surface w ith the war mer unsatura ted must be tried. chopper flies across t he fog l ayer, and
air above. O ne method involves injecting hygro- the t urbulent downwash c reated by th e
To date, o nly o ne o f these methods scopic particles into the fog. Large salt par- rotor b lades brings drier air above the
has been reasonably successful - the ticles and other chemicals absorb the tiny fog into contact w ith t he moist fog layer
seed ing of cold fog . Cold fog formsw hen fog droplets and fo rm into larger drops. (see Fi g. 4i The ai l'T\ of course, is to eva p--
the air temperature is below freezin g, and More large drops and fewer small drops orate the fog. Experiments show that this
most of the fog droplets rema in as liquid improve the v isibility; plus, the larger method works well, as lo ng as th e fog is
water. (Liquid fog in below-freezing air is drops are more likely to fall asa light a shallow radiatio n fog w ith a relatively
also called supercooled fog.) The fog can drizzle. Since the chemicals are expensive low liquid water content. But many
be cleared by injecting several hundred and the fog clears for only a shor t time, this fogs are thick, have a hig h liquid water
pounds o f dry ice into it. As the tiny pieces method of fog dispersal is not economi- content, and fo rm by other means. An
of cold (- 78'C) dry ice descend, they cally feasible. inexpensive and p ractical method o f
freeze some o f t he supercooled fog drop- Another technique for fog dispersal is dispersing warm fog has yet to be
lets in th eir path, p roducing ice cr ystals. to warm theair enough so that the fog discovered.
Drier air
• ~ Mols1air
//\ \
~
• FI GUR E 4 Helico pters hovering above an area o f shalla.vfog (left) can produce a dear area {right} by mbc.ing the d rier air into the foggy a ir beloo.v.
BRIEF REVIEW • Vi.slbl ewhite frost forms in saturated air when the air tem-
However, before going on to the section on clouds, here is a perature is at or below freezing. Under these conditions,
brief review of some of t he facts and concepts we covered water vapor can change direct l y to Ice, in a processcalled
so far: deposition.
• Condensation nuclei act as surfaces on w hich water vapor
• Dew, fros I, and frozen dew generally form on clear nights
condenses. Those nuclei that have an affinity for water
when the temperature of objects on the surface cools below
vapor are called hygroscopic.
the air's dew-polnttemperature.
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""" ""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• Fog Is a cloud resting on the ground. It can be composed of • TABLE 5.2 The Four Major Cloud Groups and Their Types
water droplets, ice crystals, or a combination of both.
1. HIGH CLOUOS 3. LOW CLOUOS
• Radiation fog, advectlon fog, and upslope fog all form as the
air cools. The cooling for radiation fog Is mainly radiation al Cirrus (Ci) Strarus (St)
cooling at the earth's surface; for advection fog, the cooling
Cirrostrarus (Cs) Stratocumulus (Sc)
Is main ly warmer air moving over a colder surface; for
upslope fog, the cooling occurs as moist air gradually rises Cirrocumulus (G:) Nimbosrratus (Ns)
and expands along sloping terrain.
• Evaporation (mixing) fog , such as steam fog and frontal fog , 2. MIDDLE CLOUDS 4. CLOUDS WITH VERTICAL
DEVELOPMENT
forms as water evaporates and mixes with drier air.
Altostratus (A<) Cumulus (Cu)
Al1ocumulus (Ac) Cumulonimbus (Cb)
Clouds the basic types. for example, nimbo.~tratus is a rain cloud that
Oouds are aesthetically appealing and addexcitemmt to the at· shows layering, whereas cumulonimbus is a rain cloud having
mosphere. Without them, there would be no rain or snow, thun· pronounced vertical development.
deror lightning. rninbowsor halos. How monotonous ifone had Jn 1887, Abercromby and Hildebrandsson e.xpande.d How-
only a clear blue sky to look at. A c/oiuJ is a visible aggregate of ard's original system and published a classification system that,
tiny water droplet~ or ice crystalssuspended in the air. Some are with only slight modiliC!tion, is still in use today. 'Jen principal
li>und only at high elevations, whereas others nearly touch the cloud forms are divided into four primary cloud groups. £ach
ground. Clouds can be thick or thin, big or little-they exist in group i~ identified by the height of the cloud's base above the sur-
a seemingly endless variety of forms. To impose order on this face: high clouds, middle.clouds, and low clouds. 'Jl1efourth group
variety, we divide clouds into ten basic types. With a careful and contain.~ clouds showing more vertical than horizontal develop·
practiced eye, you can berome reasonably proficimt in correctly ment. Within each group, cloud types are idmtified by their ap·
identifying them. pearance. • Table 5.2 lists these four groups and their cloud types.
'Jl1e appro.ximate base height of each cloud group is given
CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS Although ancient astronomers in T 'fable 5.3. Note that the altitude separating the high and
named the major stellar constellations about 2000 years ago, middle cloud groups overlap.~ and varies with latitude. Large
clouds were not formally identified and dassifie.d until theearly temperature chan&""s cause most of this latitudinal variation. for
nineteenth century. TheFrmch naturalist Lamarck ( 1744-1829) example. high cirriform clouds are rompose.d almost mtirely of
propo.*.d the first system for classifying clouds in 1802; how- ice crystals. In tropical regions, air temperatures low enough to
ever, his work did not receive wide acclaim. One year later, Luke freeze all liquid wate.r usually occur only above 6000 m (about
Howard, an English naturalist, developed a cloud classification 20,000 ft). Jn polar regions, however, these same temperatures
system that found general acceptance. Jn essence, Howard's may be found at altitudes as low as 3000 m (about 10,000 ft).
innovative system employed Latin '"ords to describe clouds as Hence, while you may observe cirrus clouds at 3600 m (about
they appear to a ground observer. He named a sheetlike cloud 12,000 ft) over northern Aht~ka, you "'" not see them at that
stratus (Latin for "layer"); a puffy cloud cumulus ("heap"); elevation above southern Florida.
a wispy cloud cirnis ("curl of hair"); and a rain cloud nimbus Clouds cannot be accurate.ly identified strictly on the basis
("violent rain"). Jn Howard'ssystem, the.* were the four basic a e.levation. Other visual dues are nece.o;.~ry. Some of these are
cloud forms. Other clouds could be described by combining explained in the following section.
• TABLE 5.3 Approximate Height of Cloud Bases Above the Surface for Various locations
CLOUD GROUP TROPICAL REGION MJOOU LATITUDE REGION POLAR REGION
High 20,000 10 60,000 t\ 16,000 to 4 3,000 t\ 10.000 10 26,000 t\
Ci, Cs.Cc (6.000 to I S,000 m) (5000 to 13,000 m) (3-000 to 8000 m)
Middle 6500 IO 26,000 t\ 6500 to 23,000 t\ 6500 10 13,000 t\
As, Ac (2000 to SOOO m) (2000 to 7000 m) (2000 to 4000 m)
LO\\t surface 10 6500 t\ surface to 6500 ft surface to 6500 t\

St, Sc, Ns (0 to 2000 m) (Oto 2000 m) (0102000 m)
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CLOUD IDENTIFICATION
High Clouds High clouds in middle and low latitudes gener-
ally form above6000 m (20,000 ft). flecausethe air at theseeleva-
tioos is quite cold and "dry," high clouds are composed almost
exclusively of ice crystals and are also rather thin.• High clouds
usually appear white, except near smuise and sunset, when the
lmSCattered (red, orange, and yellow) components ofsunlight
are reflected from theundersideoftheclouds.
1 he most common high clouds are the cirrus (Ci), which
arethin, wispy clouds blown by high winds into longstrMmers
caUed mares' tails. Notice in • Fig. 5.12 that they can look like a
white, feathery patch "'th a faint wisp ofa tail at one end. Cirrus
clouds uSl••lly move across the sky from west to east, indicating
the prevailing winds at their elevation, and they generally point
to fair, pleasant weather.
Cirrocumulus (Cc) clouds, seen less frequently th'm cirrus,
appear assmall, rounded, white pu!E; that may occur individual! y
or in long rows(see oFig. 5.13). When in rows, thecirrocumulus
cloud has a rippling appearance that distinguishes it from the
silky look of the cirrus and the sheetlike cirrostratus. Cirrocu-
mulus seldom cover more than a small portion of the sky. ' lhe
dappled cloud elements that reflect the red or yeUow light of a
seuingsun make this one of the most beautiful of all clouds. ' lhe
small ripples in thecirrocumulusstrongly resemblethescalesof
a fish; hence, theexpre.ssion "11wckere/ sky" commonly describes
a sky full of cirrocumulus clouds.
The thin, sheetlike, high clouds that often cover the entire
s~-y are cirrostratus (Cs) (seeo l'ig. 5.14), which are so thin that
the sun and moon can be clearly seen through them. ' the ice
crystals in these clouds bend the light passing through them
and wiU often produce a ha/a -a ring of light that encircles the
sun or moon. Jn fact, the veil of cirrostratus may be so thin that
·s1nall qunntilicsof liquid ~\lier in cirrus clouds .-it 1e1nperatures ns low as - J6°C
• FIGURE 5.12 Cirrusc:loud.s.Noticethesilky•mare's tairappearance. (-33"F) were discovei·cd during rcsean:h conductttt above Boulder. Colorudo.
, \
• FIGURE 5. 14 Cirrostratusc:louds. Notice the faint halo encircling the sun.

• FIGUR E 5.13 Cfrrocumulusdoud.s. The sun is the bright\vhite area in the center of the drde.
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<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,.., .._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
e FI GURE 5.1 S Altocumulusc:louds. Notice the dark·to-light contrasting • FI GURE S.16 Altostratuscloud.s. Theappearanceofadimtyvisible '"watery
patterns that distinguish these douds from cirrocumuluscloud.s. sun" through a dec.kof light grayc:louds is usually a good indication that the
clouds are altostratus.
a halo is !he only clue 10 ils presence. Thick cirros1ra1us clouds cirriform clouds also helps one distinguish rhem. Ano!her way
giver he sky agfarywhireappearanceand frequently form ahead 1osepara1e !he rwo is 10 look al !he ground for shadows. If !here
<:i an advancing cyclonic s!orm; hence, !hey can be used 10 pre- are none, ii isa good be! 1ha1 !he cloudisal10.~1ra1us bec3use cir-
dict rain or snow within 1210 24 hours, especially iflhey are ros1ra1us are u.sually 1ransparen1enough10 produce !hem. Al10-
IOllowed by middle-type clouds. s1ra1u.s cloud~ often form ahead ofmid-la!i!udecyclonic srorms
having widespread and refalively continuous precipilalion. lf
Middle Clouds The middle clouds have bases between 2000 precipilalion falls from an al10.s1ra1us, ii is sread y and nor show-
and 7000 m (6500 10 23,000 fr) in !he middle lali!udes. These ery as found wilh cumuli form clouds. Ofren as precipi!a!ion falls
doudsarecomposedofwa1er droplctsand-when1he1empera- from !he cloud, its base lowers. lfrhe precipila!ion reaches rhe
1ure becomes low enough-some ice crystals. Precipila!ion can ground, I he cloud is rhen reclassified as nimbostmtus.
!Orm in middle clouds if rhey become rhickenough.
Altocumulus (Ac) cloud~ are middle cloud~ Iha! are com- Low Clouds Low clouds, wilh rheir base.s lying below 2000 m
pooed mosrfy of waler droplets and are rarely more !han I km (6500 fr), are almo.sr always composed of waler droplets; how-
(abour 3300 ft) !hick. 'lliey appear as gray, puffy masses, some- ever, in cold weather, !hey may contain ice par!icles.
times rolled our in parallel waves or bands (see . Fig. 5.1 5). Usu- The nimbostratus (Ns) is a dark gray, ""-e!"-fooking cloudy
ally, one parrof!he cloud is darker !han another, which help.~ 10 layer associated wirh more or less continuously falling rain or
separate ii from rhe higher cirrocumulu.~. AL~o. rhe individual snow (see • Fig. 5.1 7). '!lie intensity of !hi~ precipi1a1ion is usu-
puffs of !he ahocumulu.~ appear larger !han !ho.se oflhe cirro- ally lighr or modera1e-i1 is never of1hehe3vy,showery variety,
cumulu.s. A layer of ahocumulus may somelime.s be confused unless well-developed cumulus clouds are embedded "1!hin
"11h aho.~1ra1us; in case of doubr, clou<L~ are called afrocumulus rhe nimbos1ra1us doud. Precipila!ion often makes !he base of
ifrherearerounded masses or rolls present Alrocumulu.~clouds rhe nimbos1ra1us cloud impossible 10 identify dearly. From !he
Iha! look like "linfe castles" (caste//anus) in !he sky indicate !he cloud's ba.se1oi1s1opmay be over3 km( J0,000 fl). Nimbos1ra1us
presence of rising air al cloud level. The appe3rance of !hese is e3sily confused wilh !he al10.~1ra1us. Thin nimbo.~1ra1usisusu
douds on a warm, humid summer morning often portends ally darker gray !han !hick af1os1rarus, and you normally canno!
!hundersrorms by fare afternoon. see !he sun or moon !hrough a fayer of nimbos1ra1us. Visibility
'!lie altostratus (As) is a gray or blue-gray cloud compo.~ed below a nimbos1ra1us cloud deck is u.~ually quire poor becau.se
of icecrysralsand waler dropfers. Al1os1ra1us clouds often cover rain will evaporate and mix wi!h !he air in !his region. lf !his
rhe entire sky across an area 1ha1 extends over many hundreds air becomes sa1ura1ed, a lower fayer of cloud~ or fog may form
ofsquarekifomerers. In !he thinner section of1hedoud, 1hesun beneath rhe original cloud base. Since rhese lower clouds drifl
(or moon) may bedim/yvisibleas around disk, asif!hesun were rapidly \\ilh rhe wind, !hey form irregular shreds wi!h a ragged
shining through ground glass. 'llii~ appearance is somerime,s appearance 1ha1 are c3lled stratusJractus, or scutJ (see Fig. 5.1 7).
referred 10 as a "watery sun" (see • Fig. 5.16). Thick cirro.~!rallL~ Stralocumulus (Sc) are low lumpy clouds Iha! appe3r in
clouds are occasionally confused wilh !hin al1os1ra1us cloud~. rows, in parches, or as rounded masses wirh blue sky visible
Th e gray color, heighr, and dimness of rhe sun are good clue,s between individual clouds (see • Fig. 5.18). Often rhey appear
1oiden1ifying an af10.s1ra1us. The facr 1ha1 halos only occur wi!h near sunser as rhespreading remains of a much larger cumulus
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
• FI GURE 5 .17 The nimbostratusis thesheetlik.e c:loud from \Vhich light rain • FIGURE 5 .18 Stratocumulusclouds forming along the south coast of
is falling.The ragged-appearing clouds beneath the nimbostratus is stratus Florida. Notice that the rounded masse! are larger than those of the
fractu s. or $.C"Ud. altocumulus.
cloud. Occasionally, the sun "1llshine through the cloud breaks drizzle. '!his cloud commonly occurs over Pacific and Atlan-
producing bands oflight (called crepuscular rays) that appear to tic coastal waters in summer. A thick layer of stratus might be
reach down to the grow1d. The color of stratocumulus ranges confused with nimbostratus, but the distinction beMeen them
from light to dark gray. It differs fromaltocwntfosin that it has a can be made by observing the low base of the stratus cloud and
lower base and larger individual clouds. (Compare Fig. 5.15 "1th remembering that light-to-moderate precipitation occurs with
Pig. 5. I8.) 'lb di~tingui~h between the two, hold your hand at nimbostratus. Moreover, stratus often has a more uniform base
arm's length and point tO\\"Jrd one of these clouds. Altocumulus than doesnimbostratus. At~. a deck ofstratus may be confused
"ill generally be about the size of your thumbnail, whereasstra- with a layer of altostratus. However, if you remember that stratus
tocumulus will usually be about the size of your fist. Although are lower and darker gray and that the sun normally appears
precipitation rarely fall~ fromstratocumulus, light rain sho"'ers "watery" through altostratus, the distinction can be made.
or winter snow flurries may occur ifthe cloud develops verti-
cally into a much thicker cloud with a top colder than about Clouds with Vertical Development Familiar to almost every-
-5"C (23•J'). one, the puffy cumulus (Cu) cloud takes on a variety of shapes,
St.ratus(St) isa uniform grayish doud that often rovers the but most often it looks like a piece offloating cotton with sharp
entire sky. Jt resembles a fog that does not reach the ground (see outlines and a flat base (see • Fig. 5.20). The base appears white
• Pig. 5.19). Actually, when a thick fog "lifts; the resulting cloud to light gray, and, on a humid day, may be only 1000 m (3300 ft)
is a deck of low stratus. Normally, no precipitation falls from above the ground and a kilometer or so wide. The top of the
the stratus, but sometimes it is accompanied by a light mist or cloud -often in the fi>rmofrounded towers- denotes thelimit
• FI GURE 5.19 A layeroflo\v-tying stratus clouds

hides these mountains in Iceland.
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~...'11..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,.,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FIGURE 5.20 Cumulusdoud.s. SmaUcumulusclouds
such as these are sometimes called !Wrn~othercumulus,
orcumulushumifis.
d risingairandisusually not veryhigh.1besecloudscan be dis- If a cumulus congestuscontinue.s to grow verticaUy, it devel-

tinguished from stratocumulus by the fact that cumulus clouds ops into a giant ctcmulonlmbus (Cb)-a thw1derstorm cloud
are detached (usually a great dealofbluesk y between each cloud) (see o Fig. 5.22). While its dark base may be no more than 600 m
while stratocumulus usually occur in groups or patches. Also, (2000 ft) above the earth'.s surface, its top may extend upward
the cwnulus has a dome- or tower-shaped top as opposed to the to the tropopause, over 12,000 m (39,000 ft) higher. A cumu-
generally flat tOP-S of the stratocumulus. Cumulus clouds that lonimbus can occur as an isolated cloud or as part of a line or
show only slight vertical growth are caUed <Wnulus Jiu mi/is and "wall" of clouds.
are associated with fair weather; therefore, we call these clouds 111e tremendous amounts of energy released by the con-
"fair weatlier cumulus." Ragged-edge cumulus clouds that are de-nsation of \\•ate.r vapor \\•ithin a cumulonimbus re,sult in
smaller than cumulus humilis and scattered across the sky are the development of violent up- and downdrafts, which may
called cumulusfmctus. exceed 70 knots. 'Jbe lower (warmer) part of the cloud is usu-
Harmless-looking cumultLS dten develop on warm swnmer ally composed of only water droplets. Higher up in the cloud,
morning,s and, by afternoon, become much kirger and more ver- water droplets and ice crystals both abound, while, toward the
tically developed. W'hen the growing rumultcs resembles a head cold top, there are only ice crystals. Swift winds at these higher
d cauliflO\\'t.r. it be.come,s a cunJu/usconge:stus, or to1veri11g cu111u- altitudes can reshape the top of the cloud into a huge flattened
lus (Tcu). Most often, it is a single large cloud, but, occasionally, anvil'(cumulonimbus incus). 'Jl1ese great thunderheads may
several grow into each other, forming a line of towering clouds, contain an forms ofprecipitution - largeraindrops,snowflakes,
as shown in • fig. 5.2 1. Precipitation that falls from a cumultcs ·An anviJ isa heavy block oi iron or steel with a .snlOoth, flot top on which ff1Ctnls
congesttcs is always showery "1th frequent changes in intensity. are shaped by h;un1nering.
• FIGURE 5. 21 Cumulus congestusc:louds are

frequentty called towering cumulus. These clouds
are taller than cumuluscloudsand are more
likely to produce sh"'vers. Here a line ofcumulus
congl'$tusclouds is building along Maryland's
eastern shore.
• FIGURE 5. 22 Acumulonimbusdoud {thun-
derstorm). Strong upper•level \yjnds blo\ving
from right to left produce a \-..ell-defined anvil
Sunlight scattered by falling icecrystals produces
the\Vhite (bright)area beneath the anvil Notice
the heavy rain sho\ver falling from the base of the
doud.
snow pellets, and sometimes hailstones- all of which can fall The weather associated "1th these clouds also differs: lightning.
to earth in the form of heavy showers. Lightning. thunder, and thunder, and large hail typically occur with cumulonimbus.
even tornadoes are associated with the cumulonimbus. (More So far, we have discu.~d the ten primary cloud forms, sum-
information on the violent nature of thunderstorms and torna- marized pictorially in • Fig. 5.23. 'Jbi~ figure, along with the cloud
does i~ given in Chapter 14.) photographs and descriptions (and the cloud chart at the back
Cumulus congestu.~ and cumulonimbu.~ frequently look of the book), should help you identify the more common cloud
alike, making it difficult to distingui~h between them. However, forms. Don't worry if you find it hard to estimate cloud heights.
you can u.~ually distinguish them by looking at the top of the 111i~isadifficult procedure, requiringmud1 practice. You can use
cloud. If the sprouting upper part of the cloud is sharply defined local objects (hills, mountains, tall buildings) of known height as
and not fibrous, it is u.~ually acumultc~congestu.~;oonversely, ifthe references on which to base your height estimates.
top ofthe cloud loses its sharpness and becomes fibrou.~ in texture, To better describe a cloud'.~shape and form, a number of
it is usually a cumulonimbus. Compare Fig. 5.21 "1th Fig. 5.22. descriptive word~ may be used in conjunction "1th its name. We
(Sun clir!lly visible)
MIOOLE CLOUDS Cumuloolmbus

2000m 6,500 ft - - - - - - - - --
Nimbostratus
LOWCLOUOS CLOUDS WITTi
VERTICAL OEVEl.OPMENT
Stratus Slralocumulus
precipitation soow...y pracipltalion
• FIGUR E 5. 2 3 A generatized illustration of basic cloud types based on heightabote the surface and vertical development
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FIG URE S.24 A spectacular lenticular c.loud
formingover theWliiteMountains in New Hampshire.
}
Ii
li
i
J...~.............
mentioned a fow in the previOllS section; for ex:unple, a stratllS liquid or mdt ice particles. If the sinking air remain~ saturated
cloud with a ragged appearanceisastratusfractus, and a cumu- and cooler than the air around it, the sinking air can extend
lus doud with marked vertical gro"1h is a cumulu.~ congestus. below the cloud base appearing as rounded masseswecallmam-
T Table 5.4 list.~some of the more common terms that are used matu.~ clouds.
in cloud identification. Jet aircraft flying at high altitudes often produce a tirru.~-like
trail of condensed vapor called a co11de11satio11 tmil or contrail
SOME UNUSUAL CLOUDS Although the ten basic cloud (see • Fig. 5. 28). Contrails evaporate rapidly when the relative
forms are the most frequently seen, there are some unusual humidity of the surrounding air is low. If the relative humidity
clouds that deserve mentioning. For example, moi~t air crossing i~ high, however, contrail~ may persist for many hours. Contrails
a mountainbarrieroften forms into waves. The clouds that !Orm can form directly from the water vapor added to the air from
in the wave crest usually have a lens shape and are, therefore, engine exhaust. Jn this case, there must be sufficient mixing of
called lenticular clouds (see • Fig. 5.24). Frequently, they !Orm the hot exhaust gases with the cold air to produce saturation.
one above the other like a stack of pancakes, and at a distance The release of particles in the exhaust may even provide nuclei
they may resemble a hoveringspacecraft. Hence, it is no wonder on which ice crystals form. They may also form by a cooling
a large number of UFO sightings take place when lenticular process. The reduced pressure produced by air flowing over the
clouds are present. When a cloud forms over and extends down- "fog causes the air to cool. 'llti~ cooling may supersarurate the
wind of an i~olated mountain peak, as shown in • Fig. 5.25, it is air, producing an aerodynamic co11tmil.'ibis type of trail usually
called a banner cloud. disappears quickly in the turbulent wake of the aircraft.
Similar to the lenticular is the ""P cloud, or pileus, that Aside from the cumulonimbus cloud that sometimes pen-
usually resembles a silken scarf capping the top of a sprouting etrates into the stratosphere, all of the clouds described so far
cumulus cloud (see • l'ig. 5.26). f>ileu.~ cloud.~ form when moist are observed in the lower a!mosphere -in the troposphere.
winds are deflected up and over the top of a building cumulllS Occasionally, however, clouds may be seen above the tropo-
congestus or cumulonimbus. If the air flowing over the top of sphere. For example, soft pearly looking clouds called nacre-
the doud condenses, a pileusoften forms. ous clouds, or motlier-of-pearl cloud~ form in the strato.~phere
Most clouds form in rising air, but the mammatu.~ form~ :tt altitudes above 30 km (see • Fig. 5.29). They are best viewed
in sinking air. Mammatus clouds derive their name from their in polar latitudes during the \\foter months when the sun, be-
appearance- baglike sacs that hang beneath the cloud and ing ju.~t below the horizon, is able to illuminate them because
resemble a cow~ udder (see . Fig. 5.27). Although mammatllS
most frequently form on the underside of cumulonimbus, they WEATHER WATCH
may develop beneath cirrocumulus, altostratus, altocumulus, On June 15, 1996, during a tornado outb reak in Kansas,
and stratocumulu.~. For mammatus to form, the sinking air mu.~t a cumulon imbus cloud reached an incredible height of
be cooler than the air around it and have a high liquid water or 78, 000 feet- the equivalent of more than two and
ice content. As saturated air sinks. it \\•arm~. but the \\'arming is one· ha lf Mount Eve rests stacked one atop the other.
retarded because of the heat taken from the airtoevaporatethe
• TABLE S.4 Common Terms Used in Identifying Clouds
TERM LATIN ROOT ANO MEANING DESCRIPTION
Lenticularis (/em, /e11ffrnla, lentil) Clouds having the shape of a lens or an almond often elongated and
usually \\Ii.th \\ie"U~defined outlines. This tern1 applie.'i nlainJ)' to cirmcu-
n1ulus, altocun1ulus, and stratcx:un1ulus
ifmugere, to break or fracture) Clouds that have a ragged or torn appearance; applie.'i onl y to straws
and cun1ulus
Hun1ilis (hu111ilis. of sn1all size) Cun1ulus cloud'i \\Ii.th generally flattened bac;es and slight \iertical gro,,rt.11
Congestus (ccngerere, to bring together; to pile up) Cun1uJus clouds ofgreat venical e>.1ent that fron1 a di.stance n1ay resen1ble
a he.ad of c.aulitlo\,rer
Calvus (calvus, bald) Cun1ulonin1bus in \\"hich at leascsonle of the upper part l'i beginning
to lose its cun\uliforn1 outline
Capillatus (capillus, hair; having hair) Cumulonimbus characterized by the presence in the upper part of
cirriforn1 clouds \\rith fibrouo; or striated structure
Undulatus (auda. \\"3Vei having \\Taves) Clouds in patches, sheets, or la}\"rsshm,•ingundulations
Translucidus (tmnslucere, to shine through; transparent) Clouds that cover a large part of the sky and are sufficiently translucent
to reveal the position of the sun or nlOon
lncus (iucus) anvil) The sn1ooth cirriforn1 n1ass of cloud in the upper part of a cun1ulonin1·
bu<; that is anvil..shaped
Man~n1atus (111annna~ nun1n\3ry) Baglike clouds that hang like a CO\\TS udder on the underside of a cloud;
n1a}' occur '''it h cirrus, altocun1ulu.s. altostratu..o;., stratocun1ulus, and
cun1u.lonimbus
PUeus (pileus, cap) A. cloud in the forn1 of a cap orhoodaboveorattached to the upper
part of a cumulifom> cloud, particularly during it' developing stage
Castellan us (c.astelltdn, a castle) Clouds tl1atshO\\TVertical developnlent and produce tO\\\"rlike exten..
sions, often in the shape ofsnlall castles
of their high altitude. 'Jlteir e.xact composition is not known, thecloud.~ areatsuch ahigh altitude, they appear bright against a
although they appear to be composed of water in either solid or dark background and for this reason, they arecalled nodilucent
liquid (supercooled) IOrm. d ouds, meaning "luminous night clouds" (see e Fig. 5.30).Stud-
Wavy bluish-white clouds, so thin that stars shine brightly ies reveal that these clouds are composed oftiny ice crystals. 'Jl1e
through them, may sometimes be seen in the upper mesosphere, water to make the it-e may originate in meteoroids that disinte-
at altitudes above 75 km (46 mi). 'Ibey are best seen al twilight, grate when entering the upper atmosphere or from the chemical
during the summer at latitudes poleward ofso•. Al these latitudes breakdown of methane gas at high levels in the atmosphere.
• FI GUR E 5. 25 Thecloud forming over anddow mvindofMount

P.ainier iscalk!d a banner cloud. • FI GURE 5. 26 A pile us cloud forming above a developing cumutuscloud.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,bu °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w"'I•• - "" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,. . """"""""l'""""""c..'ll'tl.. ti..:
q10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' " f>•lrc11•in p.... i;1
1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
• FIGURE 5. 27 Mammatusclouds forming beneath a thunderstorm. • FIGURE 5. 28 A contrail forming behind a jet aircrafl
e FIGURE 5.29 The cloud.sinthis

photograph are nacreousclouds.. They
form in the stratosphere and are most
easily seen at high latitudes.
• FIGURE 5 . 30 The\vavyc.louds in this

photograph are noctilucentcloud.s.. They
are usually observed at high latitudes.at
altitudes bet\veen 75 and «xi km above
theearth'ssurface.
CLOUD OBSERVATIONS of sky covered by clouds. A clear sky, for example, is one where
Determining Sky Conditions Often, a daily weather IOrecas! no clouds are present.• When !here an:> between one-eighth and
will include a phrase such as, "overcast skies with clouds l>ecom- two-eighths clouds covering !hesky, there are aJew clouds pres-
ing sc1uered by evening." To the average person, !his means !ha! ent. When cloudiness increases 10 between three-eighths and
!he cloud in es~ will diminish, bu! 10 !he meteorologist, the terms !Our-eighths, !hesky is described as being sc.attered wi!h clouds.
overc.ast and scattered have a more specific meaning, In meteo- ·rn nu101nated (ASOS)sta1ion usage. Ihe phras.e 4-dcarsly-.; 1nc:im that no doudsare
rology, de.~riptionsofsky ronditions areddined bythefraction reported "'hOSt' bases are a tor bclo"· 12,000 ft.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i °*"'"''"..

'°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i., .....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~...'ll-....... .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,.,... o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH
There's a new cloud in town! Called undulatus asperatusl
or simply asperatus, this dramatic cloud appears as a ro11 4
ing, very turbulent, choppy wave cloud that looks very

ominous, but doesn't produce stormy weather. If accepted
by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), it will be
the first new cloud formation to be recognized since 1951.
"Partly cloudy" also describes these sky conditions. Clouds cov-

ering between five-eighths and seven-eighths of the sky denote
ask y with broken clouds ("mostly cloudy"), and overcast condi-
tions exist when the sky is covered (eight-eighths) with clouds.
• Table 5.5 presents a summary ofsky cover conditions. • FIG URE S .31 The geostationary satellite moves through ~pace at the
Observing sky conditions far away can sometimes fool even same rate t hat the eart h rotates. so it remains above a ftxed spot on t he
the trained observer. A broken cloud deck near the horizon equator and monitors oneareaconstant ty.
u.sually appears as overcast because the open spaces between the
doudsareless visible ata distance. Therefore, cloudiness is usually There are two primary types ofweather satellites in use for
overestimated when clouds are near the horizon. Viewed from viewing clouds. 111e first are called geostationary satellites
afar, clouds not normally associated "'th precipitation may ap- (or geosy11chro11ous satellites) because they orbit the equator
pear darker and thicker than they actually are. The reason for this at the same rate the earth spin.sand, hence, remain at nearly
observation is that light from a distant cloud travels through more 36,000 km (22,300 mi) above a fixed spot on the earth's surface
atm<>-sphereand is more attenuated th'm the light from the same (see • Fig. 5.3 1). This p<>-~itioning allows continuous monitor-
type ofcloud cl0-ser to the observer. (Information on measuring ing of a specific region.
the height of cloud bases is given in the l'ocussection on p. 137.) Ge0-~tationary satellites are also important because they use
Up to this point, we have seen how clouds look from the a "real time" data system, meaning that the satellites transmit
ground. We will now look at clouds from a different vantage images to the receiving system on the grotmd as soon as the
point - the satellite view. image is made. Successive cloud images from the,se satellites
cm be put into a time-lapse movie sequence to show the cloud
Satellite Observations The weather satellite is a cloud- movement, dissipation, or development associated "'th weather
observing platform in earth '.s orbit. It provides extremely v-alu- fronts and storms. This information is a great help in forecast-
ablecloud photographs ofareas where there are no ground-based ing the progress of large weather systems. Wind directions and
observations. Becau.se water covers over 70 percent oftheearth 's speeds at variou.s levels may also be approximated by monitor-
surface, there are vast regions where few (if any) surface cloud ing cloud movement with the geo_stationary satellite.
observations a remade. Bei>re weather satellites were :wail able, To complement the geo_stationary satellites, there are polar-
tropical storms, such as hurricanes and typhoons, often went orbilingsatellltes, which chsely parallel the eartli.s meridian line,~.
undetected until they moved dangerously near inhabit(-tl areas. ·nie,se satellites pass over the north and south polar regions on each
Residents of the regions affected had little advance warning. revolution. As the earth rotates to the east beneath the satellite,
Today, satellites spot these stonns while they are s till far out in each pass monitors an area to the west of the previous pass (see
the ocean and track them accurately. • Fig. 5.32). Eventually, the satellite rovers theentire earth.
• TABLE 5.5 Description of Sky Condi tions
OBSERVATION
Description ASOS• Human Meaning
Clear(CLRorSKC) Oto 5% 0 N"oclouds
Fe\\!' > 5to S 25% Oto Y,, Fe\\!' clouds visible

Scattered (SCT) > 25to S 50% 11, to 'Y, Partly cloudy
Broken (BKN) > SO to S87% ~ to V, Mostly cloudy
Oven:ast (OVC) > 87 to 100% 'Y, Sky is covered by clouds
Sky obscured Sky is hidden by surfuce-based phenomena. such a.< fog, blowing
sno\\!'1 s nlOke, and so forth, rather than by cloud cover
*Automated .Surfi-.ci! Ob.servingSys1e1n. Sy1nbol > menns gre-.-.ter than:< means less than: i: 1ne.1n.si!qual 10 orgri!aler th.lo.
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,...., .._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c .. ....,,
'll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Measuring doud Ceilings
In addition to knowing about skycon - w ith loseJ'·beamcei/ometers. The laser ceil·

d itions, it is usually important to have a ometer isa fixed·beam type w hose trans-
good estimate of th e h eigh t of clou d m itter and r eceiver point straight up at
bases. Airc raft could not operate safely t h e clou d base (see Fig. 5). Sh ort, inten se
w ithout accurate c loud height informa- p ulses of infrared radiation from the tr ans-
t ion, par ticularly at lower elevations. Cloud base__.,/ m itter strike the cloud base, and a portion
Th e term ceiling is defin ed as th e of this radiation is reflected back to the
h eigh t of th e lowest layer o f clou ds above r eceiver. Th e t ime inter val between pulse
the surface th at are eith er broken or over- t ransmission and its return from the c loud
cast, but not thin. Direct information on deter mines the cloud-base height.
clou d h eigh t can be obtained from pilots Th e Au tomated Surface Observing
w h o repor t th e altitu de at w hich th ey en - System (ASOS) uses a laser beam ceilome-
counter th e ceiling. less directly,. ceiling ter to measure c loud height. The ceilome·
balloons can measure th e h eigh t of c louds. ter measures the cloud heig ht and then
A small balloon filled w ith a known amount infer s th ea mount of c loud cover by aver·
o f h ydrogen or h elium rises at a fairly con - • FIGURES The laser·beamceilometersends aging th ea mount of clouds that have
pulses of infrared radiation up t o the c loud. Part of
stant an d known r ate.Th eceiling is deter- passed over the sensor for a duration of
this beam is reflected back to theceilometer. The
m ined by measuring th e time required fo r interval of time behveen pulse transmission and 30 m inutes. The ASOS laser ceilometer is
the balloon to enter th e lowest clou d layer.* ret um isa measure of cloud height,.asdisplayed unable to measure c louds that are not
Ceiling balloon observations can be made on the indicator screen. above the sensor. To help remedy t his situ·
at nigh t simply by attaching a small batter y- ation, a second laser ceilometer may be
operated ligh t to th e balloon. l ocated nearby. Another limitation of the
As it rotates, it sends out a powerful light
For manyyears, the rotating-beamcei/- beam that moves along the base of the ASOS ceilometer is t hat it does not report
ometer provided information o n cloud ceil- cloud. A light·sensitive detector, some
clouds above 12,000 ft.* A new laser ceil·
ing, especially at airports. This instrument known distance from the projector, points
ometer that will p rovide cloud height
consists of a gro und-based projector t hat info rmation up to 25,000 ft is being
upward an d p icks up th e ligh t from th e
rotates vertically from horizon to horizon. developed.
clou d base. By knowing th e projector an gle
and its distance from the detector, the
•For ex.ample, if the balloon rises 125 m (about
400 ft} each minute,. and it takes three minutes to clou d h eigh t is determ ined math ematically. ~e latest geostationary $Cltellitesabove Nort h
enter a broken layer of st ratocumulus. the ceiling Most of the rotat in g·bea m ceilome· America are equipped to measurec loud height s
\YDuld be 375 m (about t200ft}. ters have been phased out and replaced above 12,000 f l over ASOSstations.
Polar-orbiting satellites have the adv-antage of scanning

clouds directly beneath them. 1 hus, they proviM sharp images
in poltr regions, where images from a geostationary satellite are
distorted because of the low angle at which the satellite "sees" this
region. Polar orbiters aLo;ocirdetheearthat a much lower altitude
(about 850 km) than geostalionary satellites and provide detailed
images ofobjects, such as violent storms and cloud systems.
Continuously improved detection devices make weather
observalion by satellites more versatile than ever. Early satel-
lites,such as TIROS I, launched on April I, 1960, used television
cuneras to photograph domts. Contemporary satellites use radi-
ometers, which can observe clouds during both day and night by
detecting radiation thatemanales from the topofthedouds. Ad-
ditionally, satellites have the capacity to obtain vertical profiles
<i 31mospheric temperature and moisture by detecting emitted
radiation from atmospheric gases.such as water vapor. In mod- • FIGURE 5. 32 Polar-orbiting satellites scan from north to south, and on
ern satellites, a special type of advana>d radiometer (called an each successive orb it the satellite scans an area farther to the \Wst.
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
i1>u1ger) provides satellite images with much better resolution
than did previous imagers. Moreover, another type of special
radiometer (called a sounder) gives a more accurate profile
of temperature and moisture at different levels in the atmo-
sphere than did earlier in.~truments. Jn the latest Ge0-~tationary
Operational Environment Satellite (GOES) series, the imager
and sounder are able to operate independent of each other.
lnformation on cloud thickness and height can be deduced
from satellite images. Visible images show the sunlight reflected
from a cloud~ upper surface. Because thick cloud~ have a higher
albedo (reflectivity) than thin clouds, they appear brighter on a
visible satellite image. However, high, middle, and low clouds
have jtL~t about the same albedo, so it is dillicult to distinguish
among them simply by viewing them in visible light. 1b make e FI GUR E 5. 34 A 3·Dvisible satellite imageof Hurricane Rita over the Gulf
this distinction, infrared cloud images are u.~d. Such picture.s of Mex.icoon SeptemOOr 2 1, 2005.
produce a better im<1ge of the actual radiating surface because
they do not show the strong visible reflected light. Since warm (light) (see • fig, 5.33). Moreover, cloud temperatures can be
objects radiate more energy th'm cold objects, high temperature converted by a computer into a three-dimensional image of the
regions can be artificially made to appear darker on 'Ul infrared cloud. These are the 3-D cloud photo_~ presented on television
image. Because the tops of low clouds are '""mer than tho_~ of by many weathercasters (see • Fig 5.34).
high clouds, cloud observations made in the infrared can di~ • Figure 5.35 shows a vi~iblesatdlite image (from a !,'<?Osta-
tinguish between warm lowdouds(dark) and cold high clouds tionary satellite) of a mid-latitude cyclonic storm system in the
·-- ) Cold
warm
Low clood
• FI GUR E 5. 33 Generally, thelo\wrthedoud, the\Yarmer its top.Warm • FI GURE 5. 35 A visible satellite image of the eastern Pacific Ocean taken at
obje c~emit more infrared energy than do cold objects. Thus, an infrared just about the same time on thesamedayas the image in Fig. 5.36. Notice that
satellite picture can distinguish warm, low{gray) cloud.s from cold, high the douds in this visible image appear\vhite. Superimposed on the image are
(white) cloud s. the \IA.>ather fronts of the mid>-latitudecyc:lonic storm.
eastern Pacific. Notice that all of the clouds in the image appear
white. However, in the infrared image (see • Fig. 5.36), taken on
the same day (and just about the same time). the clomts appear
to have many shades of gray. Jn the visible image (Fig. 5.35),
the clouds covering part of Oregon and northern California
appear relatively thin compared to the thicker, bright clouds
10 the west. Furthermore, the.o;e thin clouds must be high be-
cause they also appear bright in the infrared image (Fig. 5.36).
Along the elongated cloud band, associated with the cyclonic
storm and the weather front, the clouds appear white and bright
in both images, indicllinga zone of thick, heavydouds. Behind
the front, the lumpy clouds are probably cumulus because they
appear gray in the infrared image, indicating that their lops are
low and relatively warm.
When temperature differences are small, it is difficult lo
directly identify significant cloud and surface leature.~ on an in-
frared image. Some way must be IOund to increase the contrast
between features and their background~ Thiscan be accompli~hed
by a proce$ called computer enhancement. Certain temperature
range.~ in the infrared image are assigncdspecificshadesofgray-
grading from black to white. Normally, clouds with cold tops and
thoo;e tops near freezing are assigned the darkest gray color.
• FI GURE 5. 37 An enhanced infrared ima.geof theeastem PacificOcean

taken on the same day as the imagessho\vn in Figs. S.35 and S.36.
e figure 5.37 is an infrared-enhanced image for the same

day as shown in Figs. 5.35 and 5.36. Often in this type of image,
dark blue or red is assigned to clouds with the coldest (high-
est) tops. Hence, the dark red are,1s embedded along the front
in Hg. 5.37 represent the region where the coldest and, there-
fore, highest and thickest cloud~ are found. It is here where the
stormiest weather is probably occurring. Also notice that, near
the southern tip of the image, the dark red blotchessurrounded
by are'l~ of white are thunderstorms that h:ive developed over
warm tropical l••aters. They show up dearly as thick whireclouds
in both the visible and infrared images. By examining the move-
ment of these clouds on successive satellite images, forecasters
can predict the arrival of clouds and storms, as well as the pas-
sage of weather fronts.
I n regions where there are no clouds, it is difficult to
observe the movement ofthe air. 'lb help with thissituation, geo-
stationary satellites are equipped with water-vapor sensors that
can profile the distribution of atmospheric water vapor in the
middle and upper troposphere (see • Fig. 5.38). Jn time-lap.o;e
ftlms, the swirling patterns of moisture dearly show wet regions
and dry regions, as we.II as middle tropospheric swirling \\ind
patterns and jet st ream~.
• FI GURE 5.36 Infrared satellite image of the eastern Pacific Ocean taken at
The 'J'RMM (Tropia1I Rainfall Measuring Mis.~ion) sate.1-
just about the same time on the same day as the image in Rg. 535. Notice that lite provides information on clouds and precipitation from about
the k)\vclouds in this infrared image appear in variousshadesof gray. 35• N to 35-S. A joint venture of NASA and the National Space
20
• FIGURE 5. 38 lnfrared\vater-vapor image.The darker areas represent dry air

aloft; the brighter thegray, the more moist theair in the middleor upper tropo-
sph ~e. Bright\vhite areas representdensecirrus clouds or the tops o f t hun d~·
storm s. The area in color represents thecoldestcloud tops.,, The swirl o f moisture
o ff the West Coast representsa \Yell· developed mid+latitudecyclonic storm
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Dls1ance {Mi)
Light Moderate Hea\I)'
le• rain rain rain
-30 -25 -20 - 15 - 10 -6 a 5 10 15 20

DBZ
• FIGURE S .40 (Top) Visible satellite image o f super-typhoon Choi-Wan

over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean on September 1S, 2009.(Bottom)
C/oudSotvertical radar profile through super-typhoon Choi-Wan. The location
o f the profile is shO\vn by the red line in the topvie\ Y. (NASA JPL. NRL.atmos.
colostate.edul
clouds and storms, along "irh the inrensiry and distribution of

precipitation (see • Fig. 5.39). Additional onboard instruments
send back information concerning rheearrh'senergy budget and
lightning di~charges in srorm~.
launched in April 2006, the s atellite C/oudSa1 circles the
0 10 20 30 40 50 earth in an orbit about 700 km above the surface. Onboard,
Rain rate (mm,ts) C/ou dSal , a very sensitive radar (called Cloud Profiling Radar,
or CPR) uses microwave radiation ro peer into a cloud and un-
e FIGURE S. 39 A three·d ime nsional ffiWMsatellite imageofHurricane veil its very fine srrucrures, including the al!irude of the cloud's
Ophelia along the North Carolina coast on September 14. 2005. The light green
areas in thecut...away vie\v represent the region o f lightest rainfalL \Vhereas
top and base, irs thickness, optic.al properties, rhe abundance of
dark red and o range indicate regions o f heavy rainfall. liquid and ice particles, along wi!h theintensiry of precipitation
inside rhecloud. Oou dSat provides this information in a vfTtical
view as shown in • Fig. 5.40. Such vertical profiling of a cloud~
Agency of Japan, this satellite orbits the earth at an altitude of makeup will hopefully provide scienrisL~ with a belier under-
about 400 km (250 mi). From this vantage point the satellite, standing of pre.cipi!ation processes thar go on inside the cloud
when looking straight down, can pick our individual cloud and the role that cloud~ play in the earth's global di mate system.
features as small as 2.4 km ( 1.5 mi) in diameter. Some of the At this pain!, ii should be apparentthat roday'ssatellires do
in~trumenrs onboard rhe T RMM satellite include a visible and a grear deal more than simply observe clouds. More information
infrared scanner, a 1nicrO\\•ave imager, and precipit..1tion rad~\r. on satellites and the information they provide is given in the
These insrrumenrs hdp provide three-dimensional images of J'ocussectionon p.14 1.
Satellites Do More Than Observe Clouds
The use of satellites to monitor weather is
not restr icted to obser ving clouds. For
example, there are satellites t hat relay data
communications and television signals, and
provid e m ilitary sur veillance. Moreover, sat-
ellites measure radiation from the earth's
sur face and atmosphere, giving us informa-
tion about the earth-atmosphere energy
balance, discussed in Chapter 2. The infra-
red radiation measurements, obtained by
an atmospheric sounder, are transformed
into vertical p rofiles of temperature and ]
moisture, w hich are fed into National ~
Weather Service computer forecast models. ~ L - - - - - - -...!:==-- - - - - "..::==' - - - - - - - - - - - -- '
Rad iation intensities from t he ocean
• FIG URE 6 Sea-surface temperatures for February 19, 2004.Temperatures are derived m ainly from
surface are t ranslated into sea- surface tem-
sat ellites, but temperature information also com es from buoys and ships..
perature readings (see Fig. 6). This informa-
tion is valuable to the fishing industr y, as
well as to the meteoro logist. In fact, the transmit r adio signals to g round r eceivers, and p rovide accurate cloud-height mea 4
Tropical Rainfall MeasuringMissian (TRMM) which t hen use t he signals for navigation surements d uring the day. T hey even have
satellite obtains sea-surface temperatures and relative positioning on ear th. The sig - the capacity to monitor t he seasonal an d
w ith a m icr owave scanner, even through nal the satellites send to ear th is slowed daily trend in atmospheric ozone.
clouds and atmospheric particles. by the amount o f water vapor in the air. Satellites specifically designed to
Satellites also monitor t he amount o f Because of this effect, th eG PS can estimate monitor t he natura I resources of th e ear th
snow cover in w inter, the extent of ice fields the atmosphere's predpitable water vapor (landSat) circle the earth 14 t imes a day in
in the Arctic and A ntarctic, the moYement (the total atmospheric water vapor con 4
a near polar circular orbit . Photographs
of large icebergs that drift into shipping tained in a vertical colum n of air). taken in several wavelength bands prov ide
lanes, and the height of the ocean's surface. Geostationary satellites, such as GOES, valuable in for mati on about this planet's
One polar o rbiting satellite actually carries
4
are equipped w it h systems that receive geology, hydro logy, oceanog raphy, and
equipment that can detect faint distr ess en vironmental info rmation from remote ecology. landSat also collects data t rans-
signals anywhere on t he globe, and relay data-collection p latforms on t he surface. mitted from remote ground stations in
them to rescue forces on the ground. These platforms include instrumented Nor th America. Th ese stations monitor a
Infrared sensors on polar-orbiting sat 4
buoys, river gauges, automatic weather variety of en vironmenta I data, w ith water
ellites are able to assess conditions of crops, stations, seismic an d tsunami ("tidal "wave) quality, ra infa II amount. and snow depth
areas o f deforestation, regions o f extensive stations, and ships. T his information is of par ticular inter est to the meteorologist
drought, and any changes in salt content in transmitted to the satellite, w hi ch relays and h)<l rologist.
the upper levels o f the ocean. Satellites are it to a cent ral recei ving station. Satellite information is not con fined to
also able to detect \Olcanic eruptions and Normally, a network of five geostation 4
the lower atmosphere. There are satellites
follow t he movement of ash clouds. D uring ary satellites positioned over the eq uator that monitor the concentr ations of ozone,
thewinter, GOES satellites ar e able to moni 4
g ives nearly complete g lobal cover age air temperature, and w inds in the upper
tor the south ward progress of freezing air in from about latitude 60' N to60' S. Along atmosph ere. And both geostationar y and
Florida an d Texas, allowing forecasters to with monitoring c louds and t he atmo- polar-orbiting satellites carry instruments
warn g rowers of impending ION tempera 4
spher e, the latest GOES series provides that monitor solar activity. Even w it h all
tu res so that they can take necessar y mea- forecaster sand researchers w ith data from this info rmation available, there are more
sures to p rotect sensitive crops. Doppler radar s an d the network o f auto- sophisticated satellites o n the drawing
The Global Positioning System (GPS) mated surface-obser ving stations. Geosta 4
board that w ill provide more and improved
consists of 24 polar orbiting satellites that
4
tionar y satellites detect pollution and haze, data in the future.
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C'1'1'rif* )l I~ On~ t.cmn~ All l!itJ!af(_....41 M")' ""tbuq10.U >.....W ,............... 111"f>•lrc111in P""" ll<to i;1 °*"'"''*.. "IJb.
J<nionlfl•...,.._,~..,,*_ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i.,.,_,u~n~C<>f(l>tJ..1~..,'11..,......., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,n....t"b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,n.
SUMMARY
Jn this chapter, weexaminedthedifforrot formsofconden- acid fog, 118 stratocumulus, 129
sation. \.Ve Sa\\' that de\"' forms \\•hen the air tempe-rature radiation (ground) fog, 11 9 stratus, 130
cools to the dew pcint in ashallow layer of air near the sur- advection fog, 120 cumulus, 130
face. Jf the dew should freeze, it produces tiny beads of ice advection-radiation fog, 122 cumulonimbus, 131
called frozen dew. Fro.~t forrn~ whro the air cools to a dew upslope fog, 122 lenticular clouds, 133
point that is at freezing or below. evaporation (mixing) fog, 122 banner cloud, 133
As theaircools in a deeper layer near the surface, the rel- steam fog, 122 pileus, 133
ative humidity increasesand water vapor begins to condense frontal fog, 123 mammal us clouds, 133
on hygroscopic condensation nuclei, forming wet haze. As winter chilling, 124 contrail, 133
the relative humidity approaches JOO percent, condensation cirrus, 128 nacreous clouds, 133
occurs on mo.~t nuclei, and the air becomes ftlled with tiny cirrocumulus, 128 noctilucent clouds, 134
liquid droplets (or ice crystals) called fog. cirro..')tratus, 128 geostationary satellites,
Fog forrn~ in two primary ways: rooting of air andevap- altocumulus, 129 136
oraling and mixing water vapor into !he air. Radiation fog. alto.~tratus, 129 polar-orbiting satellites,
advection fog. and upslope fog form by !he cooling of air, nimbostratus, 129 136
while steam !Og and frontal !Ogare two forms , !Or ii disrupts air L Explain how dew, fr<Yt.en dew, and visible frost each form.
traffic and iii~ the primary cause <i anumberofautoaccidents. 2. Distinguish among dry haze, wet haze, and fog.
Condensation above the earth's surface produces 3. How can fog form when !he air's relative humidity is
clouds. When clouds a re classified according to their height less than 100 percent>
and physical appearance, they are divided into four main 4. Name and describe four types of fog.
groups: high, middle., low, and clouds with vertical devel- 5. Why do ground fogs usually "burn off" by early
opment Sinc.e each cloud has physical characteristics that afternoon>
distinguish it from all theothers, careful cloud observations 6. List as many positive consequences of fog as you can.
normally lead to correct identification. 7. List and describe lhree melhodsoffogdispersal.
Satellites enable scientists to obrnin a birds-eye view of 8. How does radiation fog normally form?
clouds on a global scale. l'oh1r-orbitingsatellitesobtaindata 9. What atmospheric condition~ are necessary for the
covering the earlh from pcle to pole., while geo.~tationary development of ad vection fog?
satellites located above the equator continuously monitor 1 O. How does evaporation (mixing) fog form?
a desired portion of !he earth. Both types of satellites use 1 I. Clouds are most generally classified by height above
radiometers (imagers) that detect emitted radiation. As a the earth'.~ surface. List !he major height categories and
consequence, clouds can be observed both day and night the cloud types as.~ciated wilh each.
Visible satellite images, which sho"' sunlight reflocted 12. Lisi at least two distingui~hable characteristics of each
from a clouds upper surface, can distingui~h thick clouds of the ten basic cloud~.
from thin clouds. Infrared images show an image of the 13. Why are high cloud~ normally lhin? Why are they
cloud's radiating top and can distinguish low clouds from compn~ed almost entirely of ice crystals>
high clouds. 1b increase the contrast between cloud fea- 14. How can you distinguish altostratus from cirro.~tralus?
tures, infrared photographsareenhanced. 15. Which clouds are normally associated with each oft he
Satellites do a great deal more than simply photograph following characteristics:
clouds. They provide us wilh a weallh of physical informa- (a) lightning; (b) heavy rain showers;
tion about the earlh and the atmosphere. (c) mackerel sky; (d) mare,~· tails;
(e) halo-~; (f) light continuous rain or snow;
(g) hailstones; (h) anvil top.
KEY TERMS 16. How do geostationary satellites differ from polar-orbiting
satellite,~?
The following terms are listed (wilh page number) in !he
17. Explain why visible and infrared images can be used to
order they appear in the text. Define each. Doing so will distinguish: (a) high clouds from low cloud~; (b) thick
aid you in reviewing the materi.11 covered in this chapter.
cloud~ from thin cloud~.
dew, 11 6 hygroscopic nuclei, 117 18. Why are infrared images enhanced?
frozen dew, 11 6 hydrophobic nuclei, 117 19. Name two cloud~ that form above !he 1ropo.~phere.
frost, 116 haze, 117 20. Lisi and explain !he various types of environmental
condensation nuclei, 11 7 fog. 118 information obtained from satellites.
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT I 4. Expl1in why altocumulus doud~ might be observed at
6400 m (21,000 ft) above the surface in Mexico City,
I. Explain the reasoning behind the wintertime expres- Mexico, but never al that altitude above Fairbanks, Aht~ka.
sion, "Clear moon, frost soon." I 5. The sky is overcast and it is raining. fa:phlin how you
2. Explain why icebergs are frequently surrounded by fog. could tell if the cloud above you is a nimbe-~tratus or a
3. During a summer visit to New Orleans, you stay in an cumulonimbus.
air-conditioned motel One <tfternoon, you put on your 16. Suppose it is raining lightly from a deck of nimbe-~tralll~
sungl<tSses, step outside, and within no lime your glasses cloud~. Beneath the doud~ are small, ragged, puffy cloud~
are "fogged up:' Explain what has apparently cau.sed this. that are moving r<tpidly with the wind. Whal would you
4. While driving from cold air (well below freezing) into call these cloud~? How did they probably form?
much warmer air ( weU above freezing). fre-~l forms on I 7. You are sitting inside your house on a sunny afternoon.
the wind~hield of the car. Does the frost form on the The shades are drawn and you look out the '"indow and
inside or outside of the windshield? How can the fre-~l notice the sun disappears for about 10 second~. 'The al-
form \\•hen the air is so \\•arm? ternate light and dark period lasts for nearty 30 minutes.
5. Why are really dean alme-~pheres and really dirty at- Are the cloud~ passing in front of the sun cirrocumulu.~.
mospheres undesirable? altocumulus. stratocumultL<;, or cumulus? Give a re~tson
6. Why do relative humidities seldom reach 100 percent able explanation for your answer.
in polluted air?
7. Why are advection fogs rare over tropical waler?
8. A January snowfall covers centntl Arkansas with 5 inches PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES
of snow. The follo"1ng day, a south wind brings heavy fog I. The data in - 1l\ble 5.6 below represent the dew-point
to this region Explain what has apparently happened. temperature and expected minimum tempentture near
9. If all fog droplets gradually senle earthward, exphlin thi? grolmd for various clear ,..,inter morning.~ in a
how fog can last (without disappearing) for many days southeastern city. Assume that the dew point remain.~
at a time. constant throughout the night. Answer the following
IO. Near the shore of an extremely lar&oe lake, explain why questions about the data.
steam fog is more likely 10 form during the autumn (a) On which morning would there be the greatest
and adveclion fog in early spring. likelihood of observing visible frost? Explain why.
I I. The air temperature during the night cool~ 10 the dew (b) On which morning would frozen dew me-~! likely
point in a deep layer, producing fog. Before the fog form? £>tplain why.
formed, the air temperature cooled each hour about (c) On which morning would there be black frost "1th no
2•c. After the fog formed, the air temperature cooled sign of vi~ible frost, dew, or fro;.en de<•? ExpWn.
by only o.s•c each hour. Give two reasons "'hy the air (d) On which morning would you probably only
cooled more slowly after the fog formed. observe dew on the ground? Explain why.
I 2. On a winter night, the air temperature cooled 10 the 2. If a ceiling balloon rises al 120 m (about 400 ft) each
dew point and fog formed Before the formation of fog, minute, what is the ceiling of an overcast deck of stra-
the dew point remained almost constant. After the fog lu.~ clouds 1500 m (about 5000 ft) thick if the balloon
formed, the dew point began 10 decre<tSe. Explain why. disappears into the clouds in 5 minutes?
I 3. \\lhy can you see your breath on a cold morning? Does the
air temperature have 10 be below frl!e'<ing for this to occur?
~ TABLE S.6
1'\0RNING 1 f\.\ORNING 2 1'\0RNING l MORNING4 t.10RNING 5
De\\l·point te1nperature 2•c (35°F) - re (20'Fl 1•c (34'1'} - 4°C (25°F) 3°C (38°F)
Expected nlinimun1 temperature 4°C (40'F) - 3°C (2'?F) O'C (32°F) - 4.s•c (24'F) 2°C (35°F)
GEOSCIENCE
1 I Go 10 the Basic Search field and search for ne<•S items using the keywords "doud
classification." Review at least three news articles that describe technique,~ used 10 classify clouds based on data from weather
satellites. \\/hat are the common elements among these techniques? Mow do they differ?
ONLINE RESOURCES
/!'\ Log in to the CourseMate website al: www.cengagebrain.com to view the concept animations as noted in the text, as
~ well as additional resources, indudingvideo exercises, pmctice quizzes, an interactive eBook, and more.
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y ta>thc....,icd >........J ,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;ko• in.,.... floe .., ch<,....., ..... -11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.h nfl LU;,,.,J\o «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
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?'''! ·a·-·
Stability and Cloud Development

CONTENTS n July and August on the high desert the thunderstorms come.
Atmospheric Stability
Determining Stability
I Mornings begin clear and dazzling bright, the sky as blue as
the Virgin's cloak, un flawed by a trace of cloud in all that
A Stable Atmosphere
An Un stable Atmosphere emptiness. . .. By noon, however, clouds begin to form over the
A Condit ionally Unstable Atmosphere mountains, coming it seems out of nowhere, out of nothing, a
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC special creation .
Subsidence Inversions-Put a lid on It
The clouds mul tiply and merge, cumulonimbus piling up like
Causes of Instability
Cloud Development whipped cream, like mashed potatoes, like sea foam, building
Convection and Clouds upon one another into a second mountain range grea ter in
magnitude than the t errestrial range below.
Atmospheric Stability and Windy Afternoons-
Hold On to Your Hat The massive forms j ostle and grat e, ions collide, and the
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION sound of thunder is heard over the sun-drenched land. More
Determining Convective Cloud Bases
clouds emerge from empty sky, anvil-headed giants wit h glints
Topography and Clouds
oflightning in their depths. An armada assembles and advances,
Clouds and Orographic Uplift
Clouds Thot Form Downwind ofMountains floating on a plane of air that makes it appear, from below, as a
FOCUS ON AN ADVANCEDTOPIC fleet o f ships must look to the fish in the sea.
Adiabatic Charts
Changing Cloud Forms Edward Abbey, Desert Solitajre - A Season jn the Wilderness
Summary
Key Terms
Faring page: l enticular doudsstaieked one atop

another over Tjieldsund in TromsCounty. Norway.
145
°*"'"''"..
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J ,,.. .l....wod,"' "f>•lrc<><in p.... ll<to i;1 "IJb. "*'"'
llo.nl poo-1)' ,.,,..,. ""1 W "'l••-..i ..,.,.,h ~dl ... :.1J\o .0."l'nV I f:1W....rtn1<"' !....
<>.;•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
.._,.,..,,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''"... ..,..,,,.,.. -...J4f•nt.•1e_.Jl~""'""l"TIC'>-"c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll""'....., .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,..
loud>. spocrucular feature> in the sky, add beauty and parcel can expand and cont roct frcci y, it <Inc> not break apart.
C color to the natural land>Cape. Yet, clouds •rt 1mpor·

lant for nonoothrtic reason$, too. As they form. vast
quantities of heat •rt rclea.ed mto tbt atmosphere. Oouds
but remains as a single u1111. At the same tune, neither external
a.. nor heat can mi• "'th the air inwak the pared. The sp;ic"
OCCUJ>led by the air moltcut..s "ithin the p.irc:d defines the air
help regulate the e.lrlh'> roergy oobnce by rdlect ing anJ scat· dtns11y. !ht average sp<'t'd of the mole.cub 1> dinrtly rtlatcd
tcring solar radiation JJld by absorb1og the eanh\ lnfmrcd to the air temperature, 3nd the molecules colbdang against the
energy. And, of couri.c. without clouds tbtre would be no parcel walls determine the wr pressure lnsl&.
pttcipitation But clouds = at.o significant because they At the earth's surface, the parer! ha. the wnc temperature
'1•u•I)· indicate the pb)·sical processes taking pla.:t m the llnd pressutt as the air 'llrrounding • lluppost "" lift the air
'11~mo; to a tr;uncd 00.enn, the)· att ~ 1n the ».y. pared up 11110 the at mo~. We knO\\ from Chapter I that
lhts chapter ex:unuie• th<- atmo~eric processes the>e sign· a.- prC>SUtt decreases \\Ch heiglit Con'4."t(Umtl)\ the air pres·
fXl>h point to, the fit>t of which 1s atmospheric •tubility. sure surrounding the parcel lowers. ·1he kiwcr pressure outside
allow> the nit molecule;, inside to pu.h thcp11rccl walls outward.
exp.1ndang the parcel. Because there i; no other energy source,
the Jir n10lerules inside must use some of their O\\n energy to
exp•rtd the parcel This sl10ws up as slo"'" awroge mol~ular
Atmospheric Stability speed>. whichresultina lo\\t'rparccl temp<r(Cure Ifthe parcel ls
M1»t clouds form n; air rises and cools. Why docs air rise on lowered to the surface, It returns to a region 1•i1cre the surround-
.omcocca>i<m~ and not onothers1 AJ1d whydo1hc•l1c and ing nir pre.sure is higher. 'Ilic higher prC>.\IH'c squcews (com·
wpe of cloud; V•ry "°much when the air does rb.e! f.ct'> i« prtS>e>) the parcel ood Into its original (smaller) volume. Thi>
0
how knowing aboot tbt :ur sS1ability will bdpustoanswttthti.c squcezu~ increase. tht 3\t'tage spffll o( the ... moltculcs and
qlltSlions. lhepand tmipttaturenS<"S. Hmce, a nsmgparrclofairapands
Whm wt ~k o(atmosphtric ~il1y. wt a rt rtfttnng arid rocls. "iii/ea sinkrng f'il"ttl is wmprtssnl urrd '"'nns.
to • rondibon of equilibrium. For Cll'1mplt, rock A rtstmg m I fa p~ ofair exp;incb and cools,orc~es and "'111ll>.
th<- depression 111 • F1g. 6.1 is in s111ble equilibrium. I( the rock with no utten:hange of ho.oat" tth its surroundu~s, this situation
is pushed up along r11her side of the hill and then let go. it .,;11 as called an adiabatic process. As long a• the air in th<- parcel b
quid<lyretum toil> ong1oalposition.On theother hand.nxk8, uns,.umted (the rebtiw humidity is le;; than 100 pem>nt). the
rest mg on the top ofthe hill, is in• State of wutablrequllibrrum. rl!U o( adiaootic cooling or warming rtma1ns constant nu. rate
as a slight pu.h wilhct 11 tnO\·ing 3\•ay from its original poslllOn. ofheatu~orcoolingisaboot 10-Cforewry IOOOmofchang.e in
Applying these rnnccpu to the atmosphere, we can see th.11 air tlt\'3110n (SSF per 1000 (t) and npplb only to uns:turoted air.
b In •table l'<flllllbrium when, after being lifted or lowcrnd, it ~or thi;,rcason,it is called the dryadiabaUcrntc• (sec • Fig. 6.2).
tends to return lo its original po;ition- it resisis upward nnd As the ri~ing air cools, its relative humidity incren.'>(•s ti>
downward air motion;,. Air that is in unstable equilibrium will, the uir temperature approochc• the dew point temperature. If
when given a little pui.h. move fanher away from II< original the ns1ng air cools to hi. dtw· point temperature, the rclath1'
pos1bon-it f3'0l'> \'ttlical air currents. humidity becomes 100 percrnl Further bflmg results in con-
To explore the behavior of nsing aod sinking wr, "" mu;t ikns.>tton, a doud forms, aod latent heat a;, rclea>ro inside the
fir.t put some air 1n an imaginary than d.a>tic \\T~. th.- &mall nsuig wr pared. Because the heat added during condens.>tion
volume ofair is ..,fom'd to as a parcel of air.• Although the air offie1s.ornc of the cooluig due 10 expa11>1<ln, the air no longer
cools at the dry adiaootic rote but at a lesi.cr r"1c cuUcd the moist
•An.., fM"C'l lt "" 1.rrug1""" bodrr of ar .bio~ tbt me (If .a Uri-: b~lb.&U adiabatic rate. Ifa s.>turattd parcel cont.unu~ water droplets
Tlw CODLC'pl 01 ol.Q ._,, p.f(.4 l.J Uht.suaJN. tncnJ pJa::cs IA tbc: IOI. f.D("'-!J"I "t'tt to wnk. il ..,ouJJ COrnpttSS 3nd warm •l tht morSI adi.1b.ibc
fl~ U.p.~.
ratt because n'ap01'3tion of w I i<[u id dropleb "ould olfstt t ~
rote of compressional warm1r1g. Hence, the rutc at which rising
or suikmgSJturotcd air changes temperature - the moi>t adia·
batic rote-is less than the dry adiabatic rntc. • •
•for avl•t.IOI\ purposes. th~ dty •di•h•lc ,..~it ~'fnt1ln1t.'l (lrjY«utd asJ•c per
IOOOh
··eo,.Kta .. al.r parcel tnl1.~ur •rel Suf!PC* dM" •r ,,..,,~1 rikt.1.odmot.. anl.1
I Joud torn.. Furl.ti« .sup po., th..t no pr~clpitAloo (r1in or •now) falli (iom tht>
douJ Ueot\• 1hc p.i1rd). U' 1he p111.:.cl s.hould dc6oeenJ 10 lh 01lglrwJ lt'\"l'l lh~ bu:n1
hc..1 •tie\~ lnsid~ tht>paocd drn lngcondr1\Q1ioo 1o1.'lb bt11 he Mn'IC <lmoun1tha1 I\
~rhrdt• thr doud.-''3J'Cl'•lft.-'Jhl•r•occ:u it. c~ltd • "'""'"'"adiaN1JcprocdtS-
l.an 1ht01hrrbaod. nin« aro"" l ..b trom 1ht clouddlrlniu~1f1 .and lta1.n ~
par.:1l 1hr linbng pa.n::d tll'\ll nee r«llW'rdta"Utg "'"JQ••a.•D &ht amtdkllltl ol
llla'lt t..r rW.-.d dtriog(l)n.i<awtlml bra.CM <he- po1ad·• -..ao ccm.amt i. b....,
11*p-o..:f••known.;as:.munH1~1'k''' '*"• ,,....,.
...-- .........--,..,.--.. --...........- ..................... __

Ir • .... 11191 aC r..,.c.1"JJ
t..,......
__
un._.._,
._.. ......-_.._ _____.... ...,._. ...__...
____.......... ....._--~.._....
,...,._a-..,--.-._.....,..._...
- ....... ,,_--..... .......--·--- -.~
Unlike 1hc dry ndiab:ll ic race, the 111oi>I nd L1bo1k role is IHJI
oon.11an1, bu1 varies greatly \\ilh 1c111peri11urc ond, hence, wich
1110i>1urc ron1cn1-as warm•:iturnled alrpmducc> more liquid
water than cold saturated air. 1 he added condensation ui warm,
saturattd •It liberal<'$ more latent ooL Con;tqumlly, tlie lllOISI 2000 t IO'C
adiab.thc rate i> much ltss than the cltyadi;ib:1hi: r:aewhcn tlie
rising 3U' is warm; how.,.w, the twu ratr> arr nc•rty the ~e
"hen tht nsingmiHwycold (>tt foblc6.I). Although tht
-
11101>1 ad1Jb3Uc rakdOtS •31)·.10 l'IUke tlie nurnber>e<U)' 10 de;tJ
"'th, \\'l'wtO usun 3\W3gtOf~Cptr 1000 m(3 3"1- pl'f IOOOft) Co10
.,,., III
UI mo>I ofour uunpb and calcubUoll\.
Determining Stability
We dctem1U1e thc >I ability oft lie a Irby comparing the tempcra-
tureofa rumgparcd to that ciituurroundmgo. lftlie rbmg air is 0
rokler than dHnvrronmcnt, it will be morcdeme· (heavier) and
tend town!.. b3'k to it> origrmllewl In thr>c;ue, thewr •>stable e FIGU RE 6-2 Thodry_lK..,t."1~•1ho .. rport41""'"'M
becau;., rt ttsists upwan:l lllO\'l'lllnil. lftlie n>1ngaU' ~ w;mner 1U'6atum.d, l exponds Mdmol•br IO'C por IOOO m. ll'e wlWng pormlcom
pews and warms~ 10't:awr 1000m
and. thercbre, bs drnS<' (lighttt) than th<- >urroundrng arr, 11
"'" amunueto rise uni ii it readies tht >ame lernpcrature :is 11>
cn\1ronmen1. Ihis ~•nnampleof umtabk arr. ro figuttOUI tht TABLE 6.1 The Moist Adlabadc Rate for Different
air's >tabrlrty. we need to measutt th<- tempcracu"' both oftlie Temperatures and Pressures In •cnooo m and •fnooo ft
nsingairand ofitsenvironment at \'arlOUS oho'" thcearth. '"'"Is
ASTABLE ATMOSPHERE Suppose we rclc.1>e n balloon·borne
lns1ru111cn1 ct1llcd n nidiuso11de. (A photo of n r.1clio;,ondc is
1000 9.5 8.6 6.4 4.3 3.0 5.2 4.7 3.5 2.4 1.6
'""HI in Pig. I on p. 16.) As the balloon carries 1hc radk»mv.le
upward. the rndiosondc sends bock 1cmpcrt11 urc datn, a>0hown 800 9.4 8,3 6.0 3.9 S.2 4,6 3.3 2.2
hi. Fig. 6.3 (;uch n wrcicnl profile of lcmpcrnturc h cnllcd a
so11mli11g). Noli cc 1hn1 the 111cusurcd air 1c111pcrt11urc in l'ig. 6. 3 600 9.3 7.9 5.4 5.1 4.4 3.0
decrca.>e> by<l°C forew~ry 1000 niece rs ri>c in t1l li1udc. Rcmcni- 400 9.1 7.3 5.0 4.U
bcr from Chapcer I 1ha11hc race at which 1hc arr 1cmpcra1urc
chanscs with alt rt ude is called tlie lapstratt. B.xalll<! clu; 1>1he 200 8.6 4.7
rateat wi11ch tliearrtemperatutt wnounding"' willbech;ing-
ing1fwe w\'re toclwbupword inlotlie aunospliere, we will ttfer
to 1t a> the tn\ lronmtntal bP't rate.
SCYW su~., Fig.6.3a thata pata'I ofUll\3tur:11u.U u w11.h absolutdystablt. 1k ntttwsplrrrt isal"">"absolutilystablt """"
tht orvirorimental lap2 rate 1s kss that1 t hntU>tst ad1abat1c rate.
a tcrnperatuttof.lO' Ci> lift<d from tl'ie surface. As d nStS, drools
Since air in an absolutd> stable a~liett wongly ttSISU
at the dry adiabaucratt(IO"C per 1000 m~ and tl'ietcmperature
upward \ntical motion, ii Mllrffotrolto ns" tend to5pteldout
in<idttht parcel a1 I000 meters wou Id be 20"C,or 6'C lo--w th31l
horilonttlly. Ifcloudsfonn UI th1>rb1ogair, they.too. Wihptt3<1
tlie air ;urroundmg JL Looi.. 31 ng. 6Ja closely and notice that
horizontally in relali\-dy thUI byt'rS and u>ually ha\\' flat tops
as the a1rpar.:d nseshrgher, the temperatutt dilrttn<X bl'lwren
and bases. We nright expect to see doud> - such as arrostratus.
11 and the surround Ing rur becomes ewn gl\'3tcr. £'"" uthe par- ahostratus, nimboStrotus. or st rot us fonnmg 111 stable air.
cel t> uullally 1>.uura1ed (>ce Flg. 6.Jb), rt wiU cool a11he moi>t
What road.itions are necessary 10 bring about a stable
rQle- 6"C ptr 1000 m-and will be coi&,rth.111 lb cnvironmeru
atmosphere? As w'l'haveJUSI >een, tlieounosphl.'n>isstablewhen
al all lt\\'l>. In bOlh cases, the ri>Jng wr t> colder and heavier
tlie environmental lapse rote is ;mall; 1ha1 is. wlien the differ-
than tlie alt surrounding 1L In 100ciu1mpi.,,1ht- atnl<l>pherc as
ence in temperature between the surface air and tl'ie wr aloft i>
relath'l'ly small Consequently, Iht- atmosphere tends to btromc
"\\'hen, i1t 1& umt k\C'l 1n tbir .1tmo•phrr'<" """ '-omp.1• p.. r.;cl• ot •1r 1.hu .11~
..,.i In•-'-« but 'f'•)' In kmptr•wc, lo'« hnd lhac:~.1r r•'-th.1r. moRdc:n. more stable-that is. ii stab1bus a> the air aloft wann; or
\Nn•.-m.111p•'-d"- dull i.t.,U" 1Jw'-cildp•"ci lfwn.a• m«t mc.M;uJa 1hilUC' tlie surfuaairrools. If 1lie ;ur aloft 1>btU1g replaced by wanner
<to-Jo.I '-'°Mf •llMr air (warm advection), and the surface arr IS nOI changing
•
Ct'll'l\l¥~lJt· ..,,,a.-,.-.a-.•••-~~-•IM_.......-
..................,......... _ ......... _..... ....... _ _...i_. ____ . . . . --..
......................,,.,_.,_.,.__..,....._....,_. _ _ _ ..,..._ _,.• ._..,..,..i.lllll...,,•1..._,.._._
.. ........,. ..,.._.(..., •• L.... - 1 1....,. . . -·-~-..-·
Tempetalure of Temperature of
environment ('C) environmen1 ('C)
3000 18' 3000 \ 18" 12•

\
Environmental
lapse rate I Environmental
\
\ lapse rate
\ 4"C/1000 m
2000 \
\ ,/ ~ 2000 4'Cl1000m
22' 22"
10" ,/
I., \
~
;;:
1000
Ory
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
l. Moist /
alf.abal;c
\
''
i
rate '
0 adlaba6c/ \ 0
rate , 6'C/1000m '
10'C/1000m
0
32 50
10 20
68
30°C
86•F
t 0
32
10
50
20
68
30'C
86 'F t
Temperature ol lihed Temperaturo oj Cifted
unsaturated air (°C) saturated air (°C)
(dry rate) (molSI rate)
(a) Lilted, unsaturated a~ a1 each level Is colder and (b) llf1Bd, saturated air at each level ls colde< and
heavier tl\an the air around it. If released, the pare&t l\eavler than the air surrounding it If released, the
would re1urn to its original position, lhe surface. parcel would return to its 0<iginal position, the surface.
• FI GUR E 6.3 An absolutely stable atmosphereoccurs\vhen the environmental lap~e rate is less than the moist adiabatic rate. In a stable atmosphere,
a rising air parcel is colder and more den$e than theairsurrounding it and, ifgiven the chance, it \Viii return to its original position.
appreciably, rhe environmental lapse rare decreases and rhe arc called subsidence inversions. They sometimes occur ar !he
armo~phere becomes more stable. Similarly, rhe environmental surface., bur more frequently, !hey are observed alofr and are
lapse rare decreases and !he atmosphere become~ moresrable ofren associated with large high-pressure areas because of rhe
when !he lower layer cools (see • Fig. 6.4). The cooling of rhe sinking air morionsassociared wi!h !hese systems.
surface air may be due ro: An inversion represents an atmosphere !har i~ absolutely
stable. Why? Wi!hin !he inversion, warm air overlies cold air,
1. nighnirneradiarional cooling of rhe surface
2. an influx of cold surface air broughr in by rhe wind (cold Warmer
adwction) 14°C air
3. air moving over a cold surface 1000m alofl
Consequently, on any given day, rhe armo~phere is mosr

srable in !he early morning around sunri~e. when rhe lowesr
surface air rempcrarure is recorded. If rhe surface air becomes
sarurared in asrable atmosphere, a persisrenr lay,,,. ofhaze or fog
may form (sec e Fig. 6.5).
Another " 'ay !he atmosphere becomes more srablc is when
\
an entire layer ofair sinks. For example, ifa layer of unsarurared
I
air over 1000 m !hick and covering a large area subsides, rhe
Environmental Environmental\
entire layer will warm by adiabatic compression. As rhe layer lapse rate lapse rate 1 I C04der
subsiMs, ir becomes compressed by rhe weighr of rhe atmo- 6' C/1000m 2"Cft000m
I udace
sphere and shrinks vertically. 'Jhe upper par! ofrhe layer sinks _, air
farther, and, hence, warms more rhan rhebouom part '!bis phe- 2o·c 1e·c
Om
nomenon is illustrated in • Fig. 6.6. Afrer subsiding. !he rop of T- T-
rhe layer is actually warmer rhan !he borrom, and an inversion (a) (b)
i~ formed. (Recall from Chapter 3 rhar an inversion reprcsenl~ • FI GURE 6 .4 The initial environmental lapse rate in diagram (al \Viii be·
an atmospheric condition where the air becomes warmer wirh come more stable (stabilize) as the air aloft war ms and the surface air cools,M
height) lnversionsrhar IOrm as air slowly sinks over a large area illustrated in diagram (b).
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ""'buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
• FI GURE 6.5 Cold surface air, on thismoming,
produces a stable atmosphere that inhibits vertical air
motion.sand allo\YS the fog and haze to linger dose to
theground.
and. ifair rises into the inversion, it is becoming colder. while the Before we turn our attention to an unstable atmosphere.
air around it is getting warmer. Obviously. the colder air would let~ firstexamine a condition known as neutralstability. lf the
tend to sink. b1versions, therefore. act as lids on vertical air lap.se rate is exactly equal to the dry adiabatic rate, rising or sink-
motion. \.Vhen an inversion exists near the ground, stratus: ing unsaturated air will cool or ""rm at the same rate as the air
clouds, fog, haze, and pollutants are ;tll kept dose to the surface. around ii. At each level, ii would have 1he same temperature
Jn fact, as we "'"see in Chapter 18, most air pollution episodes and density as the surrounding air. Because this air tends nei-
occur "'th subsidence inversions. (For additional information ther to continue rising nor sinking. the atmosphere is said to be
on subsidence inversions, read the Focus section on p. 152.) neutrally s1able. For saturated air, neutral stabilily exists when
At this point, we can see why extremely high surface air the environmental lap.se rate is equal to the moist adiabatic rate.
temperature.s can occur when the air aloft is sinking. Notice in
• Fig. 6.7 that the air inside an air parcel at an altitude of about AN UNSTABLE ATMOSPHERE Suppose a radiosonde sends
3000 m (10,000 ft). where the air pressure is 700 mb, hasa mod- back air temperatures above the earth as plotted in • Fig. 6.Sa.
erately cool temperatureof10•ccso•F). lfthis airparcelsinksall Once again, we determine the atmosphere's stability by com-
the way tothesurface(O meters), where the pressure is 1000 mb, paring the environmental lapse rate to the moist and dry adia-
the final temperature inside the parcel having warmed at the batic rates. Jn this case, the environmental lapse rate is 11• c per
dry adiabatic rate will be a whopping 40°C (104°F)! ·1hus, the 1000 m (6"F per 1000 ft). A rising parcel of unsaturated surface
air parcel at 700 mb has the potential of being very ""rm when air will cool at the dry adiabatic rate. Because the dry adiab,ttic
brought to the surface.• rate is less 1han the environmental lapse rate, the parcel will
"The tcnlpc rnturc an air pnrcel wo uld have if lo\\'€red a1 1he dry adillb:uic rn1c be \\'armer than the surrounding air and \\ ill continue to rise. 1
10 a pressure of 1000 1nillibars is Cillll'd potc!ritia/ te.tnperdture . f\.foving pa reds to constantly moving upward, a""Y from itsoriginalposition. ' lbe
the s.-tnlc level allows Lhcm to be obscJVed under identical condilions so it ain be atmosphere is unstable. Of course. a parcel of saturated air
detcnnincd which pnrcclsa 1~ potcntiaUy warmcr lhan otheis. In lhisex..'unple, the cooling al the lower moist adiabatic rate will be even warmer
potcntk1J tcnlpcrnturc of the pnrcel is 4 ~:. or 313K. than the air around it (see Fig. 6.8b). Jn both cases, the air
----y--------------~ =~'
• FI G URE 6 .6 The layer x.-y is initially 1400 m thick. If the en 4
tire layer slo\\llysubsides. it shrinks in the more· dense air near the
500 ~
surface.Asa result of the shrinking, the top of the layer \Yarms
~600
Otl9!na1
layer -
\ ' ' ...
x ...
... ~
... ....
'
,
warms
aldry
" ... adiabatic
....... rate
more than the bottom, and theentire layer (x' -y' } becomes more
stable. and in thisexampleforms an inversion.
~ 700 "' ' ,., 3000
a: 2000
1000
- 20 - 10 0 10 20 30' C
-4 14 32 50 68 86"F
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""" ""~Cn'll'tl..1~,..'ll..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,...,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
pare.el.:;. once they start up,,oard. \villcontinue to riseon their O\•ln
because the rising air parcels are warmer and les.~ dense than
• Air parcel the air around them. 1 he atmosphere in this example is said
700 3000 to be absolutely unstable. An air pared in an unstable atmo·
sphere, being warmer and less dense than its surroundings, has
an upward-directed force(called buoyant force) acting on it.
'llte wanner the air parcel compared to its surroundings. the
greater the buoyant force, and the more rapidly the air parcel
800 20' 2000 rises. Absolute instability results when tire environmental lapse
g rafe is greater than tire dry adiablltic mfe.
c
~
~ !
w
1t should be noted, however, that deep k1yers in the atmo-
sphere are seldom, ifever, absolutely unstable. Absolute instabil·
~
ll. 900 :io 1000
ity is usually limited to a very shallow k1yer near the ground on
hot, sunny days. Here the environmental lapse rate can exceed
' \
0.y
the dryadiabaticrate, 'Uld the lapse rate is called superadiabatic.
'' ..,--adiabatic
On rare occasions when the environmental lapse rate exceeds
\ rate about 3.4•C per JOO m (the autoconvective lapse rafe). convec-
'\ tion becomesspontaneous, re.s ulting in the automatic overturn-
40 ing of the air.
1000 ' 0
So far, we have seen that the atmosphere i~ absolutely stable
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 "C
32 50 68 86 104 122 140 °F when the environmental lapse rate is less th<tn the moist adia-
batic rate and absolutely un~table when the environmental lapse
• FI GUR E 6.7 An air parcel initially\vithatemperatureof lO"C(SO"F}atan rate is greater than the dry adiabatic rate. However, atypicaltype
altitude \Vhere the pressure is 700 mb (about 3000 m or 10,000 ft}, has the of atmospheric instability exists when the lap.se rate lies between
potential to warm to40"C {104"F) if it \Vere to sinkall the\vayto the surface. the moist and dry adiabatic rates.
\Y-here thepressureis 1000 mb.
Temperature of Temperature of
environmet11 ('C) environment ('C)
~ ~
3000 0' 3000 .3• 12'
\
\
Ory \
adiabatic \
~ Moist
6
\ rate
\ IO"C/1000 m
\ adiabatic a•
8' 10• 2000 \ ~ rate
:[
2000
', / :[
t 1
', S9C/1000 m

-g ' 
!l
\
\
~ ~
E \
~
1000 20' , " 1000
\
€)
'
l.' 3~'
E.nvironmento/ " Environmeni r
lapse rate lapse rate
1l 'C/1000 m 11'C/1000m ~
0 30' o "'-~..._..,._..._;.__. ...-..:;;si:i....~..J
0
32
10
50
20
68
30'C
86°F t 0
32
10
50
20
68
30'C
86°F
f
Temperature of lilted Temperature of Dlted
unsaiurated air ('C) saturaied air ('C)
(Ory raie) (molSI rate)
(a) The tlslng, t.ifl$8turated air parcel a1 each level is warmct (b) The rising. saturated air parcel at each level is
and lighter than the alt around it. If released, the air parcel warmer than i1s sur<ouodings. II released, it also would
w<l«ld accelerate upward. away from ils original posilioo. move upward, a\vay from its original position.
a FI GUR E 6.8 An absolutely unstable atmosphereoccurs\vhen theenvironmental lapse rate isgreaterthan the dry adiabatic ra te.
In an unstable atmosphere. a rising air parcel will continue to rise because it is \\Otmer and lessden.se than the air surrounding it
°*"'"''"..
..
A CON DITIONAllYU NSTABLE ATMOSPHERE The environ-
mental laP-~eratein • Fig. 6.9 is 7•c per 1000m(4•Fper 1000 ft).
When a parcel ofunsaturated air rises, it oools dry adiabatically
and is colder at each level than the air around it (see Fig. 6.9a).
It will, therefore, tend to sink back to its original level because
it is in a stable atmosphere. Now, suppose the rising parcel is
saturated. As \•,te can se.e in Fig. 6.9b. the rising air is v.•armer
than its environment at each level. Once the parcel is given a
push upward, it will tend to move in that direction; the atmo-
sphere is un~table for the saturated parcel. In this example, the
atm<k~phere is said to be conditionally nnstable. This type of
stability depends upon whether or not the rising air issaturated.
When the rising parcel of air is unsaturated, the atm0-~phere
i~ stable; when the parcel of air is saturated, the atmosphere is
unstable. Conditional instability means that, if unsaturated air
tOCIOm zrc
oould be lifted to a level where it becomes saturated, instability
\\'Ould result.
Co11ditio11al instability oca.1rs •vlu..,1ever lite enviro11111eutal
lapse mte is between the moist t1diabt1tic rate and the dry adiabatic
mte. Recall from Chapter 1 that the avera&oe lapse rate in the The concept ofatmosphericstabilitycan bea bit confusing, especially
tropo_~phere is about6.S"C per I 000m(3.6• Fper 1000 ft). Since v1hen comparing the temperature inside a rising air parcel to that o f
thi~ value lies between the dry adiabatic rate and the avera&oe its surroundings. For a quick refresher of the conceptsof stability, log
moist rate, the ahnosphere is ordinarily in a sttlte of conditional in to the Cengag.e CourseMate website at wv1w.ceng-age.com. and
inst.ability. view th-ea nimationsentitled Srable Armosphere. C.bls rab!e Armasphere.
and Condirional!y lhls rab!e Armosphere.
Temperature of Temperature ol
envitonmefll (' C) envitollm0'1t (' C)
-,..,e
3000 9' 00 3000 9• 12•
\
\ EnWonmentaJ
la?Wt•le
\
\
7'C/10C1Jm ~~ \
Mois1
adiabatic
I.,
2000 \
\ / 16' Ill°
g: 2000 \
\>'
/ ' rate
6"C/1000 m
16'
\
<!)
" ""
~" ~ ~ ~
1000 \
2311 20° 1000 \ 23' ~
Ory ' \
adiabatic/ ', Environmental /
rate , lapse rate/
10' C/10CYJ m 7'C/1000 m
o .._~ ................~.-....."--""'"-~_..
00
32 50
10 20
68 t o
32
10
50
20
68
30°C
86 'F
t
Temperatu<e of lifted Temperature of fifted
unsaturated air ('C} saturated air (' C)
(dry rate) (mois! rate}
(a) The lifted, unsaturated parcel ot au at each level is (b) The lrfted, saturated air paicel at each level is
coldE!f than its surroundings. ihe atmosphere is stable warmer than i1s surroundings. The atmosphere is
with respect to unsaturated. rising air. Ullstable with respect to satu1ated, riSing air.
• FIGURE 6 .9 Conditionally unstable atmosphe re. The atmosphere is stable if the rising air is unsaturated (aJ, but urutable if the rising air is saturated
(bl.A conditionally unstabteatmosphere occurs \Yhen the envi ronmental lapse rate is between the moist adiabatic rate a nd the dry adiabatic rate.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,....,.._,~ ..,,._ ..,.,..,,,_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c.. 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Subsidence Inversions- Put a Lid on It
Figure 1 shows a typical summertime

vertical profile of air temperature and dew
point measured w ith a r adiosonde near the
coast o f California. Notice that t he air tem-
perature decreases from the surface up to an
altitude o f about 300 m (1000 ft). Notice also
that wh ere the air temper ature reaches the
dew point, a c loud forms.
I
' I
WBim,~, ' l .. T 3000
e ' U1k1ng r
Abov e about 300 m.. t he air temperature
increases rapidly up to an altitude near 900 m !.. Dew/
''
\ Subsidenoe 2000
I..
i
l!We<slo<l
_l
(about 3000 ft). T his region of increasing air 'nt
temperature with increasing height marks ~ ~le '
'
the region of the subsidence inversion. W ithin
<i: ''
the inversion, air from aloft warms bycom--
'' 1000
pression. T he sinking air at the top o f the
inversion is not only wa rm (about 24°C or Cool. moist
75°Fl but also dr y w ith a low relati\'e hum id- merineeif
ity, as indicated by the large spr ead between 0
air temperature and dew point. Th e subsid - s• 10' 15' 20' 25' ('C)
ing air, w hich does not reach the surface, is 4 1• 50' 59' 68' n• (' F)
associated w ith a large high -pressure area,. Ternpe:ral\Jre
located to the west of California.
Immediately below the base of the inver- e FI GURE 1 A stro ng subsidence inversion along the co-a.st c:i California. The OOeof the stable inversion
actsasacapor lid o n the cool m arine a ir belO\v.An air parcel rising into the inversion layer \..Ould sink. bad<.
sion lies cool, moist air. T he cool air is unable
to itso riginal level because the rising air parcel would be colder and more d ense than the air surrounding iL
to penetrate the inversion because a lifted
parcel of cool marine air w ithin the inversion inver sion. The subsidence inversion, there- relatively shallow region near the earth's
would be much colder and heavier than the fore,. acts asa lid on the air below, prevent- surface. It is this trapping of air near the sur-
air surrounding it. Since the colder air parcel ing the air from m ixing ver tically into the f ace., associated w ith a strong subsidence
would fall back to its o riginal position, the inver sion. And so the marine air with its inversion, that helps to make West Coast
atmosphere is absolutely stablewithin the pollution and clouds is confined to a c ities such as Los Angeles ver y polluted.
CAUSES OF INSTABILITY What causes the "tmosphere to 14 Cddef

1000m air
become more unstable? The atmosphere becomes more unsta- aloft
ble as the environmental lapse rate steepen~; that is, as the air
temperature drops rapidly with increasing height 'ibis circum-
stance may be brought on by either air aloft becoming cokler or
the surface air becoming warmer (see • Fig. 6. 10).
The cooli11goftlie air aloft may be due to:
Environmental Enllironmental
I. wind.~
bringing in colder air <cold ad veCtion> lapse rate lapse ra\e
2. doud~ (or the air) emitting infrared radiation to space (radia- 6'C/1000m S' C/1000 m
tional cooling)
'Jbe warming oflhe surface air may be due to: Watmer
surface
I. daytime solar heating of the surface air
2. an influx of warm air brought in by the wind (warm 20·c
Om T -- T-
adve.ct ion)
(a) (b)
3. air moving <Ntt a \\'arm surface
• FI GURE 6 .10 The initial env ironmental lapse rate in diagram (a)\vill
Thecombination of cold air aloft and warm surface air can pro- become mo re uns table(tha t is.destabilize) as the air a loh cools and the
duce a steep lapse rateandatmosphericinstability (see• Fig.6. ll). surface air warms.as illustrated in diagram (b).
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,....,.._..,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
Al 1his poin1, we can •cc1hn11hc •labiU1y of1hc nt1no.p lwre
chongcs durh18 the cour>c of o day. In clear, c:~m weather
,.,.. ,,.,.
A
(
B
arow1dsunri..:,;,urfocc nlr b normully rnld crt hnn thc nir nbovc
·~-"
ii, a radiation in.er.ion cxl!.li., Jnu the atmo;,phcre bquitc ;,tabk
as indicated by.mokc or hn1.c lingcringdo;,c to lhcground N.
the day progre;.se>, 'unllght wunm the •urfacc and the surface
warms the air above. A< the •Ir tcmpcraiurc nt"ar the ground
increase., the lo"'" atmo.phcrc gradually become;, more
/
Envwarrlwtlal
,emn'I))
'\
..
"\ J
un;,1able - that 1i.. d dtswb1/1us - w11h maxunum tn>labi!Ay lapse rate
(- ITD!ng)
uswDyoccumng during the holtcU P"rl oftht .by.
Up to RO\\\ wt N•c 1.ttn tmt • lay•r of ar may become
ml>rl' unmblt by cd1tt<ool111g tilt' •ir aloft or \\urning the air
-g
~
~
• .•• •••.......
at t 11<' surface A b)tt of ar m•y ah.o Ix made mort umt.iblr b)'
.... .... ,....
Ory •• ••
dthttma1ngorhft11~ l di. look• mu111g fnt. tn e Fig.6.U. •......•
r8ile
thetmironmm1;al bpoe rate brforc mlXl'l! 1} !cs> than llv moist
ratt,and the b)·tt 1s <t.tblt (A}. :-Oow,i.upr-tlll' u in thdaytt
is mi.led eithtt by con1-..:11on orb)' "1nd-1nJuced turbultnt
ed<bes. Air 1><ooltd.d1alllluc;ally .i;111} bruughl up from bdow
and heated i>dubaucJ!I) .i; 11 a; m1ud d""' m.;1nl. lbe up and • FIGURE 6.12 MDigtenm .. u-nlhollrMr• lhno -'"9••
down mouoo m tht '3)'"1 rtdi>tnbutc. the :uruuuch a way chat kwersthetempenb.ffe ..,,._. the "P olttw._ whMtJ\ 11'9 .-nnl"g ••
1naeasesthe lemperatw. nHr" dw bottom.
the 1em~r.iture at tlll' top of the 1>)1'r d~ whit. at tilt'
base, ii 111~s. ·1 hb"tl'Jl""' the cnV1ronmet11.1llJ~ rate and
makes tht b)1't more un•tablc lflh1> mliungcon1111ucsfooome
time, and the air ri:malns u1\\aturatl'tl, the vcrtu:nl temperature
distribution "ill cw11 ll•1Uy be cquul to the dry nd1nbotic rote (B). 500
~\ Fina
:xi.~~
,, Cool•
, ... • ... . llt dry
.. -... "' .... odiAbahC
. . ..
• '• ..... rf.llO
' ..........
900
......°!f rato · •, ......'• Jx•.......Ollglnat
lnyor
1000
1000 .... '. y 100
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 tO 20 30"C
-40 -22 ..... 14 32 50 66 98'f
• FIGUR E 6.13 Thetif1ingof anenti"el~ of 6ir 1tincb 10 in<'*•W l h•~n~ll

bi'ty d the layer. The ;.;u.a stablel•yer ()i:-y) i l • 11hi'Q bnow tcondltlonaly
unstable b.)er(x' -y').
Just as lowering an entire byttof air makes 1t more >table,

the lifting ofa la)tt mal.es ii more un•t.tble. In • ltg. 6.1.l, tilt'
air lying betwttn 1000 and 900 mb is 1nlliaDy •bi.olutrly stablr
since the t"ll\'ironmrntal lapse ratr of b)U x·y i> lrss than the
moist adiabatic rate.~ 13) tr is hfted. and. as 11 run. the rapid
dt'Crea2 in air dtnsit)• aloft causn the I>) tt to itttieh out 1·rn1 ·
c.JI}' If lhe lay1'r mn:rin> unsaturated. !ht mllrt la)<'r cools al
llv dry adiibu ratt. Dur to tilt' stn'lch 111g dftct. hO\\ntt, t Ill'
top of lhe la)'er cools mort than the boctorn lh1s UttpmS !he
emironm-al lapst rate. 1'oce that lhtabsolutr!) <Cable li)'l"r
WEATHER WATCH
The cumulus cloud that ls forming In f'9 6.11 Is u lMd a
FIGURE 6 .11 The"""""'
1............... (n .. ,,,._,,,.ms...
pyrowmulus. If the pyrocumulus b ullds lnto a rain·
~ looehtlt hMli 1tw llr. caus.ng W\\lllbl•y Mir IM turf«t.. WiWM. lfs\.-
dense 11r &Md""°"' bubbte uPY,Mcl ap.ind1"9 MM:I cootftg ti It rt.wt. Evien--
ruat¥ lhe ri51ng alt coot\ 10 It\ dew paint. condtnwllon b-oln.1. and• tumiJus
producing cloud it may act as a na1ural l h e ..1tlngukht1
by dumping rainwatH onto the raging fitt btntath It.
d<><d forms.
A,.111lf1•••'1"1tllC.•11JtJO'O
('.,,.....,. )llh.... , . . . _ , .........._ ... ,..,,. .............. '""'"""" .. .,........... - ........, ... ,.._.,."' ....._~_.....,fW••"-""'t""
a.--.-
.."'"'-...........
dl ........1•• '4,llofH'lltl ............ - i . .
ti.-.holM.. '°"'"~lj•++ol•!!•o ..t , .....,. _......., ....,,... _..,...._,..~(:. . . . . lo•t'fl• "•--...i....,,,,,.,,..,. • . . , _ .........- ¥•• -·•"•"''""'' .,..
• The dry adlabatlcrate and moist adiabatic rate of cooling
are d lfferent due to the fact that latent heat Is released in a
rising parcel of saturated air.
b' - 3600
650
~"101 layor
• In a stable atmosphere, a lifted parcel ofair wi ll be cold er
- (heavier) than the air surrounding It. Because of this tac~ the
lifted parcel wil l tend to sink back to its original position.
' a·
700 - ' \
- 3000 • In an unstable atmosphere, a lifted parcel of air wil l be
'' \ warmer (lighter) than the air surrounding it, and thus wil l
'' \ Cools 01dry
~
\ continue to rise upward, away from Its original position.
750 - ' \ , j abOIKHOlf> _ 2470 g • The atmosphere becomes more stable (stabil izes) as the
I!!
":;J
I!!
Q.
800 - Cools at
moist
\ '
' 'It , Top

2000 " - I
.!ll
w
surface air cools, the air al oft warms, or a layer of air sinks
(subsides) over a vast area.
adiabatic ~ ' unsaturated • The atmosphere becomes more unstable (destabi li zes) as
rate , '\b _ the surface air warms, the air aloft coo ls, or a layer of air i.s
850 -
\j
'
Original
......,Eyer
1450
either mixed or lifted.
• A conditionall y unstable atmosphere exists when the envi-
900 - a - 1000 ronmental lapse rate Is between the moist adiabatic rate
Bottom
950
. . . . sat\.UQted
' 550
and the dry adiabatic rate.
• The atmosphere is normally most stable in the early morn-
- 10 -6 0 5 10 15 20'C ing and most unstable in the afternoon.
- 14 23 32 41 50 59 68' F
• Layered clouds tend to form in a stable atmosphere,
wh ereas cu mu II form clouds tend to form In a conditionall y
• FIGURE 6 .14 Convective instability.The layer a-b isinitially absolutely unstable atmosphere.
stable. The lower partof the layer is saturated, and the upper part is ...dry."After
lifting, the entire layer fa' -b1) becomes a bsolutety unstable. Up 10 this point wl!ve looked al how the stability of the
at mo.sphere can chan&>e during thecourseofa day. It~ interesting
x-y, after rising, has become conditionally unstable between 500 10 no1e1ha1 these changes can play a role in making afternoons
and 600 m b (layer x' -y'). \\fadier than mornings. So, before going on to the next section
A very stable air layer may be converted into an absolutely that de,scribes how stability is responsible for the development of
unstable layer when the lower portion of a layer is moist and individual cloud types, you may "1sh to read the Focus section
the upper portion is quite d ry. Jn • Fig. 6.1 4, the inversion layer on p. 155 that explain~ why clear afternoons are often \\fady.
between 900 and 850 m b is absolutely stable. Suppose the bot-
tom of the layer is saturated while the air at the top is unsatu-
rated. lf the layer is forced 10 rise, even a little, the upper por-
tion of the layer cools at the dry adiabatic rate and grows cold
Cloud Development
quite r apidly, while the air near the bouom cools more slowly We know that mos! cloud~ form as air rises. cools, and con-
at the moist adiab,ttic rate. Jt does not take much lifting before denses. Since air normally needs a "trigger" to start il moving
the upper par! of the layer is much colder than the botlom upward, what is il that causes the air to rise so that clouds are able
part; the environmental lapse rate steepens and the entire layer 10 form? Basically, the following mechanisms are responsible for
becomes absolutely unstable (layer a' - 11'). The potential insla- the development of the rnajoril y of clouds we observe:
bilil y, brought about by the lifting of a stable layer whose surface
is humid and whose top is "dry," is called convedive in stabil- J. surface heating and free convection
ity. Convective instability is associated "'th the development of 2 uplift along topography
severe stonn.s, such as thunderstorms and tornadoes, which are 3. widespread ascent due 10 convergence ofsurface air
investig,tted more thoroughly in Chapter 14. 4. uplift along weather fronts (see e fig. 6.15)
'[ he first mechanism that can cause the air 10 rise is co11-
vectio11. Although " 'e briefly looked al convection in Chapter 2
BRIEF REVIEW when we examined rising thermals and how they tran~fer heat
upward into the atmosphere, we will now look al convection
Before going on to the next section, here is a brief review of some
from a slightly different perspective- how rising thermals are
of the facts and concepts concerning atmospheric stability. able to form into cumulus dou(ls.
• The air temperature In a rising parcel of unsaturated aIr
decreases at the dry adiabatic rate, whereas the air temper- CONVECTION AND CLOUDS Some areas of the earth's sur-
ature In a rising parcel of saturated air decreases at the face are betler absorbers of sunlight than others and, there-
moist adiabatic rate. fore, heal up more quickly. The air in contact with these "hot
Atmospheric Stability and Windy Afternoons-
Hold On to Your Hat
On warm days when the weather is clear or atmosphere is stable, there is little vertical this sinking air should reach the surface, it
partly cloudy, you may have noticed that mixing between the surface air and the air produces a momentary gust of strong
the w indiest time of the day is usually in higher up. wind. In addition, this exchange of air
the afternoon. The reason for such windy As the day progresses, and the sun increases the average wind speed at the
afternoons is due to severa I factors all rises higher in the sky, the surface heats up surface. Because this type of air exchange
working together, including surface heat- and the lower atmosphere becomes more is greatest on a clear day in the afternoon
ing, convection, and atmospheric stability. unstable. Over hot surfaces, the air begins when the atmosphere is most unstable,
We know that in the early morning the to rise in the form of thermals that carry the we tend to experience the strongest, most
atmosphere is most stable, meaning that slower-moving air w ith them (see Fig. 2b). gusty winds in the afternoon. At night,
the air resists up and down motions. As an At some level above the surface.. the rising when the atmosphere stabilizes, the inter-
example, consider the flow of air in the early air links up with the faster-moving air aloft. change between the surface air and the air
morning as Illustrated in Fig. 2a. Notice that If the air begins to sink as part of a convec- aloft is ata minimum, and the winds atthe
weak winds exist near the surfacewith tive circulation, it may pull some of the surface tend to die down.
much stronger winds aloft. Because the stronger winds aloft downward with it. If
• F I GURE 2 (a) During the earty morning, there is

little exchange benveen the surface winds and the
winds aloft. {b) In the afternoon, when the atmo--
sphere is usually most unstable, conveaion in the
form d rising thermals links surface air\vith the air
aloft. causing strong \Vinds from aloft to reach the
ground and produce strong, gusty surface \vinds..
- (a)Moming (b) Afternoon
spots" becomes ""armer than itssurroun<lin(}~. A hot "bubble" As thecumulus clouds grow, they shade the ground from the
ofair- a llremral-breaks away from the wann surface and sun. This, ofc.ourse., cul~ offsurface heating and upward convec-
rises, expanding and cooling as it ascends. As the thermal tion. Without the continual supply of rising air, the cloud begins
rises, it mixes with the cooler, drier air around it and gradually to erode as its droplets evaporate. Unlike the sharp outline of a
loses its identity. lts upward movement now slows. Frequently, gro"1ngcumulus, the cloud now has indistinct edges, "1thdoud
belOre it is completely diluted, subsequent rising thermals pen- f t"agments extending from its sides. A• the cloud dissipates (or
etrate it and help the air rise a little higher. If the rising air cools moves along \\1th the wind), surface heating begins again and re-
to its saturation point, the moisture will condense, and the ther- generates another thermal, which becomes a new cumulus.1 his
mal becomes vi~ible to lk~ as a cumulus cloud. is why you often see cwnulus clouds form, graduaUy dio;appear,
Observe in • Fig. 6.1 6 that the air motions are doM1ward then refonn in the same spot.
on the oul~ide of the cumulus cloud. 'Jlte downward motions Suppose that it is a warm, humid summer afternoon
are cau.o;ed in part by evaparation around the outer edge of the and the sky is full of cumulus clouds. The cloud bases are all
cloud, which cools the air, making it heavy. Another reason for at nearly the same level above the ground and the cloud tops
the downward motion is the completion of the convection cur- extend only about a thousand meters higher. The development
rent started by the thermal. Cool air slowly descen<ts to replace of these cloud• depends primarily upon the air's stability and
the rising warm air. ' llterefore, we have rising air in the cloud moisture content. To illlk~trate how these factors influence the
and sinking air around it. Since subsiding air greatly inhibits formation of a convective cloud, \\'E' \viH examine the tem-
the gr0\\1h of thermal~ beneath it, small cumulus clouds usu- perature and moisture characteristics within a rising bubble of
aUy have a great deal of blue sky between them (see e Fig. 6.17). air. Since the actual air motions that go into forming a cloud
C'1'1'rif• :tl•~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FI GURE 6.15 The primary\vayscloud.sform:
ta} surfac.e heating and convec:t ion;{b) forced lift·
ing along topographic barriers;(c}convergence of
surface air; (d} breed lifting along \o.eather fronts.
H03!0d $Ultac.
5km
(a) Convoc1ion
l.<lw pro$$Ure Cofd8ir
500km 1500km
(c) Con....,gence of"' (d) Uhlng aJong _,lhol UOOIS
are rather complex, we wiU simplify llk~tters by making these indicmes changes in theatmosphere'.~stability. The environmen-
assumption..;: tal lap.~e rate in layer A is greater than the dry adiabatic rate, so
I. No mixing takes plare bet"'een the rising air and its the layer is absolutely unstable. 1be air layers above it-layer B
surroundings. and layer C-are both absolutely stable since the environmental
2. Only a single thermal produces the cumulus cloud. lap.~ rnte in each l<1yer isles.~ than the moist adiabatic rate. How-
3. The cloud forms when the relative humidity is JOO percent. ever, the overall environmental lap.se rate from the surface up to
4. The rising air in the cloud remain~saturated. the baseoftheinversion (2000 m) is7.s•Cper 1000 m (4.l•f per
I 000 ft), which indicates a conditionally unstable atm<>-~here.
Theenvironmental lap.~ rate on this particular day is plotted
Now, suppose that a warm bubble of air \\1th an air tem-
in ofig. 6.18 and iHepresented as a dark gray line on the farleft perature and dew -point tempcr<lture of 35•c and 27•c (95"F
of the illustration. The changing environmental air temperature
e FI GURE 6.16 Cumuluscloud.sform as hot. invisibleairbubblesdetach

lhem.setves from the surface. then rise and cool to the condensation level • FI GURE 6. 17 Cumuluscloud.s building on a warm summer afternoon.
Below and within thecumulusclouds. the air i~ rising. Around the cloud, the air Each c:loud representsa region \vherethermals are rising from the surface. The
is sinking. clear areas bet\Yeen thecJouds are regions where the air is sinking.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i """>' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Temperature. dew point of Relative hurridity
rising air ot nsing Sil
3000
---r---
Subs1dence Temperature
c lnv<11'$lan o4 rising ai'('C)
__ J___ _ 19"
I
6600 It t
l
2000
\ Sa1ura1ed
f Envlrorvnental ' Moist aJr
I 1000
,/
lapse rate 21'
24°----, -- 25' 3300 II • ·- • • • • --·1' •,• --Ofy

'
',
• • •Ctdiaba1ic
,,.-- 9diabalic
' \
• • • • • • •• • •.RH
ra1e
• • • 100%
•••-
Condensation level or ,..,-' , rate
\
18""1
- tree Dew ' ', /
'•
\
oonvec:ifor'I .vunt I
~
'
I '
'
0 b' \ •
20 25 00 20 2S 30 35 "C
Rising air
68 77 86 95 "F 68 77 B6 95 'F
Temperature Ternpefature Relative
humidity (%)
a (MOiSI ra1a) b(Dty rate)
• FIGURE 6 .18 The development ofacumuluscloud.
and 80. S' F). respectively, breaks away from the surface and Notice that inside the cloud the rising air remains warmer
begins to rise {which is iUustrated in the middle of Fig. 6.1 8). than the air surrounding it and continues il~ spontaneous rise
Notice that, a short distance above the ground, the air inside upward through layer B. 1be top ofthe bulging cloud al 2000 m
the bubble is warmer than the air around it, so it is buoyant (about 6600 ft) represents the top of the rising air, which has
and rises freely. This level in the atmosphere where the rising air now cooled to a temperature equal to its surroundings. Th e air
becomes ""armer than the surrounding air is called the level of would have a difficult time rising much above this level because
free co11vectio11. The rising bubble will continue to rise as long as of the stable subsidence inversion directly above it. The sub-
it is \\'armer than the air surrounding it. sidence inversion. associated \o,1th the dO\\'O\\'ard air motions
Therisingaircools at the dry adiabatic rate and the dew point of a high-pre,~sure system, prevents the clouds from building
falls, but not as rapidly.• 'lbe rate at which the dew point drops very high abovetheirbases. Hence, an afternoon sky full offlat-
varie-s with the moisture rontenl of the rising air, but an approxi- base cumuli "1th little vertical gro"1h indicate.~ fair weather.
mation of2"C per 1000 m ( l'F per 1000 ft) is commonly used. (Recall from Chapter 5 that the proper name of these fair-
So, as unsaturated rising air rools, the air temperature and dew \\'eather cwnulus clouds i~ cunrulus hunrilis.)
point approach eadt other at the rate of s<'C per 1000 m (4.S'F As we can see, the stability ofthe aunosphere above the con-
per 1000 ft). This prO<'<?SS causes an increase in the air's relative densation level plays a major role in determining the vertical
humidity (illustrated in the far right-hand side of Fig. 6.1 8, by growth of a cumulus cloud. Notice in • fig. 6.19 that, when a
the dark green line). deep stable layer begins a short distance above the cloud base,
At an elevation of 1000 m (3300 ft). the air has cooled to only cumulus humilis are able to form. If a deep conditionally
the dew point, the relative humidity is I 00 percent, condensa- unstable layer exists above the cloud base, cumulus congestus
tion begins, and a cloud forms. 'lhe elevation where the cloud are likely to grow, with billowing cauliflowerlike tops. When the
IOrms is calledthecondensation le•·el. Above the condensation conditionally unstable layer is extreme.ly deep-usually greater
level the rising air is saturated and roots at the moist adiabatic than 4 km (2.5 mi)-the cumulus congestus may even develop
rate. Condensation continues to occur, and since\vater vapor is into a cwnulonimbus.
transforming into liquid doud droplets, the dew point "1thin
the cloud no'" drops more rapidly "1th increasing height than WEATHER WATCH
before.1be air remains saturated as both the air temperature and On a sunny day, when the atmosphere is conditionally
dew point decrease at the moist adiabatic rate (illustrate.cl in the unstable, rising thermals break away from the surface and
area of Fig. 6. 18shaded tan). rapidly rise int o the atmosphere carrying surface air with
1he decrease in dcw·poinl tc1npe ra1ure is caused by the rapiddccrc:ise in air pres·
them. If the thermals form over a field of alfalfa or a feed
sure within Lhe rising air. Since the dew point is dir« tly related to the a ctual wpor
lot, the smell of the surface air can be carried upward for
pressure of tile ris ing air, a decrease in tot.'ll a ir pressure cnusesa corresponding thousands of feet.
decrelWt in vapor pressure a nd. he:nct. a lo"'i?ringof the dew- point tcnlpcrature .
C'1'1'rif* ) ) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U . ......................... " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. "IJb.....,., llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r..........i....
<1<n11....i ., ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll-....... .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,.,... o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
10 10
lapse rate
'E
~ "·
1 Mj>lsl -Stable COnd11fona11y
~
D<y
..••.
•• •• •• ••
.....
•
- unstable
....••.
0 0 0 '--- "' ''--- -- - - ' - - - - - '
Temperau.re - - TemperattKe - Temperature - -
L (a) Cumul.Js humills
• FIGURE 6 .19 The ai(sstabilitygreatlyinfluences the growth of cumuluscloud.s.

(b) CumulUS congastus (c) CUmulonfmbtJs
Seldom docwnulonimbusclouds extend very far above the cloud no longer builds, even though the lapse rate may indicate
tropopause.1110stratosphere is quite stable, so once a cloud pen- a conditionally unstable atmosphere.
etrates the tropopause, it usually stops growing vertically and Up to now, we have looked at convection over land. Con-
spreads horizontally. The low temperature at this altitude pro- vection andthedevelopment of cumulusdouds also occur <Ner
duce.s icecrystalsin the upper section of the cloud. In the middle large bodies of water. A~ cool air flows over a body of relatively
latitude.s, high winds near the tropopause blow the ice crystals warm water, the !owe.s t layer of the atmosphere becomes warm
laterally, producing the ffat anvil-shaped top so characteristic of and moist. '!his induces instability- convection begins and cu-
cumulonimbus clouds (see • fig. 6.20). mulus clouds form. If the air moves over progressively warmer
'Jhe vertical development of a convective cloud also de- \\
1
ater. as is sometimes the case over theopenocem. 1nore active
pends upon the mixing that take.s place around its periphery. convection occurs and a cumulus cloud can build into cumu-
The rising, churning cloud mixes cooler air into it. Such mix- li.ks congestus and finally into cumulonimbi.ls. 111issequence of
ing is called entrainment. lfthe environment around the. cloud cloud development is observed fromsatellite.s as cold northerly
is very dry, the cloud droplets quickly evaporate. The effect of wind.s move southward over the northern portions ofthe Atlan-
entrainment, then. i~ to increase the rate at \\•hich the.rising air tic and Pacific oc.e ans(see e Fig. 6.21).
cools by the injection of cooler air into the cloud and the sub- Onet.> a convective cloud forms, stability, hmnidity, and en-
sequent evaporation of the cloud droplets. If therateof cooling trainment all play a part in its vertical development. 1be level at
approache.s the dry adiabatic rate, the air stops rising and the which the doud initially forms, however, is determined prinrnril y
• FI GURE 6.21 Satellite vie\vof stratocumulus douds forming in ro\vsover

• FIGURE 6 .2 0 Cumulusc:louds developing into thunderstorms in a condi· the Atlantic Ocean as cold, dry arctic air S\IA?eps Olt'!r Canada, then out over
tionallyunstableatmosphereover the Great Plains. Notice that. in thedistance. warmer \vater. Notice that the doudsare absent over the landmass and directly
the cumulonimbus\vith the flat anvil top has reached the stable part of the along tlie coast. but form a nd gradually thicken as the surface air\vci.rmsand
atmosphe~ destabilizes fart her offshore.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U •........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Determining Convective Cloud Bases
The bases o f c um ulus clouds that form by

convection o n warm, sunny afternoons
can be estimated q uite easilywhen the
13000
surface air temperature and dew point are
known. If the air is not too w indy, we can
assume that entrainment o f air will not 11000
change the c haracteristics o f a rising ther-
mal. Since the rising air coolsatth edry
9000
adiabatic r ate of about 10°C per 1000 m,
and th edew point d rops at about 2'C
~
per 1000 m 1 the air temperature and dew
point approach each other at the rate o f
.,
~
<00<>
7000 ..
E.
'O
~C for ever y 1000 m of rise. Rising surface ~

5000
~
air w ith an air temper ature and dew point
spread of 8°( would produce saturation
and a cloud at an elevation of 1000 m. Put 1000
another way, a 1°C differe nce between the
surface air temperature and the dew point
produces a cloud base at 125 m. Therefor e,
by finding the difference between surface 0 0
El<o. Oenver. Hays, Baltimore,
air temperature m
and dew point (T.), and ~ Nevada Colorado Kansas MarylaSld EAST
m ultiplying this value by 125, we can esti 4
SUrface
mate the base of the convective cloud temperature ( T) 32"C (OO'FJ 32'C (90'f) 32"C (OO•F) 32'C (90'F)
fo rm ing overhead, as
Dew poinl( J;) IO'C (50' F) 15' C(59' FJ 20'C (6B'FJ 24'C (75' FJ
Hm_ = 125 (T - T.),* (1)
w here H is th e h eight of the base of t he • FI GURE 3 During t he summer, cumulus doud bases typically increase in elevation abcwe the ground
cum ulus c loud in meter s above th e sur- as one moves \Vest\vard into the drier air of the Central Plains.
face, w ith both rand J:, measured in
r
degrees Celsius. If rand 4 are in ° F, H the ground. This agrees w ith the condensa- generally g reater than 1500 m (about
can be calculated w ith the formula tion level we o riginally calculated. 5000 ft) above the surface. On a summer
Along the East Coast in summer, w hen afternoon in central Nevada, it is not
H•~ = 228 (r - T.). (2)
the air is warm and m uggy, the separation uncommon to observe cumulus forming
To illustrate the use o f form ula (1)1 let's between air temperature and dew point at 2400 m (about 8000 ft). In the Central
determine the base o f the cumulus c loud in may be smaller than 9'C (16°F). The bases Valley of California, w here the summer
Fig. 6.1 8.Recall that the surface air temper- of afternoon cum ulus clouds over cities, afternoon spread between air temperature
ature and dew point were 35°C and 2?C, such as Philadelphia and Bakimore, are and dew point usually exceeds 22'C (40'F),
respectively. The difference, T - T,. is 8'C. typically about 1000 m (3300 ft) above t he air must rise to almost 2700 m (about
This value multiplied by 125gives us a the ground (see Fig. 3) . Far ther west, in the 9000 ft) before a cloud forms. Due to
cumulus cloud w ith a base at l OOOm above Central Plains, w her e the air is d rier and the sinking air aloft, thermals in this area
spread between surface air temperature ar e unable to rise to that e levation, and
.,.he formula works best\Vhen the air is\vell mixed
from the surface up to the cloud base, such as in and dew point is greater, the c loud bases afternoon cumulus c louds are seldom
the afternoon on a sunny day. The formula does are higher. For example.. west of Salina, observed forming CNerhead.
not \Vork \vell at night o r in t he earty morning. Kansas, the cumulus c loud bases are
by the surface lemperalure and moisture conlenl of l he original lheairmuslgoover it Forced liflingalonga lopographicbarrier
thermals. Cl11e focus section above uses !his information and is called orogr aphic uplift. Often, largemassesof air rise when
a simple formula lo delermine lhe bases of convective clouds.) lhey approach along chain ofmow1lains like l he Sierra Nevada
or Rockies. ' Ibis lifting produces cooling, and, ifl he air is humid,
TOPOGRAPHY AND CLOUDS Horizonlally moving air obvi- clouds form. Clouds produced in lhis manner are called oro-
ously cannol go lhrougha largeoh-~lacle,such as a mounlain,so gmpliic clozuis. 'Jhe type of cloud lhal forms will depend on lhe
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,. . """""",,..l'""""""c.. 'll'tl"'~"''ll ..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
3000 .,. .. c
g 20CX) ~ A'C r. 8'C

T, =O'C
~
ii
~
Ta 19"C
1000 12'C T, = 2'C
Rain shadow
W111m.
dry
20"C 29'C .c
0
Air Daw-point
Ttml*aklle
(7)
1amporature
(T,.) <h (71
• FIGURE 6. 22 0-"Phk '4Jif< dot.d dewiopmenl and lhe 1...,,.uon ol a1M> shodow.
CJlJTKAL THINKING QUESTION Suppos• the doucl in Fig. 6.2.2 lonns 011n 1ltitud• ol 2000 meters (inst•ad of
1000 metenl. How woold this ch.,ge In doud bose influence tM de...polnt
ltmptratwt ol lht •It 1ftlr itaosses the mountain and reaches Omtttrs on the leeward skte?
air's stability and moisture content On the leeward (downwind) Consequendy, lhc rising air at this level is not only warmer, but
side of the n>Ountnin, as the air moves downhill, it wnrm>.1 his unstable with respect to its surwundings. ·rhcrefore, the rising
sinking nir is nO\\'dricr, since much ofits moisture "'US rcmov<.--d air should continue to rise and build into n much larger cumu·
in the form of clouds und precipitation on the windwnrd side. liform cloud.
1hisrcgionon 1hc leeward side, whereprecipilalion irno1iccnbly Suppose, however, that the air al I he top of the mom1tain
less. is called a r:tln shndow. (lemperature and dew point of - 2°C) is forced to dl'scend 10
lhe base of lhe mountain (Om) on 1he leeward side. Ifwe as·
Clouds and Orographic Uplift Anexampleoforogruphic up· smne lhat lhecloud remains on the "fodwardsidcand docs not
lift and ckiud dcvclopml'lll is givrn in • Fig, 622. Before ris· CJ<tend beyond lhe mounl3in1op, 1hc 1cmpcra1ure oflhe sink·
Ing up and over I he barrier, 1heair at lhe base of the mountain iogair ••ill
increase at lhe dry adiabatic rate ( 1o•c per 1000 m)
(Om) on the windward side has an air temperature of 2o•e all the way down to the base of the mountain. (The dew-point
(68•r") and a <k•w-point ttmperatureof I2'C (54•F). Notice that tcrnperatureincreases:u a much lowcrratcof .z•cper 1000 m.)
the atmosphere is conditionally unstable, as indic:it<.'<I by the We can see in Fig. 6.22 lhat on lhc leeward •idc, after
environmental lapse rate of s•c per 1000 m (Remember from descending 3000 m, the air tempcrntutt Is 2s•c (82.F) and
our enrlicr discussion lhat the atmosphett is conditionally un- lhe dew-point temperature is .i•e (39'F). The air is now S"C
stable when the environmental lapse rate falls between the dry (111°F) warmer lhan it was before ~Ing lifted owr lhe barrier.
adiabatic ra1c and the? moist adiabatic rate.) The higher air temperature on the leeward side is lhe result of
As the unsaturated air rises, the? air temperaturedccren;;es n1 IJtent heat being converted into sensible hc':lt during conclensa·
the dry udinbaticralc( i0°Cper LOOO m) and the dew-point 1cm· tionon the windward side. (In foct, lhe rising nirnt the lop of!he
pcrature decreases a1 2"C per I 000 m. NOi ice thnt the rising. cool · mounlain is considerably warmer than ii would htwc been had
ing air reaches its dew point and becomessaturaced at I ()()0 m. condensation not occurred.) The lower d<w· point tcmpera1ure
' ll1is level (called the IUUn3condensalion level, or LCL) marks tuxl. hence., drier air on the leC\\'ard side nre the re-Sult of \\ atcr 1
the b<L~cof the ckiud that hns formed as air is lifted (in I his case vapor condensing und then remaining as liquid cloud dropleis
by the mou111aln). As lhc rising saturated air condense. inio and precipitation on lhe wind ward side.
many billions ofliquid cloud drople~ and as la1en1 heat i> lib· Jn summary. there are several imp0rtan1concepts10 come
crated by the condensing vapor, bolh the air temperature and away "ilh after reading lhe previous s..xt ion on air rising up and
dew-point temperature dttttaSe at lhc moist adiabatic rate. twet a mountain:
At lhe top o( the mOW1tain, lhe air temper.11ure and dew
point are bOlh - re. Note in fig. 622 that this temperature L Air descending a mountnio warim by compressional heating
(-re) is higher lhan that of the surrounding air (-4•e). and, upon reaching lhe surf.ice, cnn ~ much warmer lhan
,..,.... )11,J{.,~.._..,tAl'°'llna-....i '°""''*''ion..-'--- .,.i......,"""'•"'t.-11r•,...t-l!l.W.,__,.__...,,..., ..,._..., • .,ft"'..... ..,•1!114M!l- ....Not.ll.....•ll.......,t•-•

.-...i11.--···~-··-~ ...................... _ ..........,... .. ,.
~._(;_ ._~-- .........._...i_,,,..,_ •..,_ ...""'......,... _._ _....,._.
1hc air al the same level on the windward side, C>pccially >icinity. Dangerous flying conditions also exist near the leesicleof
when mndcnsation occurs and llllcnt heru i~ rclcaS<.'<i on the the mountai11, \'.+tere strong d<l\\'O\\•iod air motions are present
\\il1d\\1atd .)id.C. (These t ypesof wind.< \\ill be 1rca1cd in more detail in Oiapter 9.)
2. Airon !he leeward side ofa mountain is nonnallydricr (has Now, having examined 1he conccpl of stability and the for-
a lower dew poinl) than the air on the wind\\·Jrd side because mation of clouds. we are ready to sec what role stability might
waier in the form of clouds and precipitation often remains play in changing a cloud from one type into another. (Before
on the windward side. The lower dew point and higher air going on to the next section, you may \\ish to read the Focus
temperature on the leeward side produce a lower relative section on p. 162 that provides you with a graphic representation
humidity. a greater potential for ev~oration of water, and a cL air rising up and owr a mountain using an adiabatic drart.)
rain ;hadow desert.
Clouds That Form Downwind of Mountains Although clouds

are more prcv;1lent on thewindward side ofmountains, they may,
under certain atmospheric conditions, form on the lcc"'1rd side as
\\Cll. I~ cx;.unple-, stable air flO\\•ing over a mountain often 1novl's
1
in ll series i<lc (sec • Fig. 6.23). 111csc waves resemble
1hc \\",tvcs that kirm in a river downsl'rcam frc111 a lari.-e boulder.
Recall from Otaplcr 5 tha1 wravec/ouds <lien have a charactcriotic
lensshape and 3TCcommonly called /entim/ar clouds.
1hc formation oflenticular clouds is shown in • Fig. 6.24.
As moist air rises on the upwind side of the wave, il cools and
condenses, producing a cloud. On the downwind side of the
wave, the air sinks and warms; the cloud evapora1es. Viewed
from the growid. the clouds appear motionless as the air rushes
through them; hence, they are often referred to as s/11111/ing wave
clouds. Since they most frequently form at altitude> •.ti ere mid-
dle doudo form, they are called t1/tocum11 /11s stm1di11g lc11ticulrlrs.
When the air between the cloud-forming layer. is too dry
to produc~ clouds, lenticular clouds ""' form one above the
other. Actually, when a strong wind blows nlmost perpendicu-
lar ton high mow1tain range, mountain waves may extend into
the >tratosphcre, producing a spectacular di~play, sometimes
n:scmbling a fleet of hovering spacecraft (see • Fig. 6.25).
Notia> in Fig. 6.24 thil! beneath the lenlicular doud down·
wind of the mountain range, a large S\\irling eddy forms. The
rising part of the swirling air may cool enough to produce
a visible cloud called a rotor cloud. lhe air in the rotor is ex- a FIGURE 6.21 Satellite viewdwavecloucbformngmanykib meten
tremely tutbulcnt and presents a major hazard to aircraft in the do.mwild o( the mount1i"ls in Scodand and htland.
"
...
-
........''"' ••
'
To view air rising over amountain .and the fOfmadon of a rain shadow
dt~r~ go to the (engage COUfseMa!e ,..bsb at www.cengogebr•il. • FIGURE 6. 24 Le,.ic:ul•clOl.tds Nt fonnin1M •wdirec:dyowr the
com •nd looltit the animation entitled AirRising (t>ondO..ro mountain are caled mounranw<JW douA ~... ,&hose that fonn down·
Mounran.
wind d the rrountain arecalal IH ~douca. On the underside of the 9ee
waw-'\ crest a turbulent flDlOf cbud "'IY fofm.
Ar.<Jt Mv.tl~GC~ldl?
(""'"'lfi• )1120.f'Pi.-•"'""""·-... Mlo)' ...11.....,.............i .............................. ,..._o.. .......__.__...,l"""'l' ...._....., ......,.._ ........................o....,1l ..........._i...
............_ ...~ ..- ......... _...._ ........ _ • . , . . . ••""""""-'. . '"'"._...., _ _ ......1o. .....,_ .........~.-..... . . . , _ ............... ...,.._ ......_ _..
The adiabatic chart is a valuable t ool for ., -=
an)IOn e who stud iesthe atmosphere. The .i §
0
6()()
~ §
6()() 4 4
chartltself is a graph t hat shows how vari- 12 12
ous atmospheric elements change with 10
i 700 ~ 100
altitude (see Fig.8).At first glance. the
chart appears complkated because or its -
1! 800
3
2
8~
6~
10
8-§
6~
J~
many lines. We will, therefore, construct 4 :f 4
<
these lines o n the chart step by step. 1
2 2
Rgure 4 shows horizontal lines of
pressure decreasing w ith altitude, and ver- 10 13 0 0 0
- 20 - 10 0 10 20 30 - 10 0 10 20
tical lines of temperature In •cIncreasing TemperaMI (°C) Temperature ('C)
toward the right. The height values on the
• FIGURE 4 • FIGURE 5
far right are approximate O!levations that
have been computed assuming that the air
temperature decreases at a standard rate
d 6.S'C per kilometer. how theair temperature would cha nge This produces a relative humidity o f "1,. X
In Fig. 5, the slanted solid red lines Inside a rising or descending parcel of sat- 100 p ercent, o r 42 percent.
a re calle d dry adiobats. They show h ow urated aIr. In other word s, they represent The mixing ratio lines also show how
the air temperature would chang e inside th e moist ad iabatic rate ror a rising or t he dew-point temperature change s in a
a rising or descending unJoturated air sinking.saturated air parc.el1 such as in a ri.slng orslnking unsaturated air parcel. If
parcl!I. Suppose, for e xample. that an cloud. an unsaturated air parcel with a dew
unsaturated air parcel at the surface The sloping gray lines lnflg. 7 are point of 1S"C rises from the surface (pres-
(pressure 1013 mb) wilh a temperature of llnesof constant mixinglOtio. At any given sure 1013 mb) uptowhere the pressure is
lO'C rises a nd cools at rhe dry adia batic temperature and pressure, they show 100 mb (approximately3 km). notice In
rate (1o•c per km). What wou ld be the how much water vapor the a ir could hold Fig. 7 that the dew-point temperature in -
parcel temperature at a pressure of If It were saturated- th e sa1uratlon mixing side the parcel would have dropped toa
900 mb? To find out, simply follow t he ratio (wJ In grams of water vapor per temperature near 10°C.
dry adiabat from lhe surface temperature kilogram of dry air (g/kg). At• given dew- Figure 8 shows all or the llnesde-
or IO'C up to where It crossesthe 900-mb point temperature, they show how much salbed thus far on a single chan. We have
line. Ans""": about O'C. If the same water vapor the air is actually holding- already seen lhatthe chart can be used to
parcel returns to the surface. follow the lhe octud miidng rcmo (1'11 In gll<g. Hence. obtain graphically a number o f atmo-
dry ad la bat back to thu urface and read given the air temp eratur~a nd dew-point sphe ric mathematical re lationships.
the temperature, l O°C. temperarure at some level, we can com- T herefore, let's use the chart to obtain in-
On some charts, t he dry ad la bats are pute the relative humidity orthe air.* For formation on air that rises up and over a
expressed as a potential temperature in example,. suppose at the surface (pressure mountain range.
Kelvins. The potential iem~rature is the 1013 mb) the air temperature and dew- Suppose we use the e xample given
temperature an air parcel would have if it point temperature are 29'C and IS"C. in Fig. 6.22 on p. 160. Air at an elevation or
"""'' moved dry adiabatlcally to a pres- respectively. In Fig. 7, observe lhat at 29'( O m (pressure 1013 mb), with a tempera-
sure of 1000 mb.Moving parcels to the the saturation mixing ratio (w,l ls 26 g/kg, ture o f 20'C (T) and a dew-point temp er-
same level a llows them to be observed a nd with a dew-point tempera ture o r ature o f 12"C (01), first as<ends. then de-
under Identical cond ltlons. Thus, It can be l S"C, t he actual mixing ratio !w) Is 11 g / kg. scends a 3000-meter-high mountain
dete rmined w hich parcels are potentially range. Look at Fig. 8 closely and observe
warmer than others. that the surface air with a temperature of
The sloping dashed b lue lines in •'JM reliltivehumldity(RH) or the air ( Mt bee»- 2o~c lndicates a saturation mixing ratio of
Fig. 6 are called moist otlabats. They show ptttwd iH! fli = "'"'°·x 1~. about 15 g/kg.and at 12'C the dew-point
ln•P.1pr.wd~'J"i'fZll
,,_cw .. _,.,..._ ..... ~"--"' ...._.........._
t ......... lllllC---"--M...... _.,.___................ ,,,,,..._.__ .......
.._.. _ _ ........... _.__ __. ...... _ ....... ,.,,._....c-.-....... ......... _,_.....
-tw~.,..•..-'""'__._",_,_
~,·t-.-.--
_____ •
"' (1013 mb). Notice that, after descending, ..
~
E 0
600 "'4
the air has a temperature o f 28°C (T 1) .
600
~ ~
\ \ \ Fr om the mounta intop, th e dew-point 4
\ 12 12
\ \ temperature follows a line of mixing ratio •
1i' 700
.§.
\
\
\
\
\
-'
\
\
\
3 10
8~
and reaches t he surface (1013 mb) with a !700 \
•I \• \
••
3 10
8~
i
I
\ \ temperature of 4°C (0). O bser ve in Fig. 8
800
\
\ \ \
\ 2 64 ~ 800 .2 4 ~1
•
26 2 6~
\ that with an air tem peratureof 28°C, t he ::! '
£900 \ \ \ \
''
4<
saturation m ixing ratio is about 259/ kg " 900 \•
d:
\ \
•
\ . 4;;:
\
' \
2
\ '
' '
and, w ith a dew point o f 4°(. the actua I 2
1013
\ \
' 0 0 mixing ratio is about 5 g/ kg . Thus, the rel- 1013 0 0
- 20 - 10 0 10 20 30 - 20 - 10 0 10 20 30
Temperature (°C) ative hum idity of the air after descend ing Tempera1ure (°C)
is about Y25, o r 20 percent. A more com-
e FIGUR E 6 • FIGURE 7
plete adiabatic c har t is pr ovided in
AppendixJ.
temperature ind icates an actual mi xing

ratio of about 9 g/ kg. Hence, th e relative
humidity of the air befo re risin g over the =
mountain is o/1s, or 60 percent. E
600 ----...,~--~---,...--.~..-.....- - - . "' ~
Now, as the unsaturated air rises (as 4
indicated by arrows in Fig . 8), the air tem- 12
per ature follows a dr yadiabat (solid red
lin e), a nd t he dew-point temper ature fol· 700 3 10 -~:!'P
lows a lin e of constant m ixing ratio (g ray :;;-
.§. 8
lin e). Carefully follow the m ixing ratio line
in Fig . 8 from 12°( up to where it inter- S!
..,"
sects th e dry adiabat that slopes upward
iil
0
800 ' 2
6~
<(
~
-
from 20°C. Notice t hat the intersection
~
occurs at an elevation near 1 km. This, of 000
course, marks th e base of the c loud - the LCL
2
Bfting condensaiion level (LCL) - w h ere
the re lative hum idity is 100 percent and 1013 0 0
condensation begins. Above this level, T,
the rising air is saturated. Consequentl y,
·20 · 10 0 20 30
Tempe<ature (°C)
the air temperature and dew-point tem-
perature together foll ON a moist adiabat • FI GURE 8 The adiab atic chart The arrows illustrate theexample g iven in the text The cloud o n the
(dashed blue line) to t he top o f th e right side represents the base and height o f the c loud given in the example.
mountain.
Notice in Fig. 8 t hat, at t he top of
the mountain (at 3 km o r about 700 mb),
both the air temperature and dew point
are - 2°C. If we assume that th e clou d
stays o n the w indward side, then from
3 km (700 mb) the descending air follows
a dry adiabat all t he way to the surface
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl.. 1~,..'ll..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,...,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FIGURE 6.25 lenticular clouds tend to form
wer and dCAvn\vind of mountains. They also tend
to remain in one place as air rushes through them.
Here, lenticular clouds are forming over mountain·
ous terrain in Argentina·s LosGlociares Nalional Park.
CHAN GING CLOUD FORMS Under certain conditions, a layer energy """Jy. ' this process makes the cloud layer conditionally
of altostratusmay change into altocumulus. Thi~ happens if the lmstable to the point that small convection cells begin within
top of the original cloud deck cool~ whi le the bottom warms. the cloud itself. 1 he up and down motions in a layered cloud
Because clouds are such good absorbers and emitters of infra- produce globular element~ that give the cloud a lumpy appear-
red radi.~tion, the top of the cloud will often cool as it radiates ance. ' lhecloud forms in the rising part of a cell, and clear spaces
infrared energy to space morerapidly than it absorbs solar en- appear where descending currentsoa:ur.•
ergy. Meanwhile,thebottom oft he cloud will warm as it absorbs Cirrocumulus and stratocumulus may form in a similar
infrared energy from below more quickly than it radiates this \\"Jy. When the wind is fairly uniform throughout a cloud layer,
these new cloud elements appear evenly di~tributed across
the sky. However, if the "'"d speed or direction changes with
height, the horizontal axes of the convection cell~ align with
the average direction of the wind. ' lhe new cloud elements then
become arranged in rows and are given thename d oud su~ets
(see . Fig. 6.26). When the changes in wind speed and direction
reach a critical value, and an inversion caps the cloud-forming
layers, wavelike clouds called billow clouds may form along the
top of the cloud layer as shown iii. Fig. 6.27.
Occasionally, altocmnulus show vertical development and
produce towerlike extensions. The clouds often resemble float-
ing castles and, for thi~ reason, they are called alto cu mu /us cast~>/
/a11us (see • Fig. 6.28). 'Jhey form when rising current~ within
the cloud extend into condition ally unstable air above the cloud.
Apparently, the buoyancy for the rising air comes from the latent
heat released during condensation within the cloud. 'Jbis pro-
•An cx::unple ofan altocu1nuluscloud ,,;th a lun1pyappe.-irancc is given in Fig. S.I S
on p. 129.
WEATHER WATCH
The f irst modern "si ghting'' of a f lying saucer was made
over Mt. Ra inier, Was hi ngton, a region where lenticular
• FIGURE 6.26 Satellite vil>wof doud streets. rows of stratocumulusclouds clouds common ly fo rm.
forming over the\varm Geo.rgia land.scape.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... .t..b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FI GURE 6 . 27 Billa.vdoud.sforming ina1egion\vhere\vindspeed
changes rapidty\vith altitude. This isa region d stlong vertical windshear.
{More on the topic of\Vind shear is given in Chapter 9, on p23S.)
re~o;s: can occur in

cirrocwnulus clouds. producingcirrocz11nulus • FIG URE 6 . 28 An example of altocumuluscastellanus..
castellanus. When altocwnuluscaste.llanus appear, they indicate What do you feel would be the most
important factor(s) in predicting
that the mid-level of the trorosphere is becoming more unsta-
how high these altocumuJus ustellanus clouds wil I rise into the
ble (destabilizing). This destabilization is often the precursor to atmosphere?
shower activity. Soa morning sky full ofaltocwnuluscastellanus
"111 likely become afternoon showers and even thunderstorms.
Occasionally. the stirring of a moist layer of stable air will
produce a deck ofstratocwnulus clouds. In • Fig. 6.29", the air layer, producing a layer of stratocumulus clouds. Notice in
is stable and close to saturation. Sup Pose a strong wind mixes Fig. 6.29b that the air above the region of mixing is still stable
the layer from the surface up to an elevation of 600 m (2000 ft) and inhibits further mixing. Jn some cases, an inversion may
(Fig. 6.29b). As " 'e saw earlier, the lap.se rate will steepen as actually form above the clouds. However, if the surface warms
the upper part of the layer cools and the lower part warms. At substantially. rising thermals may penetrate the stable region
the same time, mixing will make the moisture distribution and the stratocwnulus clouds may change into more widely
in the layer more uniform. 'Jl1e warmer temperature and separated clouds, such as cumulus or cumulus congestus. A
decreased moisture content cause the lower part of the layer stratocumulus layer changing to a sky dotte.d with growing
to dry out. On the other hand, the decrease in temperature cwnulus clouds often occurs as surface heating increases on a
and increase in moisture content saturate the top of the mixed \\•arm}hwnid summer day.
• FI GURE 6.29 ThemixJngofa

moist layer cl air near the surface
can produce a deck.ofstratocu·
I
'I
I
mulus douds:.
Dew point_.~
t lap$• 1819
._Envronmental
&apse rate
j
;;:
I
I
Slable air
llOOm
--------r-- 2000h
\
\ Dry
'' \
\
Mixed &if
\ ~adiabatic \
\ rate \
\
\
'
I
\
\
\ \
0 0
Temperature Temperature - - --
(a) Before mixing (b) After mixing
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''"..
<1<n11....ifl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl<'l~"''ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
SUMMARY QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
Jn this chapter, we tied together the concepts of stability and I. What is an adiabatic process?
the formation of clouds. We learned that rising unsaturated 2. Why •tre moist and dry adiabatic rates of cooling different?
air cools at the dry adiabatic rate and, due to the release of 3. Under what conditio1" would the moist adiabatic rate
latent heat, ri,ing saturated air cool' at the moist adiabatic of cooling be almost equal to the dry adiabatic rate>
rate. in a stable atmosphere, a lifted pared of air will becokler 4. Explain the difference between environment"! lapse
(heavier) than the air surrounding it at each new level, and il rate and dry adiabatic rate.
will sink back to ilsOriginal position. Becausestal~eair lends 5. How would one normally obtain the environmental
to resist upward vertical motions, clouds forming in a stable lapse rate?
atm<:>-,phere often spread horizont"Hy and have a stratified 6. What is a stable atm<>-,phere and how can it form?
appearance, such as cirr<:>-,lratu.' and all<>-,lratu.,. A stable 7. Describe the general characteristics of clouds associ-
atmosphere may be caused by either cooling the surface air, ated with st"b!e and unstable atmospheres.
\\'tlrming the air aloft, or by the sinking (subsidence) of an 8. List and explain several proceo;.'*"' by which a stable
entire l•tyerof air, in which case a very stable subsidence inver- atm<:>-o;phere can be made un"ab!e.
sion usually forms. 9. If the atm<>-,phere i' conditionally unstable, what con-
ln an unstable atmosphere, " lifted parcel of air will be dition i' necessary lo bring on instability?
\\'tlrmer (lighter) than the air surrounding ital each new level, 10. Explain why cumulus clouds are conspicuously absent
and it will continuetoriseupwartl a"'tlY fromilrnriginalp<>-,i- over a cool v.•ater surface.
tion. Jn a oonditional!y unstable atmosphere, an un'atunited 11. Why are cumulus clouds more frequently ob.served
parcel ofair can be lilied to a level where condensation begins, during the afternoon than al night?
kllenl heat is released, and instability results, as the tempera- 12. Explain why an inversion represents an absolutely
ture inside l he rising pared beoomes warmer t lk~n l he air sur- stable atm<>-,phere.
rounding it. Jn a conditionally unstableallllQ'phere, rising air 13. How and why does lifting or lowering a layer of air
tends lo IOrm clouds that develop vertically, such as cumulu.' change its stability>
oongestus and cumulonimbus. Instability may be caused by 14. List and explain several processes by which an unstable
\\'tinning the surface air, cooling theairaloli,or by the lifting atm<:>-o;phere can be made stable.
or mixing ofan entire layer of air. 15. Why do cumulonimbus clouds often ha,•e flat tops?
The development of most clouds results from either 16. Why are there usually large spaces of blue sky between
surface heating, uplift along topography (orographic uplift), cumulu.' clouds?
convergenceofsurfaceair,or lifting along weather fronts. On 17. List four primary ways cloud' form, and describe the
warm humid days the instability generated by surface he•H- formation of one cloud type by each method.
ing can produce cumulus clouds at a height determined by 18. (a) Why are lenticuku clouds also called standing '""''e
the temperature and moi"ure content of the surface air. In- douds?(b) On which side ofa mountain (windward or
stability may cause changes in existing clouds as conwction leeward) would lenticular clouds most likely form?
changes an •llt<>-"ratus into an altocmmtlus. Also, mixing can 19. Explain why rain shadows form on the lee,mrd side of
change a dear day into a cloudy one. mountains.
20. How can a layer of alt<:>-,tratus change into one of
altocumulus?
KEY TERMS 21. Describe the conditions necessary to produce stratocu-
mulus cloud~ by mixing.
The following terms are listed (with page numbers) in the
22. Briefly describe how each of the following clouds forms:
order they appear in the text Defmeeach. Doing so will aid (a) lentic•tlar (b) rotor
you in reviewing the material covered in this chapter. (c) billow (d) castellanus
parcel of air, 146 conditionally unstable
adiabatic process, 146 atmosphere, 15 1
dry adiabatic rate, 1'16 condensation level, 157
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT
moist adiabatic rate, 146 entrainment, 158 I. How is it possible for a layer of air to be convectively
environmental lapse rate, 147 orographic uplift, 159 unstable and absolutely stable at the same time>
absolutely stable rain shadow, 160 2. Are the bases of convective clouds generally higher
atm<:>-~phere, 147 lifting condensation level during the day or the night? Explain.
subsidence inversion, 148 (LCL), 160 3. Where would be the s.~fest place to build an airport in
neutral stability, 149 rotor cloud,, 161 a mountainou.' region? Why?
absolutely unstable cloud streets, l6<l 4. Use Fig. 4.15, p. 103 (Chapter 4) to help you explain
atmosphere, 150 billow clouds, JM why the bases of cumulu.' clouds, which form from ris-
ing thermals during the summer, often increase in
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y ta>thc....,icd >........J ,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;k o•in.,.... floe .., ch<,....., ..... -11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.hnflLU;,,.,J\o «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
heigh1 above 1hc •urfoce O• you move due wc•I of n line
1ha1runs11or1h Mlulh 1hrough cc111ral Kai1"''"·
5. Por lca>I 1101lu1c'tl condillon;,, wh.11 would be lhc bc•l
1imc of day for n former 10 burn ,1grk ul1ural debri;1 3'lOO -1• 700
6. Suppo;;: 1hll1 ;,urfacc nlr on 1hc windward ;,idc of a
moun1a1n r1~• and de>ecnd. on !he leeward sick
Rcc-•11 from Ch.1p1er •I lh•I !he dew po1111 lnnperature
is a mea.'\lrt of the am1>w1t of wJter vapor m the air.
Explain, then. why the rel.allVe humidly of thr de-
>ccnd1ng air dropo a. the J.-..•. J'Olnl teml""'alUtt of the
descend mg air 111Lt"•-..
7. U.Ually "htn • cumuloruml><u cloud btgua to du.st-
pal<'. the bottom h:alf of the cloud ~ipaio fi.Dt. Gi\\'
an esplanauon .u to wh) Iha ••uation might bappm- 0 t -
...,,.._.,
wuam ~
PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES e A GU RE 6.30 The ao.m...ion tn 1ht1ILrurMOftit10 bt utH 11"1 A,.-.nng
1. Under "luch Scio( cond11on. would• cum um cloud ~sin the~ .xi berasn 1Kton.
boue be obscrwd at tht h\lht-t bd aJio.c the wtf.Kt?

(a) Calcuhte the ""'·ironmmul bp;,e rJte from tht
Surf.tee ;ur tcmpernturo and J.,. J'Olnl> aK . . foBows;
swfrce up to 3000 m,
(a) 3S"C. 11 C; (b) JO•c:. 1crc- (cl 31•c. 9'C: (d) 29"C
re: «> 32·c. 6"C.
(b) What type o( atmosphm, stabiltty doe. lht \O<lnd
ing indicate?
2. I( the hc~ghl 11( the
b;\Jje of a cumuluHlood u 1000 m
Suppose the wind is blowing from the weot Md • p.tr
above the ;,urfoce, .1nd the dew pumt al the earth's=-
eel ofsurface nit with a tcmpernture of IOOC und n dew
face beneath the doud ., 20•c, determine the air tem-
point of 2•c begins 10 rise upward nlong the we>t<rn
perature at the earth> >urfoce bcne.11h the cloud.
(windward) side of the mountain.
3. '!he co11deni..11lon level liver New Orie.ins. Loulsinna,
(c) Whnt is the rel,tive humidity of the nlr par.cl nl
on u worm muggy nf1criw1on b 2000 Ii. If the lkw-
om (pressure 1013 mb) before rblng? (111111: See
poi1111cmpcra111rc of lhc rl,11111 air ut 1hb level is n•r,
Chapter 4, p. I06.)
whnt Is 1hc approxlm.1te dcw ·polnt lcmpcrnturc and
(d) A~ the air parcel ri..cs, nt approxim:udy whnl nhlludc
nir tempcriuurc at 1hc ourfoc,•1 L>ctcrmlnc the •Urfoce
would comlemation begin nnd n cloud .tori IO form?
relntivc humldlly. (I lint: See Chup1cr 'I, p. 106.)
(e) What is the nir 1empern1urc ond dew polnl of the
4. Suppose the nlr 1>rc~>ure out>ldc n conwntionnl Jt;t
rising air at the base of Ihe cloud!
nirlincr Oying nt an nhiludc of 10 km (t1bout 33,000 Ii) is
(f) What is the air tempcrnture ond dew polnl of the
25() mb. l'urlhcr, •UJ>J>O>C 1hc \lir hi;.ldc the alrcrnft b
rising air inside the dou<l al nn ahllude of 300() 1111
pressuriu.-d 10 JOO() mb. If 1hc out>ldr nir 1cmper:itUJ\'
(Use moist adiabatic rare of 6•c per IOOO m.)
is - 50"C (- SS•Jl), whll1 \\\lukl be the 1cmpero.turt of
(g) AL an altitu~ of 3000 m, how doe; lhr air le111
tlus att 1f brought ln>1de the aiJ'crJfl and a>~
perature inside the cloud compare with the atr
at the Jry ad1abat1< rate 10 a 1~= of JOO() mb1
temperature outside the cloud, ai. mca>ured by the
(A<Qlmt that a pttlliure of 1()()() mb i> rqw,":tlcnt to an
ahkuckofO m.) radiosonde? What type of atmmphertc \l.lh1hty
(stable or unst!ble) doc. thiuugi:N' l'xrb111
S. In I 1g. 6.30, a rad1050ndc u relra;ed and i.m<h bad:
(b) Al an altilllde of 3000 m, would )'llll r.q>tct the
1cmpcrature d31.l a> iJuJ\\n 1n the di•gram. fllu;, i>thr
cloud to continue to develop \\'tbUU) > I >ipl.ain.
em·u'Onrntra temprnuure.)
ONLINE RESOURCES
Log in to the Coor..eM.11c wc-boue QI: www.crn&>gebroin.com LO v.iew t!Y c_oncrp1 ~ni".'ations a> nott-d In the text, n>
weU a• additional re;wr,e.. indudln11 vidc."O exercises, practice qwzzes,an mteracti\\' dlook, and more.
lu ·•• .._, ·~,.tl)C11u1 I llf10fl
Precipitation
CONTENTS
B
y an unfortunate coincidence, as I writ e, the New Jersey
Precipitation Processes coun tryside around me is in the grip of an ice storm -"the
How Do Cloud Droplets Grow Larger? worst ice storm in a genera tion" so the papers tell me, and a look
Collision and Coalescence Process
Ice-Crystal (Bergeron) Process at my garden suffices to convince me. A 150-year· old tulip tree
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC has already lost enough limbs to keep us in firewood for the rest
The Freezing of Tiny Cloud Droplets of the w inter; a number of black locusts stand beheaded; the
Cloud Seeding and Precipitation
silver birches are bent double to the ground; and almost every
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTALISSUE
Does Cloud Seeding Enhance Precipitation 7 twig of every bu sh and tree is encased in a translucent cylinder
Precipitation in Clouds of ice one to t wo inches in diameter. There is beaut y in the sigh t,
Precipitation Types
to be sure, for the sun has momentarily transmu ted the virginal
Rain
FOCUS ONA SPECIAL TOPIC whit es and grays into liquid gold. And there is hope, too, for
Are RalndropsTear-Shaped7 some ofthe trees are still unbowed and look as though they had
Snow every intention o f living to tell the tale.
Snowflakes and Snowfall
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC George H. T. Kimble, Our Amerjcan Weather
Snowing When the Air Temperature Is
Well Above Freezing
A Blanket ofSnow
Sleet and Freezing Rain
Sounds and Snowfalls
Snow Grains and Snow Pellets
Aircraft Icing
Hail
Measuring Precipitation
Instruments
Doppler Radar and Precipitation
Measuring Precipitation from Space
Summary
Key Terms
Facing page: Freshly fallen sno\vcovers the
land.scape in Jasper National Park. Alberta.
Canada.
169
he young boy pushL'il hi> IHl>C "&•Inst the m id window-
T pane, hoping 10 .cc.1nowfL1kc> gll>tening In 1he light of the

street lampacros.• che way. l"'rh,11~> if 11.lllll\Wd. he thought,
accumulations wmtlJ hcd..'q> enough 1ocancd .1thool - maybe
for a day, possibly a WL'Ck. or, l"'rhJ(~. forc\\:r, But a full moon
with a halo gave little hopt for \now on lhi.1cvcn1111.1. Nor did the
voicr from the back room thJt U\\1>ted. "l>o1i1 L>vcn thuik •bout
snow. Yoo know it won't ;now tonight •'; 100 cold to >11ow.·
Is it e."tt"too cold tou1ow"? Although manybd1t\'< an too
cxpre-Won, the fact remain; th.i • "'"''"''too cold to >11ow
True, colder air cannot "hold" .u much watl'l' ,-.por a.1 warmer
air: but, no m31tcr how cold the air become>, It al\\l)'.I cont:uru
some watl'l' '"'pot thatcould producuno\\; At Fun Ydowuooe,
Wyoming, for example, 3 inch<> o( U'IO\\ fell on l'd>ruary 2.
1899, when the maximum tnnpl'ralu"' rr;ichtd onl) - 28-C
( - IS-F). In f.xt, tJl1) 1a cry,t.1h ha\c bttnob>cr\'CCI Whngat
ttmptraturn as lo" u - -1-c ( 53'~1. \\'c uwally :woci.ttc
utrmdy cold air with "no'"°"· b«.lu>t' thr colJcu wuittt
wt:ithttusualy occun on dc.ir. calm n1ght; - cond•ion> th.u
normallypm'3JI \\Ith .1tt01"11 lugh J'tt''u"' •tta.> th31 h'""' few.
i! any, clouds.
Thi< chapcer rat><S a nurnbL'f of 1111erou1ng qu<StJoru to
conside r reg;irding l"'edpitatlon. • Why, fot example. does e FIGURE 7.1 R-si>esolrmc!10ps,douddloplt1\andcondon,.110n
the largest form of pt<'<lptt.ltUlfl hull often lJI during the rudei in micraneters(p.m).
warmest time or the year? Why doe.1 It .1omct1111c.1 rain on one
side of the street but not on the other? Whal h "•lcct" nritl how
does it differ from hail? ~if\t, 1wwlll cxumlncthcproco:.csthnt those evaporating from it. If, howewr, it is not in l'<lullibrium,
the droplet size will either increase or decrcn>e, depending on
produce rain and >now; then, we will look •k•>cly ut the other
whether condensa1ion or evnporation predominate>.
forms of precipicncion. Our cU•c•IS•lon will lOndudc with n
section on how precipitnelon l• mc:i>urcd. Consider a cloud droplet in equilibrium with lb environ·
mcnl. The total number of vapor mnlcculcs nround the drup
let remains fairly constant and defines the droplet's $1//1tr111 lo11
V(lporpressure. Since the droplet l\ in e<111ilibrlum, thc>:l111ratlon
vapor pressure is also called the equilibrium vapor 11res>11rc.
Precipitation Processes • Figure 72 shows a doud droplet and a fla1 w:i1er >11rfoce, i>o1h
As we all know, cloudy weather Jnc, 1101 lll'CC'-"1 rily mean 1M.t
r:i which are in equilibrium. Becaw.e more vnpor mok..:ul"' >ur·
it will rain or Mow. In fact, cloud.1 may form, llll(4cr for many
round lhe droplet, it has a greater equilibrium vapor prc.1.1urc.
days. and nt\'Cr produ<e predpilatlon, In J'urcka , California. The reru.on for this fact is that water molecule> arc '"'' >1rongly
the Augu.1t daytime dy 1~ owtcJ>t mnl'< th.in SO pero.'tlt of the alt ached to a cun'lld (convex) water ; urface; hence, they cvapn
time, yet the a1..,.age prtc1p1t.1t1on there for Auguu i> merely
rate more readily.
one-tenth or an inch. We know that clou•h fonn by conder>S.1- To kttp the droplet in equilibrium, more vapor molcc:uk>
are nttded around it to "'Pbce t~c moltcuk> that arc con
tion, }-rt •l'!"'J'tntly condcn.31ion •lont ·~ nOl wffia:nt to pro-
standy evaporating from its surfau. Smaller cloud droplet~
duce rain. Why not? To •m""r tlu> qucstllln "'" nttd to d.»d)
examine the tiny world o(clood dropkt; exhibit a greater curvature, "hich causes •more rapod rate of
HOW DO CLOUD DROPLETS GROW LARGER? An orduw;

cloud dropk!t i5 cxtrcmtl) ;mall, ha11ng •n 1'cragcd1amdcr
of20microm.1cn (µ.m)" orO.OOhm Noocc 1n • fig. 7J that
a l)'J'ical cloud Jrorlci 1> JOO lJmts <m.Jllrr chan a t)pc:al rain-
drop. Ifa clwd d roplc1 1> 1n cqwlib-iu m "'1th II.I '-U rroundmgs.
thcsiu ofthedrupld OOc• noc <N"t!C bc.;ausc the water mol-
ecules cond.,,.,gng onto the dropltt will be rx.ictly b<lkinccd br
•R.?ofl tram Chopkr I dul pr«tpt.alkln .. '"' tnrm ul w..1Nr O•kl or 1nWJ M
fulls rrom .a cbl&i ,usd •a.:ho dw pwnJ.
.......
••JtaMrM« trom Ch!.pkr l 1h.a1 unc mk.romrwr c..n J cqu..i.k t.int- mi.lklntb of a FIGURE 7.1 Atequihklm.thenpor preuure~ ac~ddfl0Plt1of
w.acer is greater than thatOW'f a flat surface.
('.,,.....,. )ll h .... , . . . _ , .... ......_ ... ,..,,. .............. '""'"""" .. .,........... - ........, ... ,.._.,."' ....._~_.....,fW••"-""'t""
a.--.-
.."'"'-........... dl ........1•• '4,llofH'lltl ............ - i . .
ti.-.holM..'°"' "~lj•+ +ol •!!•o ..t , .....,. _......., . ...,,... _..,...._,..~(:. . . . . lo•t'fl•"•--...i....,,,,,.,,..,. • . . , _ .........- ¥•• -·•"•"''""'' .,..
evaporation. As a result of thi~ process (called the curvature
effecl), smaller droplets require an even greater v:ipor pressure 100.4
to keep them from evaporating away. ' lberefore, when llir is satu-
rated with respect to a flat surface, it is unsatur<•feti with resped
100,3
to a curved droplet ofpure M'lter, and the droplet evaporates. So, ~
to keep tiny cloud droplets in equilibrium with the surrounding Cloud droplets grow
~
air, the air must be supersaturated; that is, the relative humidity ·e:>
100.2
must be greater than JOO percent. The smaller the droplet, the £C
greater its curvature, and the higher the supersaturation needed
to keep the droplet in equilibrium.
.,
.~
a; 100.1
Cloud 1--..
• Figure 7.3 shows the curvature effect for pure " "ater. The a: aropfels ,.,,,<\""''
shrink Of:>let
dark blue line represents the relative humidity needed to keep a
droplet \\1th a given diameter in equilibrium with its environ- 100.0
2 4 10 20
ment. Note that when the droplet's size i~ less than 2 µm , the
relative humidity (measured with respect to a flat surface) must Orop101 diameter (µm}
be above I 00.1 percent for the droplet to survive. As droplets
become larger, the effect ofcurvature !es.sens; for a droplet whose • FI GURE 7. 3 The curved fine represents the relative humidity needed to
keep a droplet in equilibrium \Vith itsenvironment For a given droplet size. the
diameter is greater than 20 µm , the curvature effect i~ so small droplet\vill evaporate and shrink \Vhen the relative humidHy is less than that
that the droplet beh,wes as if its surface were flat. given by the curve. The droplet\vill gro\V by condensation \Vhen the relative
Just as relative humidities less th'Ul that required for equi- humidityisgreater than the value on thecurve.
librium permit a water droplet to evaporate and shrink, those
greater th<m the equilibrium value allow the droplet to grow by near 78 percent, condensation occurs on the majority of nuclei.
condensation. From fig. 7.3, we can see that a droplet wh0-se A• the air cools further, the relative humidity increases, with
diameter is 1 µm will grow larger as the relative humidity the droplets containing the m0-~t salt reaching the largest sizes.
approaches IOI percent. But relative humidities, even in clouds, And since thesmaller nuclei are more affected by the curvature
rarely become greater than 101 percent. How, then, do tiny effect, on! y the larger nuclei are able to become cloud droplets.
cloud droplets of les.~ th'Ul I µm grow to the size of an average Over landmasses where large concentrations of nuclei ex-
cloud droplet? ist, there may be many hundreds of droplets per cubic centime-
Recall from Chapters (fog formation di~cussion) that con- ter, all competing for the available supply of water vaPor. Over
densation begins on tiny particles called cloud co11de11sf1tio11 the ocean~ where the concentration of nuclei is less, there are
nuclei. Because many of the,se nuclei are hygroscopic (that is, normally fewer (typically less than JOO per cubic centimeter)
they have an affinity for water vapor), condensation m.1y begin but larger cloud droplets. So, in a given volume we tend to find
on such particles when the relative hmnidity is well below more cloud droplets in clouds that IOrmover land and fe"-er, but
JOO percent. When condensation begins on hygr<>-~opicsalt par- larger, cloud droplets in clouds th'lt form over the ocean.
ticles, for example, they dissolve, fonning a solution. Since the We now have a cloud romp<>-~ed of many small droplets-
salt ions in solution bindcl0-sely with water molecules, it is more toosmall tofall,1srain. The,s eminutedroplets requireonlyslight
difficult for the water molecules to evaporate. This condition upward air currents to keep them suspended. Th0-se droplet.~
reduces the equilibrium vapor pressure, an effect known as the that do fall descendslowl y and ev,1porate in the drier air beneath
soluteelfoct Duetothesoluteeffect, onc-ean impurity (such as a the cloud. It is evident, then, that m<>-~t clouds cannot produce
saltparticle) replaa!sa water molecule in thelattia! structure ofthe precipitation. The condensation proces.~ by itself is entirely too
droplet,! heequilibrium vapor pressuresurrounding thedroplet is slow to produce rain. Even under ideal conditions, it would take
lowered. As a result of the solute effect, a droplet containing several days for this process alone to create a raindrop. Ho"-ever,
salt can be in equilibrium with its environment when the at- observationsshow that clouds can develop and begin to produce
m<>-~pheric relative humidity is much lower th;m JOO percent. rain in less than an hour. Since it takes about 1 million average
Should the relative humidity of the air increase, water vapor size (20 µm) doud droplets to make an average size (2000 µm)
molecules would attach themselves to the droplet ata faster rate raindrop, there must be some other process by which cloud
than theywouldleave, andthedroplet would grow larger in size. droplets grow ktrge and heavy enough to fall as precipitation.
As the droplet grows larger, however, thesolution becomes Even though all oftheintricaciesofhow rain is produced are not
more dilute, and the solute effect diminishe,~. So the curvature ef- yet fully understood, two important proces.sesstandout: (I ) the
fect and the solute effect are indirect competition: The curvature collision-coalescence process and (2) the ice-crystal (Bergeron)
effect acts to inhibit the growth ofsmall droplets, whereas the sol- proces.~.
uteeffect acts toenh,mce their grO\\~h. The combination of these

two effects results in different sizes of individual cloud droplets. COLLISION AND COALESCENCE PROCESS In clouds with
lmagine that we place cloud condensation nuclei of varying tops warmer than - 1s•c (s• F), the collisio n-coalescence
sizes into moist but <msaturated air. As theair cool~. the relative p r ocess can play a significant role in producing precipitation.
humidity increases. When the relative humidity reaches a value To produce the many collisions necessary to form a raindrop,
C'1'1'rif• :tl•~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
,. TABLE 7.1 Terminal Velocity of Different Size Particles to travel through a cloud 500 m ( 1640 ft) thickand over an hour
Involved In Condensation and Precipitation Processes if the cloud thickne.ss is 2500 m (8200 ft). Rising air currents in
TERMINAL VELOCITY
a forming cloud slow the rate at which droplets fall toward the
ground. Coi>sequently, a thick cloud withstrong updrafts maxi-
Diameter
lµm) m/sec ft/sec Type of Pctrticle mizes the timedoud droplets spend in the cloud and, hence, the
size to which they can grow.
0.2 0 .0000001 0.00000()3 Condensation nuclei A warmstrattLS cloud is typically less th:m 500 m thick and
has slow upward air movement (generally less th:1n 0.1 m/sec).
20 0 .0 1 0.03 Typical cloud droplet
Under these conditions, a large droplet would be in the cloud
JOO 0.27 0.9 Large cloud droplet li>r a relatively short time and grow by coalescence to only about
200 µm. lfthe air beneath the cloud is moist, the droplets may
200 0.70 2.3 Large cloud droplet reach the ground as drizz./e, the lightest form of rain. If, however,
or drizzle
the stratus cloud base is fairly high abovethe ground, the drops
1000 4.0 13.l Small raindrop "ill ev:iporate before reaching the surface, even when the rela-
tive humidity is 90 percent.
2000 6.5 21.4 Typical raindrop Clouds that have above-freezing temperatures at all level~
5000 9.0 29.5 Large raindrop are called wam1 clouds. Jn such cloud~. precipitation forms by
the colli~ion and coalescence process. For example, in tropical
regions, where wanncumultLs clouds build to great heights, con-
vective updrafts of at least I m/sec (and some exceeding m:my
some cloud droplets must be larger than others. Larger drops tens of meters per second) occur. Look at the ""arm cumulus
llk~Y form on large condensation nude~such as salt part ides, or
cloud in oFig. 7.5. Suppose a cloud droplet of JOO µmis caught
they may form through random collisioi>~ of droplets. Studies in an updraft whose velocity is 6.5 m/sec (about 15 mi/hr). As
suggest that turbulent mixing between the cloud and its drier the droplet ri~es, it collides with and c:iptures smaller drops in
environment may play a role in producing larger droplets. its path and grows until it reaches a size of about 1000 µm. At
As cloud droplets fall, air retards the falling drops. The this point, tho updraft in the cloud is just able to balance the pull
amount of air resistance depends on the size of the drop and cL gravity on the drop. Here, the drop remains suspended until
on its rate of fall: 1be greater its speed, the more air molecules it grows just a little bigger. Once the fall velocity of the drop is
the drop encounters each second. 'Jl1espeed of the falling drop greater than the updrnft velocity in the cloud, the drop slowly
increases w1til the air resistance equals the pull of gravity. At descends. As the drop falls, larger cloud dropletsarec:1ptured by
this point, the drop continues to fall, but at a constant speed,
which is called its terminal ,·elocily. lkcatLse larger drops have a
smaller surface-area-to-weight ratio, they must fall faster before
reaching their terminal velocity. '!bus 1"rgertiropsfall f!ister tlum
snwller drops (see ,.1able 7. 1). Note in Table 7.1 that, in calm
air, a typical raindrop falls over 600 times faster than a typical
cloud droplet!
Large droplets overtake and collide with smaller drop.~ in
their path. 'ibis merging of cloud droplets by collision is called
coalescence. Laboratory studies show th:it collision does not
always guarantee coalescence;sometime.s the droplets actually
bounce apart during collision. For example, the force.s that hold
a tiny droplet together (surface ten~ion) are so strong that if the
droplet were to collide with another tiny droplet, chances are
they would not stick together (coalesce) (see • fig. 7.4). Coales-
cence appears to be enh:1nced ifcol Ii ding droplets have opposite
(and, hence, :tttractive) electrical charges.• An important factor
influencing cloud droplet growth by the collision process is the
amount of time the droplet spend~ in the cloud. A very large (a) (b)
cloud dropletof200 fun falling instill air takes about 12 minutes
e FIGURE 7.4 Collision and coalescence. {a} In a warm doud composed only
'h wasonc.c though1 that :ttmosphcric electricity pla ~d fl signi6cru11 role in the of small cloud droplets of uniform size, thedropletsare less likely to collide as
production ot' rain. Today. nuny s.cientistsfcd that the di Ifere nee in dectrical charge they all faJI veryslo\vlyat about the sames peed. Those droplets that do collide,
that exists bel\,~en c loud droplets results fro1n the bouncing collis iorli between frequently do not coak?sce becau.se of the strong surface tension thathold.s
thc1n. It is t'elt th:lt the wellk separation of ch.1rgeand the weak electrical fields In toget~reach tiny droplet. (b) In ac.loud composed of different size droplets,
developing, relativdy \W1rnl douds arc not significant in initialing precipitation. larger droplets fall faster than smaller droplets.Although some tinydroplet.s
Hcn,'€Y'er. studies .dlow that coalescence is often e nhanced in thunderstonnswhcre are S\..ept aside, some collect on the larger drople(s forward edge, \Vhileothers
st 1ungly c.~1rga1 dropletscx:ist in a strong elect ric:il field (captured in the\vake cl the larger droplet)coalesceon the droplet's backside.
°*"'"''"..
.,i.."*'"'
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
..
<1<n11....i., ......,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, ..~• ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
glancing or head-on) tend to break them up into many smaller
drops. Additionally, a large drop colliding with another large
drop may result in oscillations within the combined drop. A~ the
Cloud drople1 ---......_
resultant drop grows, these o.~illations may tear the drop apart
(1000J,m) ~ into many fragment~. all smaller th'Ul the original drop.
warm cloud So far, we have examined the way cloud droplets in warm
/\ clouds (that is, tho.se clouds with temperatures above freezing)

grow ktrgeenough bythecollision-coalescenceprocess to fall as
raindrops. Rain that falls from warm clomts i~sometimescalled
I _., \
warm rai1t ' lbe mo.st important factor in the production of rain-
drops is the cloud's liquid wfller co11te11l. Jna cloud \\1th sufficient
'"lier, other significant factors are:
/
/ ··-, I I. the range cl droplet sizes
2. the cloud thickness
3. the updrafts of the cloud
4. theelectric charge of the droplets and theelectricfield in the
cloud
Cloud droplet
(100 µm) -
Raindrop (5000 µm)
Relatively t hinst ratus clouds with slow, upward air currents are,
at best, only able to produce drizzle, whereas the towering cu-
mulus clouds associated with rapidly rising air can cause heavy
showers. Now, lets turn our attention to see how clouds with
• FI GURE 7. S A cloud droplet rising then falling through a \\erm cumulus temperatures below freezing are able to produce precipitation.
doud can grO\v by collision and malescence.,and emerge from thee.loud asa
large raindrop.
ICE·CRYSTAL (BERGERON) PROCESS The ice-crystal (or
Bergeron)' process of rain formation is extremely important
the falling drop, which then grows larger. By the time thi~ drop in middle and high latitudes, wherecloudsextl'lld up\\"ard into
reaches the bottom of the cloud, it will be a large raindrop with regions where the air temperature i~ well below freezing. Such
a diameter of over 5000 µm (5 mm). &cause raindrop.~ of this clouds are called cold clouds.• Figure 7. 6illustrates a typical cold
size fall faster and reach the ground first, they typically occur cloud that has formed over the Great Plains, where the "cold"
at the beginning of a rain shower originating in these warm, part i~ well above the o•c isotherm.
convective cumulus cloud-;. 1hc ice·crystaJproc:ess is also known as lhe 8 ergero11 pr«ess after the Sw<': dish
Raindrops that reach the e<1rth~ surface are seldom larger nlE'teorologis1Tor Berge1un. who propc>sed tha t e~ nli all y all r~ in drops begin as.
than about 5 mm. The collisions between raindrops (whether ice crystals.
e FIGURE 7.6 The distribution of ice and \Yater in a

cumulonimbuscloud.
Ice only (glacia1ed)
7~m _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (-40'C)
_ _ __ ___ _____ _
(25,000 ft)
5500m
(18-000ft) Mixed ice and water
(-20'C)
F<ee:lnglevel(O'C) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Liquid water only
1000 m
(300011)
C'1'1'rif• :tl•~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
The Freezing of Tiny Cloud Droplets
Over large bodies of fresh water, ice ordi- e FIGURE 1 Thisdrruscloud

narily forms w hen the air temperature is probabtycomposed entirely of
ice crystals. because any liquid
drops slightl y below O'C. Ye~ a cloud d rop-
water droplet,. no matter ho\V
let of pure water about 25 µ.m in diameter
small must freezespontane·
will not freeze spontaneously until the air ously at the very lo\v tempera-
temperature drops to about - 40'C(- 40'F) ture (belo,v-40"C) found at this
or below. altitude, 9km (29.SOOft).
The freezing of pure water (without
the benefit of some nucleus) is called spon-
taneous or homogeneous freezing. For this
type of freezing to occur, enough mole-
cules within the water droplet must join
together in a rigid pattern to form a tiny
ice structure, or iceembrya. When the ice At lower temperatures, thermal motion is temperatures hig her than - 40°C. In air
embryo grows to a critical size 1 it acts as a reduced, makin g it easier for bigger ice colder than - 4CfC, however, it is almost
nucleus. Other molecules in the droplet embryos to form. Hence, freezing is more certain that an ice embryo will grow to crit-
then attach themselves tot he nucleus of likely. ical size in even the sma lie st cloud droplet.
ice and the water droplet freezes. The chances of an ice embryo growing Thus, any cloud that forms in extremely
Tiny ice embryos form in water at tem- large enough to freeze water before the cold air (below- 40°0, such as cirrus clouds
peratures just below freezing, but at these embryo is broken up by thermal agitation (see Fig. 1), w ill a lmost certainly be com-
temperatures thermal agitations are large increase with larger volumes of water. posed of ice, since any cloud droplets that
enough to weaken their structure. The ice Conseq uently, o nly larger cloud droplets form w ill freeze spontaneously.
embryos simply form and then break apart. will freeze by homogeneous freezing at air
Suppose we rake an imaginary balloon flighr up !hrough middle of Lhe cloud, even though rempera!ures rhere are well
!he cumulonimbus cloud in Fig. 7.6. Entering !he cloud, we below freezing> Laboratory srudies reveal !ha! rhe smaUer the
observe cloud droplers gro"ing larger by processes described amount ofpure \\'~·tter, the lO\\•er the temperature at \\•hich \\•ater
in Lhe previous secrion. A~ expected, only warer droplets exi~r freezes. Since cloud droplets are ex!remely small, ir rakes very
here, for !he base ofrhe cloud is warmer rhan o•c. Surpris- low remperarures ro rurn rhem inro ice. (More on Lhis topic is
ingly, in rhe cold air jusr above rhe o•c isorherm, almosr all given in rhe Focussecrion above.)
ofrhedoud droplets aresrill composed ofliquid warer. Winer )us! as liquid cloud droplets form on condensarion nuclei,
droplers existing at remperarures below freezing are referred ro ice crystals may form in subfreezing air on parricles caUed ice
as supercooled droplets. Even ar higher levels, where rhe air nuclei.11ie nwnberofice-forming nuclei available in rhearmo-
rempera!ure is - 10•c (14•f). rhere is only one ice crysral for sphere i~ small, especially ar rempera!ures above - I0°C ( J4°F).
every million liquid droplers. Near 5500 m ( 18,000 ft). where However, as rhe remperarure decreases, more parricles become
!he remperarure becomes -20•c (-4°F), ice crysrals become acrive and promore freezing. Air hough some uncer!ain!y exists
more nwnerous, bur are still outnwnbered by warer droplet~.' regarding rhe principal source of ice nuclei, iris known !ha! day
The distribution of ice crystals, however, is nor uniform, as !he mineral~. such as kaolini!e, berome effective nuclei a! rempera-
downdrafrs con!ain more ire rhan the updrafrs. ruresnear - I5°C(5°F). Some typesofbacreria in decaying plant
Nor unril we reach an elevation of 7600 m (25,000 fr), where leaf ma!erial and ice crystals !hemselves are also excellenr ice
remper.ttures drop below -40"C (also -4o•F), do we find 011/y nuclei Moreover, particles serve asexrellenr ice-forming nuclei
ice crystals. '!he region of a cloud where only ice particles if Lheir geometry resembles Lhar of an ice crysral. However, iris
exisr is called glaciated. Why are !here so few ice crysrals in !he difficulr rofindsubsrances in narurerhar have alarticesrrucrure
similar ro ice.since thereare so many possible lartice srrucrures.
In rhe armosphere, it is easy ro find hygro.~copic ("waler seek-
'ln contblen1al clouds. suchas theo ne in Fig. 7.6. wher<'. there are nuny snlnll cloud ing") par!icles. Consequently, ice-forming nuclei are rare com-
droplcls less 1h:in 20 ~nl in dirune1er. the o nSf't o fict'<rystnl fornl:.Hion begins al
tcnlperntur<'.s belwt>cn -9°C >'Ind - I ~<:. In clouds where larger but fewt>rcloud
pared ro cloud condensarion nuclei.
droplc1sarc pr<'.scnt. ic<'. c1ystals begin to fonn a11e1nperatllres between - 4"C ln a cold cloud, Lhere may be several rypes of ice-forming
and -3-C. nuclei present Forexample,cer!ain ice nuclei allow warervapor
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~,,..~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11..,......., fl~••"-"''"'""""11'""',.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' <>.;•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
to deposit as icedirectlyonto their surfaces in cold,saturatedair.
'These arecalle.d deposition nuclei because, in thissituation, \\'3ter
vapor change.~directly into ice without going through the liquid
phase. lcenudei that promote the freezing of supercooled liquid
droplets are caUedfreezing nuclei. Some freezing nuclei cause
freezing after they are immersed in a liquiddrop;some promote
condensation, then freezing; yet others cause supercooled drop-
lets to freeze if they collide \\1th them. Thi~ last process iscaUed
contact free-Ling, and the particles involved are called cont"c/
nuclei. Studies suggest that contact nuclei can be just about any
substance and that contact freezing may be the dominant force
in the production of ice crystals in some clouds.
We can now understand why there are so few ice crystals
in the cold mixed region of some clouds. Cloud droplets may
freeze spontaneously, but only at the very low temperatures usu-
ally tOundat high altitudes. Ice nuclei may initiatethegrowth of • FI GURE 7. 7 In a.saturated environment. the \Wter droplet and the ice
ice crystals.but they do not abound in nature. Because there are aystal are in equi6brium, as the number of molecules leaving tb.> surface of
many more cloud c.onden')alion nuclei th:.tn ice nuclei, \ve are each droplet and ice aystal equals the number returning. The greater number
of\Vater vapor molecules above the liquid indicates. ho\wver. that the satura·
left "1th a cold cloud that contains many more liquid droplets tion vapor pressure over waterisgreaterthan it is over ice.
than ice particles, even at temperature.s as low as - 10•c (14. F).
Neither the tiny liquid nor solid particles are large enough to
faU as precipitation. How, then, does the ice-crystal (Bergeron) In some clouds, especially those with relatively ""arm tops,
process produce rain and snow? ice crystals might collide "1th supercooled droplets. Upon con-
Jn the subfreezing air of a cloud, many supercooled liquid tact, the liquid droplets freeze into ice and stick together.1his
droplets will surround each ice crystal. Suppose that the ice proces.s oficecrystaL~ gro\\1ng larger as they collide with super-
crystal and liquid droplet in e Fig. 7. 7 are part ofa cold (- 1S°C) cooled cloud droplets is called accretion. The icy matter th:tt
supercooled, saturated cloud. Since the air is saturated, both the tOrms is called graupel (or snowpellets). As the graupel falls, it
liquid droplet and the ice crystal are in equilibrium, meaning may fracture or splinter into tiny ice particles when it collides
that the number of molecules leaving the surface of both the \\1th cloud droplets.1 hese splinters may grow to become new
droplet and the ice crystal must equal the number of molecules graupel, which, in turn, may produce more splinters.
returning. Observe., hO\\•eveT. that there are more vapor mol· In colder clouds, the delicate ice crystals may colliM
eetdesabove the liquid. The reason tOr this fact is that molecules \\1th other crystals and fracture into smaller ice particles, or
esc"Pe thesurfaceof ""ater much easier th:tn they escape the sur- tiny seeds, which freeze hundreds of supercooled droplets on
face of ice. Consequently, more molecule.s escapethe water Sur·
face at a given temperature, requiring more in the vapor phase
to maintain saturation. "fhissittk1tion reflects the important fact
discussed briefly in Chapter 4: At the same subfreezing tem-
perature, the saturation vapor pressure just above a 1Vfller surface
is greater than tire saturation vapor pressure above au ice surfac.e. 0.30 f Maximum dijference
"fhis dilrerence in saturation vapor pressure between water and
ice is illlLStrated in e l'ig. 7.8.
f
1 his diJTerence in vapor pressure causes water vapor mol- "'g
!
eetdes to move (diJTuse) from the water droplet toward the ice ~ 0.20
crystal. '!be removal of vapor molecules reduces the vaPor pres- "!:>
sure above the water droplet. Since the droplet is now out of
equilibrium with itssurrotmdings, it evaporates to replenish the
..
~
diminished supply of water vapor above it. "fhis process pro-
vides a continuous source of moi~ture for the ice crystal, which a
~
0. 10
absorbsthewatervaporand grows rapidly (see e Fig. 7.9). Hence,

during the ire-crystal (Bergeron) proces~ ice crystals grow larger
at tlie expense of the >wrounding 1Vf1ter droplets. 0
1 he con.~tant supply of moisture to the ice crystal allo",; it 0 - 10 - 20 -JO -40
to enlarge rapid! y. At some point, the ice crystal becomes heavy Temperaoue ("C)
enough to overcome updrnfts in the cloud and begins to fall.
But a single falling ice crystal does not comprise a snowstorm; • FI GURE 7.8 The difference in saturation vapor pressure between super·
consequently, other ice crystals must quickly form. cooled \Valer and iceat different temperatures.

'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i ., ....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~...'ll"""....., .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,.,... o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
each ice crystal receives the mass of one droplet. 'Ibis would cre-
'11e a cloud of many tiny ice crystals, each too small to fall to
the ground, and no precipitation. Now, if the ratio of crystals to
droplets is on the order of 1:100,000, then each icecrystal would
reO!ive the mass of 100,000 droplets. Most of the cloud would
ronvert to precipitation, as the majority of ice crystals would
grow large enough to fall to the ground as precipitation.
1 he first person to formally propose the theory of ice-
crystal gro"1h due to differences in the vaPor pressure between
ice and supercooled water was Alfred Wegener ( 1880-1930), a
Germ.1n clim'11ologist who aL~o proposed the geological theory
of continental drift. Jn the early 1930s, important additions
to this theory were macle by the Swedish meteorologist Tor
Bergeron. Several years later, the German meteorologisl Walter
f'indeisen m.1de additional contributions to Ikrgeron's theory;
hence, the ice-crystal theory of rain formation has come to be
knov"n as the V•legener-Bergero11·l-'indeise11 process, or. simply.
the Bergeron proress.
CLOUD SEEDING AND PRECIPITATION 1 he primary goal in

many cloud seeding experiments is to inject (or seed) a cloud
\\1th small particles that will act as nudci,so that the cloud parti-
cles will grow large enough to fall to the surfaO! as precipitation.
'Jbe first ingredient in any seeding project i~. ofcourse, the pres-
ence of clouds, as seecling does not generate cloud~. However,
not just any cloud will do. For optimum restdl~, the cloud mus!
be cold; th'11 is, at least a portion of it (prelerabty the upper part)
• F I GU RE 7. 9 The ice· aystal{Bergeron} process.. (l} The greater numOOr mlk~l be supercooled because cloud seeding uses the ice-crystal
of \vatervapor moleculesaround the liquid dropletcauses\vatermolecules (Bergeron) process to cause the cloud particles to grow.
todiffusefrom the liquid droplet to\vard the ice crystal.(2}The ice crystal
absorbs the \Wter vapor and gro\vs larger. while (3) the \Wter droplet grows
The idea in cloud seeding is to first find clouds that have
smaller. too low a ratio of ice crystals to droplets and then to add enough
Would you expect the ice-crystal artificial ice nuclei so that the ratio of crystals to droplets is about
(Bergeron) proc(!SS to be more 1:100,000. However, it should be noted that the natural ratio of
effective at a temperature near freezing, rath(!r than at -1s0 c as
shown here7 If not. why not? •••,~t•#Qi;)~ll&hilt1l~t-=============
•
contact. ln both c'ises a chain reaction may develop, produc-
ing many ice crystals. As the ice crystals fall, they may collide
and stick to one another. The process of ice crystals colliding J
then sticking together i~ called aggregation.• 'Jbe end prod-
uct of this dumping together of ice crystals is a s nowflake (see
• Fig. 7.10). lf the snowflake melts before reaching the ground,
it continues its fall as a raindrop. ·1berefore, much of the rain
•
falling in middle and high latituMs-even in summer-
begins as snow.
For iO! crystals to grow lar&>e enough to procluce precipita- I
tion there mtt~t be many, many times more water droplets than
ice crystals. Generally, the ratio of ice crystals to water droplets
must be on theorcler of l:J00,000 to 1:1,000,000. When there
1
are too few iO! crystal~ in the cloucl,each crystal grows large and
falls out of the cloud, leaving the majority of the cloud behind
(unaffected). Sinc.e there are very few ice crystals, there i~ very Up to this point, we've seen that during th<? icecrystal (Bergeron)
little precipit'11ion. lf, on the other hand, there are too many ice process, ice crystalsgrow at the expense of the surrounding water
crystals (such as an equal number of crystals and droplet.~), then droplets. For a visual presentation of this process, go to the Cengage
CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com and look at the
•Sig:nilican1 aggreg.uion seans possible only when the air is rd at ively w11rnl, usuaUy animation entitled ice Crystal {Bergeron) Process;
\\\1rnll?r th:'ln - IO"C (14°F).
°*"'"''"..
.,i.."*'"'
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..
<1<n11....i., ......,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, ..~• ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
(a) FaJIU>g Ice crystals may freeze (bl Falhng ice parVcles may collide (c) Falling ice crystals may collide
supercooled droptets on oomact and fraClute Into many tiny and S1tck to other k::e crystals
(accret10C1). producing larger ice (secondary) ice particles. (aggregat10C1). prOducing
panlcles. snowflakes.
• FI GURE 7. 10 lceparticle.sinclouds.
ice nuclei to cloud condensation nuclei in a typical cold cloud is substances, such as lead iodide ancl cupric sulfide, are aLo;o ef-
about I: I 00,000,just about optimal for producing precipitation. li?ctive ice nuclei, silver iodide stiU remains the most common Iy
Some of the first experiments in cloud seeding were con- used substance in cloud-seeding projects. (Additional informa-
ducted by Vincent Schaefer and Irving Langmuir during the tion on the controversial topic, the effectiveness of cloud seed-
late 1940s. "lb seed a cloud, they dropped crushed pellets of dry ing. is given in the Focus section on p. 178.)
ice (solid carbon dioxide) from a pl1ne. Because dry ice has a Under certain conditions, clouds may be seeded naturally.
temperature of - 73•c ( - I os•F), it acts as a cooling agent. A~ For example, when cirriform clouds lie directly above a lower
the extremely cold, dry ice pellets fall through the cloud, they cloud deck, ice crystals may descend from the higher cloud and
quickly cool the air around them. "ibis cooling causes the air seed the cloud below (see • Fig. 7.11). A~ the ice crystals mix
arow1d the pellet to become supersaturated. Jn thi~ supersatu- into the lower cloud, supercooled droplets are converted to ice
rated air, water vapor forms directly into many tiny cloud drop- crystals, and the precipitation process is enhanced. Sometimes
lets. l n the very cold air created by the falling pellets (below
-4o•c), the tiny droplets instantly freeze into tiny ice crystals.
The newly formed ice crystals then grow larger by dep<>sition as
the water vapor molecules attach themselves to the ice crystals
Thia( cirrus
at the expense of the nearby liquid droplets. Upon reaching a
sufficiently large size, they fall as precipitation.
In 1947,Bernard Vonnegut demonstrated that silver iodide
(Ag!) could be used as a cloud-seeding agent. Because silver
iodide has a crystalline structure similar to an ice crystal, it
acts as an effective ice nucleus at temperatures of -4•C (2s•F)
and lower. Silver iodide causes ice crystals to form in two pri-
mary ways:
I. Ice crystals form when silver iodide crystals come in contact 6
"'th supercooled liquid droplets. ~j N1mbosrratus
2. Ice cryst aIs grow in size as water vapor deposits onto the silver Q
iodide crystal. "e a...---

• FI GURE 7. 11 Ice crystals falling from a dense cirribrm cloud into a lower
Silver iodide is much easier to handle than dry ice, since nimbostratuscloud. This photo\va.s taken at an altitude near6 km (19,700 ft)
it can be supplied to the cloud from burners located either on abcwe western Pennsylvania.. At the surface, moderate rain was faJling werthe
the ground or on the wing of a small aircraft. Although other region.
J.r: oi 1l11111~e 1:i;«lCerq11ge2012

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<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~ ..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,... """"""""~ c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Does Cloud Seeding Enhance Precipitation?
Just how effective is artificial seeding w ith

silver iod ide in increasing precipitation?
This is a m uch--debated question among
meteorologists. First o f all, it is difficult to
evaluate the results of a c loud-seeding ex-
periment. When a seeded cloud produces
precipitation, the question always remains
as to how much p recipitation would have
fallen had the cloud not been seeded.
Other factors m ust be considered
w hen evaluating cloud-seeding experi-
ments: the type of cloud, its temperature,
moisture content. dr oplet size distrib ution,
and updraft velocities in t he cloud.
Although some experiments suggest
that cloud seeding d oes not increase pre-
cipitation, other s seem to indicate that
seed ing under the right conditions may
enhance p recipitation between 5 percent
and 20 per cent . And so the controversy
• F I GURE 2 When an aircraft flie s t hrough a layer ofaltocumulusclouds composed of super ..
continues.
cooled droplets. a hole in t he cloud layer may form. The c irrus-type cloud in t hecenteris probably
Some cumulus cloud .s show an the result of inadvertent cloud seeding by the aircraft.
"explosive" growth after being seeded.
The latent heat given off w hen the drop- H ence, it is the substance most commonly of condensation nuclei and ice nuclei into
lets freeze functions to warm the cloud, used to dissipate cold fog at airpor ts (see the air. Studies have shown that these par-
causing it to become more buoyant. It Chapter S, p. 126). ticles are at lea.st partly responsible for in-
g rows r apidly and becomes a longer- Warm clouds w ith temperatures creasing precipitation in, and down wind
lasting c loud, w hich may produce mor e above freezing have also been seeded in of, cities. On the other hand, studies have
precipitation. an attempt to prod uce rain. T iny water also indicated that the burning of certain
The business of c loud seed in g can be dr ops and par ticles o f hygroscopic salt are types of agricultural waste may produce
a bit tricky, since overseeding can produce injected into t he base (ortop) of the c loud. smoke containing many condensation
too many ice cr ystals. W hen this phenom- T hese par ticles (called seed drops), w hen nuclei. These particles p roduce clouds that
enon occurs, the cloud becomes g laciated carried into the cloud by updrafts, create yield less precipitation becausetheycon-
(all liquid d roplets become ice) and the ice large cloud droplets, w hich grow even tain numerous, but very small, d roplets.
particles, being ver y small, do not fall as larger byth ecollision-coalescence p ro-- In summar y, cloud seeding in certain
precipitation. Since few liquid droplets ces.s. Apparently, the seed d rop size plays instances may lead to more precipitation;
exist, th e icecr y.stal.s cannotg raw by the a major rol e in determ ining the effective- in others, to less precipitation, and, in still
ice-crystal (Bergeron) pr ocess; rather, they ness o f seeding w ith hygroscopic par ticles. others, t o no change in precipitation
evaporate, leaving a clear area in a thin, To d ate, however, the results obtained amounts. Many of the questions about
stratified cloud (see Fig. 2). Because dry using this method ar e inconclusive. cloud seeding have yet to be resolved.
ice can p roduce the most ice crystals in a T here are even conditions w hen cloud
supercooled c loud, it is the sub.stance seeding may be inadvertent. For example,
most suitable fo r d eliberate over.seed ing. some industr ies emit largeconcentr ations
the ice crystals in the lower cloud may settle out, leaving a dear PRECIPITATION IN CLOUDS ln cold, strongly convective
area or "hole" in the cloud. When the cirrus clouds form waves clouds, precipitation may begin only minutes after the cloud
downwind from a mountain diain, bands of precipitation often forms and may be initiated by either the collision-coale,-;cence
form-producing heavy precipitation in some areas and practi- or the ice-crystal (Bergeron) process. Once either process be-
cally no precipitation in others (see • Fig. 7.12). gins, most precipitation growth is by accretion, as supercooled
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c ..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
liquid clropletS free'Le on impact with snowflakes nnd ice crys·
tals. Although precipitation is commonly ab.en! in worm·
layered clouds. suchnsstral us, itisoften associated with suchcokl·
layered clouds nsnimbost ratusand altoslt'.uus.·1his precipit.1tion Cirrus
is thought to fonn principallyby th<" ice-crystal (Bergeron) pro-
cess because th<" liquid-water contenl ofthese clouds is genera Uy Wm
lower than that in romective clouds, thus making th<" collision-
coalescencc process much less effecti\'e. Nlmbostratus clouds ,
,
- #
. ,,
J\
are nonnally thick enough to extend to levds where a irtempera·
1ure;.arcquite low, and they usually Ja~t long enough forthcice·
ay>ta I (Bergeron) process to initiate precipitation. • Figure 7.13 Snow area
illustrates how ice crystals produce precipitation in ck>uds of
both low .md high liquid-water content.
BRIEF REVIEW
In the last few sections we encountered a number oflmpor-
tant concepts and Ideas about how cloud droplets can grow • FIGURE 7.12 NatLl'al seeding by cirrus douds may form banmof predpi--
large enough to fall as precipitation. Before examining the tadondownwindor a moun'-'in<.htln. Notice th.it heavy sn.c:wis falling only in
various types of precipitation, here Is a summary of some of the seeded ai:eas.
the Important Ideas presented so far:
•Cloud droplets are very small, much too small to fall as rain. below-freezing temperatures. The difference In saturation
•The smaller the cloud droplet, the greater itscurvature. and vapor pressure between liquid and Ice causes water vapor
the more likely It will evaporate. to diffuse from the liquid droplets (whkh shrink) toward the
•Cloud droplets form on cloud condensation nudel. Hygro · ice crystals (which grow).
scoplc nuclei, such as salt, allow condensation to begin • Most of the rain that falls over middl e latitudes results from
when the relative humidity i s less than 100 percent. melted snow that formed from the lc<>-crystal (Bergeron)
•Cl oud dropl ets, In abov<>-freezln g air, can grow larger as process.
faster-fall In g, bigger droplets collide and coal esce with • Cl oud seeding with sli ver Iodide can only be effective In
smaller droplets In their path. coaxing precipitation from a cloud If the cloud Is super-
•In the Ice-crystal (Bergeron) process of rain formation, cooled and the proper ratio of cloud droplets to Ice crystals
both Ice crystals and liquid cloud droplets must coexist at exists.
• FIGURE 7.13 Hawke

ICE cryJtalsgtOHand produce pre-
CRVSTAUI cipitation in cbuds with a bw
. . llquid- lquid·water content and a h9'
(CUT<Jtonmbua)
lquid·water cmtenl
0..•-- ,......_ ............ _

_ ............,......_ ......... _........ ..... _ • ..,.... ...._.,.,...,t-...,-..,..1o ... -.w-.. -- -~ _...
~-·1Rf- I£ ........,...._.....
WEATHER WATCH
Precipitation Types Public outcry after a disastrous flood during Fe.bruary,
1978, caused cloud seeding to bt suspended in Los Angeles
Up 10 now, we have seen ho"' cloud droplets a re able Ill grow County. Days priorto the flood ing, clouds were seeded
large enough to fall to the ground as rain or snow. While foll- wi th silver iodide in hopes of generating additional rain-
i ng, raindrop; and snowflakes may be ahcred by atmospheric fall. What ensued was a massive rain storm that produced
conditions encountered bmeath thedoudandtr.msfonned into 8 inches of rain in one week i n downto wn Los Angeles,
other fom1s of precipitation that can proi>undly influence our and flooding that claimed 11 lives and caused millions of
envirmmenl dollars in property damage. The effoct that cloud seeding
had on the rainstonn is speculative.
R.AIN Most people consider rain to be any £tiling drop ofliquid
\\'tlter. To the meteorologist, however, that falling drop mu;t have
n diameter equal to. or greater than, 0.5 mm to be considered conge>tU>, arc usually brief nnd sporadic, us the cloud moves
rain. Pinc uniform drops of ""atcr whose diameters arc smaller overhead and then drifts on by. lfthcshowcrisexcessively heavy,
thnn 0.5 mm (which is a diamctcrabout one-halfthe width cifthc it is termed a cloudburst. llenent ha cumulonimbus cloud, which
letter"</' on this page) arc called drizzle. Most drizzle foils from normally contains ln rgc convection currents of rising and de-
stratus clouds: however, small raindrops may foll through air scending air, it is entirely possible thnt one siM of a street may
that isunsmurt11ed, partiallycv-aporate, and reach the ground a.• be dry (updraft side), while a heavy ;.howcr is occurring across
dnzz.k. Otcasionnlly, thcrain falling from a cloud never reaches the ;.trcet (downdraft side) (see • Fig. 7. 15). Continuous rain.
the surface b«uusc !he low humidity causes rapidi!VapOration. on the other hand, usually falls from a la)'Crcd cloud that covers
As the drops becomesmaller, thcirrateoffalldecreases.and they 3 large area and has smaller vertical aircurrc11t>. lhcse arc the
appear to hnng in the air as a rain streamer: Th~e t'\<1poratlng conditions normally associated with nimbostratus douds.
streaks of pr«ipitltion :ut called virj?" (see• Fig. 7.M). Raindrops that reach the carthl surface arc seldom larger
Raindrops may also fall from a cloud and not reach the tl1.1n about 6 mm (0.2 in.), the reason being trot the collisions
ground, if they encounter rapidl}' rising air. Large raindrops (whdher glancingor head-on) bdwl!en roin~ tend to break
have a ttnninnl velocity of about 9 mlsec (20 mi/hr), and, if them up into many smaller drops. Additionall)\ \>bro raindrops
they encounter rising air whose speed is greater thnn 9 ml sec, grow too large they become unstnble and break apart. What is
they will not reach the surfuce. lfthe updraft weakens or changes theshapeof thefallingraindrop? Isit tear-shaped. or is it round?
direction and becomes a downdraft, the suspended drops \\ill Jfyouare unsure of the answer, read the Pocus section onp. 18 i.
fall to the gro1u1d tlS u sudden rain shower. 'lhc showers falling After a rainstonn, visibility usually improves primarily be-
from cumuliform clouds, such as cumulonimbus or cumulus cause precipitation removes (scavenge.~) many of the ;u.~pended
part ides. When rain combines with gtlSt'Ous poUut;mts, such as
·s1ud1t ~ SIJil.W!•'
1ho1 Lhc: • min sl rtanlcr" i.s. actually c3used by I ~ ("'•hlch t~ 1no11! OX:idesofsulfur and nitrogen, it becomes aciclic. Add min, which
w1~~1 lw)clunglfl& 10 wollcr ( whlch klm rdl~cth·e).Appal't"ntl y. 1nt1$I c v.i;1>c~rA1 Inn h:i.o. an adverse effect on plants and waler re>0urce.s, is becoming
occun: btlow1hc: vlrg.. lint. a major problem in many indu.stria.lized n-gions of the world
e FIGURE 7.14 llww.Waflal"1gp<.q,ilati01

th•t evapoq ~ bele>te 1UC:hl1"9 lfwgrOf.nd a recalled
'119"
,..,.... )11,J{.,~.._..,tAl'°'llna-....i '°""''*''ion..-'-- - .,.i......,"""'•"'t.-11r•,...t- l!l. W.,__ ,._ _..., ,..., ..,._..., • .,ft"'..... ..,•1!114M!l- ....Not.ll.....•ll.......,t•- •
.-...i 11.--···~- ··-~ ...................... _ ..........,... .. ,.
~._(;_ ._~-- .........._...i_,,,..,_ •..,_ ...""'......,... _._ _....,._.
Are Raindrops Tear-Shaped?
As rain falls, the drops take o n a character- on th e b ottom, an d roun ded on top.
istic shape. Choose t he shape in Fig. 3 that As th e larger drop falls, the air p ressure
you feel most accurately describes that o f against t he d rop is g reatest on th e bot-
a fa lling raindrop. Did you p ick number 1? tom and least on th e sides. T he p ressure
The tear-shaped drop has been depicted of the air on t he b ottom flattens th e drop,
by artists for many years. Unfortunately, w hile t he lower pressure on its sides al-
2 3
raindrops are not tear-shaped Actually, the lows it to expa nd a lit tl e. This m ush room
shape depen ds o n the drop size. Raindrops e FI GURE 3 Whichofthethreedropssho\vn shape h as been described as everythin g
less than 2 mm in d iameter are nearly here represents the real shaped a falling raindrop? from a falling pa rachute to a loaf of b read,
spherical and look like raindrop number 2. or even a h amburger bun. You may call i t
The attraction among t he molecules of th e Large raindrops, wit h diameters ex- w hat you w ish, but remember: It is not
liquid (surface tension) tends to squeeze ceed ing 2 mm, take o n a d ifferent shape tear-shaped.
the drop into a shape that has the smallest as they fall. Beli eve it or not. they look like
surface area for its tota I volume- a sphere. nu mber 3, slight ly e longated, flattened
We "111 investigate the acid rain problem more thoroughly in .,. TABLE 7.2 Rainfall Intensity
Ch'1pter 18, which emphasizes air pollution.
Rainfall Oescnpt1on Ra1nt.all Rate hn./hf)•
It is important to know the interval oftimeover which rain
falls. Did it fall over several days, gradually soaking intothesoil? Light 0.01 to O.JO
Or did it come all at once in a cloudburst, rapidly eroding the
land, clogging city gutters, and causing floods along creek~ and Moderate O.llto0.30
rivers unable to handle the sudden increased flow?'lbe i11fe11sify
> 0.30
<:i rain i~ the amount that fall~ in a given period; intensity of rain
is always based on theaccmnulation during a certain interval of · in Lhc Llnitcd St."lles. lhc N:Hional \l\~ather Sc1v ice 1neasuro roinfuU in inches...
time (see TTable 7.2).
effe.ctivescatterers oflight, they redirect the light beneath the
SNOW We know that much of the precipitation reaching the cloud in all directions-some of it eventually reaching your
ground actually beginsassnow. ln summer, the freezing level i~ eyes, making the region beneath the cloud appear a lighter
usually above 3600 m(l2,000 ft),andthesnowflake.sfalling from shade of gray. Falling raindrops, on the other hand, scatter very
a cloud melt belOre reaching the ground. However, in winter, the little light town rd you, and the underside of the doud appears
freezing level is much lower, andfallingsnowflakes h'1vea better dark. It is this change in shading that enables some observers
chance of survival. Snowflakes can generally fall about 300 m
(1000 ft) below the freezing level before completely me.lting.
Occasionally, you can spot the melting level when you look
in the direction ofthe sun, if it is ne.ar the horizon. BeCtuse sno'"'
scatters incoming sunlight better than rain, the darker region
beneath thedoud contains fallingsnow, while the lighter region
i~ falling rain. '!be melting zone, then, is the transition between
the light and dark are<is(see • Fig. 7.16).
·n ie sky will look different, however, if you are looking
directly up at the precipitation. Because snowflakes are such
WEATHER WATCH
Does rain have an odor? Often before it rains the air has
a distinctive (s.omewhat earthy) smell to it . T his odor may
originate from soil bacteria that produce aromatic gases..
As rain fa lls onto the soil, i t pushes these gase·s into the
air, where winds. carry them out ahead of the advancin g
rai ns how er. • FI GURE 7.1 S Strong updrafts and downdraftsofa cumulonimbus doud
can cause rain to fall on one side of a street but not on the other.
C'1')'rif• ) ) ·~ On~""""""~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U . ......... ................ " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, "" "'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i ., ,...., .._.~ ...,·- ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl.. 1~...'ll"""....., .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., , ..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
''"'Y•several flakes join 10 produce gianr snowflakes often mea-
suring several inches or more in diamerer. These large.soggy
snowflakes are associated wirh moist air and remperalures near
freezing. HO\\<tver, when sn01vflakes fall through exrremely cold
air with a IOI'' moisture con! en!, small, po"<der y flakes of" dry"
snow accumulate on rhe ground. (To undersrand how snow-
flakes cm survive in air thar is above freezing, read rhe Focus
section "Snowing When rhe Air Temperalure ls Well Above
Snow
Freezing" on p. 183.)
Melting level - -- - - --- - - -- - -- Jf you c1tch falling snowflakes on a dark o~ecr and exam-
Rain ine them closely, you willseethar the mo~t common snowflake
form is a fernlike branching Siar sh,lpe called a dendrite. Since
~-~--
---
- -· - - ---------~--:.- -----= ~-1-'9
-
--~ .
- .... ~
many rypes of ice crystals grow (see • rig. 7. 18), why is rhe
dendri!e crystal the most common shape for snowflakes? 'lbe
rype of crystal thar forms, as well as its gro"1h rate, depends
• F I GURE 7. 16 Sno\v scatters sunlight more effectively than rain. Conse- on rhe air temperature and relative humidiry (the degree of su-
quently, \Vhen you look to\Yard the sun, the region d falling precipitation looks
darker above the melting level than below iL
persaruration bel\wen water and ice). • Table 7.3 summarizes
rhe crystal forms (habirs) thar develop when supercooled waler
and ice coexisr in a saturated environmenr. Nore that dendrires
10 predicr with uncanny accuracy wherher falling precipilalion are common at remperarures between - I 2•c and -16•C. 'lbe
will be in the form of rain or snow. maximum growth rateoficecrystals depends on rhe difference
When ice crys!als 'md snowflakes fall from high cirrus in saturation vapor pres.~ure bet\\'f'-i?n \\'3ter and ice, and this
clouds they are called fallstreaks. Fallsrreaks behave in much difference reaches a maximum in the !emperature range where
!he same way as virga. As rhe ice par!idesfall inro drier air, they dendrite crystals are most likely 10 gr°''" (Look back at Fig. 7.8,
usually sublimale (thar is, ch,mge from ice inlo vapor). llecmse p. 175.) Therefore, rhis type of crystal grows more rapidly th;1n
!he \\fads al higherlevelsmove !he cloud and ice particles hori- rhe other crystal IOrms. As icecrysrals fallrhrough a cloud, they
zon!ally more quick! y rhan do the slower "fads al lower levels, are conslantly exposed 10 changing temperature and moisture
falls!reak~ appear as dangling while srreamers (see • Fig. 7. 17). rondirion.~. Since many icecrys!alscan join roger her (aggregate)
Moreover, fa lls!reak~ descending inro lower, supercooled clouds 10 form a much larger snowflake, snow crysrals may assume
may actually seed rhem. many complex patlerns (see • Fig. 7.19 on p. 184).
Snow falling from developing cumulus clouds is often in
Snowflakes and Snowfall Sn01,·fla~s 1ha1 fall rhrough moisr rhe fonn of flurries. These are lkSually lighr showers rha! fall
air that is slightly above freezing slowly mdr as rhey descend. intermitten!ly for shorr durations and produce only lighr accu-
A rhin film of water forms on rhe edge of the flakes, which ac!s mulations. A moreinrensesnow showeriscalleda snow squall.
like glue when other snowflakes come in conracr wirh it ln rhis 'Jbese brief bu! heavy falls of snow are comparable 10 summer
• FIGURE 7.17 Thedangling\vhitest1eame1sof

ice crystals beneath these cirrus douds are kno\vn
asfal/streoks. The bendjng of the streaks is due to
the changing \vind speed \Vith height.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i """>' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,......._.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,._....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, fl~••"-"''..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Snowing When the Air Temperature Is Well Above Freezing
In th e beginning of this ch apter, we learned e FI GURE 4 It issno\v·

that it is never too cold to snow. So w he n is ing at401>fduring the
middle o f Juty near the
it too warm to sn ow? A person who h as
summit o f Beartooth
never been in a snowstorm might answer, M ountain, Montana.
" When th e air temperature rises above
freezing." H cmever, an yon e w h o lives in a
climate th at experien ces cold w inters knows
that snow may fall w hen the air temperature
is considerably above freezing (see Fig. 4). In
fact, in some areas, snowstorms often begin
with a surface air temperature near 2.:C
(36' F). Why doesn 't th e falling snow melt in
this air? Actu ally, It does melt, at least to
some degree. Let's examine this in more
detail.
In order for falling snowflakes to sur-
v ive in air with temperatures mu ch above
freezin9 1 th e air m u st be unsaturated (rela- the wet- bulb temper ature is O' C (32' F).* Th e becomes saturated at ll'C. As lon g as th e
tive hum idity is less th an 100 percen t); an d air temperature drops sh arply w ith h eigh t, wind doesn' t b ring in warmer air, th e precip--
the wet-bulb temperature must be at freez- from th e surface up to th e clou d deck. Soon, itation remains as sn ovv.
ing or belcm. You may r ecall from our d is- flakes of sn ow begin to fall from th e clouds We can seethatwh en sn ow falls into
cu ssion on humidity in C h apter 4 th at th e into th e unsaturated layer below. In th e wa rmer air (say at 8°( or 46°F}, th e air m u st
wet- b ulb temper ature is th e lowest temper- above-freezing temperatures, th e sn ovv- be extremely dr y in order to h ave a wet-
ature th at can be attained by evaporating flakes begin to partially melt. Th e air, h ow- bulb temperature at freezing or below. In
water into t h e air. Con sequ ently, it is a mea- ever, is dr y, so th e water quickly evaporates, fact, w ith an air temperature of 8 °( (46(1F}
sure of th e amount of cooling th at can cooling th e air. In addition, evaporation an d a wet-bulb temperature of O' C (32'F),
occur in th e atmosph ere as water evapo- coo~ th e falling sn owflake to th e wet-bulb th e dew point would be - 23' ( (- 9' F) an d
rates into th e air. When rain falls into a layer temperature, w hich retards th e flake's rate th e relative humidity 11 percen t . Con di-
o f d r y air w ith a low wet-bulb temperature, of melting. As snow con tinues to fall, evapo- tion s su ch as th ese are extremely unlikely
rapid evaporation an d cooling occurs, r ative cooling cau ses th eair temperature to at th e surface before th eon set o f precipita-
w hich is wh y th e air temperature often con tinue to drop. Th e addition of water vation. N:.tu ally, th e high estair temperature
decreases w h en it begins to rain. D uring por to th e air increases th e dew poin t, w hile possib lewith a below-freezing wet-bulb
th e winter, as r aindrops evapor ate in this the wet- bulb temper ature remains essen - temperature is abou t 10°'( (S0°F). Hen ce,
dr y air, rapid cooling may actu ally chan ge tially unch an ged. E-...ntually, th e ent ire layer sn owflakes w ill melt rapidly in air wit h a
a rainy day into a sn owy o n e. This same of air cools to th e wet-bulb temperature an d temperature above this value. However, it
type of cooling allows sn ovvflakes to survive is still possib le to see flakes of sn ow at tem-
above freezing (melting) temperatures. peratures g reater th an l <fC (SO°'F)1 espe-
• The \Vet..bulbtemperature is al\vays higher than
Suppose it is w inter an d th e sky is over- the d e\v point, except \Vhen the air is saturated. cially if th e sn owflakes are swept rapidly
cast. At th e surface, th e air temperature is At that point. the air temperature. \Vet·bulb tem - ea rthwar d by th e cold, rela tively dry down -
2' C(36' F), th e dew point is - 6' C (21' F), an d p erature. and de\v poinl are all the same. d raft o f a thunderstor m.
rain sho"•ers and, like snow flurrie.~. usuaU y fall from cumuli-
IOr m clouds. A more continuous snowfall (sometimes steadily,
for several hours) accompanies nimbostratus and altostratus
d ouds. 'Jhe intensity of snow is based on its reduction of hori-
zontal visibility at the tim e of observation (see • 'fable 7.4).
When a strong wind is blowing at the surface, snow can
be picked up and deposited into huge drifts. Drifting snow is
usually accompanie.d by blowing snow; that is, s now lifte.d from
the surface by the \\ind and blown about in such quantities that • FI GURE 7.18 Common in> c rystal forms (habits}.
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
C'1'1'rif• :tl • ~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,..,.._,...""""""""~c ..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
,. TABLE 7.3 Ice Crystal Habits That Form at Various WEATHER WATCH
Temperatures•
After a heavy snowfall of more than 17 inches in
ENVIRON1'\ENTAL TEh\PERATURE CRYSTAL HABIT Minneapolis, Minnesota, a large section of the Metro-
1· c 1 r •I dome' s inflatable Teflon roof collapsed under the weight
of the snow during the early morning of December 12,
Oto -4 32 to 25 Thin plates 2010. Fortunately, no one was injured but the damaged
roof forced the postponement of the football game
-4 to -6 25to 21 Needles between the Vikings and the Giants.
-6 to - 10 21 to 14 Colun1ns
-!O to -12 14 to IO Plates horizontal visibility is greatly restricted. The combination of
- 12 to -16 IO to 3 Dendrites, places drifting and blo"ingsnow, after fallingsnow has ended, is called
aground b/izwrd. A true blizzard i~ a \\'e31her condition char-
-16 to - 22 3 to -8 Plates acterized by low temperatures and strong winds (greater than
30 knots) hearing lar!,'I? amounts of fine, dry, powdery particles
- 22 to -40 -8 to -40 Hollo\\Tcolun1ns
of snow, which can reduce visibility to only a few meters.
•Note that a teach 1e1nperature. the type of crystaJ th.11IOr1ns (e.g .. ho Dow
cohunns versm solid coluznns) \\ IJI depend on I.he difference in s:ahl1'31ion vapor
1
ABlanket of Snow A mantle of snow covering the landscape
pr('S;Sure betw·ccn ice and supercooled water. i~ much more than aheautifulsetting-it is a valuable resoun:e
provided by nature. A blanket ofsnow is a good in~ulator (poor
heat conductor). Jn fact, the more air spaces there are between
the individual snowflake crystals, the better insulator they be-
,. TABLE 7.4 Snowfall Intensity come. A light, fluffy covering ofsnow protects sensitive plant~
and their root systems from damaging low temperatures by
SNOWFALL
DESCRIPTION VISIBILITY retarding the loss of ground he31.
On winter nights, ground that is covered with dry snow
Light Greater than ~ n1i1e• maintains a higher temperature than ground that is exposed to
thecold air. Jn thi~ way,snow can prevmt the ground from freez-
Moderate Greater than~ n1ile, less than or equal
to ';; n1ile
ing downward to great depths. Jn cold climates that receive little
snow, it i~ often difficult to grow certain crops because the frozen
Hea\')' Less than or equal to ~ n1ile soilmake.sspring cultivation almost impossible. Frozen ground
also prevents early spring rains frompercolatingdowm••ard into
'ln the Uni100 Sta1es. 1he Nation(d \~'eather Strvice detennines visibility (the
the soil, leading to rapid water nmoff and flooding. 1fsubse-
g1ca1cs-1distance you can see) in miles.
quent rains do not fall, the soil could even become moisture-
deficient. Jf you become lo.~t in a cold and windy snowstorm,
build a snow cave and climb inside. lt not only will protect you
from the wind, but it also will protect you from the extremecold
by slowing the escape of heat your body gener31es.
''Jlte acatmul.ationof SOO\\' in mountains provides for \Vinter
recreation, and the melting snow in spring and summer is of
great economic value in that it supplies st reams and reservoirs
\\1th much-needed water.
Winter snows may be beautiful, but they are not without
hardships and potential hazards. As spring approaches, rapid
melting of the snowpack may flood low-tying areas. 1bo much
snow on the side ofasteep hill or mountain may become an ava-
lanche. The added weight of snow on the roof of a building may
cause it tocoll:lpse,leading to co.~tly repairs and even lossoflife.
Each winter, heavy snows clog streets and disrupt transporta-
tion. To keep tr;\ffic moving.streets must be plowed and sanded,
or salted to lower the temperature at which the snow freezes
(melts). 1 his effort can be expensive, especially if the snow i~
heavy and wet. Cities unaccustomed tosnow are u.~ually hanler
hit by a moder31esnowstorm than cities that frequently experi-
mce sno'" A January snowfall ofseveral inches in New Orleans,
• FI GURE 7. 19 Computercolor· enhanced imageo fdendrite sna.vOakes.. Louisiana, can bring traffic to a standstill, while a snowfall of
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 '*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
• FI GURE 7. 20 Averageannual
sno.vfall overt he Uni led .Stat6and
southern Canada.
Average annual S11owfa11

cm In.
0.0 0.0
0 1- 76 0.1 -3.0
7.7 . 15.2 3. 1. 6.0
15.3 -30.5 6. 1 - 12.0
30.6 -60.9 12.1 -24.0
6 1.0 · 9 1.4 24.1· 36.Q
9 1.5 - 12 1.9 36.1 - 48.0
122.0 - 182 9 48. 1 - 72.0
> 183 > 72.0
several inches in Buffalo, New York, would go practically un- freezing, the tiny droplets freeze, forming an accumulation of
noticed. • Figure 7.20 gives the annual average snowfall across white or milky granular ice called rime (see • fig. 7.22).
the United States and .southern Canada. (A blanket ofsnow also Occasionally, light rain, drizzle, or supercooled fog drop-
has an effect on the way .sounds are transmitted. More on this lets "111 come in contact with surfaces, such as bridges and
subject is given in the Focus section on p. 187.) overpasses that have cooled to a temperature below freezing.
SLEET AND FREEZING RAIN Consider the fallingsno"'flake in

• Fig. 7.21. As it falls into warmer air, it begins to melt. When it Ninboslr•rus c loud
fulls through thedeepsubfreezingsurfuce layer ofair, the partially Ver Heal
melted snowflake or cold raindrop turns back into ice, not as a 1emperature
pronle
snowflake, but as a tiny icepelletcalledsleet.' GenerJlly, these ice
pellets are transparent (or translucent). with diameters ofS mm I
(0.2 in.) or less. 'lhcy bounce when striking the ground and pro-
Snowflake
duce a tapping.sound when they hit a \\1ndow or piece of metal.
'Jhe cold surface l<1yer bene,tth a doud may be too shallow to Snowflake mellS
-- --- · ·- O'C
freeze raindrops as they fall. Jn this case, they reach the surface as Above
freezing Raindrop
supercooled liquid drops. UPon striking a cold object, the draps
spread out and almo.st immedi,ttely freeze, forming a thin ve- 08&p- - - -~ - -RaiiidrOP rfeSi'eS ---------O'C
neer of ice. This form ofprecipit<ltion is called freezing rain, or freezing
glaze. If the drops are small (less than 0.5 mm in diameter). the layer Sleet
-4 0 4
precipitation is called freezing drizzle. When small supercooled Temperature. 'C
cloud or IOgdropletsstrikeanobject who.se temperature is below
•<XcMionaHy. the news 1nedia ir~orr« ll y use the ternl slter to rcpres.e.n1 a nlixlure • FI GURE 7. 21 Sleet forms \Vhen a partially melted sno\vflakeor a cold
of min and snow. The tt'rnl used in this 1nnnncris,howeve:r.1he British m ~ ni ng. raindropfreezesintoa pellet of ice before reaching theground.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
• FI GURE 7. 22 An accumulation of rime formson tree branc.hes as super·
cooled fog droplets freeze on contact in the belo\v-freezing ait
' I he tiny liquid droplets freeu on contact to road surfaces or

pavements, producing a sheet of ice that often appears relatively
dark. Such ice, usually called black ice, can produce extremely
hazardous d riving conditions.
Freezing rain can create a beautiful winter wonderland
by coating everything with silvery, glistening ice. At the same
time, highways turn into skating rinks !Or automobiles, and the
destructive weight of the ice-which can be many !Oil~ on a • FI GURE 7.23 A heavy coating of freezing rain {glaze} covers Syracuse, New
single tree- break~ tree branches, power lines, and telephone York. during January. 1998, causing tree limbs to break and pc1\Yer lines to.sag.
cables. When there is a substantial accumulation of freezing
rain, these storms arecaUed ice stonns (see • Fig. 7.23). hit by these storms extends over a broad region from TexM into
A casein point isthehuge ice storm ofJanuary, 1998, which Minnesota and eastward into the middle Atlantic states and New
left millions of people "1thout power in northern New England England. Such stormsareextremely rare in most ofCalifornia and
and Canad'\ and caused over$ I billion in d'tmagi.;. Jn the worst Florida (see • Fig. 724). (For additional information on freezing
ice storm to hit Kansas ,.,d Mis.~uri in JOO years, 5 cm (2 in.) of rain andiL~ etfecton aircraft, read the Focu.~section on p. 188).
ice covered sections of these stati.; in January, 2002, causing over In su1nmary. e fig. 7.25 shO\YS various \\•inter temperature
300,000 people to be without power. ' the area most frequently profiles and the type of precipitation associate.d with each. Jn
• FI GURE 7.24 Averageannualnumber

of days with freezing rain and freezing
ckiule oterthe United States. (NOAA}
Days
<0.5
0.5 . 2.4
2.5. 5.4
5.5 - 10.4
10.5 - 15.4
15.5 - 20.4
20.5 - 25.4
~.'i..
25.5 -30.4
>30.4
). [
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i M")' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''"..
niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni>, t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._.~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Sounds and Snowfalls
A blanket of snow is not only beautiful, only slightly below freezing, the pressure
but it can affect w hat we hear. You may from the heel of a boot partially melts the
have noticed that, after a snowfall, it seems snow. The snow ca n then flow under the
quieter than usual: Freshly fallen sn ow can weight of the boot and no sound is made.
absorb sound - just like acoustic tiles. As However, on cold days when the snow
the snow gets deeper, this absorption in- temperature drops below - lO'C (14'Fl, the
creases. Anyone who has walked through heel of the boot will not melt the snow,
the woods ona snowy evening knows the and the ice crystals are crushed. The
quiet created by a thick blanket of snow. crunching of the crystals prod uces the
As snow becomes older and more densely creaking soun d.
packed, its ability to absorb sound is re-
duced. That's why sounds you couldn't
hear right after a snowstorm become more
audible several days later.
New snow covering a pavement w ill
sometimes squeak as you walk in it. The
sound produced is rela ted to the sn ow's • FIGURE 5 This freshtyfallen blanket snO\V a
absorbs sound\vavesso effectively that even the
temperature. When the air and snow are
water flo\ving in thetinystre.am is difficult to hear.
proftle(a).the air temperature i~ below freezing at a II levels. and fairly flat or elongated. with diameters f.>enerally less than l mm
snowflakes reach the surface. Jn (b).azoneofabove-freezing air (0.04 in.). They fall in small quantities from stratus clouds, and
c1usessnowflakes to partially melt; then, in the deep. subfreez- never in the form cL ashower. Upon striking a hard surface, they
ing air at the surface, the liquid freezes into sleet. In the shallow neither bounce nor shatter. Snow pellets, on the other hand.
subfreezing surface air in (c). the meltedsno"11akes, now super- are v.•hite~ opaque grains of ice~ \\•ith diameters less than 5 mm
oooled liquid drops. freeze on contact. producing freezing rain. (0.2 in.). They are sometimes confused with snow grains. The
In (d). the air temperature is above freezing in asufficient! ydeep distinction is easily made, however, by remembering that, un-
layer so th31 precipitation reaches the surface as rain. (Weather like snow grains, snow pellets are brittle, crunchy, and bounce
symbols for these and other forms ofprecipitation are presented (or break apart) upon hitting a hard surface. They usually fall as
in Appendix B.) showers, especially from cwmJu.~ congestus clouds.
To understand how snow pelleLsform,considerthecwnulus
SNOW GRAINS AND SNOW PELLETS Snow grains are small, congestus cloud with a high liquid-water content in • Fig. 7.26.
opaque grain~ of ice, the solid equivalent of drizzle. They are The freezing level i~ near the surface and, since the atmosphere
Freezing Freezing F1eezing Freezing
.,... Temperature
3000m profile 10,000 ft
1500 m 5000 H
Snow Rain Rain
Freezing
Snow rain
cold o•c warm cold D'C warm cold O'C warm

(a) Snow (b) Sleet (c) Ffeezing raln
• FIGURE 7. 2 5 Vertical temperature profiles (solid red line) associated \Vith different forms of p1ecipitation.
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The formation of ice on an aircraft- called
airaaft idng- can be extremely danger-
ous1 sometimes leading to tr agic acci-
dents, as aircraft icing caused an Air
Florida jetliner to plunge into t he
Potomac River d uring a snowstorm on
Januar y13, 1982.
Co nsider an a ircraf t flying through an
area of freezing rain or thro ug h a region
of large super cooled dr oplets in a cumuli-
form cloud. As the large, supercooled
drops strike the leading edge of the w ing,
they break apar t and fo rm a film of water,
w hich quickly freezes into a solid sheet o f
ice. This smooth, tr ansparent ice-called
d earice-is similar to the freezing rain or
glaze that coats t rees during ice storms.
Clear ice can build up quickly; it is h eavy • FIGUR E 6 An aircraft undergoing de ~i c-in g d uring inc-lement \\linter\vt?ather.
and difficult to remove, even w ith modern
de-icers. than clear ice does, it is lighter in weight weight. Icing has other adverse effects,
When an aircraft flies through a cloud and is more easily removed w ith de-icers. depending on w here it forms. On a w ing
composed of t iny, supercooled liq uid Because the raind rops and cloud or fuselage, ice can d isrupt the airflow and
droplets, rime ice may form . Rim e ice forms droplets in most clouds vary in size, a mix- decrease the plane's flying capability.
w hen some of the cloud droplets strike ture of clear and rime ice usually fo rms on When ice forms in the air intakeof t he
the w ing and freeze before t hey have t ime aircraft. Also, because concentrations of engine, it robs the engine of air, causing a
to spr ead, t hus leavin g a rough and brit tle liquid water tend to be g reatest in warm reduction in power. Icing may also affect
coating of ice on th e w ing. Because t he air, icing is usually heaviest and most the oper ation of brakes, landing gear, and
small, frozen d roplets t rap air between severe w hen the air temperature is instruments. Because of the hazards of ice
them, rime ice usually appears w hite between o•c
and - 10°C (32'Fand 14°F). on an aircraft, its w ings are usually sprayed
(see Fig . 7.22). Even thoug h rim e ice redis- A major hazard to aviation, icing w ith a type o f antifreeze before taking off
tributes the flow of air ov er the w ing more reduces aircraft efficiency by increasing during cold, inclement weather (see Fig. 6).
is oonditionally unstable, the air temperature drops quickly with

height An icecrystal fallingintothecold( - 23•C) middle region
a the cloud would be surrounded by m any supercoole.d cloud
droplets and ice crystals. ln the very cold air, the crystal~ tend
16,400 ft Skm to rebound after colliding rather than sticking to one another.
HiMever, when the ice cr ystals collide with the supercooled
" •ater droplets, they immed iately freeze t he droplets, producing
980011 _Rimed ice 3 km a sphe.r ical accumulation of icy matter (rime) containing m any
crystal
tiny air spaces. 'Jhese small air bubbles have two effects on the
growing ice particle: ( I ) They keep il~ density low; and (2) t hey
3000 II Graupel 1 km scatter light, m aking the particle opaque. By the time the ice par-
Snowpellel
ticle reaches the lower half of the cloud, it has grown in size and
its original shape is gone. W hen the ice particle accumulates a
heavy coating of rime, it iscalled graip el. Since the freezing level
• FIGURE 7.26 Th eforrn at io n of s n ~v pell et s.. ln thecoldair o f aconvect ive
is at a low ele.vation, the graupel reaches the surface as a light,
doud, \Yilh a high liquid-water content, ice partid~ collide\Yilh supercooled round clump ofsnowlike ice cilled a snow pellet (see o Fig. 7.27).
doud d roplets, freezing them into clumps o f icy matter called graupel. Upon On the surface, the accumulation of snow pellets some-
reaching the relatively cold surface. thegraupel isclassified as snow pellets. times gives the appearance of tapioca pudding; hence, it can be
°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w"'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
referred to as tapioca s110 1v. Jn a thunderstonn, when the freezing
level is well above the surface, graupel that reaches the ground
issometimescalledsoji hail. Duringsummer, the graupd may
melt 'tnd reach the surface as a large raindrop. In vigorously
convective clomts, however, the graupel may develop into full-
fledged hailstones.
HAIL Hailstones are pieces of ice, either transparent or par-

tially opaque, ranging in size from that ofsmall peas to that of • FI GURE 7. 27 A sno\vflak.e becoming a rimed sno\vflake, then finallygrau·
golf balls or larger (see e Fig. 7.28). Some are round; others take pel (a snow·pellet).
on irregular shapes. Jn the United States, the hailstone with the
greatest measured circumference (18.7 inches), fell on Aurora,
Nebraska, during June, 2003. ' Ibis giant hailstone being almost
as large as a soccer ball, had a measured diameter of 7 inches
and probably weighed over 1.75 pounds. But the hailstone with
the l1rgest diameter ever measured (S inches) and the heaviest
ever (1.94 lbs.) fell on Vivian, South Dakota, on July 23, 2010
(see • Fig. 7-29). Canada's record hailstone fell on Cedoux,
Saskatchewan, during August, 1973. It weighed a little over half
a pound, and measured about 4 inches in diameter. Needle.o;.s
to say, large hailstones are quite destructive. 111ey can break
\\•indO\\'S, dent cars, batter roof~ ofho1nes, and cause extensive
damage to livestock and crops. In fact, a single hailstorm can
destroy a farmers crop in a matter of minutes, which is why
farmers sometimes call it "the white plague."
Estimates are that, in the United States alone, hail damage
amounts to hundreds of millions of dollars annually. ' lbecostli -
est hailstorm on record in the United States battered the Front
Range of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado with golf ball- and
baseball-size hail on July 11 , 1990. 'l11e storm damaged thou- e FIGURE 7. 28 Hailston~ of varying sizes fell oter\vestTexasduring an
sands of roofs and tens of thousands of cars, trucks,and street- intense thundel'$torm.
lights, causing an estimated $625 million in d,1mage. Although Of all the hailstones you see in this
photo, which probably reached the
hailstones are potentially lethal, only a few fatalities due to fall- gre.ate.st speed befo1e hitting the surface? Take a guess as to how fast
ing hail have been documented in the United States during the it fell to earth. Devise a method of obtaining the diameter of large
past LOO years or so. hailstones in a remote area, even though you might not visit the
Hail forms in a cumulonimbus cloud- usually an intense region for a long time after the hailstorm occurred.
thunderstorm- when graupel, or large froun raindrops. or just
about any particles (even insects) act as embryos that grow by
accumulating supercooled liquid droplets-accretion. U takes
about a million cloud droplets to form a single raindrop, but
ii takes about 10 billion cloud droplets to form a golfball-si1,e
hailstone. For a hailstone lo grow lo this size, it must remain
in the cloud between 5 and 10 minute.s. Violent, upsurging air
currents within the storm carry small ice particles high above
the freezing level where the ice particles grow by colliding with
supercooled liquid cloud droplets. Violent rotating updrafts
in severe thunderstorms (called supercells) are even c<1pable of
sweeping the growing ice particles laterally through the cloud.
Jn fact, ii appears that the best trajectory !Or hailstone growth is
one that is nearly horizontal through the storm (see • Fig, 7.30).
As growing ice particles pass through regions of vary-
ing liquid water content, a coating of ice forms around them,
causing them to grow larger and larger. Jn a strong updraft,
the larger hailstones ascend very slowly, and may appear to • FI GURE 7. 29 This \Yhopping hailstone fell on Vivian, South Dakota. on
"float" in the updraft, where they continue to grow rapidly by July 23, 2010. ll had a record diameter of 8 inches.. \Veighed a record 1.94
colliding with numerous supercooled liquid droplets. When pounds and had acircumferenceof 18.6 inches.
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<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.,. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
dear ice. We know th'1t a h'1ilstone grows by accumulating
supercooled water droplets. If the growing hailstone enters a
lee
<:-.-
Uppet-level
region inside the storm where the liquid water content is rela-
wind tively low (called the dry gro111th regime),supercooled droplet~
"111 freeze immediately on the stone, producing a coating of
( --.,____: HallS'tone embiyo white or opaque rime ice containing many air bubbles. Should
the hailstone get swept into a region of the storm where the
./------........__./ liquid-water content is higher (called the 111el growth regime),
O'C-- supercooled water droplets will collect so rapidly on the stone
that, due to the releaseoflatent heat, the slone'.~surface tempera-
ture remains at freezing, even though the surrounding air may
be much colder.
Now the supercooled droplets no longer freeze on impact;
l
instead, they spread a coating of ""at er around the hailstone,
filling in the porous regions, which leaves a layer of dear ice
around the stone. Therefore, as a hailstone passes through a
thunderstorm of changing liquid-water content (the dry and
Rail shoWers and hail wet growth regimes) alternating layers of opaque and dear ice
li>rm, as illustrated in Fig. 7.31.
A~ a thunderslonn moves along. it may deposit its hail in
• FIGURE 7. 30 HailstonE?$ begin asembryos{usua.ltyicepartidescalled
graupeb lhat remain suspended in the cloud by violent updrafts. When the
a long narrow band (often over a mile \\1de and about six miles
updraftsaretilted, the ice particles are s\vept horizontally through the cloud, long) known as a hailstreak. lfthestormshould remain almost
producing the optimal trajectory for hailstone gro\vth.Along their path, the ice stationary for a period of time, substantial accumulation of hail
particles collide \Vith supercooled liquid droplets. \Vhich freeze on contact. The is possible. For example, in June, 1984, a devastating hailstorm
ice partideseventualtygrO\v large enough and heavy enough to fallto\vard
lasting over an hour dwnped knee-deep hail on the suburbs of
the ground as haastones.
Denver, Colorado. And during November, 2003, a rare hailstorm
dun1ped more than 5 inches ofhail over sections ofLos Angeles,
windsaloftc.arry the large hailstones away from the updraft or California, causing gutters to clog and floods to occur. ln addi-
when the hailstones reach appreciable size, they become too tion to its destructive effilct, accwnulation of hail on a roadway
heavy to be supported by the rising air, and they begin to fall. is a hazard to traffic, as when, for example, four people lost their
Jn the warmer ;1ir below the cloud, the hailstones begin lives near Soda Springs, California, in a 15-vehide pileup on a
to melt. Small hail often completely melts before reaching the hail-covered fre<>way during September, 1989.
ground, but in the violent thunderstormsoflate spring and swn- Because haiL~tones are so damaging, various methods have
mer, hailstones often grow large enough to reach the surface been tried to prevent them from forming in thunderstorms. One
before completely melting. Strangely, then, we find the largest method employs the seeding of clouds with large quantities of
form offrozen precipitation occurring during the warmest time silver iodide. "rhese nuclei freeze supercooled water droplet~
of the year. and convert them into ice crystals. The ice crystals grow larger
• Figure 7.31 shows a cut section of a very large hailstone. as they come in contact with additional supercooled cloud
Notice that it has di~tinct concentric layers of milky white and droplet~. in time, the ice crystals grow large enough to be called
• FIGURE 7. 31 A large hailstone first cut then photographed under regular light (left) and polarized light (right}. This procedure reveals its layered structure.

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,. TABLE 7.S Summary of Precipitation Types
PRECIPITATION TYPE WEATHER SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
Drizzle )) Tiny,vater drops "'ith dianleters less than 0.5 n1n1 that fill slO\\l'I}'. u.suallyfron~ a stratus
(light) cloud
Rain •• Falling liquid drops that have dian1eters greater than 0.5 n1n1
(light)
Sno\\T
**
(light)
\11/hite (or translucent) iceCl)'Stals in con1plex hexagonal (six-.sided)shapes that often join
together to f0rn1 sno\\l'Oakes
Sleet (ice pellets) &. Frozen raindrops that forn1 as cold raindrops (or partially n\elted sno\\rflakes) refreeze
while tall Ing through a relatiwly deep subfreezing i3)>?r
Freezing rain n-.._ Supercooled raindrops tl'3t fal l tluough a relatively shallow subfreezing layer and freeze
(light) upon contact "'ith cold o bject4i at the surface
Sno\\1 grains -8 Vl/hite or opaque particles Qf ice less than l n1n1 in dian1eter that usually fall from stratus
(granular snow) clt)uds, and are the solid equivalent of drizzle
Snow pellets ~ Brittle, soft '"hite (or opaque), U.'iually round particles of ice \\1ith dianleters les.o; than 5 nln1
(graupel) (light showers) that generally fall as sho\vers fron1cun1ulitom1 clouds; they are softer and larger than SDO\\t
grains
Hail t Transparent or partially opaque ice particles in the shape ofballs or irregular lumps that
(n1oderate or range in size fron1 that ofa pea to tbatofa softbalh the largestfom1 of precipitation. Large
heavy shO\\'l'rs) hail ha'i adian1eterofJ~ in. or gre.ater; hail aln1ost ah\lays i.'i produced in a thunderstorn1
graupel, which then becomes a hailstone embryo. Large num- cylinder. Here, the excess rainfall is stored and protected from
bers of embryo.~ are produced by seeding in hopes that compe- appreciable evaPoration. When the gauge is emptied, the over-
tition for the remaining supercooled droplet~ may be so great flow is carefully Poured into the tube and measured.
that none of the embryos would be able to grow into large and Another instrwnent that measures rainfall is the lipping
destructive hailstones. Russian scientists claim great success in bucket rain gauge. Jn o Fig. 7.33, notice th:ll this gauge has a
suppressing hail using ice nudei, such as silver iodide and lead reO!ivingfunnel leading to two small metalcollectors(buckets).
iodide. In the United States, the results of mo.~t hail-suppre.ssion 'Jlte bucket beneath the funnel collects the rain w:uer. When
experiments have been incond<L~ive.
Up to this point, we have examined the various types of
precipitation. 'Jlte different types (from drizzle to hail) are sum-
H - --Measurlng scale
marized in ,. 1able 7.5.
----1~-..--Collect0<
Measuring Precipitation
INSTRUMENTS Any instrument that c.an collect and me'~~ure
rainfall is called a min gauge. A standard rain gauge consists
<i a funnel-shaped collector attached to a long measuring tube
(see . Fig. 7.32). The cross-sectional area ofthe collector is IO times
that <i the tube. Hence, rain falling into thecollt'Ctor i~ amplified
tenfold in the tube, permitting measurements <i great precision.
A wooden scale, c.alibrated to allow for the vertical exaggeration,
is inserted into the tube and withdrawn. 'Jbe wet Portion <ithe
scale indicates the depth of water. So, JO inche.~ of water in the Ove<tlowcylinder
tube would beme<1sure.d as J inch ofrainfall. Because ofthis am-
plification, rainfall measurements can be madewhen the amount
is as small ,ts one-hundredth (0.01) of an inch. An amount of
rainfall less than one-hundredth of an inch is called a trace. f--20cm--I
'Jheme.asuring tube can only collect 2 inche.rnf rain. Rain-
fall of more than this amount causes an overflow into an oute.r e FIGURE 7. 32 Componentsofthestandard rain gauge.
C'1')'rif• )) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i

<1<no1....ifl ,.....,.._,~..,,._
'*"'.......
'°"">' .....buq10.U . ......... ................ " ',........in p.... ti..: i;1 "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl IW'Y •....... ....,, """'I•• - ..........h~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni>' t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH depth of snow can include con:.iderable educated guesswork.
Snow depth may also be mca.ured by removing the collector
Maybe It has n ever rained ca t s and dog s, but ii has rained nncl inner cylinder of a standard rain gauge nncl allowing :.now
maggots. In Acapulco, Mexico, d uring Oct ober, 1968, to accumulate in the outer tube. Turbulent air around the edge
swarms of mlggots (about an inch in length) fell from the of the tube often blows Oake> away from the gauge. 'fhis makes
sky during a heavy rainshower, cove ring e verything. even
peop~ who had gathered there to witness a yachting
the amount of snow collected le.s than the actual snowfall. To
event. Apparently, the maggots we re swept into a thun· remedy this, slatted -.indshicl& are placed around the cylinder
derstorm by strong vertical air curre nts. 10 block the \\ind and ensure a more com.'CI catch.
lhe depth of water !hat would result from the mehing of a
snow 5ample is called ttt waler equh'alenl. Jn a typical fresh
it accumulal~ 1he equivalenl of one-hundttdlh of an inch of snowpack, about JO inches of snow will mcll do"n to aboul
rain, lhc wcigh1of 1he wa1ercause• it lo tipandcmply ilSClf.1 he 1inch of water,gi>inga walert-quiwlcnt ra1ioof 10:1.1rusratio,
second bucke1 immcdill1elymovesunderthe funneltoca1ch 1hc bowever, will vary grcatly, dcpi!nding on the texture and packing
waler. When ii fills, ii also tips and empties itself, while the origi· ofthe snow. Very wet snow falling in ;tir near freezing may have
11;1! bucket moves back beneath the funnel. Each lime a buckcl n water e<Juivalenl of 6: 1. On the 01hcr hand, In dry powdery
tips, :.\n elt.-'Clric contact is made.causing a pen to rcgbter tt 1nnrk "'°""the ratio may be as high os 30: I. ' lbw:1rcl the end of the
on a remuw recording chart. Adding up the total number of "inter, large compacted drifts repre>cnting the accumulation of
marks gives the rnlnfnll for a certain time period. mnny storms may have a w·Jter tt]uivalent ofless th.m 2: l.
A problem \vilh the lipping bucket rain gauge is that during Determining the '~oter equlvulcnt of snow is a fairly
each "lip" it lo.cs some rainfall and, therefore, undermeasures straightforward process: ' [he snow accumuL11cd in a rain gauge
rainfall runourus, especl'iDy during heavy do"npout>. The tip- is melted and its depth is me.uurcd. Another method uses a
ping bucket Is the nun gauge used in the automall'<I (ASOS) Ion& hollow tube pushed into the snow 10 a desired depth. This
weather stations. 5tlOW sample is then melted and poured lruo a rain gauge for
Remote re.:ording of precipitation can also be made with measuring its depth. Kno"~ng the waler cquh'31ent of snow
a wdghlng-!ype rain gauge. With this gauge, precipitation i; can provide valuable information about spring runoff and the
caught in a cylinder and accumulates in a bucket. lhe bucket potential for flooding. esped.'llly in mountain areas.
>ii> on a •Cnsltivc ""ighing platform. Special gears tran;,Ja1c 1hc Precipitation is a highly variable wealher clemeru. A huge
aa:umullled weigh! of rainorsnow intomilliml1Cf> orb1che5of 1hunders1orm may drench one scclion of a !Own while leaving
precipilatlon. ·1he predpillllion 101als are re.:orded by a pen on another section completely dry. Gh"n lhis variability, it should
chart paper, which awers a dock-driven drum. By using specia l be opparent thal a single rain s•mgc on lop of n building cannot
clecironic e<]uipmen1, this information can be tran;,millccl from represent the total precipitation for any particular region.
rain gauges in remote area.~ to satellites or lan<l -ba.o;cd >llU ion:.,
thus providing precipitation totals from previously inaccessible DOPPLER RADAR AND PRECIPITATION llndor (rndio detcc-
region;,. ti<m and ranging) has become ;tn essential 1001 of the atmo-
The depth of snow can be determined by me.,,uring its spheric scienUst, for it gathers information about storms and
depth at three or more represenllltive areas. The amount of precipitation in previously inaccessible regions. Atmospheric
SnO\••foll ls defined as the a\'erage of these measurements. Since scientists use radar 10 examine the inside of a cloud much
snow often blows around and accumulates into drifts. finding like physicians use X rays to exam in• the inside of a human
a rcprescn1111ive area can be a problem. Determining the actwl bod): Essentially, the radar untl consists of a transmitter that
sends out short, powerful mic row.we pulses. When this enetgy
encounters a foreign object-called a 111rg<1 - a fraction of the
energy is scattered back toward~ transmitter and is detected
bya rL"<:eiver (see • fig. 7.34). 1he returning signal is amplified
and displayed on a screen, producing an image, or echo, from
the lllrgel The elapsed time between lrnnsmission and recep·
lion in(licates th<' target's distance.
Smaller targets require detect Ion by shorler wavelengths.
Cloud droplet~ arc detected by ra da r using wavelengths of
I cm, whereas longer wavelengths (between 3 and 10 cm) arc
Remote reeOtder only weakly scattered by tiny cloud droplet;,, but are strongly
scattered by larger P"'cipitalion particle:.. ·1he brightness of the
echo is directly related to the amount (Intensity) of rain falling
in the cloud. So, the radar :.creenshow~ not only wlttre pre.:ipi-
tation is occurring, but also how mltttll ii ~ The radar image
• FIGURE 7, )) lhe1ipplng budteuaingauge. Each1methebu<bl ~b
w.thon.-hundrtdihor.-n 1nm cl rai~il t~ sending ¥1efectrk stgMI '°the typically is displa)'ed using variOU> colors to denote the imen-
remote ,.a>ftNc. sity of precipitation, with light blue or green representing the
.,., .........eic..ip.. 1112

_ ............,......_ ......... _........ ..... _ • ..,.... ...._.,.,...,t-...,-",..'" ... -.w-..
0..•-- ,......_ ............ _ ---~_...
~-·!Rf- I£ ........,...._.....
• FIGURE 7.34 A micro\vavepulseissent
o ut from the radar transmitter. The pulse strikes
raindrops and a fraction of its energy is reOected
back to the radar unit \Yhere it is detected and
displayed, asshO\vn in Fig. 7.35.
Emitted
pu1se
lightest precipitation and orange or red representing the heaviest area (see Fig. 7.35b). llut the Doppler radar can do more than
precipitation. conventional radar.
During the 1990s, Doppler radar reph1ced the convent ion al Because the Doppler radar use_~ the principle called Doppler
radar units that were put intoserviceshortlyafter World War IL sliift,* it has the capacity to measure the speed at which falling
Doppler radar is like conventional radar in that it cm detect areas
·lhe Doppler shift (ore ffcct) is 1he d u1nge in Lhe frequencyof waves 1h.11 occuis
d precipitation and measure rainfall intensity (see e Fig. 7.35a).
'''hen LhcenliUcr o rlheobs.erv.-r is 1noving 1owil rdor a\''8Y fronl the other. Asnn
Using special computer programs calle.d algorilhms, the rainfall exanlp1e. suppose a high-speed tr:lin lsappro.1ching you. 1be highcr·pitched (higher
intensity, over a given area for a given time, can be computed fr«]u cncy)whlsllc >OU hear as the trnina pp1uaches wiJI .shift 10 a lower pitch (lowe r
and displayed 'l~ an estimate of total rainfall over that particular frequency) after the lrain passes.
Oel$e Al.lgU$1Z1201 J Oe!k Auge.a 21 2011

Jl'lle.· 12:23 PM EDT Tm« 12:23 PM ~01
DBZ 1.......
o.oo
.,.,.
15
20 0.25
25
30 0.1$
36 100
1.251
150
1.1!>
• F I GURE 7. 35 {a) Doppler radar displayshO\ving precipitation intensitywer North Carolina for August 27, 20 11,as Hurricane Irene
moves onshore. (b) Doppler radar display showing t-hour rainfall estimates over North Carolina hr August 27, 201 l. Notice that in some
places Doppler radar estimated that more than 1.SOinc:hes of rain had fallen in one hout (NOAA/NWS}
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' " f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........
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1a.1~ti44ti~ilt'tfJlt.1~1-=:===========
For a visualization of how Doppler radar measures the intensity of

rainfall and displays it in color on a radar screen, go to the Cengage
Course Mate website at w111W.cen9agebrain.comand dick on the
anlmationentided Doppler Radar. The second part of thisanimation
shows how Doppler radar estimates theaccumuJationof rainfall
during a period of one hour. For a sneak preview of hov1 Doppler
radar measures winds blov1ing tov1ard and away from the radar unit,
view all four parts of the animation.
0 10 20 30 40 so
Rain Rate (~r)
rain is moving horizontally toward or away from the radar an- e FIGURE 7. 36 A satellite and radar image of Hurricane Humberto obtained
tenna. Falling rain moves with the wind. C'.onsequently, Doppler by the 7RA1M satellite on September 13. 2007. Precipitation rates (lowest in
radar allows scientists to peer into a tornado-generating thun- blue. highest in dark red} are overlain on the infrared image of the storm.
derstorm and observe its "ind. We "'II
investigate these ideas
further in Chapter 14, when weconsider the formation ofsevere
thunderstorms and tornadoes. snow intei>~ity from the surface up to about 20 km (12 mi). ' lbe
In some instances, radar displays indicate precipitation Micrownl'e /11wger complements the Precipitation Radar by
where there isnonereachingthesurface. Thissituation happens measuring emitte.d microwave energy from the earth, the "t-
because the radar beam travels in a straight line and the earth mosphere, clouds, and precipitation, which is translated into
curves away from it. Mence, the return echo is not necessarily rainfall rates.
that of procipitation reaching the ground, but is that ofraindrops 111e Visible and JnfraredScanner (VIS) onboard the satel-
in the cloud So, if Doppler radar indicates that it'.~ raining in lite measures visible and infrared energy from the earth, the
vour area. and outside vou observe that it is not. remember it atmosphere, and clouds. Thi~ information is used to determine
i~ raining, but the raindrops are probably evaporating before such things as the temperature of cloud tops, which can then
reaching the ground. be translated into rainfall rates. A TRA1M satellite image of
The next improvement for Doppler radar is polarimelric H urricane Humberto and its pattern of precipitation during
radar. This form of Doppler radar transmits both a vertical and September, 2007, i~ provided in • Fig. 7.36.
horizontal pulse that "'II
make it easier to determine whether Launched in April, 2006, the satellite CloudSat circles the
falling precipitation i~ in the form of rain or snow. earth in an orbit about 700 km (430 mi) above the surface. On-
board C/oudSat, a very sensitive radar (called the Cloud Profil-
MEASURING PRECIPITATION FROM SPACE A~ it circles the ing Radar, or CPR) is able to peer into a cloud and provide a
earth at analtitudeofabout400 km (250 mi), the TRMM(Tropi- vertical view of its tiny cloud droplets and ice particles, as well
cal Rainfall Measuring Mis.~ion)satellit e is able to measure rain- as precipitation. An example of C/oudSat is shown in Chapter 5
fall intensity in previously inacces.~ible regions of the tropics in Fig. 5.40, p. 140. Such vertical profiling ofliquid water and ice
and subtropics. The onboard Precipitation Ratlar i~ capable of will hopefully provide scientists with a better understanding of
detectingrainfall rates down to about 0.7 mm (0.03 in.) per hour, precipitation processes that go on ii>~ide the cloud and the role
while at the same time providing vertical profiles of rain and that clouds play in the earth's global climate system.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,......._.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
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SUMMARY
Jn this chapter, we learned that cloud droplets are too small sleet (ice pellets), 185 hailstreak, 190
and lightto reach the ground asr'1in. Cloud droplets do grow free'<ing rain (glau.) , 185 standard rain gauge, 191
larger by condensation, but this process by itself is much too free'<ing drizzle, 185 trace(ofpre.cipitation), 191
slow to produce substantial precipitation. Be.c ause larger cloud rime, 185 tipping bucket rain gauge, 191
droplets fall faster and farther than smaller ones, they grow black ice, 186 weighing-type rain gauge, 192
larger as they fall by coalescing with drops in their path. ff ice storm, 186 water equivalent, 192
the air temperature in a cloud drops below freezing, then ice snow grains, 187 radar, 192
crystals play an important role in producing precipitation. snow pellets, 187 Doppler radar, I 93
Some ice cry stats may form dire.ctly on ice nuclei, or they may hailstones, 189
result when an ice nucleus makes contact with and freezes
a supercooled water droplet. Becau.~e of differences in vapor
pres.~ures between '"\ler and ice, an ice crystal surrotmded by
water droplets grows ~1rger at the expense of the droplets. As
the ice crystal begins to fall, it grows even brger by colliding I. Wh<1t is the primary difference bet ween a cloud drop-
with supercooled liquid drople.ts, which free'.teon contact. Jn let and a raindrop?
an attempt tocoaxmorepre.cipitation from them, some clouds 2. Why do typical cloud droplets seldom reach the
are seeded with silver iodide. ground as rain>
Prec.ipitation can reach the surface in a variety of forms. 3. Describe how the process of co!Usion and coalescence
Jn winter, raindrops may free'.te on impact, producing freez- produces precipitation.
ing rain that can disrupt electrical service by downing power 4. Would the collision-and-coalescence process work bet-
line~. Raindrops may freeze into tiny pellets ofice above the ter at producing rain in (a) a warm, thick nimbostratus
ground and reach the surface ''s sleet. Oepending on condi- cloud or (b) a warm, towering cumulus conge,ltus cloud?
tions, snow may fall as pellets, grains, or flakes, all of which £xpl1in.
can influence how far we see and hear. Strong updrafts in a 5. List and describe three ways in which ice crystals can
cumulonimbu.~doud may keep ice particles suspended above form in a cloud.
the freezing level, where they acquire a further coating of ice 6. When the temperature in a cloud is -300C, are larger
and form destructive hailstones. Although the rain gauge cloud droplets more likely to free'.te than smaller cloud
is still the most commonly used method of measuring pre- droplets? Explain.
cipitation, Doppler radar has become an important instru- 7. Jn a cloud where the air temperature is - 1o•c, why are
ment for determining pre.cipitation intensity and estimating there many more cloud droplets than ice cryst1ts?
r'1infall amount. l n tropical regions, rainfall estimates can 8. How doe~ the ice-crystal (Bergeron) process produce
be obtained from radar and microwave scanners onboard precipitation? What is the main premise de~ribing
satellites. this process?
9. Why do heavy showers u.~ually fall from cumuliform
clouds> Why does steady precipit<1tion normally fall
KEY TERMS from stratlform clouds?
10. Why are large snowflakes usually observed when the
'The following termsarelisted (with page number) in the
air temperature near the ground is just below freezing?
orderthey appear in the text. Defmeeadi. Doing so will
I I. In a cloud comp0-~d of water droplets and ice crystals,
aid you in reviewing the material covered in this chapter.
is the s aturation vapor pressure greater over the drop-
precipitation, I 70 accretion, 175 le.ts or over the ice?
equilibrium vapor graupel, 175 12. Why is it foolish to seed '1 clear sky with silver iodide?
pres.~ure, I 70 aggregation, 176 13. When seeding a cloud to promote rainfall, is it p0-o;.~ible
curvature e.ffect, 171 snowflake, I 76 to overseed the cloud so that it prevents rainfall?
solute effect, 171 cloud seeding, 176 £xpl1in.
collision-coalescence rain, 180 14. Explain how cloud~ can be seeded naturally.
process, 171 drizzle, 180 IS. Wh,1t atmospheric conditions are necessary for snow
terminal velocity, 172 virga, 180 to fall when the air temperature i~ con.~iderably above
coalescence, 172 shower (rain), 180 free'<ing?
ice-crystal (Bergeron) snO'\''• 181 16. List the advantages and disadvantages of heavy snow-
process, 173 fallstreaks, 182 fall.
supercooled droplet~. 174 flurries (of snow), 182 17. How do the atmospheric conditions that produce sleet
ice nuclei, 174 snow squall, 182 differ from those that produce hail?
contact freezing, 175 blizzard, 184 18. Wh,1t is the difference between freezing rain and sleet?
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y ta>thc....,icd >........J ,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;k o•in.,.... floe .., ch<,....., ..... -11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.hnflLU;,,.,J\o «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
19. Describe how hail might form in a cumulonimbus measured the depth of new snow twice: once in the
cloud. middle of the storm and once at the end, and came up
20. Why is hail more common in summer than in winter? with a total snowfall of 10 inche~. Observer #3 mea-
21. List the common precipitation gauges that measure sured the new snowfall only once, after the storm had
rain and SOO\'J. stopped, and reported 8.4 inches. Which of the three
22. (a) What is Doppler radar? (b) How does Doppler radar observers do you feel has the correct snowfall total?
measure the intensity of precipit,llion? List al least five pos~ible reasons why the snowfall to·
tals v.rere different.

I. lee crystals that form by accretion are fairly large. Exp! ain
why they fall slowly. I. ln the daily newspaper, a city is reported as receiving
2. Why is a warm, tropical mmulus doud more likely to 0. 52 inches of precipitation over a 24-hour period. ff all
produce precipit,1tion than a cold, stratu.~ cloud? the precipitation fell as snO-\\'• and if \\1t? asswne a nor-
3. Explain why very sm.-tll cloud droplets of pure \\otter mal water equivalent ratio of 10:1, how much snow did
evapor.tteeven when the relative humidity is 100 percttit. this city receive?
4. Suppose a thick nimbo-~tratus cloud contains ice crys- 2. How many times faster does a large raindrop (diameter
tals and doud droplets all about the same size. Which 5000 µm) fall than a cloud droplet (diameter 20 µm).
precipitation process will be most important in pro· if both are falling at their terminal velocity in still air?
ducing rain from this cloud? Why? 3. (a) How many minutes would it take drizzle \vith a
5. Clouds that form over water are u.~ually more efficient diameter of200 fUD to reach the surface if it fall~ at
in producing precipitation than clouds that form over its terminal velocity from the baseofa cloud 1000 m
land. Why? (about 3300 ft) above the ground? (A~sume the air
6. Everyday in summer a blizzard occurs over the Great is saturated beneath the cloud, the drizzle does not
Plains. Explain where and why. evapor.1te, and the air is still.)
7. During a recent snO\\•Storm, Denver. Colorado, re~ (b) Suppose the drizzle in problem 3a evaporates on
ceived 3 inches of snow. Sixty kilometers east of Denver, its way to the ground. Jf the drop size is 200 µm
a city received no measurable snowfall, while 150 km for the first 450 m of descent, 100 µm for the next
east of Denver another city received 4 inches of snow. 450 m, and 20 µm for the final 100 m, how long
Since Denver is located to the east of the Rockie~. and will it take the drizzle to reach the ground if it fall~
the upper-level winds were westerly during the snow- in still air?
storm, give an explanation as to what coultJ account for 4. Suppa_~ a large raindrop (diame.t er 5000 µm) falls at
this snowfall pattern. its terminal velocity from the base of a cloud 1500 m
8. Raindrops rarely grow larger than 5 mm. 'fo•o reasons (about 5000 ft) above the ground.
were given on p. 173. Can you think of a third? (Hint: (a) If we assume the raindrop does not evaporate, how
See the Focus se.ction on p. 181, and look at the shape long would it take the drop to reach the surface?
of a large drop.) (b) Wh,1t would be the shape of the falling raindrop
9. Lead iodide i~ an effective ice-forming nucleus. Why just before it reaches the ground?
do you think it has 110/ been used for that purpose? (c) What type of doud would you expect this raindrop
I 0. When cirrus clouds are above a de.ck of altommulus to fall from? Explain
clouds, occasionally a dear area, or "hole," will appear 5. ln Fig. 7.37, a drawing of a large hailstone, explain
in the altocumulus doud layer. Wh,1t do you suppose how the are,1s of dear ice and rime ice could have
could cause this to happen? formed.
11. It is - l2"C (1o•f) in Albany, New York, and freezing
rain is falling. Can you explain why? Draw a vertical
profile of the air temper.1ture (a sotmding) that illus-
trates why free'Ling rain is occurring at the surface. ~Clearice
I 2. When faning s nowflakes become mixed "ith sleet,
why is this condition often followed by the snowflakes
changing into rain? Rime Ice _ . . - - -- - Embryo
13. A major snO-\\'Storm occurred in a city in northern
New Jersey. Three volunteer weather observers mea-
sured the snowfall. Ob.~rver # 1 measured the depth of LJ
newly fallen snow every hour. At the end of the storm, 5mm Cle.as ice
Observer #I added up the measurements and came up
with a total of 12 inches of new snow. Observer #2 • FIGURE 7.37
C...,-nfo )11~ °"'"'°' 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... .al M:.y ta>thc ...icd >........J ,,.. .1....wod,"' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11...t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dl LU;,,.,,h• «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
.bmcdfl,...., "'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l""~C~19c1-mll(lfD.._ fl ••,:l•.,•mom::JJo.,.,,...,.,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii•• ...,,_ .....,.,.,..,,
I GEOSCIENCE Goto the Academic)ournalssection ofthe Meteorology portal. Use the search
box at the left to bring up journ.'I articles re"ued to "cloud seeding.• find an article that describes a cloud-seeding ei.:periment.
Do the authors claim that the seeding produced a mea.~urable result> 1~ the result statistically significant? What other factors
might have produced the result aside from the cloud seeding?
ONLINE RESOURCES
I!\ Log in to th~ CourseMate "'ebsite at: www.cengagebrain.co'." to v_iew the concept ~nimations ,15 noted in the text, as
\i:;J well as additional resources, mcludmg video exercises, pr"ctice quitzes, an mteract1ve eBook, and more.
?'''! ., ....
Air Pressure and Winds

CONTENTS ecember 19, 1980, was a cool day in Lynn, Massa chusetts,
Atmospheric Pressure
Horizontal Pressure Variations-A Tale
D but not cool enough to dampen the spirits o f more than
2000 people who gathered in Central Square-all hoping to
of Two Cities
Daily Pressure Variations catch at least one of the 1500 dollar bills that would be dropped
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC from a small airplane at noon. Right on schedule, the aircraft
The Atmosphere Obeys the Gas Law circled the city and dumped the money onto the people below.
Pressure Measurements
However, to the dismay of the onlookers, a westerl y wind caught
Pressure Read in gs
Surface and Upper·Level Charts the currency before it reached the ground and carried it out over
Newton's Laws o f Motion the cold Atlantic Ocean. Ha d the pilot or the sponsoring leath er
manu facturer examined the weather charts beforehand, it might
Flying on a Constant Pressure Surface- High
to Low, Look Out Below have been possible to predict that the wind would ruin the
Forces That Influence the Winds advertising scheme.
Pressure Gradient Force
Coriolis Force
Straight-Line Flow Aloft-Geostrophic
Winds
A Mathematical Look at the Geostrophlc Wind
Curved Winds Around Lows and Highs
Aloft-GradientWinds
Estimating Wind Direction and Pressure
Patterns Al oft by Watching Clouds
Winds on Upper·Level Cha rts
Surface Winds
Winds Aloft in the Southern Hemisphere
Winds and Vertical Air Motions
The Hyd rostatlc Equation
Summary
Key Terms
Fadng page: High winds blo\ving through
Problems and Exercises Moltke Harbor, South Georgia Island. aeate
dioppywater and difficult sailing conditions.
199
°*"'"''"..
llo.nl poo-1)' ,.,,..,. ""1 W "'l••-..i ..,.,.,h~dl ... :.1.l\o .0."l'nV I f:1W....rtn1<"' !....
<>.;•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
.._,.,..,,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''"... ..,..,,,.,.. -...J4f •nt.•1e_.Jl~""'""l"TIC'>-"c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll""'....., .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,..
his opening scenario raises two questions: (I) Why does the real atmosphere, the air den~ity remains constant from the
T the wind blow? and (2) How can one tell its direction
by looking at weather charts? Ch:ipter I has already an-
swered the first question: Air moves in respon~e to horizon-
surface up to the topof thecolumn, (2) thatthe width oft he col-
umn does not change with height and (3) that the air is unable
to freely move into or out of the colmnn.
tal differences in pre.ssure. This phenomenon happen~ when Suppose we somehow force more air into the column in
we open a v-acuum-packed can-air rushes from the higher Fig 8.1. What would happen> Ifthe air temperature in the col-
pressure region outside the can tO\\"ard the region of lower umn does not ch:mge, the added air would make the column
pres~ure inside. Jn the atmosphere, the wind blows in an at- more dense, and the added weight of the air in the column
tempt to equalize imb:llances in air pre.ssure. Does this mean would increase the surface air pressure. Likewise, if a great deal
that the wind always blows directly from high to low pres- of air \\•ere removed from the column. the surface air pressure
sure? Not really, because the movement of air is controlled would decrease. Consequently, to ch:rnge the surface air pres-
not only by pres~ure differences but by other forces as well. sure, we need toch:mge the mass of air in the column above the
ln this ch:tpter, we will first consider how and why atmo- surfao?. But how can this feat be accomplished>
spheric pressure varies, then we will look at the forces th:lt Look at the air columns in • Fig 8.2a.' Suppose both col-
influence atmospheric motions aloft and at the surface."lb rough mnns are located at the same elevation, both h:we the same
studying these forces, we will be able to tell how the wind should air temperature, and both h:we the same surface air pressure.
blow in a particular region by examining surface and upper-air "Jbis condition, of course, means that there mlkSl be the same
chart~. munber of moleetdes (same mass of air) in each column above
both cities. Further suppose that the surface air pressure for both
cilies remains the same, while the air above city I cool~ and the
air above city 2 warms (see Fig. 82).
Atmospheric Pressure As the air in column l cools, the molecules move more
slowly and crowd closer together -the air becomes more
ln Chapter J, we learned several important concepts about dense. Jn the warm air above city 2, the molecules move faster
'ttmospheric pressure. One stated that air pressure issimply the and spread farther apart - the air becomes les.s denw. Since the
mass ofair above a given level. As we dimb in altitude above the \\idth of the columns doe,s not change (and if we assume an
earth :-;surface. there are fe\\•er air molecules above us> hence. invisible barrier exists between the columns), the total number
atmospheric pressure always decreases with i1n1·easing heigh/. of moleetdes above each city remains the same, and the surface
Another concept we learnt'<! was that most of our atmosphere is pressure does not ch:mge. Therefore, in the more-dense cold air
crowded dose to theearth'ssurface, which causes air pressure to above city I, the column shrink~. while the column rises in the
decrease with height, rapidly at first,then more slowly at higher le.ss-dense.• \\'arm air above city 2.
altitudes. We now have a cold, shorter dense cohunn of air above
So one ""Y to change air pres~ure is to simply move up or city I and a warm, taller less-dense air column above city 2.
down in the atmosphere. But what causes the air pressure to From this situation, we can conclude that it takes a shorter col-
change in the horizontaP And why does the air pressure change u1n11 of cold, 1nore-tJe11se tlir to ex.ert the sanie surfacepressure as
'll the surface? "ltd/er column of wt1rm, less-dense ail: "lb is concept h:is a great
deal of meteorological significant"<.
HORIZONTAL PRESSURE VARIATIONS - A TALE OF TWO Atm<>-spheric pressure decreases more rapidly with height
CITIES To answer these questions, we eliminate some of in the cold column of air. Jn the cold air above city I (Fig. 8.2b).
the complexities of the atmosphere by constructing models. move up th£>Column and observe how quickly you pass through
• Figure 8.l shows a simple atmospheric model- a column of the densely packed molecules. "Ibis activity indicates a rapid
air, extending well up into the atmosphere. In the column, the change in pressure. Jn the warmer, les.~-dense air, the pressure
dots represent air molecules. Our model assumes: (I) that the doe,s not decrease as rapidly with height, simply because you
air molecules are not crowded dose to the surface and, unlike dimb above fewer molecules in the same vertical di~tance.
In Fig. 8.2c, move up the warm, tan column until you come
• FI GURE 8 .1 Amodeloftheatmosphere\Yhere to the letter H Now move up the cold, blue column the same
...........
...........
........... air density remains constant \Yith height. The air distance until you reach the letter L. Notice th:lt there are more
...........
........... pressure at the surface is related to the number of
···········
........... molecules above. When air of the same temperature
molecules above the letter Hin the warm column th'm above
........... the letter Lin thecold column. The factthat the number of mol-
···········
...........
···········
........... is stuffed into the column. the surface air pressure
...........
...........
........... rises.. When air is removed from the column. the ecules above any level is a measure of the atmospheric pressure
...........
........... surface pressure falls. leads to an important concept: Wann airaloft is nom1allyassoci-
............
...........
··········· t1tetJ with high atmospheric pressure, and colt/ air aloft· is associ-
...........
...........
...........
...........
t1tetJ wilh low atmospheric pres» ire.
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
...........
'\1\1e wHI kttp our sa1ne assu1nption as in Fig. 8.1 : thatis. ( I) the air molecules are
ootcr0\\ dedclose to the swf<ilce, (2) the width of lhecolu1nnsdocs not change. and
........... 1
(3) air is tll\;lhJc 10 1nove inlo or out of the colunlns.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i...
<1<n11...ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..nt,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,,..u,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• ..,,.,-.11..,,....,,..,.,_
WARM
Atr co6umn 2 Alr OOlumn2
Air column 1 Alroolumn2

..
.. COLD
.. .. . Air column 1
. .....
Air column 1
. .. . .... . ..... . ...... Afr
.. .. . . . .
. :: :t : :•
::;
.. 9
. .. .. . . . . .. .. : : L : :
... . . 8 .. i ......
. .....
move-
meol
~ .... . : .: .: .: .:
. . .. I; ; ; ;
~~ ,
; t
City 1 (a) City 2 City 1 (b) City 2 City 1 (c) City 2

Same presS1Jre Same pressure Same pressure Same ptesStlf'e Surface pressure rises Surface pressure falls
e FI GURE 8. 2 (a) T\voair columns.each \Vith identical mass. have the same surface air pressure. {b) Because it takesashortercolumn of cold air to
exert the same surface pressure as a taller column of \va.rm ait as column 1 cools, it must shrink. and as column 2 \varms, it must rise. (c) Because al the
same level in the atmosphere there is more air above the Hin the \¥<Um column than abole the Lin the cold columl\ \varm air aloft is associated \Vi th
high pressure and cold air ak>h \Villi k>\V pressure. The pressure differences aloft create a force that causes theairto move from a region of higher pres--
sure toward a region of lov.er pressure. The removal of air from column 2 causes itssurface pressure to drop, whereas the addition of air into column 1
causes its surface pressure to rise. {Thedifference in height bel\veen the two columns is91eatlyexaggerated.J
Jn Fig. 8.2c, the horizontal difference in temperature ere· high pressure. Yet, on a daily basis, any cyclic change in surface
:lies a horizontal difference in pressure. 'Jl1e pressure difference pressure brought on by daily temperature changes is concealed
establishes a force( called the pressure gradic'l1t force) that causes by the pressure changes created by the warming of the upper
the air to move from higher pres.~ure toward 1-0wer pressure. :ttmosphere.
Consequently, if we remove the invisible barrier between the In the tropics, for example, pressure rises and falls in a regu-
two columns and allow the air aloft to move horizontally. the lar p:lltern twiceaday(see• Fig. 8.4). Maximwn pres.suresoccur
air will move from column 2 toward column I. As the air aloft around 10:00 A. M. and l 0:00 P.M., minimum near 4:00 A.M. and
leave.~column2 , themassoftheair in the column decreases, and 4:00 P.M. The largest pressure difference, about 2.5 mb, occurs
so does the surface air pre.~ure. Meanwhile, the accumulation near the equator. It al~o shows up in higher latitudes, but with
ofair in column I causes the surface air pressure to increase. a much smaller amplitude. This daily (diurn"/) fluctuation of
Higher air pressure at the surface in column I and lower
air pressure at the surface in column 2 causes the surface air to Air column2
move from city I towards city 2 (see . l'ig. 8.3). Ast he surface air
moves out away from city I , the air aloft slowly sinks to replace
this ouhmrdly spreading surface air. As the surface air flows
into city 2, it slowly rises to replace the depleted air aloft. In this
manner, a complete circulation of air is established due to the
heating and cooling ofair columns. A~ we will see in Chapter 9,
this type of thermal circulation is the basis for a wide range of
"1ndsystems throughout the world.
In summary, we can see how heating and cooling columns Air column I
of air can establish horizontal variations in air pres.~ure both .......
. . . . .... ..
.....
aloft and at the surface. It is these horizontal differences in . . .., ...
. .. ,)
"ir pressure that cause the wind to blow. Before moving onto . . . . . ...
......
the next section, you may wish to look at the Focus section on
p. 202 \\ hichdescribes hO\'' air pressure. air de.nsit y~ and air ten1-
1
.. . ' . "
perature are interrelated.

: : :t=t: : :
DAILY PRESSURE VARIATIONS From what we have learned City 1 City2
so far, we might expect to see the surface pressure dropping as
• FI GURE 8. 3 The heatingandcoolingofaircolumnscauses horizontal
the air temperature rises, and vice versa. Over large continental
pressurevariation.s aloh and at the surface. These pressure variations force the
areas, especially the southwestern United States in summer, hot air to move from areas of higher pressure toward areas of lov.er pressure. In
surface air is accompanied by surface low pressure. Likewise. conjunction with these horizontal air motions. the air sle7\Vly sinks above the
bitter cold arctic air in winter is often accompanied by surface surface high and rises above the surface lo\v.
C'1'1'rif• :tl•~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,....,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
The Atmosphere Obeys the Gas Law
Air temperature, air pressure, and air above sea le~ ~ the atmospheric pressure is
density are all interrelated. If one o f these normally close to 500 m illibars. If we obtain
variables changes, the other two usually the average density at this le~ I, w ith the aid
change as well. of the gas law we can calculate the average
...... '
The relationship among t he pressure.. air temperature.
temperature, and density o f air can be Recall that the gas law is w ritten as
expressed by
·· ~:-
p = TX p X C.
Pressure = temperature With the pressure (p) in millibars (mb), the
X density X constant.
temperature fn in Kelvins, and the density
• FIGURE 1 Air above a regi on o f surface high
This simple relationship, often referred to pressu re~ more d ense than air above a region o f (p) in kil09rams per cubic meter (kg/ m'), t he
as the gas law (or equation of state), tells us surface la.v pressure(at the same temperature). numerical value of the constant (C) is about
that t he pressure o f a gas is equal to its {The dots in each column represent air m olecules..) 2.87.*
temperature times its density t imes a con- At an altitude o f 5600 m above sea
stant. W hen we ignor e t he constant and pressure is mor e dense than air above a level, w here the average (or standard) air
look at the gas law in symbolic form, it region of surface low pressure (see Fig. 1). pressure is about 500 mb and the aver age
becomes We can see, then, t hat for surface hig h- air density is0.690 kg/ m 3, the average air
pressure ar eas (anticyclones) and surface temperature becomes
p ~T>< p.
low· pressure areas (mid- latitude cyclones)
p = T>< C
w here, of course, p is pressure, T is tenr- to form, the air density (mass o f air) above
500 = T x 0.690 >< 2.87
per ature, and p (th e Greek letter rho, pr o- these systems m ust change. As we w ill see
nounced "rowi represents air density.* later in this chapter, as well as in other 500
The Ii ne ... is a symbol meaning "is propor- chapters, surface air pressure increases 0.690 >< 2.87 - T
tional to." A change in one variable causes when the w ind causes more air to move 252.5 K = T.
a correspondin g chan ge in the other two into a colum n o f air than is able to leave
variables. T hus, i t w ill be easier to under- (called net convergence), an d surface air To con ver t Kelvins into degrees Celsius, we
stan d t he behavior o f a gas if we keep one pressure decreases w h en the w ind causes subtract 273 from t he Kelvin temperature
variable from changin g and obser ve the mor e air to move out o f a colum n of air and obtain a temperatureof - 20.5°C, w hich
beh avior of the other two. than is able to enter (called net divergence). is the .same as- S°F.
Suppose, for example, we hold the Earlier, we considered how pressure and lfwe know the numerical values of
temperature constant . The relationship density are related when the temperature is temperature and density, w ith the aid of
then becomes not changing. What happens to the gas law the gas law we can obtain the air pressure.
w hen the pressure of a gas remains constant? For example, in Chapter 1 we saw t hatth e
p - p (temperature constant). average global temperature near sea level
In shorthand notation, the law becomes
This expression says t hat t he pressure of is about 1S"C (59"F), w hich is the same as
(Constant pressure) X constant = TX p. 288 K. If t he average air density at sea level
the gas is propor tional to its density, as
long as its temperature does not change. This relationship tells us that w hen the pres- is 1.226 kg/ m', w hat would be th e standard
Consequently, if the temperature o f a gas sure o f a gas is held constant, the gas be- (average) sea-level p ressure?
(such as a i ~ is held constant as the p res- comes less dense as the temperature goes Using the gas law, we obtain
sure increases the density increases, and up and more dense as the temperature goes p = TX 1>>< C
as the p ressure decreases the density de- do.vn. T herefore,. ot a givenatmosphen'c pres- p = 288 )( 1.226 )( 2.87
creases. In other words, at the same temper- sure, air that .is co/dis moredense than air that p = 10 13mb.
ature air at a higher pressure is more dense is warm. Keep in mind that the idea that cold
than air at a lower pressure. If we apply this air is more dense than warm air applies only Since the air pressure is related to both
concept to the atmosphere. then w ith w hen we compare volumes of air at the temperature and density, a small chan ge in
nearly the same temperature and eleva- same level w here pressure changes are either or both of these variables can bring
tion, air above a region o f surface high small in any horizontal direction. about a c hange in pressure.
We can use the gas law to obtain infor-
~i s g as la\Y may also be w ritten as p Xv= TX • Theconstant is usuallyex.pressed as 287 X 1Q'lerg.lg
mation about the atmosphere. For example,
constant .Consequently, pressureand temperature K.o r, in the SI system,<iS 287 Jfkg K.. (See Appendi x. A
atan akitude of about 5600 m (1 8,400 ft) br inb rmation regarding the units used here.}
diang esare also relat ed to c hanges in volume.
C'1'1'rif* )) ·~On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U .......................... " ' ,........in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••-..........h~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r.......... i....
<l<nl1nlfl•...,.._,~..,,*_ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~C<>f(l'tl.-1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• ""''"""..,,....,,..,n.
• FI GURE 8 .4 Diurnalsurfacepres·
sure changes in the middle latitudes and
1014 in the l ropics.
1012
"
~~010
Si 1006-""'--- + - -
1006
10'()() A.M. 4;00 PM, 10;00 P.M. 4:00A..M.

Sea-level pressure cflangas in middle latitudes on a given day
1014
1012
j 1010
~ 1008
1006- - - + - - - - - - - - - - - - i - - - - - - - l - - - - - - - - l
10.00 . ..... 10:00 P.M. 4 ;00 A.M .

Average sea-leveJ pressure changes In the tropics
pressure appe'1rs to be due primarily to the absorption of solar The unit of pressure designated by the i nternational
energy by ozone in the upper atm<>-sphere and by water vapor in System (SJ) of measurement is the prism/, named in honor of
the lower atmosphere. '!be warming and cooling of the air cre- Blaise Pascal ( 1632- 1662). wh0-se experiments on :ttm<>-spheric
ates density oscillations known as thermal (ornh11ospl1eric) tides pressure greatly increased our knowledge of the atmosphere.
that show up as small pressure changes near the earth's surface.
In middle latitudes, surface pressure changes are prim.'tr- mb
ily the re.suit of large high- and low-pressure areas that move 1110
tOw•trd or away from a region. Generally, when an area of high 1100 1092 mb (32.25 in.) Higflest recocded
pressure approach es a city, surface pressure usually rises. When 1090 · - - sea-level pressure: Tongsontsen,
it moves away, pressure usually falls. Likewise, an approaching Mongolia (Oecember. 2004)
31,89 1060
l0\\ causes the air pressure to fall. and one moving 3\\•ay causes
1
31.60 1070 1064 mb (31.42'" Highest rOCQrded
1060 _ _ _ Gea-leve4 pre$$Ure n lhe continental
l
surfare pressure to rise. 31.30 Uniled States (excluding Alask.o):
31.00 1050 Mlee City, Montana (OeC:ember, 1983)
PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS Instruments th:ll detect and 3071 1040 · - - Strong high-pressure system
measure pressuredianges are called barometers, which literally 3042 1030
means an instrument that measures bars. You may recall from 30.12 1020
Chapter I that a bar is a unit of pressure that describes a force _ 1013.25 mb (29.92 in.) S1andard
29.82 1010 sea-levei pressure
over a given area.• Because the bar isa relatively large unit, and 29.53- 1000
because surface pressure changes are normally small, the unit 29.24- 990
d pre.s sure commonly round on surface weather maps is, as we 980 - Oeep k:tw-pfessure sys1em
saw in Chapter l,the miUJbar (mb). where I mb = 1/ 1000 bar or 970
1 bar = 1000 mb. 960
950
A common pressure unit used in aviation is inches of nrercury 940
(Hg). At sea level, standanl atmospheric pressure" is 000
2717 920 _ _ _ 920 mb (27.17 in) Hurricane Katrina
1013.25 mb = 29.92 in. Hg= 76 cm. during londloll (August. 2005)
26.87 - 910
As areference, efig. 8.5 compares pressure readings in inches of 26.58 - 900
mercury and millibars.
890 882 mb (26.04 in,) Hurricane W1rna
600 · - - (Oetob01. 2005)
'A bar i$a fora of 100,()(X> ne\\10nsactingon 11 surface arc:i of I .s.quiue me1er.
A 11ewto11 (N) is the 11mount of force required to nlove an obJed \\'ith a nu.ss of 870 - 870 mb (25.70 1n,) Lowest r<!<:ord<ld
860 ~4evel pfessure. Typhoon Tip
I kilogra1n so th.lt it increases its speed at a 1'ille of I me1er per-second each socond
(October. 1979)
Additional pre.ssure unilsnnd conversions Me gi\t'n in Appendix A. 850
· •Stt1nd:ird a11nospheric pressure at Soei'l level is the pressure extended by a colu1nn
of mercury 29.92 in. (760 1n1n) high. having a dcnsiry of 1.36 X I er kg.11n). -and
subject to an acceleration ofgravityof 9.80 nl/seC. • F I GURE 8. 5 A tmospheric pressure in incheso f mercury and in millibars..
A pascal (l'.'a) is the force of 1 ne\\100 acting on a surface area of WEATHER WATCH
1 square meter. 'JbtLS, 100 pascals equals l millibar. The scientific
Alt hough 1013.25 mb (29.92 in.) is the standard atmo-
commtmity often uses the kilopasui (kl'a) as the unit of pres-
spheric pressure at sea level, it i.s not the average sea 4
sure. \\•here t kl'a = LOmb. 1--fo\\'eVE.'T. a more convenient unit is level pressure. The ea rt h's averag e sea 1evel pressure is 4
the hectopascal (hl'a), as 1011.0 mb (29.85 in.) . Because much of the earthJs su rface
l hPa = l mb. is above sea level. the ea rth's annua l average surface
pressure is estimated to be 984.43 mb (29.07 in.) .
Presently, the hectopascal is gradually replacing the millibar as
the preferred unit of pressure on surface weather maps.
BecatL<;e \\"e measure atmo.c;pheric pres.c;ure \\•ith an instru· in the tube.) Mercury seldom rises to a height above 80 cm
ment called a barometer, atmospheric pressure is also referred (3 1. 5 in.). A water barometer, however, presents a problem.
to as barometric pressure. Evangelista Torricelli, a student of Because water is 13.6 times le,s.~ dense than mercury, an atmo-
Galileo, invented the mercury barometer in 1643. tfa barom- spheric pressure of 76 cm (30 in.) of mercury would be equiva-
eter, similar to those in use today, consisted of a long glass tube lent to l 034 cm (408 in.) of "·ater. A "·ater barometer resting on
open at one end and cl0-sed at the other (see e Fig 8.6). Remov- the ground near sea level would have 10 be read from a ladder
ing air from the tube and covering the open end, Torricelli <Ner JO m (33 ft) tall.
immersed the lower portion into a dish ofmercury. He removed 111e most common type of home barometer-the aneroid
the cover, and the mercury r0-se up the tube to nearly 76 cm barometer -contains no fluid. Jnsidethis instrument is a small,
(or about 30 in.) above the level in the dish. 1orricelli correctly flexible mc1al box called an aneroid a.>/l. Before the cell is tightly
concluded that the column ofmercury in the tube was balancing se.ale.d, air is partially removed, so that small changes in external
the weight of the air above the dish, and hence its height was a air pressure cause the cell to expand or contract. The size ofthe cell
measure of atm0-spheric pres.sure. is calibrated to represent diffurent pressures, and any change in its
Why is mercury rather than water used in the barometer? size is amplified by levers and transmitted to an indicating arm,
'The primary reason is convenience. (ALo;o. \\'ater can evaporate which points to the current atmospheric pressure (see • Fig 8.7).
Notice that the aneroid barometer often has descriptive
weather-related words printed above specific pressure values.
'Jbese descriptions indicate the most likely weather conditions
when the needle is pointing 10 that particular pressure reading.
Generally, the higher the reading, the more likely dear weather
- vacuum "ill occur, and the lower the reading, the better are the chances
for inclem<!nl \\ eather. 'This situation occurs because surface
1
-Gfasstube high-pressure areas are associated withsinkingair and normally

fair \\"Cather, where-as surface I0\\ -pressure areas are associated 1
\\ith rising air and usually cloudy, wet weather. A steady rise
in atmospheric pressure (a rising barometer) usually indicates
clearing weather or fair weather, whereas a steady drop in atmo-
spheric pressure (a falling barometer) often signals the approach
<i a cyclonic storm \\•ith inclement \\ eather. 1
1h e altimeter and barograpli are two types of aneroid

barometers. Altimeters are aneroid barometers that measure
Heigh! pressure, but are calibrated to indicate altitude. Barographs are
76 cm (29 9hi.) recording aneroid barometers. Basically, the barograph consists
of a pen anached to an indicating arm that marks a continuous
record of pressure on chart paper. 'Jbe chart paper is anached
to a drum rotated slowly by an internal mechanic.al dock (see
• Fig 8.8).
PRESSURE READINGS ' lbe seemingly simple task of reading

the height of the mercury column to obtain the air pressure is
actually not all that simple. Being a fluid, mercury issensitiveto
change,s in temperature; it will expand when heated and con-
tract when cooled. Consequently, to obtain accurate pressure
readings without the influence of temperature, all mercury
barometers are corrected as if they were read at the same tem-
perature. Because the earth is not a perfect sphere, the force of
• FI GURE 8. 6 The mercury barometer. The heighl of the m ~u rycol umn is gravity is not a constant. Since small gravity differences influ-
a me.a.sure of atmospheric pressure. ence the height of the mercury column, they must be considered
C'1')'rif• ) ) ·~ On~""""""~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U . ......... ................ " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, "" "'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w....r....,.....i....
<l<nl1nl fl •....,.._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~C<>f(l'tl..1~..,'11"""....., fl~••lf. .,,..,....,:.11,noo,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,n.
M<oroid call • FIGURE 8. 8 Arecordi"i!i»JOglOph.
Amplifying levers being at different elevations nbovc SC-ll lcvd. This fact bccomts
• FIGURE 8. 7 Theaneroid barometer. t>vcn clearer when we rcalil.c that atmO>phcric pressure changes
much more quickly when we move upward than it does when we
when reading the bnromtter. Finally. each l>nrornetcr has it:. move >idcways. A~ an example. the vertical change in air prcs-
0\\10 "buih.,in" error,caUedinstnunent error, \\1hich l~c;iused, in ;urc from the base to the top of the Empire State Building-a
part, bytlw;,urfocetensionofthcmtrcury against the glass tube. distance of a little more than Y, km - is typically much greater
After bdng corrected for tanperature. gravity, and in>trwnent than the horizon1al difference In Jir pressure from New York
erro.r, I he barometer reading al a particular location and cleva- City to Miami, Florida - • di.tanceof over 1600 km. Therefore,
t ion i; termed station pressure. wecanseethata small vertical difference between twoobscrva·
• Figure 8.9a gi\"l!S the station pressure measured at four tion sites can yield a brge difference in station pressure. Thu:.,
locations only a few hundred kilometers apart. 1 he differelll to properly monitor horizon1al chang<'S in pressure, barometer
sta1ion pre.>ures of the four cities are due primarily to the cities readings must be corrected for altitude.
• FIGURE 8.9 The lop d~r•m la>~srourcities{A. B, C. and

0) at varying elevatlon\abovt: SN l@Yt'~all with different station
pressura The middle dbigram (b) 1~.i.ents sea-k!vel pressures
ofthefourdtlei plQn edon o K'l· MltharLThe bottom diagram
(cl showssea~level pres:s1.1ro reodlngsof the four c:ities plus other
~n'ICJ sea-level pressure readings, wllh lsobA1sd1awn on thechart{gray
lines}at intervals d 4 milllbllrs..
,,,....,
i
l
1100M
•
JOO"'
• l
Diognm(t l I
I I I I
•llO"*' •30ml> •110 mb .o..o
I I
I
I
I
"1012"*'
I
1ooomb
I
~1004ml>
'
I
6'000 ori>
N 8
I I I
J f I I
. 101 .. t : 1010 I I ' I 1003 t I
1,;- • I #°1007 1 I • 1/.
. 101s 11'
• t012
10097.'
• 1ooa y'
too- 1001. ·II1000 998
101"4.
1013/ .,~.
t010
· ./ · too'. ~·~
UXllS 'Kl03 /
Att•b~:siO~l!J!l
,..,.... )11,J{.,~.._..,tAl'°'llna-....i
.-...i 11.--···~- ··-~ ..... . . . . . . . . _... . . . ,. . .. ,.
'°""''*''ion..-'-- - .,.i......,"""'•"'t.-11r•,...t- l!l. W.,__
~._(;_ ._~-- . ........_...i_,,,..,_ •..,_...""'......,... _.__....,._.
,.__..., ,..., ..,._..., • .,ft"'..... ..,•1!114M!l- ....Not.ll.....•ll.......,t•- •
Alt//wfo cumxtlum nre mndc "'' thnt 11 barometer rending
taken at one clev1ulon con be compnred with n barometer read·
ing taken ut •Ulother. Station pre»urc 11b;erv11tlo11> nrc minnally Surface and Upper-Level Charts
adju•tcd to u level of mum• Jfll /n,4 the level reprc;cnting the The isobars on the surface map in • i'ig. 8. iOu arc drnwn
average surface ofthc occur~ ' l he ndju>tcd rc.1<llnt1 ls called SC•· precisely, ,,~th each individual ob.crvntion taken Into a"ount.
le>'CI press=. !he >ite oflhe oorrl'Ctlon de~nct. primarily on Notkethat many of the lines are irregular, c>p<'Cinllym moun
how high the >tat km &>•bow ;ca level tainous regions O\-er the Rockies. '(be rea.on for th• w1ggk u
Ne:trlhe cartn> •urf•lc,•tm~phetk pt~urc decreases on due, in part, tosmall-sc:tle local variations in pt•'SW<C and to
theawrngeb)' :aboo1 I01111Drb.infotevtty IOOm<tcn.uicreasdn errors introduced by corrttting obStt\'Jlioru that were token
d<''alioo (abool I 111. uf mcn:ury for ea<.h IOOO· ft nsei •Notice at high-altitude stations. An atttmt case uf th1~ ty~ of m<>r
in Fig. 8. 9.t lh.11 Cll)' A ""' • >!•hon pR">Utt I)( 952 miDiban.. ocrursat L"°"'ille· Cdorndo (de\':1.tioo 3096 in). the lugh~<•y
KOlicc .tlso that Ctty A ,. 600 mttm above ..... lo:\·cl Adding in 11Y United SlaleS. Hett, the SlaliOn ptt»U tt •• IYI'"'" lly ne:tr
10 milib.t> ptt 100 mctt'r> lo rt> ..Ulll>n pr<»utt )ldd. a SU· 700 mb. lhismeans that nearly JOO mb IDl.1$tbe.kldeJ t0Qbt.i111
l"'d pttS>Uttof 1012 mb(hg. 8.9b). Af1tt al thutuion ~·
sunsatt..clj~d to >c.1 lo:\d (fig. 8.9':). "'" att able lO >tt llY
hori.to1uhan.iuoru 1n .ca l"'d p~ - ;c>me11ung"e"m>
not able to >tt from the •Ullc>n prNutn alonr in fig. 8.9.t.
a -.t"'-d pRSSUrt' ttading~ A mttt I p~t etrot m t'llmat
ing theexactcoatttion would mull ma J·mberrur
pre;.sure. For this ttason. isobars art unOOllYd tlv0<igh re.kl
l"'d m-
i ngs from bigb-iliude sulioru and from .iahc>n> that might
When m0tt Pfb.u<e d~u art addtd (H'<' hg. 8.9':), tlY
Chart GUI bt analyud and IM J'l'l">>Utt pattern VISWliztd.
have small obsen·ational errors. Figutt 8.IOb ..00...·•
isobars appear on the surface map afttt lhty att smoothed.
tlY "°"
lsoban ~ curmccungpotrrt> oftqu31 pt~)•tt Jn"·n at The - -Ind pttSSUtt chart dcscnbcd so f.ir u calleJ a am ·
inletVabof 4 mb. •• " llh I000 mb h<:uig lht ha~ \'Olhit. Note 1h:11 s1an1 heigh/ chart because it ttpttSmts tbt atmO>phenc prc..u tt
!ht i!.obat> do oot pa» through l".'l<h pouit. bot, rathtt, between at a con!>tant le\'el - in this case. sl".'l levtl '!be >amt type ~chart
many of them, wth thec.uct valucshe111111nterpolateJ fromtlY muld he drawn to show the hotizonl:ll variation> m prc;.>ure at
dab given on the ch.in. For cx.1111ple. follow the IOOR· mb hnt any level in the atmosphere; for example, at 3000 meters (•et
from the topofthcchartM>Ulhward ar-1d ob•erve that therci~ no • Fig. 8.11).
plotted prc.;,urc of 1008 1111ll1b.1n.. lhc 1008· miUobar; isobar, Another l}pe of chart commonly Ui>l' elmer to 1he >!~lion"''' h J i.ca·level prc>1>urc of weather is the constant pre$$11re dmrt, or isobarl cchurt. Insreod
1007 mb th:tn it <loci.to 1hc .iutkin wi1h o pre.;urc of 10 10 mb. cl showing pressure variation. 31 a coru.lant allilu<lc, thcsc dl:lrl>
With it• isobtir;,, the bottom lhilrt (Pig. 8.9c) I• now coiled" nre constructed 10 show height variutlon> along o con•tnnt
sea-level p1cj$11rccl111rt or.Imply 11 surfoce map. When wcothcr pressure (isobaric) surface. Consttull prc:.;urc charts arc C(ln·
data •Ire plonccl on the mop it bcwmcs n s111fticc 1wr1tlwr "'"P· venient to use because the height variables they ;,how ure cn,lcr
.,"hl.sdecrc;i.sc In a1nll1~rh c rk11' "-'\lll~ "'" h hell'. hi ( 10 1nhf 100 111) C"lc:Cutt> \\'ht n to deal "1th in meteorologlcal equations than the vnrlnblcs of
I.he air tc 1npctalUI C dt.'C l'C:lMl.l lll lhtt .1ol.Ult.ll l il l.tpW l o'l lCtll &.\"(!ft (M)I) 1n, 8tC:.hl\.t pressure. Since isobariccharts are in common 11.>c, k1's cx:unlnc
u11nosphcri< pn:s.i.uri! d4'C!u.'.'IW:t n1rn c 1.1pldly "'''' h height lu 'old (111tll\1 ·ti!: n S4') air them in detail.
th:an it docs In 'i\'ilrlll (k~•·Wn w) olb, lht! ~(I tlc.-J r .1tcu f ru•t.'! lrC 1.h.1ngc: '" ty,,lailly Imagine that the dots inside the air column In • Fig. 8.12
greater th.an 10 n'lb f><I' IClO 111 In ..:old nlr ,,1ul "''"' 1h.1n th.11 In 'i\,Hnl l'llr
''An intcrv.1.1of2mb would pul lhc hna 11101.low l!lfltlher, Jl~l .ln IC nlblnle!°'.11
represent tightly packed air molecull'S from the surfucc up to the
\<11:1U.ld sp•-ad th<m ~loll' ,;iparl tropopause. Assume that the air deru.ity i> coru.1w11 throughout
a~ .
" . . I015
'"' I } •
• .'
ICl12
(o) I~) 1012 1018
e FIGURE 8 .10 CalStt IMbcDIDdf.nvnta lha1 e1~obl«V1t1ona1.tenintoaccooot.Not alobservatiomareplotted. (bl S..Mlitoblftilfl• MnOOlh~9
Ar<O!lfloll'F t1C..~4•AH1
l +.111,H•. . '--1All ..t.. li_..111 M..,1t••l>••.,....&•1.,..w .. 11..-.-....1 ....;.,.,.,,,.,., a... ... -...._. ..... -lhool,..-y..,_ _ ._.,,,.._. ...."1o~•""'•"~"'1I"""°'''""'"""''•-'-
'" ..................... -...... .;......................,. .... u •• - · --.,. ...r--. " ..."'.., __..,._ ,..,.., i. ......-.w.-.t...- · - -· ·;.""'- •• -·'-"'"'''""'"""
5600m 18 «XI ft 11.000 m Conslanl
helghl
(5600ml
5600m
llOOOm •
. .• .
. .
. .
, .....,., ,
.
..
...
•
.....
. . .1',... .
(•••
.. .. .
..._ ~.
~
0 m .__ _..;,.;_ _ _ __ ,
• f tGURE 8.12 When thfft M no hoda>n\11 vMia1bnsin pressure.coo·

Slant pres.sure surface .,e PM:liel to consttnt hftght s.urfa ces. In the diagram.
a measured prew.1re o( SOO mlblt1 It S600mettrs lbove sea ll'Yf?level'f·
where..(Dd.sin the diagram ntpm-entaW mdttuAH.l
• FIGURE 8. 11 E.Kh ~ showsisoba..on uonscan1 he.gr. thatLTh< A\/f!tag&
---~:
lt0b#\ reprnetn vadattons n horizOfUl pressure •t ch.it 1ltlhde. Anawra91'
lsobtr It wltMilwouldbe about 1000 mb; at 3000 m.about700 mtxand at . si.rfaoe
S«lOm, aboutSOO mb. (5600m)
the entire air layer and that all of the air molecules are sc1ueczcd
in10 this layer. lf we climb halfway up 1ht< air c-Olumn nndstop, ' '
then druw ushcctlikesurface represenling 1hislcvcl, we will haw ''
madcu constant height surface. This ;tltitudc (5600 m) is where '
\\'C \\ oukl, under standard conditions. n1en.~ure n pressure of
1
500 millibars. Observe that everywhere nl<>ng this surface

(shaded tan ht the diagram) there are an equal number of mol-
eruks abO\'C and bdow it 1bis condition means 1hat !he level
of constint height also represents a level of constant presSUtt.
Al every point on this isobaric surfaa, the hcigh1 is 5600 meters
nbo\-e sea lt\'cl and the pressure is 500 millibars. Within the air
column. we could cut any number ofhorizontal slices, each one
It a different altitude, and each >lice would repreo.ent both an
isobaric and constant height surface. A map of any one of these • FIGURE 8.13 The area~ gr~ln th4! abowdiagramrepre..sentsa
surfaces would be blank, since there are no hori20n1:•I vnriolions surface ofconstant pressure.. ar l1e>~rlc klrrKe.Berc:au:Se of the <hange.s in air
in either pressure or altitude. density, the isobaric surface tlW$ In W4tm., ltu·den.$@ D' and IOrNers in mid.
If I he air tcmpera1ure should change in any portion of more-dense air. Where the horixontttl temptracu,. t hanges most quic:kly, the
1he colmnn, the air density and pressure would change along isobaric surface changes elevation most Jl>pldly.
\\ilh It. Notice in • Fig. 8.13 that '''e h;we c-0lder:1ir to the north
:ind wnrmer air to the south. To simplify this situntion, we will level, while in thecoldcr,more·dcnse air, it is observed at a much
:J>Sumc thnt the atmospheric pressure nt the earth's surface lower (than average) level. Prom these observations, we can see
rcm3.ins constant. He.nee, the total number of molecule• in tbc that when 1/1e air aloft is ''""'"· co11s11111t pressure surfaces are
column above each region must remain constnnt. typically found at higher eli:vat io11s titan 11om1al, and wltl!tl the
In Fig. 8.13, the ar~ shaded gray at the top of the col- niraloft istold. constant p~sure surfaixs ore t)pirafly found at
umn represents a constant pressure (isobaric) surfncc. where lower tln'Otiom t/1m1 11onn11l
the atmospheric pressure at all points along this surface is The variations in hdght of the isobruic swface in fig. 8.13
500 millibars. Notice that in the wam,.,r, less-dense alt the are shown in • Fig. 8.l •t. Note that where the constant altitude
500-mb pressure surface is found nt a higher (than a>1!rage) lines htter:sect the 500-mb prcssurcsurfuce,contour linesOhtes
Att. . . . ~,,l)~l!J!l
.-...i11.--···~-··-~ ...................... _ ..........,... .. ,.
~._(;_ ._~-- .........._...i_,,,..,_ •..,_ ...""'......,... _._ _....,._.
• FI GURE 8.14 Changes in attitude ofan isobaric
surface (500 mb) sho.>1 upascontour lines on an iso-
baric (500 mbl map. Where the isobaric surface dips
most rapidly. the contour linesarec:loser together on
the SOO·mb map.
55SOm
"
""''' '
5520m
""''
• I I
"''
I I
I 1 f
I I
I
I I I I l I I I
s
.;.<S>
VV/V
~ /~ .p..P
N
SOO.mb m:J~ Contour line
connecting points of equal elevation) are drawn on the 500-mb usually decrease in value from south to north because the air
map. Each contour line, of course, tells us the altitude above sea is typically warmer to the south and colder to the north. The
kvd al which "'e can obtain a pressure reading of 500 mb. ln lines, however, are not straight; they bend and turn, indicating
the warmer air to the south, the elevations are high, while in the ridges (elongated highs) where the air is warm and indicating
oold air to the north, the elevation~ are low.1 he contour lines depressions, or troughs (elongated lows), where the air is cold. l n
are cro"•ded together in the middle of the chart, where the pres- • Fig. 8.15, we can see how the wavy contours on the m ap relate
sure surface dips rapidly due to the changing air temperatures. to 1he changes in altitude of the isobaric surface.
Where 1here is little horizontal lemperature change, there are Although we have examined only the 500-mb chart, other
also few conlour lines. Although contour lines are height lines, isobaric charts arecommonl y used. • Tabk 8. l lists these charts
keep in mind that they illustrate pressure as do isobars in that and their approximate heights above sea level.
con/Our lines of/ow height represent a region oflo iverpressure and Upper-level charts are a valuable tool. As we will see, they
con/Our lines ofhigh heighI represent a region ofhighlo· pressure. show wind-flow palleni~ that are extremely important in fore-
Since cold air aloft is normally associated with low heights casting the weather. Th ey can also be used to determine the
and warm air aloft with high height~,on upper-air charts repre- movement of weather systems and to predict the behavior of
senting the Northern Hemisphere, contour lines (and i~obars) surfare pressure areas. 1b the pilot of a small aircraft, a constant
pressure chart can help determine whether the plane is flying
Sudace o4
cons1a111 --..,. • TABLE 8.1 Common Isobaric Charts and Their Approximate
pressure
Elevation Above Sea level
Cokl
ISOBARIC SURFACE APPROXIMATE ELEVATION
IMB) CHARTS !Ml IFTJ
1000 120 400
850 1460 4800
700 3000 9800
500 5600 18,400
, 300 9180 30,100
• FI GURE 8.15 The \vavelik.e patterns cl an isobaric surface reflect the 200 I 1.800 38.700
changes in air temperature.An elongated region cl \varm airaloft sho\YS up
JOO 16,200 53,200
on an isobaric map a.s higher heights and a ridge; the colder air sho\vsas lo\...er
heights.and a trough.

<1<n11....i., ,.....,.._,~..,,._
'*"'.......
'°"">' .....buq10.U . ......................... " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••-..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., .,~,.,i.. ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'""".... ....,,.....
(b) \Jpper-111"!> (500 rrt>)
• f tGURE 8.16 C..J SwfKe map stoow"'9 •.sol hkJh i1ttd ION prew.ue.. The solid Ines are isobaG drawn at 41nb Sltervah... TheillfOW) fl.'P'tie"11 whd dilltCtlCl"I.
Not<ethlt tht wW'ld blowi oao" lhebobMs. ~ 11\t' ~t-iewl CSOO-mb} map fOf the same day as theslrlac.e map. Solid li"tti on tht m.ap M contou1 Una ~ rM"
tfrsaboveioM MtOtihed Nd llnft 1tehotherm'., •c. Anows.showwind c:Hedioo. Notice that, on th& '4Jl)eNir m.1p. tte wt'ld ~paol.t10 th& carno.u tlntl.
at an altitude either highcrorlower tMn its altimeter indic:ites.

(For more informntion on thi> topic. reod tlw Focus section
"Flying on n Con>tanl Pressure Surface- High to Low. Look Newton's Laws of Motion
Out Below," p. 210.) Our understanding of why the wind blows stretches back
• Figure 8. 16a Is n simplifil-d surface map that shows through several centuries. with many scientists colllributing to
areas of high and lo\\' prc.>surc ond tlrrO\\'S that indic-ate 1vind our kno"1edge. When w<? think ofthe movement ofa ir, however,
tlirectio11 -thc direction from which the wind is blowing. 1 he one great scholar stands out- Isaac Newton (1642- 1727), who
large blue I I'> on th" mnp indlcntc the centers of high pressure, filrmulated several fundamental laws ofmotion.
which are nlso culled anticyclones. 'I he ktrgc LS represent cen- Ne"1on's fU'st la\\• of motion states that 1111 object at rest ivill
ters of low pressure, nlso known us deprcssio11s or mi d-lalilude nunain at rest and tH1 objeL'f in 1uotion 1vill renu,iu in 1uo1lou
cyclonlcstorms bccnusethcy form in the middle latitudes, out- (a11d travel at 11 co11stant velodiy a/011g 11 stmig/11 /i11e) as /011g
side of llK• tropic>. "Ihe solid dark lines arc isobars \\;th units in as 110 force is exerted 011 the object. For ext1mplc, ll baseball in n
millibars. Notice that the >urfocc wind• tend to blow across the pitcher~ hand will r<nlain there until a force (ll push) ncl~ upon
isobars toward regions oflowcr pressure. In fact, as we briefly the bnU. Once the ball is pushed (thrown). it woukl continue to
observed in Chapter I, in the Northern I lcmisphere the winds move in that direction forever if it were not for the force of nir
blowcounterdock"i.cand inward tow;U'd the center of the lows friction (which slows it down), the force of gravity (which pubs
and dock\\ise and out ward from the center of the highs. it toward the ground), and the catcher~ mill (which exerts nn
Figure 8. I6b >hows an upper·uir chnrt (a 500-mb isobaric equal but opposite force to bring ii ton halt). SiniiL"ly, to .inrt
map) for the snmc cby n.>thesurfne<mapin Fig.8.16.,_ Thesolid air moving, to speed ii up, to slow ii down. or C\'Cll to change its
gray lilll'S on tbe map ore contour lines given in meters above direction requires the action ofan external force. This brings us
s<3 level ·1 he d;/ferena? in elcv:Jlion between L'ach contour Line to Newton's second law.
(called the co11to'4r i11tcrvol) is 60 meters. Superimposed on this Newton's second lawst'11tslh'11 tht forr:ecxtrted 011 a11 objtct
map art dashed red llno.>S, which rqiresent lines of equal tem- equals its 11u1SStimes the accelmll io11 produced. In S)mbobc form.
perature (oothemu). Observe how the contour lines tend to this la'v is \\•ritten as
purnllel the i>olhcnns. A> we would <'XJlC(t. the contour lines
tend to dccn.':lM' in valuefromsouth to north. F=ma.
1hc arrows on the 500-mb map show the wind direction. From this relationship we can Stt that. when the ma.s of an
Notiu that, unlike tbe surface winds th:11 cross the isobars in d>ject is constant, thc force actingon the ~eel IS directly related
Fig. 8.16a. the wind> on the 500-mb chart tend to flow paraUel to the acceleration that is produced. A force in Its simplest i>rm
to the contour lin6 in a wavy wcsMO·cast direction. Why does is a push or a pull Acalcrat io11 is tlit sp<:tdi11g up. tlit slawi11g
thc wind tend to cro>s the lsiobars on a surface map, yt!l blow dawn, ar tlit d1angi11g ofdiredio11 ofan object. (More prcci;;cly.
pamlkl lo the contour lin6 (or isoba") on an upP"r-air chart? accderation is the cllangcin wlodty• over a pa-iodof thncJ
To answer thi• question we wiO now examine the forces that
afl"'ct \\1 ind~. ·velocity ~edfies both the s.ptt:d of en obj«I and ltsdlrtt-I On ol nlOlltln
..:....,.. )lllt.. ,... t--JAll . .lbtl_.•, Ml'l',.!lll"fl'l'..I •QrnOI •• .. ...,..... .,...,•.,.,,,,,.,., ri..,,,, • ...,.,...,..,,_._,. llmli-y ..,,• .,....,ho .,w-.ilru1t11l1edlto. . .1l\o ,(lo ..."'YI I,,._...,.,,,. .......
......,,.,,,,,._ • .,.•.-...,....,••.,. ,....... ""'""""" .,(111.111.. -•in.,.,.,~~·. . e..'1!'11-'.-..,.-..- ••u'flo .,,..,._,.u,..,,.t,......,. ,...,. ""•" •"'-.- .._,• ... .,.,...,.,,~..,11
Flying on a Constant Pressure Surface -
High to Low, Look Out Below
Aircraft t hat u se pressure altimeters typi- and w h ere high w inds an d turbulence can can obtain a curren t altimeter setting from
cally fly alon g a con stan t p ressure surface redu ce th e air pressure drastically. To ensure ground con trol. With this additional infor-
rath er th an a con stan t altitu de surface. adequ ate clearan ce under th eseconditions, mation, th e altimeter reading will more
They do this because the altimeter, as we pilots fly th eir aircraft high er th an they n or- closely match th e aircraft'sactu al altitude.
savv earlier, is simply an an eroid barometer mally would, con sider air temperature, an d Becau se o f t h e inaccuracies inheren t
calibrated to con vert atmosph eric pressure compu te a more realistic altitude by resettin g in th e pressure altimeter, man y high per-
to an approximate altitude. Th e altitu de in- th eir altimeters to reflect th ese con ditions. forman ce an d commercial aircraft are
dicated by an altimeter assumes a standard Even w ith ou t sh arp temperature equipped w ith a radio altimeter. This de-
atmosphere where the air temperature ch an ges, pressure sur faces may d ip su d- vice is like a small radar unitth atmeasures
decreases at the rate of6 .5°CJ1000 m denly (see Fig. 3). A n aircra ft flying into an th e alt itu de o f th e aircraft by sen ding ou t
(3.6°F/ 1000 ft). Since th e air temperature area of decreasing pressure w ill 10'3e altitu de radio waves, w hich bounce off th e terrain.
seldom if ever, decreases at exactly this unless correction s are made. For example, Th e time it takes th ese waves to reach th e
rat~ altimeters generally indicate an alti- suppose a pilot h as set th e altimeter for sea- surfa ce an d return is a measure of th e air-
tuded ifferen t from th eir t rue elevation. level pressure above station A . At this loca- c ra ft 's altitude. If u sed in conj unction w ith
Figure 2 sh ows a stan dard colum n o f tion, th e plan e is flying alon g an isobaric sur- a pressure altimeter, a pilot can determine
air bounded on each side by air w ith a d if- face at a true altitu de o f SOO ft. As th e plan e th e variation s in a con stan t pressure sur-
feren t temperature an d density. On th e left flies toward station B, th e pressure surface face simply by flying alon g th at surface
side, th e air is warm; on th e righ t, it is cold. (an d th e plan e) dips bu t th e altimeter con - an d obseiving h ow th e true elevation
Th e oran ge line represen ts a constan t pres- tinues to read SOO ft, w hich is too high. To measured by th e radio altimeter ch an ges.
sure surfaceof 700 mbas seen from th e correct for su ch c h an ges in pressure, a pilot
side. In th e stan dard air, th e 700-mb sur-
face~ located at 10,000 ft above sea level. e FI GURE 2 An aircraft
In th e warm air, th e 700-mb surface AltlmetOf flying along a surface
11,000 Indicates o f constant prenure
rises; in th e cold air, it descen ds. An airc raft 10,000 fl Alll!'l<lter (orange line} may change
fnchcates
flying a lon g th e 700-mb surface would be
at an altitu de less th an 10,000 ft in th e cold
g:10,500 700 Ol!).. ~ I 10 .000 ft
AJlimeter
a ltit ude as the a ir tem-
p erature changes. Vi/ith-
air, equ al to 10,000 ft in th e stan dard air,
~ 10.000
·•-
Waim ....___'!'t- ..__ ; indica1""
10,000tt
o ut being corrected fo r
the temperaturechange.
and greater th an 10, 000 ft in th e warmer
air. W ith n o correction s for temperatur~
~ air
Star1ard
--~
• _
a pressure altimeter w ill
9600 700 continue t o read the
th e altimeter would indicate th e same alti- inr
sameeleva tion.
Cold
tude at all three positions becau se th e air air
pressure does n ot ch an ge. We can see th at,.
if n o temperature correction s are made, an
aircraft flying into warm air will increase in
altitudean d fly higherth an its altimeter 984mb
indicates. Pu t an oth er way: T h e altimeter 1000
inside th e plan e w ill read an altitude lower Altimeter 988 mb
reads, _
th an th e plan e's true elevation. SOO IL \- 992 mb
Flying from stan dard air into cold air - - --:;::::::::--- ....__ 996 mb
represents a poten tially dan gerous situ a- ~ soo Altimet~ __,- - - 1000mb
tion. As an aircraft flies into cold air, it flies
alon g a lowering pressure surface. If n o
~ -~~----- / _..,..-- Isobar$~~ - 1004 mb
..,..'"'."· ./ ./"' - 1008mb
correction fo r temperature is made, th e
altimeter sh ows no ch an ge in elevation
0 L /' t / , ' I ' •/ • H
Stauon B Station A
even th ough th e aircraft is I0'3ing altitu de; - -----1ooomies------
hence, the plan e will be flying lower th an
the altimeter indicates. This problem can be e FI GURE 3 In theabsenceof ho rizontal temperat urechanges, pressure surfaces can d ip
seriou s, especially for plan es flying above toward the earth's surface.An aircraft fl ying aJong the pressure surface w ill either lose or g ain
mountainous terrain with poor v isibility a lt it ude, depending o n the direction o f fligh t.
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1
.. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
&cause more than one force may act upon an object,
Ne\\10n'ssecond law always refers to the nel, or total, force that TANK A TANKS
results. An object will always accelerate in the direction of the
total force acting on it. 1 herefore, to determine in which direc-
tion the wind will blow, we must identify and ex.~mine all ofthe
forces that affect the horizontal movement of air. These forces
include:
1. pressure gradient force
2. Coriolis IOrce
3. centripetal force
4. friction
We will first s1udy the forces th'1l influencer he flow of air aloft.
Then \\'e will see which forces modify winds near 1he ground.
Forces That Influence the Winds Higher Net Lower

pressure force pressure
We already know thal horizonlal differences in a1mospheric
pressure cause air to move and. hence.the \\•ind toblov,•. Since • FI GURE 8.17 The higher water level creates higher fluid pressure at the
air is an invisible gas. it may be easier to see hov,, pres.~ure bottom of tank.A and a net force directed to\vard the 10\verfluid pressure at
differences: cause motion if\,re examine a visible fluid, such the bottom of tank B. This net force causes water to movefrom higher pressure
as \\•at er. to\wrd lower pressure.
In • Fig. 8.1 7, the 1wo large tanks are connected by a pipe.

Tank A is lwo-thirds full and lank Bis only one-half full. Since
1he wate.r pressure at lhe bouom of each lank is proportional to l lsobars l
the weight of water above, !he pressure al 1he botlom of tank A
is greater than 1he pressure al 1he botlom of lank B. Moreover,
Htgh
Pressure
~ ~ Low
Pressure
since fluid pressure is e.xerted equally in all directions, there is a ~ ~
grealer pressure in the pipe direc1e.d from tank A toward tank B
than from B loward A. H
T Net T., L
Since pressure is force per unil area, there must also be a
net force direc1ed from tank A 1oward lank B. This force causes Po.1nl 1 •
I force
-iI ~'
r ui.OI
2
1he ""ater lo flow from left to right, from higher pressure toward - 100 1<.m I
lo"•er pressure. 'I he greater the pressure difference, the stronger
the force, and the fa~ter the waler move-~. In a similar way, hori-
zontal differences in atmospheric pressure cause air to move.
• F I GURE 8.18 The pressure gradient bet\\E'en point 1 and point 2is4 mb
per 100 km. The net force directed from higher to\vard 10\ver pres.sure is the
PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE • Figure 8.18 shows a region press.uregradienr !otce.
of higher pres~ure on lhe map'.~ lefl side, lo"<er pre-~sure on the
righ1. 'lbe isobarsshow how the horizontal pressure is changing.
If we com pule 1he amount ofpressure change 1hat occurs over a Suppose 1he pressure in Fig. 8. 18 were 10 change and the
i~bars become closer 1oge1her. This condition would produce
given distance, \\'e have the pressure gradient; lhus
a rapid change in pressure over a rela1ively short dislance, or
> d. difference in pressure what is called a steep (or strong) pressure gmdimt. However, if
I ressure gra ient = -----~--
dislance 1he pressure "'ere to change such 1ha11he isobars spread farther
apart, then 1hedifference in pressure would be small over a rela-
lf we let the symbol de.lta (ll) mean "a change in," we can simplify livcly large distance. 1 his condition is called a gentle (or weak)
1he expre.ssion and write the pressure gradient as pressure gmdient.
Notice in Fig. 8.18 1ha1 when differences in horizontal air
PG = il.p pressure exist !here is a net force acting on the air. This force.,
d'
called 1he pressure gradient force (PGF), is tlirected from
where llp is the pressure difference belween two places some lriglrer toward lower pressure at right angles to tire isobars. '.lbe
horizontal di~lance (d) apart. In Fig. 8.1 8 the pressure gradienl magnilude of 1he force is direc1ly related to the pressure gra-
beMeen points I and 2 is 4 millibars per 100 kilometers. dient. Steep pres~ure gradienL~ correspond to slrong pressure
C'1'1'rif* )) ·~On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i

<1<n11....i.,,....,.._,~..,,._
'*"'.......
'°"">' .....buq10.U . ......... ................ " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••-..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w....r..........i....
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll-....... .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. <>.;•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
If the pres.~ure gradient force were the only force acting
upon air, we would always find \\fads blowing directly from
higher toward lower pressure. However, the moment air start~
to move, it is deflected in its path by the Coriolis force.
MAP VIEW
CORIOLIS FORCE 1 he Coriolis force describes an apparent
li>rce that is due to the rotation of the earth. 1o understand how
it works, consider Mo people playing catch '1s they sit oppo-
site one another on the rim ofa merry-go-round (see . Hg. 8.2 1,
platform A). lfthe merry-go-round is not moving, each time
0 200 400 &XI the ball is thrown, it moves in a straight tine to the other person.
Suppo.se the merry-go-round SI arts turning counterclock-
Scale (km)
wise-the same direction the earth spins as viewed from above
the North Pote. If we watch the gameofcatch from above, we see
that the ball moves in a straight-line path just as before. How-
ever, to the people playing catch on the merry-go-round, the ball
• FI GURE 8 .19 The c:loser the spacing of the isobars, thegreaterthe pres--
seems to veer to its right each time it i~ thrown, always landing
suregradient. The greater the pressuregradient, the stronger the pres.sure
gradient force (PGF). The stronger the PGF, thegreaterthe\vind speed. The red
to the right oft he point intended by the thrower (see Fig. 8.2 1,
arro\vs represent the relative magnitude of the force, \Vhidi isal\vaysdirected platform B). This perception is due to the fact that, while the
from higher toward lo\ver pressure. ball moves in a straight-line path, the merry-go-round rotates
beneath it; by the lime the ball reaches the opPosite side, the
catcher has moved. To anyone on the merry-go-round, it seems
gradient forces and vice versa. • Figure 8.19 shows the relation- as if there i~ some force causing the ball to deflect to the right.
ship between pressure gradient and pressure gradient force. 1 his apparent force is called the Coriolis force after Gaspard
The pressure gradient force is theforce tlwt causes the wind to Coriolis, a nineteenth·century French scientist who worked it
b/0 1v. Because of thi~ effect, closely spaced isobars on a weather out mathematically. (Becau.se it is an apparent force due to the
map indic"1e steep pressure gradients, strong forces, and high rotation of the earth, it is also called the Coriolis effect.) 1 his
"1nds. On the other hand, widely spaced isobars indicate gentle effect occurs on the rotating earth, too. All free-moving objects,
pressure gradients, weak forces, and light winds. An example of such as ocean currents, aircraft, artillery projectiles, 'Uld air mol-
asleep pressure gradient and strong winds is given in • Fig. 8.20. ecule.sseem to deflect fromastraight-tine path becatc~e the earth
Notice that the tightly packed isobars along the green line are rotates tmder them.
producing a steep pressure gradient of 32 rnb per 500 km and The Corioti~ force causes the wind to deflect to the right of
strong surface winds of 40 knots(46 mi/hr). its intended ptith in the Northem Hemisphere and to the left of
e FI GURE 8. 20 Surface \veather mapfor6 A.M. (CSn,

Tuesday. November 10, 1998. Dark gray lines are isobars
\Vith units in millibars.. The interval behveen isobars~
t.'..'.'.12 @
-...-·-
..........
°""' """
4 mb.A deep low\vith a central pressure of972 mb
(28.70 inJ is moving over north\vestern knva. The dis·
tancealong the green line X·X'isSOO km. ThedHference
in pressure behveen Xand X'is32mb, produdnga
~
\...._
..... ... »
~7
pressuregradient of 32 mb/500 km.The tightly pocked

"- .... 13''1
isobars along the green line are assoc.iated \Vith sttong
\\_ ..... ,.,,
north\vestertywindsof 40 knots. \Yith gusts even higher.
,..., ...,,
-
Wind direction.saregiven by lines that parallel the\vind. \\,__
Wind speeds are indicated by barbs and flags. (A \Vind
indicated by the symbol <..\vould beawind from the
north\Yest at 10 knots.See blue insert) The solid blue
line is a cold front, the solid red line a\vann front, and the
solid purple line an occluded fron t.Theda.shed gray line
II\_
Ill>_
\Ill_
~
-..... .....
...,
....
....
.,,,
....,
-.....
,...
isa llough.
'-
·~ .....
I.\._ 11· 11
""',
N
~ \
"'--
lll_
~
...__
- ...
12-77
.....
110-\2:1
,,
l'J.11
..,
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""",,..~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,.,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH
0.30r---r--...,,.--,..--..---,.---.
The deep, low -pressure area illustrated in Fig. 8 .20 was
quite a storm. The intense low with its tightly packed
isobars and strong pressure gradient produced extremely
high winds that gusted over 90 knots in Wisconsin. The
extreme winds caused blizzard conditions over the
Dakotas, closed many interstate highways, shut down
airports, and overturned trucks. The Winds pushed a
school bus off the road near Albert lea, Minnesota,
injuring two children, and blew the roofs off homes in
Wisconsin. This notorious deep storm set an all- time re-
cord low pressure of 963 mb (.28.43 in.) for Minnesota on
November 10, 1998.
its in/em/et/ p11tli in the Southern Hemisphere. 'lb illustrate thi~.

ron~ider a satellite in polar circular orbit. If the earth were not
rotating, the path of the satellite would be observed to move
directly from north to south, parallel 10 the earth's meridian
lines. However, the earth does rotate, carrying u.~ and merid-
ians eastward with ii. &cau.~ ofthis rotation in the Northern
Hemisphere, we see the satellite moving south west instead of 15° 30" 45• 60" 75° 90•
due south; itseern~ to veer offits path and move toward its right.
La1i1Ude
In the Southern Hemisphere, the earth's direction of rotation is
dockwi~e as viewed from above the South Pole. C'.onsequently,
a satellite moving northward from the South Pole \\'Ould appear • FIGURE 8.2 2 The relative variation of the Coriolis force at different lati·
to move northwest and, hence, would veer 10 the left ofils path. tudes with different \vind speeds.
The m agnitude of the Coriolis force varies with the speed

of the moving object and the latitude. • Figure 8.22 shO\\'S thi~
variation for various \\ind speeds at different latitudes. Jn each
case, as the "ind speed incre'l~s. the Coriolis force increases;
hence, the stronger thewind speed, thegreater the deflettio11. Also,
note that the Coriolis force increases for all wind speeds from a
value of zero M the equator to{• maximum at the poles. We can
see this latitude effect better by examining • Fig. 8.23.
Im agine in Fig. 8.23 that there are three aircraft, each at a
Apparent path different latitude and each fiying along a straight-line path, with
as seen by no external force~ acting on them. 'Jlte destination of each air-
observer on
rotating platform craft is due east and is marke.d on the diagram (see l'ig. 8.23a).
Ball Ball's / . Each plane travels in a straight path relative to an observer
/ actual
pasitioned at afixedspotinspace. 'Jbeearth rotates beneath the
-~ "'----c·~?=
\
path moving planes, causing the destination points at latitudes 30°
and 60° to change direction slightly (to the observer in space)
(see Fig. 8.23b). 1b an observer standing on the earth, however,
PlatlormA PlatlormB ii is the plane th al appears todeviate.'Jlte amount of deviation is
(rionrotating) (rotating)
greatest toward the pole and nonexistent al the equator. ' lltere-
• FIGURE 8. 21 On non rotating platform A. the thro\vn ball moves in a fore, the C'..oriolis force has a far greater effect on the plane at
straight tine.On platform B, \Vhich rotatescounterc:lo&.wise. the ball continues high latitudes (large deviation) than on the plane at low lati-
to move in a straight line. HC1'vever, platform Bis rotating while the ball is in tudes (small deviation). On the equator, it has no effect al all.
flight; thus, to the person thro\ving the ball on platform B. the ball appears to
deflect to the right of its intended path.
·n,. same, of course, is true of its effect on "inds.
Jn summary, to an ob-~rver on the earth, objects moving
Suppose the rotating platform in
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION in any direction (north, south, east, or west) are de.fiecte.d to the
diagram Bis rotating Ina clockwise
direction, as viewed from above the platform. How would the ball right of their intende.d path in the Northern Hemisphere and to
appear to deflect (bend) to the person throwing the ball on the platform? the left oftheir intended path in theSouthern Hemisphere. The
Howwouldthe ball appear to move to a person not on the platform? amount of deflection depends upon:
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..
..,.,..,,, _..,..,. ,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• F I GURE 8. 2 3 Except a t theequato r,a free-'O'loving object heading either east or\\lest (or anyotherdirection)\Yill appear from the
earth to deviate from its path as the earth rotat es beneath it The deviation (Coriolis force) isgreatest a t the poles and decreases to zero a t
the equator. Notice that theaircra ft'sdeviation fro m its intended de!.1ination is great est a t high latitudes and nonexistent al the equator.
If the earth were to stop rotating in diagram (b), how would the path of the airc:raft at
600N. 30°N, and at the equator appear to change to a person standing on the earth?
1. the rotation of the earth in thoseexperiences) that it is negligible and, contrary to popu-
2. the latitude lar belief, does not cause water to turn clock"1se or counter-
3. the object's speed• dockwio;e when draining from a sink The Corioli~ force is also
minimal on small-scale \\fa d~, such as those that blow inland
In addition, the Coriolisforce (Ids at right a11gfes to the wi11d, 011/y along coasts insummer. Here, the Corioli~ force might be strong
influencing 1vi11tJ direction and 11ever 1vind speed. because of high winds, but the force cannot produce much
'Jbe Coriolis force is present in all motions relative to the deflection over the relatively short di~tances. Only where wind~
earth~ surface. However, in most of our everyday experiences, blow over vast regions is the effect significant.
the Coriolis forceissosmaU(compared to other forces involved
•lhes.e three fuctois sre grouped togetherand shown in the expression

Coriolis icHt'.<' = 2.in !lYsin ~. BRIEF REVIEW
where rn is Ihe object$ lll :U.S, f!: is the enrthSsnb'l1L1r rate oispin (n constant), Vis In summary, we know that:
the spttd of Lheobj« t. snd 9 i.s the lntitudc.
• Atmospheric (air) pressure Is the pressure exerted by the
mass of air above a region.
• A change In surface air pressure can be brought about by
changing the mass (amount of air) above the surface.
• Heating and cooling columns of alrcan establish horizontal
variations In atmospheric pressure aloft and at the surface.
• A difference in horizontal air pressure produces a horizontal
pressure gradient force.
• The pressure gradient force Is always directed from higher
pressure toward lower pressure, and it Is the pressure gradi-
ent force that causes the air to move and the wind to blow.
• Steep pressure gradients (tightly packed Isobars on a
weather map) indicate strong pressure gradient forces
For a visual presentation of the Coriolis force go to the Cengage and high winds; gentle pressure gradients (widely spaced
CourseMate website at www.ceng.agebrain.com a ndclickon the
i.sobars) indicate weak pressure gradient forces and light
animation entitled Con·o»sForce.
winds.
i;1 °*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-""
..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,..... i....
..
• Once the wind starts to blow, the Coriolis force cau ses It WEATHER WATCH
to bend to the right of its intended path In the North em
Hemisphere and to the left of its Intended path In the As you drive your car along a highway (at the speed
Southern Hemisphere. limit), the Coriolis force would •pull" your vehicle to the
right about 1500 feet for every 100 miles you travelif it
\\1"11h this information in mind, we will first examlne how were not for the friction bttween your rices and the road
the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force produce surface.
strolght·llne winds aloft. We will U,.,,. see what influence the
centnpetnl force has on \\i.nds that blow along a curv<'CI path.
the wind speed picksup.Notii:calsotlut:u position 2, where the
STRAIGHT· LINE FLOW ALOFT - GEOSTROPHIC WINDS wind speed is gceater, the Corloli~ force is greater and balances
Eurlier in this chapter,"" saw that the winds aloft on on upper· the stronger pressure gradient force. (A more mathematical
level chart blow more or less parallel to the isobars or contour approach 10 the concept of gcostrophic wind is given in the
lines. We <"an see why this phenomenon happens by carefully Focus section on p. 216.)
looking nt • l'ig. 8.24, whichshows a map in the Northern .I lcmi· In . Fig. 8.26, we cans.~ that the gcostrophicwinddirection
sphere, nbovc the earth's frictional influence al an altitude of can be determined by studying the orientation of the isobars;
nboul I kilometer (3300ft) abovcthcearth'ssurfoce. I lorizontal its speed can be cstimt\tcd from th< spacu1g of the isobars. On
pressure changes arc shown by isobars. The evenly spaced iso· an isobaric chart, tlw gL'<>StrOphic wind direction and speed arc
bars indicate a constant pressure gr~dienl force (PCF) directed related in a similar way to the contour lines. Therefore, if we
Cromsou1h1oward north as indicated by thercd arrow al the left. kno'" the isobar or contour p;111erns on nn upper-level chart, we
Why, then, does the map show a wind blowing Crom the west? also know the direction and relative speed of the geo.'lrophic
We cananswerthis question byplacingapnrcel ofair al position wind,ewn forregions \\ncre no direct \\ind measurements have
l in the diagram and watching its behavior. been made. Similarly. ifwe know theg._'llStrophic wind direction
At position I, the PCFactsimmediatclyupon the air parcel and speed, we can cstim:llc the orientation and spacing of the
accdernting ii northward toward lower pressurt. l lowever, the isobars, even if \\'I! don't baw a current weather map. (It is also
instant the air begins 10 rno>e, the Coriolis fore<' deflects the air possible 10estimate the wind flow and prtSSUre patterns aloft by
toward its right, curving its path. As the parcel ofair increases in watching the movenx.'llt of clouds. The Focus section on p. 218
speed (positions 2, 3,and4), the magnitude of the Coriolis force illustrates this further.)
increa>es (ns .-hown by the longer arrows), bending the \\ind
more nnd more toiLHight. Eventually. the wind speed increases
ton point where the Coriolis force just balnncesthe PCF. At this
point (position 5), the wind no longer accelcr;11cs bccnuse 1hc
net force l~zcro. 1-lere the wind flows in a straight p;uh, parallel
to the isobars nt a conslanl speed.' This flow of air is called a
gcostrophic (geo: earth; strophic turning) wind. Notice that the
gt.'-Ostrophic wind blows in the Northem Hemisphere with lower
pressure 10 its left and higher pressure to its right.
When the flow of air is purely geostrophic, the Isobars (or
contour>) are straight and eVl'niy spaced and the wind spttd is
constint. In the atmosphere, isobars att rarely SI might or t\'etlly
51'aced. and the wind normal!)· changes speed as ii flows along.
So. the g<.'OStrophic wind is usually only an approximation of the
n.>aJ wind l lo'"''''r" the approximation is gen<nlly close enough
tohelpus more dearly understand the bchaviorof thcwinds aloft.
I
Aswc would a peel from our previousdiscU>Sion of winds,
the >peed of the gcostrophic "ind is directly reL1tcd to the pres·
sure gradient. In • f'ig. 8.25, we cai1 SL'C lhnl n gecistrophic wind
flowing parnllel 10 lhe isobars is similar to water in ll slrcmn
flowing pnrallcl 10 its banks. Al position I, the wb1d is blowing
'
a1 a low speed; at position 2, the pressure gradient b1Crcases and
•A17i'r.tt, Ir f'l\ly w«11 odd thnt the wind blows.at<\ corut1111t •poc-d "''Ith n(I ne1fora
at:tlt¥;Onlt. lkll "'·tkn wc~memba th3l th-tnct. fo~cli n«"GUryon~ to .xcclcrm
(F ""'' the win.d, lt mt~ mott sen.sit.. M:>r nampk. it &akc:t 11 «1MlJtr.mk nrt
e FIGURE 8.2• Abow lhl 1«V't1 orfrlctlon..ir lnitial'yat rest wllaocelerate
ba to ~t ar•nd~1 ii rolingfrcmtts:L But oncC' the(• Umc:wlng.. hon.tr untJ it Bows paraJleho the Goblr'•I • sioctv ~with UM! press,uregradiert
for~ Cl'Gf)balanoed bytht Co<loh for<e(CF). Wlrd blowing uncle< thesecoo-
Lil.ct a forot larpmough to oomtierbJ.bnct" tr-i.::tion to lcwp ii ~n.g.. 1btr-~ h no
ditions is c:aled qeO!o b q>hic.
~I kucit ..c1ln1on thtar. JR'I it rolk a&ongat aconsbnl spcoi
C'o..,tllflJ )itlC.-...-t-f....._.,... .......... Mii,•llo.,.,,......__...j_,.,1,....... .........,. .........

_ ............,.... . .,.,_ ....... .. _........ . . . . . _ -.w-..
0..•-- .,....._ ............ _
...............- . , ......,1-.. . . , _ .., . .lo ...
---~_... ...............jl\o "°'•1111.>I t:............. _ .....
~- •IRf-<1.....- ...... - - · · - · ..... . .
A Mathematical Look at the Geostrophic Wind
We know from an earlier discu ssion th at th e w ind is now d irectly pr oportiona I to the singl evalue f, called the Coriolis parameter.
geostrophic w ind gives us a good approxi- pressure g radient force; t hus Thus, we have the geostrophic w ind equa·
mation o f the real wind above the level of tion w ritten as
friction. about SOOto 1000 mabove the v -!p ap
g d
.
(2)
earth's surface. Above the friction layer, the
w inds tend to blow parallel to the isobars, We can see from this expression that,
Suppose we compute the gee.strophic
or con tours. We know th at, for an y given w ith the s.ame pressure gradient (at the
w ind for the example given in Fig. 4. H ere
latitude, the speed of thegeostrophic w ind same latitude), th egeostrophicwind w ill
the w ind is b lowing parallel to t he isobars
is proportional to the pressure gradient. increase w ith incr easing a ltitude because
in the Northern H emisphere at latitude400.
This may be represen ted as air density decreases w ith height.
The spacing between the isobars ~ 200 km
In a previous .section, we saw that the
and the pressure difference is 4 mb. The
v-ap geostrophicwind represents a balan ce o f
g d . altitude is 5600 m above sea level, w here
forces between the Coriolis force and the
theairtemperature is- 2S"C (- 13°F)and the
w here Vg is the geostrophicwind and t>p pressure gradient force. H ere, it should be
air density is0.70 kg/m 1. First, we list our
is the pressure d iffer ence between two noted that the Coriolis force (per unit mass)
places some horizontal distance (d) apart. data and put them in the proper units, a.s
can be expre.ssed as
From this, we can see that the g reater the tlp = 4 mb = 400 Newtonslm'
pressure g rad ient, the stronger the geo-- Coriolis force = 2nV sin <!>.
d = 200 km = 2 X lO' m
strophic w ind. w h er e .Q is th e ear th's ang ular spin sin = sin(40°) = 0.64
When we consider a unit mass of (a consta nt), V is the speed of t he w ind , p = 0.70 kg/m'
moving air, we must take into account and is t he l ati tude. T he sin is a trigo- 2Q = 14.6 x 10-i radian/sec.*
the air density (mass per unit volume) ex- nometric function t hat takes into account
When we use equation (1) to compute
pressed by the symbol p. T he geostrophic the variation o f t he Coriolis fo rce w ith
the geostrophic w ind, we obtain
latitude. At t he equ ator (0° ), sin qi is O; at
30° l atit ude, sin qi is 0 .5, an d, at t he pol es V= I i:>p
(90°), sin is 1. • 2n sin <l>P d
This balance between the Coriolis
force and the pressure gr adient force can v= 400
be w ritten as g 14.6 X lO-'X 0 .64 X 0.70 X 2 X l O' '
CF = PGF V = 30.6 m / sec,or 59.4 knots.

9
N
I O
L__J
Scale
200km
2nv, sin <!> = ! ap .
pd
(1)
+rhe rate of the earth's rotation (!l) is 360" in one
Solving for V , the geostrophic w ind, day, actually a siderealdayconsiSting of 23 hr,
9 S6 min, 4 sec. or 86,164 seconds. This gives a rate
• FIGURE 4 A port ion of an upper-air chart the equation becomes
d rotation of4.18 X 10 1 degree per second . Most
for part of the Nort hern Hemisphere at an alti· V = I ap often, O isgiven in radians.. \Yhere 2ft radians
tudeof 5600 meters above sea level The lines 2n sin <jlp d
on t hechart are isobars. \Vhere 500 equals
• =
equals360° (a 3.t4). Therefore, the rateof the
Customarily, the rotational (ill) and latitu- earth's rotation can be expressed as21t radians/
500 millibars. The air temperature is- 25"C
86,t 64 .se ~ or 7.29 X 10 ~ radian/ sec.and the
and the air density is0.70 kg/ m 1 • dinal (sin <fl) factor s are combined into a
constant 2fl becomes t4.6 X 10 $radian/ sec.
We know that the winds aloft do not always blow in a cyc/011icjlow. Likewise, the clockwise flow ofair around a high,
straight line; frequently, they curve and bend into meandering or anticyclone, is called a11ticyc/011ic flow. Look at the wind
loops as they tend to follow the patterns of the i~obars. ln the flow around the upper-level low (Northern Hemisphere) in
Northern Hemisphere, winds blow counterclockwise around • Fig. 8.27. At first, it appears as though the wind is defying the
lo",; and dock\\1se around highs.1 he next section expktins why. C'.oriolis force by bending to the left as it moves counterclock-
wise around the system. Let's see why the wind blows in this
CURVED WINDS AROUND LOWS AND HIGHS ALOFT - manner.
GRADIENTWINDS Because lows are also known as cydones, Suppose we consider a parcel of air initially at rest at posi-
the counterclockwise flow of air around them is often called tion I in Fig. 827a. ' lbe pressure gradient force accelerates the
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' " f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ w "'I•• -"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,.,.,......_c..
....,,
<1<n11...i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,,
• FI GUR E 8.25 Theisobarsandcontours
l PGF on an upper· level chart are like the banks
along a flo\ving stream When they are
\videlyspaced. the flow is weak;\vhen they
are na rro\vly spaced, the flo\v is stronger.
- --1--940- The inoea.se in \Vindson the chart results
~ 2 - - -.:.- in a strongerCoriolis force (CF), \Vhich bal·
ancesa larger pressuregradienl force(PGF).
H CF
air inward toward the center of the low and the Coriolis force forces, may be considered insignificant. However, where the
deflects the moving air to its right, until the air is moving paral- wind is strong and blows in a tight curve (small radius), as in
lel to the isobars at pMilion 2. lfthe wind \••ere geostrophic, al the case of tornadoes and tropical hurricanes, the centripetal
position 3 the air would move northward parallel tostraight-line !Orce is large and becomes quite important.
isobars at a constant speed. 'J11e wind is blowing at a constant 'Jhe centripetal force results from an imbalance between
speed, but parallel to curved isobars. A wind that blows at a con- the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force.• Again, look
stant spee.d parallel to curved isobars above the level of frictional closely at position 3 (Fig. 8.27a) and observe that the inward·
influence is termed a gradient wind. directed pressure gradient force (PGF) is greater than the
Earlier in this chapter we learned that an object acceler· outward-directed Coriolis force (Cr). 'Jl1e difference between
:lies when there is a change in its speed or direction (or both). these two forces-the net force-is the inward-directed cen-
'Jberefore, the gradient wind blowing all)und the low-pressure tripetal force. Jn Fig. 8.27b, the wind blows clockwise around
center is constantly "ccelerating because it is con.~tantly chang· the cente.r of the high. 1he spacing of the i~obars tells us that
ing direction. 'Jhis acceleration,called the centripetal accelera· the magnitude of the PGF is the same as in Fig. 8.27a. How-
lion, is directed at right angles to the wind, inward toward the ever, to keep the wind bl0\•1ng in a circle, the inward-directed
lo\'' center. Coriolis force must now be greate.r in magnitude than the out·
Remember from Newton~ second law that, if an object is ''"'rd-directed pressure gradient force, so that the centripetal
accelerating, there must be a net force acting on it. Jn this case, !Orce (again, the net force) is directed inward.
the net force acting on the wind must be directed toward the 'Jhe greater Coriolis force around the high results in an in·
center of thelow,so that the air will keep moving in a circular te.resting observation. Because the Coriolis force (at any given
path. 'J his inward-<lirecte.d force i~ called the centripetal force latitude) can increase only when the "'°d speed increases, we
(cl~1h·i: cente.r; petal: to ptt~h toward). The magnitude ofthe cen- can see that for the same pressure gradient (the same spacing of
tripetal force is related to the wind velocity (V) and the radius of the isobars), the "1nds around a high-pressure area (or a ridge)
the win& path (r) by the formula must be greater than the "'°ds around a low-pressure area (or a
V' trough). Normally, however, the winds blow much faster around
Cetripetal force = - . an area of low pressure (a cyclonic storm) than they do around
r an area of high pressure because the isobars around the low are
Where wind speeds are light and there is little curvature (large usually spaced much closer together, resulting in a much stron-
radius), the centripetal force is weak and, compared to other ger pressure gradient.
.. L •in sonlc cases. ii is nlore convenicn11o express Lhe ct!nlripctal force (::ind the
,,.,.--.. centripetal acaler<ition) as the cmtrifugrd J>rc.- . an app.vent forc.e thal isequ3Jin
- -- -
~.. ../, nugnitude 10 the a nl ripelal force. butdiredt.'d outward fro1n lhean1erof rottition.
1hc gradient wind is 1hen described ::isa bnl::ince of forces between the centrifugal
force
~
- 1he pressure gradienl force
tlp
~
I
H pd"
(a) ISobar or coooour pauern (b) Wnd pattern and the C'.oriolis force lOV.sin f. Under these conditions. thegrlulic11t wit1d t'(Jl.Ul·
tiat1 tOra uni1 nussof air is expressl'd as
• FI GURE 8. 26 By observing theorientation and spacing of the isobars
{or contours) in diagram (a}, the geostrophic\vind direction and speed can be v 2 I ~p
-,- + p 7 + 2!1Vsin ' =O.
determined in diagram (b).
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,......._.,...., "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._.~ ...,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c.,'ll'tl..1~..,'ll..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Estimating Wind Direction and
Pressure Patterns Aloft by Watching Clouds
Both the wind direction and the orientation rath er, th ey w ill often ben d into wavy pat- of high pressure to our east. Wh at would
of th e isobars aloft can be estimated by ob- terns. We may carry our observation o n e be th e p ressure pattern if th e winds aloft
serving middle- an d high -level clouds from step farther, th en, by assuming a ben ding were blowing from th e n orth west? An swer:
the earth's sur face. Suppose, for example, of th e lines (Fig. Sc). Thus, w ith a sou th - A trough would be to th e east an d a ridge
we are in th e North ern Hemisph erewatch - westerly w ind aloft, a trough o f low p res- to th e west.
ing clou ds directly above us move from sure w ill be found to our west and a ridge
south west to n orth east at an elevation of
about 3000mor1 0, 000 ft (see Fig. Sa). T his
indicates that the geostrophic w ind at this
level is sou thwesterly. Looking down wind,
the geostrophic w ind blows parallel to th e
isobars with low-er pressure o n the left and
high er pressure on th e righ t. Thus, if we
standwithour backs to thedirection from
vvhich the clouds are moving. lower pressure
oloft wfil always be to our /eh and higher
pressure to our right. From this observation,
we can draw a rou gh u pper~ l evel ch art (see
Fig. Sb), which shows isobars and w ind <•> (b) (C)
direction for an elevation o f approximately e f IGUR E S Thisdra\ving ofa simplified upper..level chart is based on cloud observations..
10,000 ft. Upper· levelclouds moving from thesouth\..est (a} indicate isobars and winds aloft (b). When
Th e isobars aloft w ill n ot con tinue in a extended horizontally, the upper· levelchart appears as in {c), \Y-herea trough of lo\v pressure is
south west-n orth east direction indefinitely; to the\vest and a ridge of high pressure is to the east.
In the Southern Hemisphere, the pressure gradient force Ne.ar the equator. '"•he.re the c:oriolis force is minimum.
starts the air moving. and the Coriolis force deflects the moving "1nds may blow around intense tropical storms "1th the cen-
air to the left, thereby catL~ing the wind to blow c/ocJ..wise around tripetal force being aim<>~! as large as the pressure gradient
lows and cou11terclocJ..wise tlrowuJ highs. • Figure 8.28 shows a force. In this type offlow, the Coriolis force is considered neg-
satellite ima&'<' of clouds and wind flow (dark arrows) around a ligible, and the wind i~ called cyclostropliic.
low-pressure area in the Northern Hemisphere (8.28a) and in So far we have seen how wind~ blow in theory, but how do
the Southern J-lemi~phere (8.28b). they "f'pear on an actual map?
• FIGURE 8.27 'Mndsandrelatedforces

CYCLONIC FLOW
around areas of low and high pressure
above the friction level in the Northern
854mb
Hemisphere. Notice that the pressure
gradient force (PGF)is in red, \Vhile the
'-"
Coriolis force (CF} is in blue.
G
;
Nel
\ L
F
_,, I
3
Cf
2
1
~ ~~ig~ pressure area (anticyelOne) alo4t

• Air parcel
{a) Low pressure area (cyclone) aloft
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,....,.._..,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..nt,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c.. 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~'•"" .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• ..,,.,-.11..,,....,,..,.,_
(a) Northern Hemisphere ( b) Southern Hemisphere
• F I GURE 8 . 28 Cloud.sand related \Yind-fl~v patterns {purple arrows) around IO\Y.pr~sureareas .{a) In the Northern Hemisphere. \Vinds
blow·counterclock\vise around an area d '°'" pressure. (b) In the Southern Hemisphere, \Vind.s blo\vcloc:k.\visearound an area d knv pressure.
WINDS ON UPPER· LEVEL CHARTS On the upper-level see in Chapter 12, surface storms tend to move more slowly,
500-mb map(• FigureS.29), notiO! that, as \\'e would expect, the often intensifying into major cyclonic storm systems.
winds tend to parallel the contour lines in a wavy "-est-to-east We know that due to the pressure gradient force and
direction. Notice also that the contour lines tend to decrease in the Coriolis force (which bends moving air to the right in the
height f romsouth to north. ' l11is situationoocurs because the air Northern Hemisphere) the "ind~ aloft in the middle latitudes
at this level is warmer to the south and colder to the north. On of the Northern Memisphere tend to blow in a west-to-east
the map, where horizontal temperature cootrasts are large there pattern. Bee.au.~ the Coriolis force bend~ moving air to the left
is also a large height gradient-the contour lines are dose to- in the Southern Memisphere, does this situation mean that the
gether and the wind~ are stroog, Where the horizontal tempera- winds aloft in the Southern Hemisphere blow from east-to-west>
ture contrasts are small, there is a small height gradient-the
contour lines are spaced farther apart andthe winds are weaker.
In general, on maps such as this we find stronger north-to-south
...,~t•44iJ~llttfJlt.Jt1-=============
temperature contr~\sts in \Yilltf"r than in swnmer. \\•hich is '"'hy
the winds aloft are usually stronger in winter. L
In Fig, 8.29, the wind is geostrophic where it blows in a
straight path parallel toevenly spaced lines; it is gradient where
it blows parallel to curved contour lines. Where the wind flows
....... ------------G-,-01-1«11-'>0-
.-
... - - - -
in large, looping meanders, following a more or less north-south
trajectory (such as along the west coast of North America), the
,..,....,~=
t ___,,,,.ie::;_____________ ~
wind-flow pattern is called m eridional. Where the "1nds are

blowing in a west-to-east direction (such as over the eastern
third of the United States), the flow is termed zonal.
~zmo -11'------------------~
Because the wind~ aloft in middle and high latitudes gen-
erally blow from west to east, planes flying in this direction
have a beneficial tail wind, which explains why a flight from
H
wf·
San Francisco to New York City takes about thirty minute.~ less To view hov1 the pressure gradient force and the Coriolisforce work
together to produce thegeostrophicv1ind,90 to the Cengage
than the return flight. lfthe flow aloft is zonal, clouds, storms,
CourseMate website at www.cengagebrain.com and look at the
and surface anticyclones tend to move more rapidly from west animation entitled Geosrrophic Wind.
to east. 1-IO\\<ever. \\•here the Oov.• aloft is meridional, as \\'I? \•liH
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,......._.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
@
="""""' -"""'
y'i..<5640
~
\__
..... ..,..
·~ ·~
" "--
\\..__
\U_
.............. ...,,..,.
l:S.17
~~ .....
.•..
H \II_ ON1
5700
\14_ ,..., ,,.,,
.• \Ill_ ..,... .....
•• .. .......... . .. -.... -.... 5820 \Ill>_ ..... .,,.,
10 I_ ....., .......
.. l.i..._ ..... .,,,,
·. .............. ~5880
~
"----
t.I._
II>._
.,_,,
1-.n
....
.../ H II\_
""",,
,..., ...
...._ .....
I\\>_
--.:-'\ 1~1»
"""
to.J.j01
• FI GURE 8. 29 An upper.level SOO· mb map showing \Vind direction, as indicated by lines that parallel the \vind. Wtnd speed.sare indicated by
barbs and flags. (See tb? blue insertJ Solid gray lines are contours in meters above sea level Dashed red lines are isotherms in "C.
If you are unsure of the answer to this question, read the Focus SURFACE WINDS 1 he frictional drag of the ground slows the
section on p. 22 1. wind down. Because the effect of friction decreases as we rnove
Take a rninute and look back at Fig. 8.20 on p. 212. Observe away from the earth'.~surface, wind speeds tend to increase with
that the winds on this surface map tend to cro.~s the isobars, height above the ground. The atrnospheric layer that is influ-
blowing from higher pressure toward lower pressure. Observe enced by friction, called the fricllon layec(or pltmelarybound-
also that along the green line, the tightly packed isobars are pro· ary layer), usually extend~ upward to an altitude near 1000 m
ducing a steady surface "ind of 40 knots. However, this same (3300 ft) above the surface, but this altitude may vary due to
pressure gradient ("1th the same air ternperature) would, on strong winds or irregular terrain. (We will examine the plan-
an upper-level chart, produce a rnuch stronger wind. Why do etary boundary layer winds more thoroughly in Chapter9.)
surface winds normally cross the isobars and why do they blow Jn • Fig. 8.30a, the wind aloft is blo"ing at a level above
more slowly than the winds aloft? The answer to both of these the frictional influence of the ground. At thi~ level, the "fad
questions is friclion. is '1pproximately geostrophic and blows parallel to the isobars,
3000m
I __r'-
CF H
I _ ... - H
t ~w'~
@1 7
;r/V4
-~
"'"'""" l N
'/
om H
(a) (b)
• FIGURE 8. 30 (a) The effect of surface friction is to slow·dO\vn the wind so that, neartheground, the wind crosses the isobars and blo\VS
toward l~er pressure.(b) This phenomenon at the surface producesan inflow of air around a lo\v and an outOowof air around a high.Ak>ft,
the winds bl<7\v parallel to the lines. usually in a wavy \\Est•t<H>ast pattern. Both djagram {a) and {b) are in the Northern Hemisphere.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
Winds Aloft in the Southern Hemisphere
In t he Southern H emisphere, j ust as in t he

Low pressure (colder air)
Nor thern Hemisphere, t he winds aloft
blow because o f horizontal differences ,z,~--.
in p ressure. T he pressured ifferences, in PGF/ HI pressure
turn, ar ed ue to variations in temperature. / / ay (warmer air)
Recall from a n earlier discussion o f pres-
sure that warm a ir aloft is associated w ith ',/ '=' - - WestvAnd
high pressure and cold air aloft with low lowptessure (colder air) ~
pressure. Look at Fig. 6. It shows an upper-
level chart that extends from the Northern
Hemisphere into the Southern Hemisphere.
Northam
Over the equator, w here the air is warmer, Hemisphere
the p ressure aloft is higher. N orth and
quator
.
south of the equator, w here the air is
colder, the pressure aloft is lower. Southern
Let's assume, to begin with, that the re Hemisphere
/
is no w ind o n the char t. In the Northern N
Hemisphere, the p ressure gradient fo rce
• FIGURE 6 Upper~level chart that extends over the Northern and Southern
directed northward starts th e a ir moving
Hemispheres. Solid gray lines on the chart are isobars.
toward lower pr essure. O nce the air is set
in motion, the Coriolis force bends it to the
right until it isa west wind, blowing paral- star ts t heair moving south. But notice isobars from the west. Hence, in the middle
lel to t he isobars. that the Coriolis force in the Southern and high latitudes of both hemispheres,
In the Southern Hemisphere, the pres- Hemisphere bends the mOYing air to its we gener ally find westerlywinds aloft.
sure gr adient fo rce d irected south ward left, until the w ind is b lowing parallel to t he
with the pressure gradient force ( PGF) on its left balanced by the and in\\•ard around surface lO\\'Stcounterclock\\'ise and out\\1ard
Coriolis force (CF) on its right. At the earth'ssurfac-e, the same around surface highs (see • Fig. 8.31). • Figure 8.32 illustrates a
pres.~ure gradient will not produce the same wind speed, and the surface we"ther map and the general wind-flow pattern on a
wind will not blow in the same direction. particular day in South America.
Near the surface,friclion reduces the wind speetJ, which in We kno\'' that. be.cause of friction, surface \\•inds move
tum reduces /he Coriolisforce. Consequently, the weaker Coriolis more slowly than do the winds aloft with the same pressure
force no longer balances the pressure gradient force, and the gradient. Surface wind~ also blow across the isobars toward
wind blows across the isobars toward lower pressure. The an- lower pressure. The angle at which the winds cross the i~obars
gle (u) at which the wind cros.o;es the i~obars varies, but aver- depends upon surface friction, wind speed, and the height above
ages about 30".• As we can see in Fig. 8.30a, at the surface the the surface. Aloft, however, the "fad~ blow parallel to contour
pres.~ure gradient force is now balanced by the sum of the fric- lines, with lowerpressure(in the Northern Hemisphere) to their
tional force and the Coriolis force. Therefore, in the Northern
Hemisphere, we find surface winds blowing counterclock-
wise and into a low; they flow dock\\1se and out of a high (see WEATHER WATCH
Fig. 8.30b). ln the Southern Hemisphere, \\fads blow dockwio;e
On October 12, 1962, one of the most pow erful storms
ever to develop along the Pacific Northwest coast,
•1bc angle ot which the wind cros.se.s the isoixlrs toa huge degree depends upon I.he slammed into Oregon and Washington. With a central
roughne-s.sof the terrain. Everylhingelsc being equal. I.he rougher I.hesurface. the pressure of 960 mb (28.35 in.), the storm had such a
larger the angle.Over hilly Jand. lhc angle nlightawr;ige between 35°and 40". whi.le strong pressure gradient that it produced winds in excess
ove:r::m open body of rebtivcly~moolh Willer it1nnynvernge between IOOnnd IS". Tak·
of 75 mi/ hr along the Pacific Coast from California to
ing intoaa:ountaU typt'Sof swf<ila>$. Lhe a~rage is ne:ir .30". Thisanglealso depends
British Columbia with a reported peak wind gust of
on 1hc wind spttd Typiallly. I.heangle issnlnllest for highwinc:kand laigcst for gen lie
breezes. As we 1n ove "P''•arrl lhroogh the friction layer. the "ind bocon:ic-s 1n o1~ and 179 mi/ hr at Cape Blanco, Oregon.
1norc p.1rallel to 1he isobars..
C'1'1'rif• :tl 1~ On~ tcc..n~ AU l!i11i..a_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrco•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, """'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> • t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<1<n11...i., .....,.._,~..,,._ ....,. ..,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c.. 'll'tl..1~...'ll-....... .,~••"" .,,..,....,,..u,.,.,,.•.,,.... ,.,,..,,.,... o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• ..,,,,-.11.... ....,,..,...
-
• FIGURE 8.31 Windsaroundanarea
o f (a) k>w pressure and {b} high pressure in I
the Southern Hemisphere.
{I {I
w w
Ometers ~---------~
Sou1hern HemlsJ)he<e
left Consequently, because ofthi~ fac1, if you (in the Northern

Hemisphere)sland with 1he"1ndaloft 1oyour back, lower pres-
sure will be 10 your lefl and higher pres.~ure 10 your righ1 (see Winds and Vertical Air Motions
oFig. 8.33a). 'Jltesame rule applies 10 the surface wind, bul wilh Up to this poinl, we have seen tha1surface winds blow in 1oward
a slighl modification due 10 the fact thal here 1he wind crosses the cenle.r oflow pressure and outward away from the cenler
l he isobars. Look al Fig. 8.33b and nolice 1ha1, al the surface, of high pressure. Notice in o Fig, 8. 341ha1 as air moves inwanl
if you slal!(/ wilh your back lo tlie wind, tlien lum clockwise toward 1he center of low pressure, ii musl go somewhere. Sinc.e
aboul 30°, tlie cenleroflowesl pressure will be lo your left! 'lltis thi~ converging air cannot go into 1he ground, ii slowly rises.
relationship between wind and pressure is often called Buys- Above 1he surface lo"' (al about 6 km or so). 1he air begins 10
Bal lot's law, after the Durch me1eorologis1 Christoph Buys- diverge (spread ap.1rl).
Ballot (1817- 1890), who formulated it As long as lhe upper-level diverging air balances the con-
•tn the Soul hcrn Henlisphcre. stand with your back to the \\'ind. then turn coun·
verging surface air, the cenlral pres.~ure in 1he surface low does
tcrdod.·wisc about Jif-the Ct'11lcr of lowes1 pressu1e will 1hcn be to your right. nol change. Mowever, lhe surface pressure will diange if upper-
level d ivergence and surface convergence are nol in balance. For
example, as we saw earlier in this chapter (when "-eexamined 1he
air pres.~ure above 1wo cities).1he surface pressure will change
Buenos Aires
if the mass of air above 1he surface changes. Consequently, if
35
/./ upper-level d ivergence exceeds surface convergence (thal i~.
more air i~ removed al 1he top than is 1aken in al 1he surface),
1he air pressure al the cenlerofl he surface low will decrease,and
isobars around 1he low will become more rightly p.1cked. This
situation incre<ises 1he pressure gradient (and, hence, 1he pres-
40
sure gradient force)},.,,hidi. in turn. increase$ the surface '"'ind~.
< Surface winds move outward (diverge). away from 1he
"'-g
,,;
45
H '\
\~
center of a high-pres.~ure area. Observe in Fig. 8.34 thal to
replace this laterally spreading air, the air aloft converges and
3 slowly de,~ends. Again, as long as upper-level converging air
balances surface diverging air, the air pressure in lhe cenler of
1004
lhe high will nor change. (Convergence and divergence of air
50 I~
are so imporlanl to l he development or we<tkening of surface
pressure systems that ,.,,e \•otiU examine thi4> topic again ''"hen ,.,,e
look more closely al the vertical structure of pres.~ure systems
55 in Chapter 12.)
'!be rate al which air rises above a low or descends above a
N high i~ small compared 10 the horizontal "1nds 1ha1 spiral about
these sysle.m~. Generally, 1he vertical motions are <L~ually only
• FIGURE 8. 32 Surface weather map shO\ving isobarsand \Yindson a day aboul several centimeters per second, or aboul 15 km (or 1 mi)
in December in South America. per day.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11o.n1 poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,..,.._,..."""""" ""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Upper level
IOW
Upper level
H high
I
I
I
I
L-...
Surface low -..
( -...
--- - - 30' --
(
l )
N
-------1 H-...
E E
(a) Wind aloft (b) SUrfacc Wllld

Northern Hemisphere
• F I GURE 8. 33 (a) In the Northern Hemisphere. if you stand \Vith the \Vind aloft at your back, k)\ver pressure aloft will be to your left and higher pressure
to your right {b} At thesurface. thecenter o f lo\vest pressure \Viii be to your left if, \Vit h your back. to the surface \Vind. you tum cbckwiseabout 30".
Earlier in thi~ chapter we learned that air moves in response net vertical force acting on it, and so there is no net vertical
to pressure differences. & cause air pressure decreases rapidly acceleration. Most of the time, the atmosphere approximates
with increasing height above Lhe surface, there is always a sLrong hydrostatic balance, even \••hen air slowly rises or descends
pressure gradient force directed up""ard, muchstronger than in at a constant speed. However, this balance does not exist in
the horizontal. Why, then, doesn't the air rush off into space? violent thunderstorms and tornadoes, where the air shows ap-
Air does not rll~h off into space because the upward- preciable vertical acceleration. llut these occur over relatively
directed pressure gradient force is nearly always exactly bal- small vertical distances, considering the total vertical extent
anced by the downward force ofgravity. When these two forces of the atmosphere. (A more mathematical look at hydrostatic
are in exact balance, the air is said to be in hydrostatic equi- equilibrium, expressed by the lrytirostatic equation, is given in
librium. When air is in hydrostatic equilibrium, there is no the Focus section on p. 224.)
- eon-ganc:e
\(
Rising Sinking
air air
/
N
• FI GURE 8. 34 Wind.sand air motions associated \Vi th surface highsand

lo\vs in the Northern Hemisphere.
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i fl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
The Hydrostatic Equation
Air is in hydrostatic equilibrium w hen the of gravity of 9.8 m /sec 2• Therefor e,

upward-directed p ressure g radient force is we have
Lower PlllSSUnl
exactly balanced by t he downward force
f'GF p = 1.1 kg/m '
of gravity. Figure 7 shows air in hydrostatic
g = 9.8 m/ sec'
equilibrium . Since t here is no net vertical
force acting on the air, there is no net
t fu = 1000 m.
vertical acceleration, and the sum o f the (This value is the height d ifference from
forces is equal to zero, all o f w hich is repre- the surface [O ml to an a ltitude of 1000 m.)
sented by Using the hydrostatic equation to
PGF~" + g = 0 j compute 6/), t he difference in pressure in

a 1000- meter-thick layer o f air, we obtain
I ~P g
p il.z + g =O, 6p = pgil.z
Higher pressure
6p = (1.1) (9.8) (1000)
w here p is the air density, 6p is the de- 6p = 10,780 Newtons/m '.
crease in pressure along a small change
• FIG URE 7 \.'\'hen the vertical pres.suregradient Since 1 mb = 100 Newtons/m1,
in height (~), a n d g is the force o f gravity.
force {PGFl is in balance with the force o f g ravity fg},
This expression is usually g iven as the air is in h)drostatic equilibrium. ~ = 108mb.
~p H ence, air pressure decreases by

~z =-pg. about 108 mb in a standar d 1000-meter
it tells us something importa nta bout the
layer o f air near t he surface_. This closely
This equation is called the hydrostatic atmosphere th at we lea rned earlier : The
a pproximate.s t he pressure c hange of
equation. The hydrostatic equation tells air pr essure decreases mor e rapidl y w ith
10 mb per 100 meter s we used in convert-
us that the rate at which the pressure height in cold (more-dense) a ir t han i t
ing station pr essure to sea- level p ressure
decreases w ith height is equaI to the air does in warm (less-dense) air. In add ition,
earlier in this chapter.
density times the acceleration of g ravity we can use t he hydrostatic equation to
(where pg isactuallythe force of gravity deter mine h ow rapidlyth eair pressurede-
per unit volume). The m inus sign ind icates c rea ses w ith increasing height above the
t hat, as the air pressure decr eases, the surface. For example, suppose at th e sur-
h eight increases. W hen the hydrostatic face a 1000-meter-thick layer of air (under
equation is g iven as standard conditio ns) h as an average den-
sity o f 1.1 kg/ m 1 and an acceler ation
6p = -pg il.z,
C'1')'rif• )) ·~On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U .......................... " ' ,........in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••-..........h~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<1<n11....i.,,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl.. ...'ll"""......,
1~ .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
SUMMARY
' Ibis chapter gives us a broad view of how and why the wind pressure gradient, 211 centripetal force, 217
blows. We examined constant pressure char rs and found thar pressure gradient force, 211 meridional flow, 219
low heights correspond to low pressure and high heights to Coriolis force, 212 zonal fl°'''• 219
high pre.~sure. ln regions where the air aloft is cold, the air geostrophic wind, 215 friction layer, 220
pressure is normally lower than average; where the air aloft is gradient wind, 217 Buys-Ballot'.~ law, 222
warm, rhe air pressure is normally higher than average. Where centripetal acceleration, 217 hydro.,tatic equilibrium, 223
horizontal variations in temperature exist, there is a corre-
sponding horizonral change in pressure. The difference in
pressure establishes a IOrce, the pressure gradient force, which
starts the air moving from higher toward lower pressure.
Once the air i~set in morion, the Coriolis force bend~ the I. Why does air pressure decrease with height more rapidly
moving air to the right of it~ intended path in the Northern in cold air than in '"'3.rm air?
Hemisphere and to the lefr in the Southern Memisphere. 2. What can cau.~e the air pressure to change at the bottom
Above the level ofsurface friction, the wind is bent enough so of a column of air?
that ii blows nearly parallel to the isobars, or contours. Where 3. What i~consideredstandard sea-level atmo.~hericpres
the wind blows in a straight-line path, and a balance exisrs sure in millibars? In inches of mercury? ln hectopascals?
between the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis force, the 4. How does an aneroid barometer differ from a mercury
wind is rermed geostrophic. Where the wind blows parallel barometer?
to curved i~obars (or contours), the centripetal acceleration 5. How does sea-level pre.~sure differ from srarion pres-
becomes important, and the wind is called a gradient wind. sure? Can the two ever be the same> Explain.
When the wind-flow pattern aloft is west-to-east, the flow is 6. On an upper-level chart, is cold air aloft generally asso-
called zmwl; where the wind flow aloft is more north-south, ciated \\1th low or high pre.~sure? Whal about warm air
the flow i~ called meridional. aloft>
The interaction of the forces causes the wind in the 7. What do Newton'.~ first and second laws of motion
Northern Hemisphere 10 blow clockwise around regions of tell us>
high pressure and counterclockwise a round areas of low pres- 8. Explain why, in the Northern Hemisphere, the average
sure. ln the Southern Hemi~phere , the wind blows counter- height ofcontour lines on an upper-level i~obaric chart
clockwise around highs and clockwise around lows. ' lbeeffect tend ro decrease northward.
ofsurface friction is to slow down the wind. This causes the 9. What is the force that initially sets the air in motion>
surface air ro blow aero.SS the isobars from higher pressure to- JO. What does the Coriolis force do ro moving air (a)
ward lower pressure. Consequently, in both hemisphere.~. sur- in the Northern Hemisphere? (b) in the Southern
face winds blow outward, away from the center of a high, and Hemisphere?
inward, toward the center ofa IOI•'. 11. Explain how each of the following influences the
When the upward-directed pressure gradient force is Coriolis force: (a) rotation of the earth; (b) wind speed;
in balance wirh the downward force of gravity, the air is in (c) latitude.
hydrostatic equilibrium. Since there i~ no net vertical force 12. How does a sreep (or strong) pressure gradient appear
acting on the air, it does not rush off into space. on a weather map?
13. Explain why on a imp, closely spaced isobars (or con-
tours) indkatestrong "1nds, and widely spaced isobars
KEY TERMS (or contour lines) indicate weak winds.
14. What is a geo.~trophic wind? Why would you not expect
'!be following terms are listed (with page numbers) in the
to olhserve a geosrrophk \\foci at the equator?
orclerthey appear in the text Defineeach. Doing so will
JS. Why do upper-level winds in the middle latitudes of
aid you in revil•w ing the material covered in this chapter.
both hemi~pheres generally blow from the west?
air pre.ssure, 200 isobars, 206 16. Describe how rhe wind blows around highs and lows
barometer, 203 surface map, 206 aloft and near the surface (a) in the Northern Hemi-
millibar, 203 isobaric chart, 206 sphere and (b) in the Southern Hemisphere.
standard atmospheric contour lines (on isobaric 17. What are the forces that affect the horizontal move-
pressure, 203 chart~), 207 ment of air?
hectopasca~ 204 ridges, 208 18. What factors influence the angle at which surface
mercury barometer, 204 trough.~, 208 winds cross the isobars?
aneroid barometer, 204 anticyclones, 209 19. How does zonal flow differ from meridional flow>
station pressure, 205 mid-latitude cyclonic 20. Describe the type of vertical air motions associated
sea-level pre.ssure, 206 storms, 209 with surface high- 'ind low-pressure areas.
.bmcdfl,....., "'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl ••,:!o .. •mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
21. Since there~ alway> an upward-dire cted prcl»Ure gra· 7. Supp<>5e an aircraft USing a pre»urt altimeter fur.
dient fon:e, why doon't tht au- rush olT 11110 •pace? .Jo~ a conS1an1 p~ surf.tcoe from standard ltm ·
22. How do<> Buy~-Balot"i. l•w hdp to loate rtgi0ns of ptrature inlO "'.umtr-than ·Sland.an.l au "''~' my
high and low pressutt aloft and at the surfa<e? corrections. lxpl•m why lhe al11mcttr would mdteJIC
23. Explnin the elf.:ct surface frk1ion bas on Wind speed on altiludc lower 1hnn lhe aircrnfi\ true altitude.
and dirccllon. 8. If the earth wcro nor rotating. how would the wind
24. Explain how on a SOO· mb chart you would be able 10 blow with re;,pccl to ccniers of high and low pres>urc1
distinguah •trough from • ndgcl 9. Why aR surface "111ds that blow O\t'f w ocean doocr
10 bong gro<tlof'h1< than lhOSt' lh•t blow O\"tt ~e bnJ>
10. I{ lhe wind aloft ti blowing p;ar3lltl to CUl\"ed isoban,
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT wuh the honzont.11 pressure grnd1cnt force being of
I. Explain why, on a sunny cloy, an aneroid burumeter wcnter magnitude than the Corloll• force, would the
would lndicutc "stormy• l•'cutber when carried lo the wind flow be cydonlc or anticyclonld Jn this example.
IOJ> of a hil tK' moun1a1n. ..tiar would he the relative magnitude of the ceotrtpctJI
2. The gu t..w \I.ales !hat pr<'<>Urt is piopcw11onal lo lrm· accderation, and hu... would it be dirttled?
ptralute 11~ density. Uoe tht gas law 10 e•rlam why II . \\'1th your pttSen( outside Min.ice wind, use Bu)'
a baUoon wdl dtflale when placed inside a refrigerator. 1.1.illot's la" 10 determine where regions of surfa<e
U;e the ~n; low 10 explnln why the s ame hnlloon wiU high- nnd low·p"'"utc areas arc kJcutcd. ff clouds lire
inflate when removed from the refrigerator and placed moving overhcntl, use the relntion~hip to locate region;
in a \\'3 mi room. ofbigbcr and IO\\'Cr prcssuu aloft. .
J. In fig 8.JS 5t1pposc the air column af>o,.,
ell) Q is 12. I{ )UU !Ne in the Northttn Herru'f'htrt and a Rgton of
complete!\ ~turaled with "'•ttt
'"J'O'• und the air ""bee low prr--urt is diRcll) wn1 of you, "'n•t
column .tbO\c city Tb comple1ely dry. I{ lhc tempera· \\UUld probably he lhe surface "tnd direction at )\lur
ture of 1hc .tir in boih columns is the >tune, which home? If an upper lewl low b nf,.o tlitectly wc;1 t>f
column will have the highc>l atmospheric prc,.ure at ymir location, describe the probn hie wind dirccllon
the ;.u rface? Explain. (Ii Ull: R<-fcr back to the l'ocus aloft and the direction in which mlddk-type douU.
Section on p. 109 in Chapttr I, "Which ti lieav1er- 1muld move. lfow would the wind <Lrtction and spt<'") dunge from the \urface to "hert rht middle clouW.
""' locattd ?
IJ. In the Nor1hem 1lemisphtrt, you ob!.erve surf.i.c
Air Air dry
saturated \\ind> shifl from N io NE to E, then to SE. From rhh
<•b>crvation, you determine that a wC•l · to-east moving
high-pressur e area (an!icydonc ) h.u pas~ nonh of
)UUr location Dt'lierihe .,...i, the aid of a diagram how
)W were able k> come 10 this cond141on.
14. ·1he Coriolis force ca~es \vind;, 10 dtflect to the right
of 1heir intended pa1h in 1hc Norihcrn lltmisphcrc ,
yc1 uround n ~urfat:c l0\\ -pressurc nrcn, \\1 ind~ blO\\!
1
coun1erdock wi;,e, appearing to bend to their lrfL

Explain why.
FIGURE I 15 IS. Wh)· is it th:11. on lht equator, "'"W. may blow either
coun!ttdodw1~ or clod:,.ise "•h rnpect to an area
oflow pressure?
4. Could >rnllon pressure ever exe<'l!d sea-level pr<»ure?
Explain. . . 16. U•ctht gas law In 1hc Poe"'~ section on p. 202 to explnln
s. Suppo.1e )OU are in the Northcm Henusphcrc wJtching why" car \\ith tightly closed window~ will occasionnlly
altocumolus clouds 4000 m (I J.000 ft) ""°'"
you drift ""'"a window "blow out" or aad; when exposed 10 the
sun on a hot da)·
from the nt>rt.brasr.. Oro" the onl'Dlation of the a.obus
""°'" yuu. L0011c and nutli. 'l!(!IOOS oflm.est and lugb-
l!SI prr»urc on this map. hnl.'>h the map by drawing
17. Cons.dcr.,.i ndbl1,...1ng 0\·tra bnd >urf...:ethat crosoo
a coastline and lhcn blo"•s over a lake. How will the•
i'l<lbnr> nnd the upper-level wlnd ·flow p:tttcrn hundred~ \\inJ speed and direction change n; It moves from the
ofkilomctcr ; In :ill dircx:t ion• from your posillor• Would lnnd surface ro the lo kc surface?
this t)pt of llow be zonal or meridional? Expb1n. 18. A;. J cruise ship cro'I(.'> the equator, the colcrtainmc m
6. Pilots often u~ the a~1on "high 10 io.... look out dJrec1or exclairm 1hat wattt in a lub "'" dntin in the
bd°"'" In tl'r'nU of upptr·lt\d ltmptratuR and pRS· Of'pOSlle dirt'ct11>n n"" that the slup • 1n the Southern
sure, explun what this an mean. ~k'misphcre. C"" two re:isoru. ro the eotntainmen c
dircc1or why tht1 ~crt100 is nn1 ><I.
..,, .. tus~· • c.... " fl:

.............__. .. ......,..........,,__ __......,...,.. __..,.. ___ ......,__._........ __ '°".....,...__ _
~--•·-- -·--,.....,....,. _ _ _
.._ __ I , _ _ _ . _ _ , . . _ ._ _ _ _ ~
C...•11,..... ..._..,.......,.._• .,..
compute the geostrophic wind at point A and
PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES point B. (Hint: Be sure to convert km to Ill and mb
I. A station 300 Ill above sea level reports a station pre~ to Newtons/m2, where I mb = 100 Newtons/m'.)
sure of 994 mb. What would be the sea-level pressure (g) Would the actual winds at point A and point B be
for this station, as.~wningstandard abn°"')>heric condi- greater than, le~s than, or equal to the wind speeds
tions? lf the observation were taken on a hot summer computed in problem (f)? Explain.
afternoon, would the sea-level pressure be greater or 3. (a) Suppose the at mo.spheric pressure at the bottom of
less than that obtained during standard conditions? a deep air colwnn 5.6 km thick i~ 1000 mb. If the
Explain. average air density of the column is 0.91 kg/111', and
2. • figure 8.36 is a sea-level pres.~ure chart (Northern the acceleration of gravity is 9.8 lll/seC', use the hy-
Hemisphere), with isobars drawn IOr every 4 mb. Answer drostatic equation on p. 224 to determine the atlllO-
the following questions, which refer to this map. spheric pre~sure at the top of the column. (Hint: Be
sure to convert km to m and mb to Newtons/in',
where I mb = 100 N/111'.)
(b) If the air in the column of problem (a) becomes
much colder than average, would the atmospheric
• I pressure at the top of the new colwnn be greater
than, less than, or equ.'I to the pre~sure computed
in problem (a)? J'.xplain.
(c) Determine the abn°"')>heric pressure at the top of
the air column in problem (a) if the air in the col-
umn is quite cold and has an average density of
1004 0.97 kg/m'.
4. Use the gas law in the Focus se.ction on p. 202 to calculate
I I I I I I the air pressure in millibars when the air temperature is
Kilome1ers 0 400 aoo -23•c and the air density is 0.700 kg/m'. (Hint: Be sure
to use the Kelvin temperature.) At approximately wh'n
• FIGURE 8.36 Mapforproblem2
altitude would you expect to observe this pressure?
(a) What is the lowest possible pressure in whole mil- 5. Suppose air in a closed container h'1s a pressure of
libars that there can be in the center of the closed 1000 mb and a temperature of 2o•c.
low? What is the highest pressure possible? (a) Use the gas law to determine the air density in the
(b) Place a dashed line through the ridge and a dotted container.
line through the trough. (b) If the density in the cont,tiner remains constant,
(c) What would be the wind direction at point A and but the pressure double.s , what would be the new
at point B? temperature?
(d) Where would the stronger wind be blowing. at 6. A large balloon is ftlled ";th air so that the air pressure
point A or B? £xplain. inside just equ.,ls the air pres.~ure outside. 'The volume of
(e) C'..ompute the pressure gradient between poinlS I the filled balloon i~ 3 m', the mass of air inside is 3.6 kg.
and 2, and between points 3 and 4. How do the and the temperature inside is 2o•c. What is the air pre~
computed pres.~ure gradienlS relate to the pressure sure? (Hint: Density = mass/volume.)
gradient force? 7. lf the clouds overhead are moving from north to south,
(f) lf point A and point Bare located at 30•N, and if would the upper-level center of low pressure be to the
the air density is 12 kg/111>, use the geo.~trophic east or west of you> Draw a simplified map to explain.
wind equation in the Focus section on p. 216 to
(" GEOSCIENCE rf Go to the Wind Energy portal. Under the Primary Sources section, open the
most recent "Year-End Market Report" from the American Wind Energy As.~ciation. l'.x<uninethemapofwind power capacity
by state. Which state,~ show the 1110.~t and least capacity> Do you think the differences are mainly due to the availability ofstrong.
reliable winds? What other factors might be playing an important role>
ONLINE RESOURCES
I!\ Log in to the CourseMate website at: www.cengagebrain.com to view the concept animations as noted in the text, as
\i:;J well as additional re,~urces, including video exercises, practice quizzes, an interactiveeBook, and lllOre.
/r.on!fm:pige 1S«.l Cmqi9el>t1
Wind: Small Scale and Local Systems
CONTENTS n December 30, 1997, a United Airlines' Boeing 747
Scales of Motion
Smal l-Scale Winds Int eracting wit h the
O carrying 374 passengers was en rou te t o Hawaii from
Japan. Dinner had j ust been served, and the aircra ft had reached
Environment
a cruising alt itude of 33,000 f eet. Suddenly, east ofTokyo and
Friction and Turbulence in the Boundary
layer over the Pacific Ocean, this routine, uneventful flight turned
Eddies - Big and Small
tragic. Without warning, the aircraft ent ered a region o f severe
The Strong Force o f the Wind
Wind and Soil air t urbulence, and a vibration ran through the aircraft. The
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION plane nosed upward, then plunged t ow ard the earth for about
Eddies and "Air Po<kets" 1000 f eet before st abilizing. Screaming, t errified passengers
Wind and Snow
not f ast ened t o t heir seat s were flung against t he walls of the
Wind and Veget ation
Wind and Water aircraft, t hen dropped . Bags, serving trays, and luggage that
local Wind Syst ems slipped out from under t he seat s were flying about inside the
plane. Wi thin seconds, the en tire ordeal w as over. At least
Pedaling into the Wind
Thermal Circulations 11 0 people were inj ured, 12 seriously. Tragically, there w as
Sea and land Breezes one fatali ty: a 32·y ear· old woman, who had been hurled against
Mountain and Valley Breezes
the ceiling of the plane, died of severe head inj uries. What sort
Kat abaticWinds
Chinook (Foehn) Winds of atmospheric phenomenon could cause such turbulence?
FOCUS ON A SPECiAL TOPIC
Snow Eaters and Rapid Temperature Changes
Sant a An a Winds
Desert Winds
Seasonally Changing Winds-
The Monsoon
Det ermining Wind Direction and Speed
The Influence o f Prev ailing Winds
Wind Measurement s
Wind Power
Observing Winds from Space
Summary
Key Terms
Facing page: Strong w inds from a 6ne of
Questions for Thought sto1ms slam into central Ne braska during
Problems and Exercises July, l.004.
229
C...,-nfo )1 1 ~ On'"'° 1->an• Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J ,,.. .l....wod,"' " f>•lrc<><in p.... ll<to i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb."*'"' llo.nl poo-1)' •.,,..,.""1 W "'l••-
..i ..,.,.,h ~dl ... :.1J\ o .0."l'nV I f:1"'-i.rtn1•" '!....
.._,.,..,,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•te_.Jl~""'""l"TIC'>-"c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
he aircrafr in our opening vigneue encounrered a rur- When we look at the smokestack on a surface weather map
T bulenr eddy- an "air pocker" -in perfectly dear air.

Such violenl eddies are nor uncommon, especially in rhe
viciniry ofjel srream.~. Jn rhis chapter, we will ex.~mine a variery
(see Fig 9. Ic), neirher the smoke stack nor the circulation ofcity
air shows up. All that \\'e.seearerhecirculationsaround high- and
low-pressure areas. We are now looking at the synoptic scale,
of eddy circular ions. Firs!, we will look al the differenr scales or \\'eather map scale. Circulations of this magnitude dominate
of motion found \vithin our almosphere, then we "111 see how regions of hundreds to even thousands ofsquare kilometers and,
eddies form ;\Jld how eddies and or her small-scale \\1nds inler- although the life spans of these features vary, they typically last
acr "1th our environment. Nexr, we will examine slighrly larger IOr days and sometime.~ weeks.
circulalions-local winds-such asrhe sea breeze and thechi- 'Jlte k1rgest wind patterns are seen at the planetary (global)
nook, describing how they fonn and rhe type of wear her they scale. Here, we have wind patternsrangingovertheentireearrh.
generally bring. Sometimes, the synoptic and global scales are combined and
1 he air in motion- \\•hat \\'e commonly call 1vi11d - is referred to as the macroscale. • Figure 9.2 summarizes the vari-
invisible, yet we see evidence of it nearly everywhere we look. ou.s sctles of motion and their average life span. Having looked
Ir sculprure.~ rocks, moves leaves, blows smoke, and lifts water at the diJTerent scales of atmospheric motion, we turn our
vapor upward 10 where it can condense inlo clouds. 'Jlte wind is attention toseetheeffect that micro.scale winds can have on our
with us wherever we go. On ahorday, it can cool us off; on a cold environment.
day, ii can make us shiver. A breeze can sharpen our appetile
when ii blows the aroma from thelocal bakery in our direction.
1 he wind is a pawerful element. The workhorse of wear her, it
moves storms and large fair-wearher systems arotmd the globe. Small-Scale Winds Interacting
It tr~t.n~ports he.at. moisture. dust. insects. bacteria. and pollens
from one area to another. with the Environment
Circulations of all sizes exisl wirhin the atmo.~here. Liule We begin our discussion ofmicroscale winds by examining the
whirls form inside bigger whirls, which encompass even larger irnparrant topic of/urbulentjlow, called turbulence, which rep-
whirls- one huge mass ofturbulent, twisringeddies.• For dariry,
resent~ any disturbed flow of air that produces wind gu.sts and
mereorologists arrange circular ions according to their size. This eddies.
hierarchy of motion from tiny gusts to giant srorms is called the
scales of motion. FRICTION AND TURBULENCE IN THE BOUNDARY LAYER
We are all familiar with friction. If we rub our hand over the
top of a table, friction tends to slow its movement because of ir-
regularities in the table'.~surface. On a microscopic level, friction
Scales of Motion arises as atoms and molecules of the two surfaces seem to ad-
here, then snap apart as thehandslidesover rhe table. Friction is
Consider smoke rising from a chimney into the otherwise not restricted tosolid object~; itoc-curs in mo,ing fluids as well.
dean air in theindusrri;tl section ofa largecity (see • Pig. 9.Ja). Consider, for example, asteadyflow ofwater in a stream. When
Within thesmoke,smallchaotic motions - tiny eddies- cau.se
a paddle is placed in the stream, turbulent whirls (etJdies) !Orm
it to tumble and turn. These eddies constiture rhe smallest
scale of motion -the microscale. At the micro.~cale, eddies behind it. 'fhese eddies create fluid friction by draining energy
from the main stream flow, slowing it down. Let'.~ examine the
with diameters of a few merers or less not only disperse smoke,
idea of fluid friction in more detail.
they also sway branches and swirl dust and papers into the The friction offluid flow is called viscosil y. When the slow-
air. They form by convection or by the wind blowing past
ing ofa fluid-such as air-isduetotherandorn motion oft he
obstructions and are usually short-lived, lasting only a few gas molecules, the viscosity is referred to as molemlar viscos-
minures at best.
In Pig. 9. lb observe that, as the smoke rises, it drifts to- ity. Consider a mass of air gliding horizont,tlly and smoothly
(laminar flow) over a stationary mass of air. £ven though the
ward the center of town. Here the smoke rises even higher and
is carried many kilometers downwind. 'fhis circulation of city molecules int he star ionary air are not moving horizontally, they
are darting about and colliding with each other. At the boundary
air constitutes the next largerscale - the m esoscale(meaning
middle scale). Typical mesoscale winds range from a few kilo- separating the air layers, there is a constant exchange of mol-
meters to about a hw1dred kilometers in di;uneter. Generally, ecules between the stationary air and flowing air. 1 he overall
effect of this molecular exch,lllge is to slow down the moving
they last longer than microscalemotions, often many minutes,
air. Ifmolecular visco.~ity were the only type offriction acting on
hours, or in some cases as long as a day. Mesoscale circula-
tions include local winds (which form along shorelines and moving air, the effect of friction would disappear in a thin layer
jtLSl above the surface. 'fhere is, however, another frictional effect
mountains), as "'ell as thunderstorms, tornadoes, and small
that is far more important in reducing wind speed~.
tropical storms.
When laminar flow gives way to irregular turbulent mo-
"Eddies are spinning globsofair lhal h.1ve a life histo1y ol lhtirown. tion, there is an effect similar to molecular viscosity, but which
..
<1<n11....i., ......,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,. ,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"'"'..,......, "~'"'"-"''"'"""' :.11
....,,
............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
2m 20km
(a) Microscale (b) Mesoscale (c) Synoptic scale
• F I GURE 9.1 Scales ofatmospheric motion. The tiny microscale mo tionsconstitutea part o f the larger mesoscale mo tions. which, in turn, are part
o f the much larger .synoptic scale. Notice that as the scale becomes larger, motions observed a t the smaller scale are no longer visible.
occurs throughout a much larger Portion ofthe moving air. The the surface. Within each eddy, the wind speed and direction
internal friction produced by turbulent whirlingeddiesisca lled fluctuate rapidly, producing the irregular air motion known as
etidy viscosity. Near the surfaO!, it is related to the roughness of wind gusts. £dd y motionscren!oo by obstructions are commonly
the ground. As wind blO\\'S over a landscape doue.d with trees referred to as mechanical turbulence. Mechanical turbulence
and buildings, it breaks into a series of irregular, twisting ed- creates a drag on the flow of air, one far greater than that caused
dies that can influence the air flow for hundreds ofmeters above by molecular viscosity.
-.....
1YPICAI.
SCALE SIZE
""
Global
scale SOOOM'l
)
Maoroscala- - - - - - --- -
)
Synoplk:
scale 2000 km
- •
l
1
Mesoscale 20km
Microscale 2m
j
I Seoonds I Minutes Hours Days
r_.... to
rrklutes
-r--: tQ - -i-
hours
- 10
days
- i -- - - - - - - 10
a week or nne
- - - - - - --i
• F I GURE 9. 2 These.ales of atmospheric mo t ion \Vith the phenomenorfsaverage size and life span. {Because theactualsize o f
certain features may vary, some o f the features fall into more than onecategoryJ
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I•• -"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll """....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
'
'
-- -- --- -- --
Wet/I. Svong
llow flow
(a) Stable ail (b) Unstable ak

e FI GURE 9. 3 Winds flo\yjng past an obstacle. {a) In .stable air, light winds producesmalledd'iesand littlevertical mixing.
(b) Greater winds in unstable air ere.ate deep, vertically mixing eddies that producestrong,gustysurface\vinds.
The frictional drag of the ground normally decreases as we Surface heating and instability also cause turbulence to ex-
move away from theearth~surface. Becnuseofthe reduced fric- tend to greater altitudes. A~ the earth's surface heats, thermals rise
tion, wind speeds tend toincrease"1th height above the ground and convection cells form. The resulting vertical motion creates
In fact, at a height ofonly I 0 m (33 ft). the "ind irnften mo,ing thermal turbulence, which increases with the inten~ity ofsur-
twice as fast as at the surface. As " 'esaw in Chapters, the atmo- fuce healing and the degree ofatmospheric instability. During the
spheric k1yer near the surface that is influenced by friction (tur- early morning. when the air is most stable, thermal turbulence is
bulence) is called thefrictio11 layer or planetary (atmospheric) normally at a minimum. As surface heating increases, instabil-
boundary layer. The top oft he boundary layer is usually near ity is induced and thermal turbulenc-e becomes more intense. Jf
1000 m (3300 ft). but this height may vary somewhat since both this healing produces convective clouds that rise to great heights,
strong "1nds and rough terrain extend the region of frictional there may be turbulence from theearth'ssurface to the base of the
influence. stratosphere over JO km ( 6.2 mi) above the ground
Although we haw treated thermal and mechanical turbu-
lence separate! y, they occur together in the :llmosphere - each
magnifying the influence of the other. Let's consider a simple
;J()()()
900 example: the eddy forming behind the barn in • Fig. 9.3. ln
Wind speed nbove
800 Friction's ,nfluenoe stable air with " 'eak wind~. the eddy is nonexistent or small.
2500 As wind speed and surface heating increase, instability devel-
700 ops, and theeddy becomes larger and extends through a greater
600 2000 depth. The rising side of the eddy carries slow-moving surface
air upward, causing a frictional drag on the faster flow of air
[soo s aloft. Some of the faster moving air is brought down with the
s
..
,§ 400 1500
·~
.,>
descending part of the eddy, producing a momentary gust of
\\ind. Because of the increased depth of circulating eddies in
~ 300 1000W tmstable air,strong. gusty surface winds are more likely to occur
200
when the atmosphere is unstable. Greater in~tability also leads
500 to a greater exchange of faster moving air from upper levels with
100 slower moving air at lower levels. In general, this exchange in-
0 0
creases the average wind speed near the surface and decreases
it aloft, producing the distribution of wind speed with height
Wind speed (knola) shown in • Fig. 9.4.
We can now see why surface winds are usually stronger
e FIGURE 9.4 When the air is stable and the terrain fairly smooth {a), vert ical in the afternoon. Vertical mixing during the middle of the day
mixing is at a minimum. and theeffectof surface friction only extends upward links surface air with the faster moving air aloft. The result is
a relatively short distance above the surface. When the air is unstable and the that the surface air is pulled along more quickly. Al night, when
terrain rough (b}, vertical mixing is ata maximum, and the effect ti surface
convection is reduced, the interchange between the air al the
friction extends UJ)\Wrd through a much greater depth cl atmosphere. Within
the region of frictional influence. vertical mixing increases the\vind speed near
surface and the air aloft is at a minimum. Hence, the wind near
theground and decreases it aloft.{Wind at the surface is measured at 10 m the ground is less affected by the faster wind flow above, and so
(33 ft) abote the surface.} it blows more slowly.
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH
On a blustery night, the howling of the wind can b e
caused by eddies . As the wind blows past chimneys and
roof corners, small eddies form. These tiny swirl s act li ke
pulses of comp ressed air tha t ultimately reach your ear-
drum and produ ce the sound of howling winds.
In swnmary, the friction of air flow (viscosity) is a result

of the exchange of air molecules moving al different speeds.
The exchange brought about by random molecular motions
(molec•dar vio;cosily) is quite small in comparison \\1lh the ex-
change brought about by turbulent motions (eddy viscosity).
Therefore, the frictional effect of the surface on moving air
depend~ lar&oety upon mechanical and thermal turbulent
mixing. The depth of mixing and, hence, frictional influence
(in the boundary layer) depend primarily upon three factors:
1. surface healing- producing a steep lapse rate and strong
thermal turb•dence
2. strong "ind speed~- producing strong mechanical turbu-
lent motion~
3. rough or hilly landscape-producing strong mechanical
turbulence
When these three factors occur simullaneously, the frictional
effe.ct of the ground is transferred upward to considerable
heights, and the wind at the surface i~ typically strong and gusty.
• FI GURE 9.5 Satellite irnageof eddies forming on thelee\vard {dowrnvind)
side of the Cape Verde Islands during April 2004. As the air mwes past the
EDDIES - BIG AND SMALL When the wind encounters a islands. it breaks into a variety of s\vir~ as indicated bythecloud pattern.
solid object, a whirl of air-an eddy- forms on the object's (The islandsaresituated in the Atla.ntic:Ocean, off Africa's \vestern coast.)
leeward side (see . fig. 9.5). 'Jlte size and shape of the eddy often
depend upon the size and shape oft he obstacle and on the speed
The largest atmospheric eddies form as lhe flow of air
of thewind. Lighl winds produce small stationary eddies. Wind
becomes organized into huge spiraling whirls-the cyclones
moving past trees, shrubs, and even your body produces small
and anticyclones of middle latitudes-which can have diam-
e.ddies. (You may have had lhee><perienc.e of dropping a piece of
eters greater lhan 1000 km (600 mi). Since it is the,se migrating
paper on a windy day only to have it carried :rway by a swirling
systems lhal make our middle latitude weather so changeable,
e.d dy as you bend down to pick il up.) Air flowing over a building
\••e will examine the formation and movement of these systems
produces larg('I' eddies that will, at best, be about the size of the
in Chapters 11 and 12.
building. Strong "1nd~blowingpasl an opensportsstadiumcan
producee.d diesthal may rolatein such a ""ay as to create surface
winds on the playing field lhal move in a direction opposite to
the wind flow above the stadium. Wind blowing over a fairly
smooth surface produces few eddies, but when the surface is
rough, many eddies form.
'Jhee.d diesthat form downwind from obstacles can produce
a variety of inte.resting effects. For instance, wind moving over
a mountain range in a stable atmosphere with a speed greater
than 40 knots usually produces waves and eddies, such as those Air
flow
shown in • Fig. 9.6. We can seethal eddies form both dose to
the mountain and beneath each wave crest. These are called roll
eddies, or rotors, and have violent vertical motions thal produce
extreme turbulence and hazardous flying conditions. Strong
\.::5 Mountain
wave eddy
Rotor
winds blowing over a mountain in stable air sometimes provide

a n1ount11in •vaveeddyon thedo"'ll\\rindside. \\•itha reverseflO\\' • F I GURE 9.6 Under stableconditions.air flo,ving pasta mountain range
near the ground. can create eddies many kUometersdo\vnwind of the mountain itsel(
<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i.,.,_,u~n~C"'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• ""''"""..,,....,,..,n.
Turbulent eddie,~ form aloft as wdl as near the surface. 'Tur- break into extremdy turbulent whirls that buffet the car, a1us-
bulence aloft can occur suddenly and unexpectedly, especiaUy ing difficult handling as it moves from side to side. Jf there is a
when- the wind changes its speed or direction (or both) abruptly. l<".ll! on the bridge, the wind may swirl around and strike the car
Such a ch,mge is called wind shear. The shearing creates forces from the side opposite the wind direction, producing hazardous
that produce eddies along a mixing zone. If the eddies form in driving conditions.
dear air, this form of turbulence is caUed d ear air turbulence A similar effect oa:urs where the wind moves over low hills
(or CAT). When flying in an aircraft through such turbtdence, paraUeling a highway (see • Fig. 9.7). When the vehicle moves
the bumpines.~ may range from smaU vibration~ to violent up by the obstruction, a wind gust from the opp0-~i1e direction
and do\\11 motions that force passengers against their seats and cm suddenly and without warning p1•~h it to the oppO-~ite side.
tos.~ objects throughout the cabin. (Additional information on This "'°d hazard is a special problem for trucks, campers, and
this topic i~ given in the Focus section on p. 235.) trailers, and highway signs warning of gusty wind areas an- often
po_~ted.
THE STRONG FORCE OF THE WIND 1 he force of the wind Up to nO\\' \\<tl ve sten that, \\•hen the \\•ind me.ets a barrier,
on an object is propartional to the wind speed squared, which it exerts a force upon it. If the barrier doesn't move, the "'°d
means that a small increase in wind speed can greatly increase moves arotmd, up, and over it. When the barrier is long and low
the force of the wind acting on an object. So, strong winds like a water wave, the slight updrafts created on the \\1ndward
may blow down trees, owrturn mobile homes, and even move side support the\\1ngs ofbirds, aUo"1ng them to skim the water
railroad cars. For example, in February, 1965, the wind pre- in search offood without having to flap their wings. Elongated
sented people in North Dakota with a "gh0-~t train" as it pushed hills and clilf~ that face into the wind create up""ard air motions
five railroad cars from Portal to Minot (about 125 km) without that can suppart a hang glider in the air for a long time. "!be
a locomotiw. And on May 2, 2009, while the DaUas Cowboys dilf~ in the Hawaiian lslandsandalongtheCaliforniacoast with
rookie football players were going through workouts at the their steep escarpments are especially fme hang-gliding areas
indoor practice facilities near Dallas, Texas, a strong wind- (see • rig. 9.8). Wind speed~ greater than about 15 knots blow-
estimated at over60 knots-ripped the roofoffthe facility, injuring over a smooth yet moderately sloping ridge may provide
ing 12 people, twoseriously. excellent ridge-soaring for the sailplaneenthusiast.
Wind blowing withsufficient force to rip theroofoff build- As stable air flows over a ridge, it increases in speed. Thus,
ings i~ uncommon. However, wind blowing "1th enough force \\fads blowing over mountains tend to be stronger th'm winds
to move an auto1nobile is very common. especially \\•hen the blowing at the same level on either side. In fact, one ofthe great-
automobile isexpo_o;ed to a strong crosswind. On a normal road, est wind speeds ewr recorded near the ground occurred at the
the force ofa cross"1ndisusually insufficient to move a car side- summit of Mt. Washington, New Hampshire, elevation 1909 m
ways because of the reduced wind flow near the ground. How- (6262 ft). where the wind gusted to 200 knots (230 mi/hr) on
ever, when the car crosses a high bridge, where the frictional April 12, 1934. A similar increase in wind speed occurs where
influe.nce of the ground is reduced, the increased wind speed air accelerates as it funnds through a narrow constriction, such
can be felt by the driver. Near the top of a high bridge, where as a lO\\' pass: or saddle in a mountain crest.
the wind flow is typicaUy strongest, complicated eddies pound
agai.nst the car's side as the air moves past obstruct ions, such as WIND AND SOIL Where the wind blows over exposed soil, it
guard railingsandp0-~t~. Ina strong wind, theseeddiesmayeven takes an active role in sh<1ping the lmdsc.1pe. This is especiaUy
• FI GURE 9.7 Strong \Vind:s flo\ving past an obstruction, such as these hills. • FIGURE 9.8 \Nith the prevailing wind blowing from off the ocean, the
can produce a reverseflo\vd air that strikes an object from the side opposite steepcliffsalong the coast of Southern California promote rising air and good
the general \Vind direction. hang· gliding conditions.
<l<nl1nl fl .._....,.._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• ""''"""..,,....,,..,n.
Eddies and "Air Pockets"
To better understand how eddies form extend upward into the stratosph ere (see region of severe clea r air turb ulen ce and
along a zone of w ind shear, imagine that, Fig. 2) . As we learned earlier, w hen t hese reportedly plunged about 600 m (2000 ft)
high in the atmosphere, t here is a stable huge eddies develop in clear a ir, this form towa rd the ear th before st abi I izing .
layer of air having ver tical w ind speed of turb ulence is referred to as clear air Twenty-one o f the 154 people aboard
shear (changing w ind speed w ith height) turbulence, o r CAT. were inj ured; one per son susta ined a
as depicted in Fig. l a. The top haWo f the The eddies that form in clear air may fractured hip and another per son, after
layer slowly ~i des over the bottom half, have diameters ranging from a couple of hitting the ceiling, jabbed himself in the
and the relative speed of both halves is meters to several hundred meters. An un- nose w ith a fork, th en landed in th e seat
low. As long as thewind shear between suspecting airc raft entering such a region in front o f him .* Clear air t urbul ence has
the top and bottom of the layer is small, may be in for more than j ust a bumpy ride. occasionally caused structural damage to
few if an y eddies for m. However, if t he If the aircr aft flies into a zone of descend- aircraft by breakin g o ff ver tical stabili zers
shear and the corresponding relative ing air, it may drop suddenly, p ro<lucing and tail structures. Fortunately, the
speed o f these layers increases (Figs. lb the sensation that there is no air to support effects are usu ally not this d r amatic.
and 1c), wavelike undulations may form the w ings. Consequently, these regions The potential adverse effects o f clear
When the shearing exceeds a certain value, have come to be known as air pockets. air t urbulence is one impor tant reason
the waves b reak into large swirls, w ith Commercial aircraft entering an air w h y passengers are frequent ly told to
significant ver tical movement (Fig. l d). pocket have d r opped hund reds of "fasten your seat belts" w hil e flying.
Eddies such as these often form in the meters, inj uring passengers and flight
upper troposphere near jet streams, •Ano ther example ofan aircraft that experienced
attendants not strapped into th eir seats.
severe turbulenceasit tle\v into a n air pocket is
w here large w ind speed shears exist. For example, a DC-10 jetliner flying at
given in the opening vignette o n p. 229.
Turb ulent eddies also occur in con- 11, 300 m (37,000 ft) over centra 111 linois
junction w ith mountain waves, w hich may during April, 1981, encountered a
-
(a) Smal shear
=- --
(b) Increasing shear,
--
(c) waves appear (d) Turbulent eddies break
boundafY defomlS
e FIGURE 1 The form ation o f clear air turbulence(CA.T}along a boundary of increasing \Vind speed shear. The wind in the top layer increases in
speed from (a) through {d} as it flo\vsover t he bottom layet
• FIGURE 2 Turbulenteddiesformingdown ~
wind ofa mountain chain in a\vind shear zone
produce these waves called Kelvin Helmholrz
woies. The visible clouds that form are called
bilto1vclouds.
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,,..,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,*_ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i.,.,_,u~nl'""""""C"'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b>nj"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,n.
lllo\\1ng sand eventually comes to rest behind obstacles,
which can be anything from a rock to a clmnp of vegetation.
A~ the sand grains acctunulate, they pile into a ktrger heap that,
when high enough, acts as an obstacle itself. If the wind speed
is strong and continues to blow in the same direction for a suf-
ficient time, the sand piles up higher and eventually becomes
a sand dune. On the dune's surface, the sand rolls, slides, and
gradually creep.~ along, producing wavelike patterns called sand
ripples. £ach ripple forms perpendicular to the \\ind direction,
\\1th a gentle slope on the upwind side and a steeper slope on
the downwind side. (If the wind direction frequently ch,mges,
the ripple becomes more symmetric.) Ona ktrger scale, the dune
itself m.1y take on a more symmetric shape. Sand is carried for-
'""d and up the dune until it reaches the top. Here, the air flow
is strongest, and the sand continues its forward movement and
cascades down the backside of the dune into quieter air. The ef-
tect ofthis migration i~tocreatea dune who.sewind\\"ardslopeis
more gentle than its leewardslope. Therefore, the shape ofa sand
dune reveals the prevailing wind direction during its formation
(see e Fig. 9. 10).
WIND ANDS NOW Wind blowing over a snow-covered ktnd-

scape may also create wavelike patterns several centimeters
high and oriented at right angles to the wind."lbe.se snow ripples
are similar to sand ripples. On a larger scale, winds may cre-
ate snow drifts and even snow dune~ which are quite similar to
sand dunes. Irregularities at thesurfacecan cau.sea strong wind
(40 knots) to break into turbulent eddies. 1f the snow on the
ground is moi~t and sticky, some of it may be picked up by the
wind and sent rolling. As it rolls along, it collects more snow
and grows bigger. Ifthe wind is sufficiently strong, the moving
• FI GUR E 9.9 Winds may have helped to push a rock.across a\vet surface at dtunpof snow become~ cylindrical, oft en with a holeextending
Death Valley National Park, califomia.
through it lengt hwise.1 hese snow rollers range from the size of
noticeable in desert~. Tiny, loose particles ofsand, silt. and dust eggs to that of small barrels. The tracks they make in the snow
are lifted from the surface and carried away bythewind, leaving are typically less than I centimeter deep 'mdseveral meters long.
the surface lower than it once '"as. These same winds may also Snow rollers are rare, but, when they occur, they create a strik-
help to move desert rocks across a wet ground surface as shown ing winter scene (see e Fig. 9. 11). ln populated areas, they may
in • Fig. 9.9. escapenotireastheyareoften mistaken as having been made by
children rather than by nature.
Strong winds blowing over a vast region ofopen plains can
alter the landscape in a different way. Consider, for example,
a light snowfall several centimeters deep covering a large por-
tion ofcentral South Dakota. After the snow stop.~ falling. strong
\\ind~ may whip it into the air, leaving fields barren ofsnow. "!be
rold, dry wind aLw robs the soil of any remaining moisture and
freezes it solid. Meanwhile, the snow settles out of the air when
the wind enrountersobstades. Since the greatest density of such
obstruction.~ is nonnalty in towns, municipalsnowfall measure-
ments may shO\\' an accumulation of many centimeters. \\•hile
the surrounding countryside, which may desperately need the
snow, has practically none.
1o help remedy this situation, snowJen us are con.~tructed
in open spaces (see • Fig. 9.1 2). Behind the snow fence, the "'°d
• FI GUR E 9.10 The shape of this sand dune reveals that the \Vind \Vas blo\Y..
speed is reduced because the air is broken into small eddies,
ing from left to right\vhen it formed. Note also the shape of the .sand ripples which allow the snow to settle tot he ground. Added snow cover
on the dune. is important for open areas because it acts like an in.~ulating
blankcl 1hn1prOlcCls1hc ground from the bincrcokl air, which
of1cn folkM• In the wnkc of a major MIO\\,.lllrm, In rcSion• of
low rain foll, mni>lurc fro1111hc spring >nn\\mch cnn be u criti-
ca l foclor durmg long, dry sununcrs.. Snow fences arc al>O bu~I
10 prol«:I ma,or highway; in 1hcse area>. I lopefully, w wow
will accumulalc behind tht fence rath<r th3n in huf!l' drift> on
th< ro.id
Strong ,.,nds can" hip tht SOO\\ about. rtducing \Ulbb y
to practically trni. oft<n closing sad< strttt> •nd .:vm 1nttnblc
higll\\'3Y• Whcn thr \\ind spttd ucttd; 35 mi/hr, Iht blowing
or faD1ng>now can product bl1=rd corrdd•ms.
WIND AND VEGETATION Strong wmJsc;in havcanclfcct
on vegetahon. too. Armed with >and, wmds cin d.imJg< or
dcs1roy lender new '"gtla!ion, decreasing crop produc11viry.
M~t plants mcrea>c lheir rale oftranspirahon a> wind speed
increa<t's. • Ihi> leads to rapid \\'3lerloss. especially 111 warmer
area; havmg low humidiues. and mayacturuly dry out plants. If
;u;tamed, tlus drying-out dfect may stunt p13nt growth. and.
in somr wmdy, dry regions. malurc lrtts 1ha1 should be many
mtler. ullgrow only IO 1hchcigh1 of a sn.. llshrub.
Wind dned vegrtauon can result 1n an area of high 6tt
danger II a 6tt should begin hett. •D) addiuonru "'nd hdp!. •
along. Juaung11S m0\'\.'11lenl. add mg oxygen forcoml>U>t10t1.
and carrymg bummg embers d5ewhcre co .ian new fun. On
th< ~n plnms. wherc the wind blows prac11caD)· unm~cd.
wind whipped prairie fires can imptril homes and 11'TStock as
the fire. burn out of control owr large areas.
Wind erc1>ion is greatly reduced by n con1inuou. cover of
vegetation. 'Ihe vegetation scrt.'CllS the •urfoce from the dirc>ct
force of1hc \\ind nnd anchors the .oil. Soil mol.rurc ol>o help>
IO rc>lsl wind erosion by ccmenl ing parridcs 1ogc1 her, which • FIGURE 9.1 l Snowroller1- nuturaltyllr1d1lcal rol l~d ~n ow - g1ow
incren.c> lhcir cohesiveness. µrom thi> foci, we 'an sec thar largeras the\vind blows them down A hills.Id•.
lnnd where nnlural vci,oernrion hti. been removed for farming
purpo.es followed by sewral years of droughr - b ripe for 1n c use of properly dc•lgne.I ~hel1crbd1s has l>cncfilcd
wmd eroMon. ibis >itwirion happened In p•n• of rht Gre-.11 agricullure. In some paris of 1hc Central Plains. 1hcse bclts
l'l.11ns In !he middle 1930s. when wind> earned null1on> of b;we stabilized rbe soil •nd mcrea>ed wh<>al yidd Oc;pitethe1r
ions of dus.t 11110 the a1r, crcallng \'3SI duststorms thar buried advantages, many of rhe ;.helte.Wlt> planred during the mid ·
whole farmhou;cs. rtduccd millioos of acres to unproduCIJ\\' 1930sdrought yt.uShavc been remo.t'<I. Some •tt economicalI)
wasteland. and fmanci.illy ruuied thousantboffiUT11hcs. Because
ofthest disastrous dfccts oftht wind. pon1ons ol1hc western
pb1ns btarne kno"n as the du;1 bo ..t: 0
To protect crops and soil, wllfdbrral.> - conunonly called

shelterbelrs -are planted. Sheltttbelts usuallycon>1>1 of a >e-
nc;of m1ud conifer and deciduous lrttSorshrubs planted 1n
rows perpend1Cular to the prevail mg wind flow. ·1hcy gre-Jtly
reduce the wmd speed behind them (Stt hg. 9.13). As air
fdrers througll the belt. the flow .. broken into smrul eddies.
which haw bnle m1Xing effect on the air ~art he surfacr. I low-
ewr. utrees are pbnted too close tog<'thtr, several unwanted
cfkcts may n.-sulL i'or one thing, the rur movmg past tht bdt
may be broken mto larger, more turbulent edd1e;. whtch •w1rl
iOil about. furthermore. in h1gll winds. >trOng clowndn&ft> ma)
d.un"ll" th. crops.
"TN~ itfkd ~"'f'• et.hit e Clrtt.an '"lnd .,_J MJd . . . . IJ'ff'IY•Mong
p..1- • FIGURE 9.12 s ..... dtlls ""'umulilft9bohond>MW'-'<°' "'Wyctn."'ol
0.w._....,... _ ... ,...._...., ... 01~....t-llh .._ _....... ~H·•......••-"'"'

(.,.....,,. »IUM..,.t-t Ml ........_ _ . ., ,.._................. ~........... 1'1t ...llM ......, ...
....................,..._, ..._ .......................... _ .. _.,. ..,.......t... , .....~----·111a··-..u-"'-·.... --...~ .... ¥ .. -·-·Mf'-"
stationary storm system centered somewhere over the open sea
Wnd speed. open area 2 meters above ground is capable of creating large \\"ave,~with wave heighis occasionally
I,, a
c.
10
-- -- measuring over 31 m ( LOO ft).
Micro.o;cale winds actt••llyhelpwaves grow taller. Consider,
....
a. 4
(/)
6 li>r example, the "ind blo"ing over the small wave depicted in
• Fig. 9. 14. Observe th'1t both the wind and the wave are moving
in the same direction, and that the wave crest deflects the "ind
2
"'~ upward, producing an undulation in the air flow just above the
'"'ter. This looping air motion establishes a small eddy of air
5 0 5 10 15 between the two crests. The upward and downward motion of
(Distance) x (Shellerbeh heigh!) the eddy reinforces the upward and downward motion of the
'"'ter. Consequently, the eddy helps the wave to build in height.
• FI GURE 9. 13 A properly designed shelterbeltcan reduce the airtlo\V Traveling in the open ocean, ""ave,~ represent a form of en-
do\Vn\vind for adistanceof 2S timt?$ the height of the beh. The minimum ergy. Astheymoveintoa region ofweaker \\inds, they gradually
\vind flow behind the belt is typically measured downwind ata distance of change: Their crests become lower and more rounded, forming
about 4 times the belt's height. whatarecommonlycalled swells. When waves reach ashorcline
they transfer their energy-sometime,~ catastrophically-to
unfeasible because they occupy valuable crop land. Others the coast and structures along it. High, storm-induced waves
interfere with the large center pivot sprinkler systems now in cm hurl thousands oft ons of ""Jter agaii.~t the shore. If this hap-
use. At any rate, one " 'onders how the absence of these shel- pens during an mll!sually high tide, resort homes overlooking
terbel!S would affect this region if it were struck by a drought the ocean can be pounded into a twisted mass of board and nails
similar to that experienced in the 1930s. by the surf. Bear in mind that the storms creating these waves
may be thousands of kilometers away and, in fact, may never
WINO ANO WATER 'Jbeimpactof the wind on theearth'.~sur reach the shore. Some of the largest, mo.~t damaging ""ave,~ever
facei~not limited to land; windalsointluences water-it makes tostrikethe beach communities of Southern California arrived
waws. Waves forming by wind blowing over the surface of the on what ""JS described as "one of the clearest days imaginable."
,.,,ater are kno'''n as "'ind \\ia,·es. Just as air blO\Ying over the top On the more positive side, in the Hawaiian Islands these high
of a water-filled pan cTeates tiny ripples. so waves are created as ""aves are exc-ellent for surfboarding.
the frictional drag of the wind translers energy to the water. In Frequently, as winds cro.~s a large body of water, they will
general, the greater the wind speed, the greater the amount of change their speed and direction. • Figure 9. LS shows the wind
energy added, and the higher will be the waves. Actually, the speed and direction as air tlO\vs over a large lake. At position A,
amount of energy transferred to the water (and thtc~ the height on the upwind side, the wind i~ blowing at LO knots from the
to which a wave c-an build) depends upon three factors: northwest; at position B, the wind speed is JS knots and has
shifted to a more northerly direction; at position C, the "ind
1. the """d speed
2. the length of lime that the wind blows over the water
3. thefetch, or distance, ofdeep ""ateroverwhich the wind blows
A sustained SO-knot wind blowing steadily for nearly
three days over a minimum di~tant'I! of2600 km (1600 mi) can
generate \••aves with an average height of JS m ( 49 ft). 'Jlms, a
• FI GURE 9.14 Wind bl"'ving over a\vavecreatesa small eddy of air that • FI GURE 9. 15 Wind can <hange in both speed and direc.tion when crossing
helps to reinforce the up..and'-do\vn motion of the \Wter. a large lake.
°*"'"''"..
..
<1<n11....i fl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
Lakes, seiclie applie,~ to any sudden rise in ""ater level whether
Slnk119 ar Rising alr

I or not it 0-~illates. During December, 1986, seiche,~ generated
by strong easterly winds caused extensive coos ta! flooding along
the southwestern shore,~ of lake Michigan. More recently, in
11 I ' ,.r November, 2003, strong westerly winds, gusting to more than
50 knot~. created aseicheon lake Erie that cau.seda 4-m (12-ft)
:l.'1 IrI '
Olve1genee
-- - -irow
11
A.
- - --~V<!<pce difference in lake level between Toledo, Ohio (on it~ western
shore) and Buffalo, New York (on its eastern shore).
Smooth lake Jn summary, we've discussed how the wind blowing over
earth can produce a variety of features, from snow rollers to
• F I GURE 9. 16 Sinking air develops \'/here surface winds move offshore, ocean \\•aves. 'v\1e also Sa\\' hO\\' the \\ind can influence a mov-
speed up, and diverge. Rising air develops as surface winds move onshore.
ing auto. ·1b see hO\\' the \vind can influence someone riding a
slo\vdo\VI\ and converge.
bicycle, read the Focussection on p. 240.
speed is again blowing at JOknots from the northwest. Why does
the wind blow faster and from a slight! y different direction in the
center of the lake? A~ the air moves from the rough land over BRIEF REVIEW
the relatively smooth lake, friction with the surface lessens, and
the wind speed increases. ' lhe increase in wind speed, however, Up to this point we' ve been examining mlcroscale winds and
increases the Coriolis force, which turn~ the wind flow slightly how they affect our environment. Before we turn our atten-
to the right of its intended path as shown by the wind report at tion to winds on a larger scale, here Is a brief review of some
position fl. When the air reaches the opposite side of the lake, it of the main points presented so far:
again encounters rough land, and its speed slows. 1 hi~ process • Vl.scoslty Is the friction offluld f low. The small-scale f luid
reduces the Coriolis IOrce, and the wind responds by shifting to friction that Is due to the random motion of the molecules Is
a more westerly direction, as shown by the report at position C. called molecular viscosity. The larger scale Internal friction
Changes in wind speed along the shore of a large lake can produced by turbulent f low I.sea lied eddy viscosity.
inhibit cloud formation on one side and enhance it on the other.
• Mechanical turbul ence Is created by twisting eddies that
Suppose warm, moist air flows over a lake, as illustrated in form as the wind blows past obstructions. Thermal turbu-
• Fig. 9.1 6. Ol>serve that clouds are forming on the downwind lence results as rising and sinking air forms when the earth's
side, but not on the upwind side. The lake is slightly cooler than
surface Is heated unevenly by the sun.
the air. Consequently, by the time the air reaches the do\\11\\1nd
side of the ~-tke, it will be cooler, denser, and less likely to rise. • The planetary boundary layer (or friction layer) Is usuall y
Why, then, are clomts forming on this side of the ktke? A~ air given as the first 1000 m (3300 ft) above the surface.
moves from the land over the water, it travels from a region of • Wind shear Is a sudden change In wind speed or wind direc-
greater friction into a region of less friction, so it increases in tion (or both).
speed, which causes the surface air to diverge-to spread apart. • The wind can shape a landscape, Inf luence crop production,
Such spreading of air forces air from abovetoslowlysink, which, transport material f rom one area to another, and generate
of course, inhibits the formation of cloud~. Hence, there are no waves.
cloud~on the up\\1nd side ofthe lake. Out over the lake, the sepa-
ration between air temperature and dew point lessens. As this
nearly saturated air move,~ onshore, friction with the rougher
ground slows it down, causing it to "bunch up" or converge Local Wind Systems
(which forces the air up'"trd). This slight upward motion cou-
pled with surface heating is often sufficient to initiate the forma- £very summer, millions of people flock to the New Jersey
tion ofclomts along the downwind side of the lake. shore, hopingtoesc.1pe theoppres.~ive heat and humidity of the
Strong winds blo"1ng over an open body of water, such inland region. On hot, humid afternoons, these travelers often
as a lake, can cause the water to slosh back 'md forth rhyth- encounter thunderstorms about 30 km or so from the ocean,
mical! y. Th is sloshing causes the water level to periodically rise thunderstorms that invariably hist for only a few minutes. Jn
and fall, much like ""ter does at both ends of a bathtub when fact, by the time the vacationers arrive at the beach, skies are
the water i~ di~turbed. Such ""Jter wave,~ th'lt oscillate back and generally clear and air temperatures are much lower, as cool
forth are called s eiches (pronounced "sayshes"). Jn addition to ocean breezes greet them. If the travelers return home in the
strong "1nds, seiches may also be generated by sudden ch;mges afternoon, these "mysterious" showers often occur at just about
in atm0-~heric pressure or by earthquakes.• Around the Great the same location as before.
The showers are not really mysterious. Actually, they are
• f..3 rthqu a ~ s and otherdisturbances on a lake lloor can caus.c the waler to s.Jos.h
b.1c.k and forth. producing aseiche.. Earthquakes on 1he oc<"an basin floor can cause
caused by a local wind system-the sea breeze. As cooler ocean
a LSununi. a kip.1ne.s<" word n1c.1ning ..h:lrbor wave.s" becaus.e these Wm'tS build in air pours inland, it forces the warmer, conditionally unstable
height as 1hey<"ntera bay o r harbor. humid air to rise and rondense, producing majestic clouds and
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<l<nlonl fl .._...,.._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl.-1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,,.... .t,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,n.
Pedaling into the Wind
Anyone w ho rides a bicycle kn 0tvs that it is

much easier to pedal w ith the w ind than
against it . The reason is obvious: As we saw
earlier in thisc hapter, w hen w ind blows
against an object it exerts a force upon it.
The amount of force exer ted by the w ind
over an area increases as the square o f the
w ind velocity. This relationship is shown by
F-V~
w here F is thew ind force and V is the w ind

veloc ity. From this we can see that if the
w ind velocity doubles, the force goes up by
a factor of 22,or 4, w hich means that pedal-
ing into a 40-knotwind requires4 times as
m uch effort as pedaling into a 20-knot w ind.
Wind striking an object exerts a pres--
sure o n it. T he amount o f p ressure depends
upon t he object's shape and size, as well as • FIGURE 3 Pedaling into a 1S·knot wind requires nine t imes as much effort as pedaJing
into a S· knot wind.
on the amount of reduced pressure that
exists o n th e object's down wind side. With -
out concern for all t he complications, we against the rider (wind speed plus b icycle This force is enough to make pedaling into
can appr oximate the w ind pressure on an speed) being SO m i/hr, the pressure of the the w ind extremely d ifficult. To remedy
object w ith a simple form ula. For example, wind is this adverse effect, cyclists-especially
if the wind velocity (VJ is in m iles per hour, racers- bend forward as low as possible
P = 0.004 V'
a nd th e w ind force (F) is in poun ds, and the in order to expose a m inimum surface area
P = 0.004 (SO')
object's surface area (A) is measured in to the w ind.
p = 10 lb / ft' .
square feet. the w ind pressure (P), in Runner s also experience wind impacts.
pounds per square feet, is If the rid er has a surface body area o f At competitions, w ind affects records set
5 ft', th e total force exer ted by the w ind d uring tr ack events to the extent that when
LA = P = 0004V'
. . becomes runners race w ith a tail w ind of more than
We can look at a p ractical exampleof 3 mi/ hr their results are asterisked w ith t he
F = PXA
t his expression if we consider a b icycle q ualifier "wind- aided."'
rider going 10 mi/ hr into a h ead wind o f
F = 10 lb/ ft ' X s ft'
F = SO lb.
40 m i/hr. W ith the total velocity o f the wind
rain~howers along a line where the air with contrasting tem- in the warm, less-dense air, they spread farther apart. 'Jl1is dip-
peratures meets. ping ofthe isobars produces a horizontal pressure gradient IOrce
The sea breeze forms as part of a thermally driven circula- aloft that causes the air to move from higher pressure (warm air)
tion. Consequently, we will begin our study of local winds by toward lower pressure(cold air).
examining the formation of thermal circulations. At the surface, the air pressure change~ as the air aloft be-
gins to move. As the air aloft moves from south to north, air
THERMAL CIRCULATIONS Consider the vertical distribu- leaves the southern area and "piles up" above the northern area.
tion of pressure shown in e l'ig. 9.17a. 1 he isobaric surfaces all 'Jl1is redistribution of air reduces the surface air pressure to the
lie parallel to the earth's surface; thus, there is no hori20ntal south and raises it to the north. Consequently, a pressure gradi-
variation in pressure(or temperature), and there is no pressure ent force is established at the earth's surface from north to south
gradient and no wind. Suppose in fig, 9.17b the atmosphere is and, hence, surface winds begin to blow from north to south.
rooled to the north and warmed to the south. Jn the cold, dense We now have a distribution of pres~ure and temperature
air above the surface, the isobars bunch closer together, while and a circulation of air, as shown in Fig. 9.1 7c. As the cool
C'1'1'rif* )l I~ On~ t.cmn~ All l!itJ!af(_....41 M")' ""tbuq10.U >.....W ,............... 111"f>•lrc111in p .... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl poo-1)' ,.,.,..,. ""1 W "'l••-..i ..,n.,h~dl ... :.1J>• .0."l'nV 1 f:1W.....rt..,,...,.!....
<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,*_ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11..,......., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,.,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
surface air flows southward, it warms and becomes less dense.
.. {
Jn the region ofsurface low pressure, the warm air slowly rises, 1 km
expands, cools, and flows out the top at an elevation of about 920mb
I km (about 3000 ft) above the surface. At this level, theair flows
horizontally north\\'<lrd tO\\•ard lO\\'t"r pressure~ \\•here it com- !§
ct
960mb
pletes the circulation by slowly sinking and flowing out the bot- -" " 1000 mb
tom of the surface high. Circulations brought on by changes in
air temperature, in \vhich \varmer air rises and rolder air sinks.
are termed thermal circulations. Okm
The regions of surface high and low atmospheric pres- (a)
sure created as the atmosphere either cools or warms are called 1 km
thermal (cold-core) highs and thermal (warm-core) lows. ln =l'oF H 920
general, they are shallow systems, usually extending no more
than a few kilometers above the ground. 'These systems weaken al
"S<.>
~ I
with height. for example, at the surface, atmospheric pre.ssure 960~
is lowest in the center of the warm thermal low in • Fig. 9.18.
1000
Jn the '"trm air above the low, the isobars spread apart, and, at
some intermediate level, the thermal low dis.1ppears and actu- Okm
ally changes into a high. Asimilar phenomenon h:ippensabove (b)
9 1km
the rold thermal high. Thesurface pressure is greatest in its cen-
ter, but because the isobars :tloft are cro"<ded together due to H
the cold dense air, the surface thermal high becomes a low a
kilometer or so above the ground. 8<.> - \ 960;!e
We can summarize the typical characteristics of thermal
pres.sure systems as being shallow, weakening with height, and
being maintained, for the mo.st part, by local surface heating
and cooling.
SEA AND LAND BREEZES 'Jlte sea breeze is a type of ther-

- \H
- (c)
L1
-" Okm
• F I GU RE 9.17 A thermalcirculation produced bytheheatingandcool·

mal circulation. 'fhe uneven heating rates of land and water
ing of the atmosphere near the ground. The H's and ts refer to atmospheric
(described in Chapter 3) cause these mesa.scale co:1stal winds. pressure. The fines represen t surfaces of constant pressure (isobaric surfaces),
During the day, the land heats more quickly than the adjacent \Yhere 1000is 1000 millibars. For more inbrmation on isobaric surfaces, see
water, and the intensive heating ofthe air above producesash,tl- Chapter8, p. 206.
low thermal low. Theairover the water remains cooler than the
air over the land; hence, a shallow thermal high exists above Look at Hg. 9.19 again and observe that the rising air is over
the water. 'fhe overall effect of this pressure distribution is a sea the land during the day and over the ""Jter during the night.
breeze tlrnt blows al the suiface from the sea toward tlie land 'Jlterefore, along the humid east coast of the United States, day-
(see • Fig. 9.1 9a). Since the strongest gradients of temperature time clouds tend to form over land and nighttime clouds over
and pressure occur neartheland-water boundary, the strongest '"1ter. 'This explains why, at night, distant lightning flashes are
winds typically occur right ne:tr the beach and diminish inland. somerimesSf"en over the ocean.
Further, since the greatest contrast in temperature between land
and \vateru.')uallyoccurs in theafternoon.seabreezesarestron·
gest at this lime. ('llte same type of breeze that develops along
3-
the shore of a large lake is called a lake breeze.)
At night, the land cools more quickly than the water. The
air above the land becomes cooler than the air over the water,
producing a distribution of pre.ssure such as the one shown in ec 2-
,, Higll
Fig. 9. l 9b. With higher surface pres.sure now over the land, the ,,"
surface wind reverses itself and becomes a land breeze- asur- j ,_ Higl1
~
<(
Jacebreeu tlwtjloMfrom the/and toward the 1Vt1ter.1emperature Low
contrasts between kmd and water are generally much smaller at
night; hence, land breezes are usually weaker th:tn their daytime
counterpart, the sea breeze. Jn regions where greater nighttime 0
- H
...,.
temperature rontrasls exist,strongerland breezes occur over the Thermal low Thermal high
water, off the coast. 'lltey are not usually noticed much onshore, • F I GU RE 9.18 The vertical distribution of pressure\';l'ith thermal highs and
but are frequently observed by ships in coastal waters. thermal IO\YS.

'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i ., ....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~...'ll"""....., .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,.,... o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FIGURE 9.19 Developmentofaseabreeze
and a land breeze. fa) At thesurfa.c-e. a sea breeze
blow~ from the\vater onto the land, \\/"here.as
(b} the land breeze blows from the land out over
the\vater. Notice that the pressure at the surface H _... ~- ____.. - - L
changes more rapidly\vith the sea breeze. This
situation indicates a stronger pressuregradient
brce and higherwinds \Vith a sea breeze. Pressure
surfaces
-r--=--------=s
-~
Warm l
---~~~~1Se~a~b:re:ez~~
---==~} -- ------'
._..<,/ /--
-- - Cool
(a) Sea breeze
Pressure
wrlaces {
(b) Land btaaze
Sea breezes are best developed where large temperature dif- relative humidity increases to above 70 percent, water vapor
ferences exist between land and water. Such conditions prevail begins to condense upon particles of sea salt or industrial
year-round in many tropical regions. In middle latitudes, how- smoke, producing haze. When the ocean air is highly concen-
ever, sea breezes are invariably spring :mdsummer phenomena. trated with pollut:mts, the sea breeze front may meet relatively
During the summer, a sea breeze usually sets in about dear air and thu.s appear as a smoke front, or a smog front. Jf the
mid-morning after the land has been warmed. By early after- ocean air becomes saturated, a mas.s of low clomts and fog "111
noon, the breeze has increased in strength and depth. By late mark the leading edge of the marine air.
afternoon, the cool ocean air may reach a depth of more than When there isa sharp contrast in air temperature across the
300 m (HXlO ft) and extend inland for more than 20 km ( 12 mi). frontal boundary, the ""'mer, lighter air "ill converge and rise.
The leading edge of the sea breeze is called the sea breeze In many regions, this makes for good sea breeze glider soaring.
front. As the front moves inland, a rapid drop in temperature lf this rising air is sufficiently moist, a line of cumulus clouds
u.sually occurs jlkSt behind it. ln some locations, this tempera- "111 form along the sea breeze front, and, if the air is also con-
turechange may be S°C (9"F) or more during the first hours-a ditionally unstable, thunderstonns may form. As previously
refreshing experience on a hot.sultry day. In regions where the mentioned, on a hot, humid day one can drive toward the shore,
water temperature is wann, the cooling effect of the sea breeze encounter heavy showers several kilometers from the ocean, and
is hardly evident. Since cities near the ocean usually experi- arrive at the beach to find it sunny with a steady onshore breeze.
ence the sea breeze by noon, their highest temperature u.sually A sea breeze moving over a forest fire can be dangerous.
occurs much earlier than in inland cities. Along the east coast First of all, gusty surface winds often make the fire difficult to
of North America, the passage of the sea breeze front is marked control. Another problem is the return flow aloft. Along the
by a wind shift, u.sually from west to east. Jn the cool ocean sea breeze frontal boundary, air can rise to elevations where it
air, the relative humidity rises as the temperature drops. If the become,s part of the return flow. Should burning embers drift
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,..,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
GA WEATHER WATCH
• Tallahassee FL
A sea breeze saved the city of San Francisco. Severa l days
after the devastating earthquake that hit San Francisco
during Apri l, 1906, a hugefiresweptwestward through
Sea breeze
.;iii. easterly Winds the city toward the Pacific Ocean. With water mains bro-
,-~ 'Crlan®• Me(boume
ken, there was almost no hope of stopping the inferno. As
Sea btee2e •Tampa the wa ll of flames raced toward Van Ness Avenue, a ·strong
sea breeze blowing from off the ocean met the fire head
wes1etly winds
on. Strong westerly winds blew burning embers back onto
the burned-out area, and the fire was stifled from advanc-
ing any farther.
, Miami
• Fig. 9.21). Over the water (where cooler, more stable air lie.s
d0-~e to the surface), skies often remain cloud-free. On llk~ny
e FIGURE 9. 20 Typically, during the summer over Florida. converging
days during June and July of 1998, however, Florida'.~converging
sea breezes in the afternoon produce uplift that enhances thunderstorm wind system did not materialize. 1belackof converging surface
development and rainfall However, \Vhen \Vesterty surface \Vindsdominate air and iL~ accompanying showers left much ofthe state parched.
and a ridge of high pressure formsoverthearea. thunderstorm activity Huge fires broke out over northern and central Florida, which
diminishes, and dry conditions prevail. left hundreds of people homeless and burned many thousands
of acre.s of grass and woodlands. A weakened sea breeze and
seaward wilh I his flow and drop 101he ground behind the fire, dry condition produced "1ldfireson numerousotheroccasions,
they could starl new fires. Flames from these fires pushed on by including the spring of2006.
surface winds can trap firefighters between the Mo blazes. Convergence of coastal breezes i~ not restricted to ocean
When cool, dense, stable marine air encounters an obstacle, areas, as large lake.s are capable of producing well-defined lake
such as a row ofhiUs, the heavy air tends to flow around them breezes. For example, both LakeSuperiornnd Lake Michigan can
rather than over them. When the opposing breezes meet on the produce strong lake breeze~ In upper Michigan, these large bod-
opposite side of the obstruction, they form what is called a sea ies of wltter are sepantted by a Mrrow strip of land about 80 km
breeze co11verge11ce zone. Such condition~ are mmmon along the (SOmi) "1de. A~canbeseen from . Fig. 9.22,thetwobreezespush
Pacific coast of North America. inland and converge near the center of the peninsula, creating
Sea breeze.s in florida he.Ip produce that state~ abundant afternoon clouds and showers, while the lakeshore area remain.~
summertime rainfall. On the Atlantic side of the state, these'\ sunny, pleasantly cool, and dry.
breeze blows in from the east; on the Gulf shore, it moves in
from the west (see • Fig. 9.20). The convergence of these two MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY BREEZES Mountain and valley
moist wind systems, coupled with daytime convection, pro- breezes develop along mountain slopes. Observe in • Fig. 9.23
duces cloudy conditions and showery weather over the land (see thlll, during the day, sunlight warin~ the valley walls, which in
• FI GURE 9. 21 Surface heat-

ing and liftingofairalongacon-
verging sea breeze combine to
form thunderstorm salmost daily
during the summer in southern
Florida.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i °*"'"''"..

'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i., ......,.._,~ ..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,... """"""""~ c 'll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., .,~,.,i.. ...........
:.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
incre,1ses in intensity, reaching its peak in the early morning
hours, usually jlkSt before sunrise. In the Northern Hemisphere,
valley breezes are particularly well developed on south-facing
slopes, where stmlight is m0-~t intense. On partially shaded
north-facing slopes, the upslope breeze may be weak or absent.
Since upslope "fads begin soon after the sun's rays strike a hill,
valley breezes typicaUy begin first on the hill~ east-facing side.
In the late afternoon, this side of the mountain goes into shade
first, producing the onset of downslope winds at an earlier time
than experienced on west-facingslopes. Hence, it is possible for
campfire smoke to drift downslope on one side of a mountain
and upslope on the other side.
When the upslope winds are weU developed and h'we suf-
ficient moisture, they can reveal themselves,1s building cumulus
clouds above mountain summits (see • Fig. 9.24). Since valley
breezes usually reach their maximum strength in the early after-
noon, doudiness,sho\\'f"rs, and event hunderstorm.:; are common
over mountains during the ""armest part ofthe day - a fact well
• FI GURE 9. 22 The convergence of t\vo lake breezes and their influence on known to climbers, hikers, and seasoned mountain picnickers.
the maximum temperatureduring July in upper Mic:hig.ln.
KATABATIC WINDS Although any downslope wind is tech-
turn warm theairin contact with them.1 he heated air, being less nically a katabatic wind, the name is usually reserved for
dense than theair of the same altitude above the valley, rises asa downslope winds that are much stronger than mountain
gentle upslope wind known '\Sa valley breeze. At night, the flow breezes. Katabatic(or fall) winds can rush down elevated slopes
reverses. The mountain slopes cool quickly, chilling the air in at hurricane speeds, but m0-~t are not that intense and many are
contact with them. The cooler, more-dense air glide,~ downslope on the order of IO knots or less.
into thevalley, providing a mountain breeze. (Because gravity is The ideal setting for a katabatic wind is an elevated plateau
the forcet h'll directs these wind~ downhil I, they are also referred surrounded by motmtains, \\1th an opening that slopes rapidly
to asgravily wind~ or 11octurnaldrai11llge winds.)'fhisdailycyde downhill When winter snows accumulate on the plateau, the
ofwind flow i~ best developed in dear summer weather when overlying air grows extremely cold and a shallow dome of high
prevailing winds are light. pre.ssure forms near the surface(see • Fig. 9.25). Along the edge
ln many areas, the upslope \\fad~ begin early in the morn- of the plateau, the horizontal pres.sure gradient force is u.~ually
ing. reach a peak speed of about 6 knots by midday, and reverse strong enough to cause the cold air to flow across the isobars
direction by late evening. The downslope motmtain breeze through gaps and saddles in the hiUs. Along the slopes of the
Valley b<eeze Mountain breeze

e f IGUR E 9. 23 Valley breezes blow uphill during the day; mountain breezes ble7\vdownhill at night. (The L's and H's
repr~ nl pressure, \Vhereas the purple lines represent surfaces of constant prenure.}
Suppose you are camping along the eastern side of a small mountain.
CRITICAL THINKINGQUESTION
Smoke from your campfire is blowing uphill. Meanv1hile, a friend camping
on the western side of the same hill finds his campfire smoke: drifting downhill. Are you and your friend
cooking breakfast or dinner? How did the direction of the smoke from your campfire and Fig. 9.23 help you
co1ne up with your answer?
• FI GUR E 9. 24 As mountain slopes\varm during theday, air rises and often condense intocumuliform clouds, such as these.
plateau, the wind continues downhill as a gentle or moderate wind toppled many trees and, unfortunately, caused a fatality
rold breere. lfthe horizontal pressure gradient increases sub- when a tree fell on a park employee sleeping in a tent.
stantially, such as when a storm approaches, or if the wind is
confined to a narrO\\' canyon or channel) the flO\\' of a.ir can CHINOOK (FOEHN) WINDS 1lwdunook wind isa warm, dry
increase, often destructively, as cold air mshes downslope like downslope wind that descends the eastern slope of the Rocky
water flo"1ng over a fall. Mountains. ' Ibe region of the chinook is rather narrow (only
K.atabatic winds are observed in variouuegionrnf the world. several hundred kilometers wide) and extends from northeast-
For example, along the northern Adriatic coast in the former ern Ne\'' Mexico north\\ ard into Canada. Similar "'ind') ottur
1
Yugodavia, a polar invasion of cold air from Russia descends along the leeward slopes of mountains in other regions of the
the slopes from a high plateau and reaches the lowlands as the world. In the European Alps, for example, such a wind is called
bora- a cold, gusty, northeasterly wind with spee<Ls sometimes a foe.h n and, in Argentina, a zomfo. When these winds move
in excess of 100 knoLs. A similar, but often less violent, cold "ind through an area, the temperature risessharply, sometimes 2o•c
known as the mist ml descends the western mountains into the (36°F) or more in one hour, and a rorrespondingsharp drop in
Rhone Valley of France, and then out over the Mediterranean
Sea. It frequently causes frost damage to expo.sed vineyards and
make,s people bundle up in the otherwise mild climate along
the Riviera. Strong, cold katabatic winds also blow downslope
off the icec:JpS in Greenland and Antarctica, occasionally with
spee<Ls greater than I 00 knots.
In North America, when cold air accumulates over the
Columbia plateau,' it may flow westward through the Columbia
RiverGorgeasastrong,gusty, andsometimesviolent wind. Even
though the sinking air warms by compression, it is so cold to
begin with that it reaches the ocean side of the Cascade Moun-
tains much colder than the marine air it replaces. The Columbia
Gorge wind (caUed the co/10) is often the harbinger ofa prolonged
roldspell.
Strong downslope katabatic-type winds funneled through
a mountain canyon can do e.xtensive damage. During January,
1984, a ferocious downslope wind blew through Yosemite
National L'arkin C-tlifornia at speeds estimated at JOO knots. The
•tnfonna1ion ongeographic fea1uresnnd their locn1ion in North A1ncrica is pro· • FI GURE 9.25 Strong k.atabaticwind.s can form \Yherecold \Vinds rush
1,oidOO at the backofthe book. downhill from an elevated plateau covered with snow.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''"..
niJb. ""'"' 11o.n1 poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-'"' ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ "'"""'' _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll..,......, .,~,.,i..., ,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Snow Eaters and Rapid Temperature Changes
Chinooks are thirsty winds. As they move Chinook winds have been associated cause extreme temperaturevariations for
CNer a heavy snow cover, they ca n melt with rapid temperature changes. In fact, cities located at the base of the hills along
and evaporate a foot of snow in less than on January 11, 1980, due to a chi nook w ind, the periphery of the cold air- warm air
a day. This situation has led to some tall the air temperature in Great Fa lls, Montana, boundary, as they are alternately in and
tales about these so-called "snow eaters." rose from - 32°F to 17°F (a 49°F rise in tem- then out of the cold air. Such a situation is
Canadian folklor e has itthat a sled-drivin g perature) in just seven minutes. How such probably responsib le for the extremely
traveler once tried to outrun a chinook. rapid changes in temperature can occur is rapid two-minute temperaturechange of
During the entire ordeal his front runners illustrated in Fig. 4. Notice that a shallow 49'F recorded at Spear fish, South Dakota,
were in snow w hile his back runnerswere layer of extremely cold air has moved out during the morning of Januar y 22, 1943.
on bare soil. of Ca nada and is now resting against the On the same morning, in nearby Rapid City,
Actually, the chin ook is important eco- Rocky Mountains. the temperature fluctuated from _.4°F at
nomically. It not only brings relief from the The cold air behaves just as any fluid, 5:30A.M. to 5 4' F at 9:40A.M., then down to
winter cold, but it un covers prairie grass,. so and, in some cases, atmospheric conditions 1 l' F at 10:30A.M. and up to SS' F just
that livestock can g raze on the open range. may cause the air to move up and down 15 minutes later. At nearby cities, the undu-
Also, these warm winds have kept railroad much likewater does when a bowl is rocked lating cold air produced similar temperature
tracks clear of snow, so that trains ca n keep back and forth. This rocking motion can variations that lasted for several hours.
running. On th eother hand, the dr ying
effect of a chinook can create an extreme
fire hazard . And w hen a c hi nook follows
spring planting, the seeds may d ie in the
parched soil. Along w ith the dry air comes
a buildup of static electricity1 ma king a
simple handshake a shockin g experience.
These warm dry w inds have sometimes
Rocky Mounta1ns
adversely affected human behavior. During
periods of c hi nook w inds some people feel
irritable and depressed and others become
ill. The exact reason for this phenomenon is • FIGURE 4 O ties near the warm a ir-cold air boundary can ex.periencesharp
not clearly understood. temperature changes if cold airshoukf rock up and do\vn like\vater in a bO\vl
the relative humidity occurs,oo:asionallyto less than 5 percent. on the windward side. 1 he air is also drier, since much of il~
(More information ontemperaturechanges associated with chi- moisture \\'as remove.d as precipitation on the ,,1nd\\•ard side
nooks is given in the Focus section above.) (see Hg. 9.26b).
Chinooks occur when strong westerly winds aloft flow over Along the front range ofthe Rockies, a bank ofdouds form-
a north-south-trending motmtain range, such as the Rockies ing over the mountains is a telltale sign of an impending chi-
and Cascades. Such conditions (desc.r ibed in Chapter 12) can nook This chinook wall cloud (which looks like a wall ofclomts)
produce a trough of low pressure on the mountain's eastern usually remains stationary as air rises, condenses, and then rap-
side, a trough that tends to force the air downslope. As the air idly descends the leeward slopes, often causing strong winds in
descen<ts, it is compressed and warms at the dry adiabatic rate foothill communities. • Figure 9.27 shows how a chinook wall
( LO' C/ km). So the main source of warmth for a chinook is cloud appears as one looks west toward the Rockies from the
compressional heating, as potentially warmer (and drier) air is C'.olorado phtins. The photograph " "JS taken on a winter after-
brought down from aloft. noon with the air temperature about-7°C (20°F). That evening,
Clouds and precipitation on the mountain's windward side the chi nook moved downslope at high spee<ts through foothill
can enh,mce the chinook. For example, as the cloud forms on valleys, picking up sand and pebble,~ (which dented cars and
the upwind side of the mountain in . Fig. 9.26a, therelease of aacked windshield~). 'lbe chinook spread out over the plains
latent heat inside the cloud supplements the compressional like a wann blanket, ntising the air temperature the follo"1ng
heating on the downwind s ide. 1llis phenomenon makes the day to a mild 1s•c (59°1'). The chinook and its wall of clouds
descending air at the base of the mountain on the downwind remained for several days, bringing with it a welcomed break
side warmer than it was before it started its upward journey from the cold grasp of winter.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,bu q10.U , ........,,....,.._..,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
4
Strong wind 12
5
3
~3
4 Chinook
wall cloud
ec 9
=
~
Heat -
j added
- 12"C
. ~
.. 2 6 ~
~
-8
" 2
i'!
<
Moisture
lost • ,, ~~
~~ ~. warm
dry
~
~
1
1~C
J •t.~
f
. ~
I~
3
0
• • •
0
-20 - 10 0 10 20 30
0
(a) (b)
Temperatutes 0 c
• FI GURE 9. 26 {a) Ac.hinook. \Vind can be enhanced \Vhen douds form on the mountain'swind\vard side. Heat added and moisture lost on the UI>
wind sideproduce\varmer and drier air on the do\vnwind sides. (b) A graphic representation of the rising and sinking a ir as it moves Oler the mountain.
A~ mentioned in the previous paragraph, chinook "ind~ speed-occasionally over90 knots- in lheSanla Ana Canyon
can be quite destructive. Strong chinook winds are especially (!he canyon from which ii derives ils name).
notoriOlL~ in winter in Boulder, Colorado, where the average 111ese warm.dry "indsdevelop as a region of high pressure
yearly windstorm damage is about $1 millon. ' lbese Bouldt'r builds over the Grear Basin. 'Jbe clockwise circt~ation around
winds have been recorded at over JOOknots, damaging roofs, up- the anticyclone forces air downslope from the high plaleau.
rooting trees, overturning mobile homes and trucks, and sand- 'Jlms, compressional liellling provides !he primary source of
blasting car "indows. Although the causes of these high "ind~ warming. Th e air is dry, since ii originared in !he desert, and ii
are nor complete! y understood,some meteorologists believe 1ha1 d ries out even more as ii is healed. o Figure 9.29shows a typical
they may be associa1ed "'th large vertically orien1ed spinning \;,•intertirne Santa Ana situation.
'"'hirls ofair that so1ne scientists c.tll n1ounfainadoes. Ho'"' the.se As the "ind rushes 1hrough canyon passes, ii lifrs dust and
r<lpi<lly rolaling vortices form is presently being inves1iga1ed. sand and dries out vegerntion, which sers the stage for serious
brush fires, especially in autumn, when chaparral-covered hills
SANTA ANA WINDS A warm, drv wind 1ha1 blows downhill are alre-Jdy parched from the dry summer.' One such fire in
from 1hee;1s1or norlheasl inlosou1hern California is I he Santa November of 1961 -the infamous Bel Air.fire-burned for
Ana wind. As 1he air descends from the elevated deserl pla- l hree days. destroying 484 homes and causing over $25 million
1eau, ii funnels 1hrough mounlain canyons in !he San Gabriel in damage. During October, 2003, massive "11dfires driven by
and San Bernardino Mounlains, finally spreading over the Los slrong Sanla Ana winds swepl lhrough Sou1hern California.
Angeles basin and S;tn Fernando Valley and our over !he Pacific ·Chap.1rl'3J denotes a s.h11lbbyenvlronn1cn1. in which nuny of 1hc plant sp« ies
Ocean (see • Fig. 9.28). ' lbe wind often blows wil h exceplional oonttiin highly lla1u1uable oils.
• FI GURE 9. 27 A chi nook \vall cloud forming over the Colorado Rockies {vie\wd from the plains}.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~ ..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,... """"""""~ c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• F I GURE 9.28 Warm. drySantaAnawind.s
S\\ll'epdo\vnhill through mountain canyons into
Southern California. The large H represents higher H
air pressure over theelevated desert.
WEATHER WATCH almo.st 2000 acres, damaged or des!royed over 3000 d wellin!}s.
cau.sed almost $5 billion in damage, and took 25 lives (see
The huge wildfires in Southern California during October,
eFig. 9.31). Wirh the prorective vegerarion cover removed, rhe
2007, caused the largest eva cuation in Ca li fornia's history,
land is ripe for ero.sion, as "inter rains may wash away topsoil
forcing more than 500,000 people to f lee their homes.
The fires charred over 800 square miles, an area about
and, in some areas, create serious mudslides such as rho.se !hat
t hree-fourths the size of Rhode Island. occurred in Southern California during May, 2005. The adverse
The fires charred more rhan 740,000 acres, desrroyed over

2800 homes, rook 20 lives, and caused over$! billion in properly
damage. Only IOur years la!er (and after one of!he dries! years on
record) in Ocrober, 2007, "1ldfires broke our again in Sourhern
California. Pushed on by helladou.s San la Ana winds !h'tt gusred
roover 80 kn ors, rhe fires raO!d rhrough dry vege!a!ion, scorch-
ing everything in !heir pa!hs. 1be fires, which ex!ended from l I
norrh of Los Angeles 10 !he Mexican border (see e l'ig. 9.30).
burne.d over 500,000 acre.s, des!royed more !han 1800 homes, Red 01vn?4'.
;\l, ;s!l'
and took 8 lives.1be rotal costs ofrhe fires exceeded $ 1.5 billion. .
Four hundred miles to the norrh ofl o.s Angeles in 0 ,1kJand, '
California, a ferocious San la Ana-type wind was respoi>sible for Oakland/ ". • "S•
the disasrrou.s 0 '1kland hills fire during October, 1991. '!he fire
started in the parched Oakland hills, just easr of San f'rancisco, se·· ~
\ . . . .,,.r·"'-;"
- "d'~
IA:><'
'
"
· 54°
where a firestorm driven by strong nor!heasr "1nds blackened ~
1
• JI!~
88' "!!>"' , -57'
LosAngeles......-· ' 'o
San Oleg/ . al).I I~·""\
\ \
• F I GURE 9. 29 Surface \\eather mapshc)\ving Santa Ana conditions in
January. Maximum temperatures fort his particular dayare given in "F.Observe
that the da.vnslope\vinds blo\ving into Southern Ca6fomia raised temperatures
into the upper80s, while elsewhere temperature re.adings\vere much lo\v~.
ln the autumn, Santa Ana winds
blowing into Southern California often
We know that chi nook winds are v1armduetodov1nslope c.ause air temperatures in cities around Los Angeles to rise above
compressional heating. They are also dry. For a visual interpretation of 90°F. Look at Fig. 9.29and come up with rwo possible reasons why
v1hy air is bothwarmer and drier after it crosses a mountail\ go to the on August 8, 1978, a Santa Ana-type wind b lowing downhill into Red
Cengage CourseMate v1ebsite at wv1w.cengagebrain.com and view Bluff, california, was able to raise the air temperature there to 119°F-
the animation entitled Air Rising Up andOver a Mountain. an air temperature typically much higher than those experienced
during Santa Ana conditions in Southern california.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,....,.._..,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<l<nlonl fl •...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,i_, .._,u~n~Cn'll'tl"'~"''ll"""......, fl~••"-.,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,.
Rancho Bernardo • •
- ·.
san Diego
• FI GURE 9. 30 Sate.I lite view showing strong northeasterly Santa Ana • FI GURE 9. 32 A large dust storm over the African Sahara Desert during
\vindson October 23, 2007, ble7\vin9 smoke from massive \Vild fires{red dots} February, 2001, sweeps\vert\vard off the coast, then north\vard into a mi d~
a aoss Southern California and out over the Pacific Ocean. latitude cyc:lonic stonn \Vest of Spain, as indicated by red arrows.
effecl~ ofa wind-driven Santa Ana fire may be felt long after the where the winds moved downslope off the mountains. Heated
fire itself has been put out. by compression. these "'inds increased the air temperature
A similar downslope-type wind called a Califomia 11ortlier in Red Bluff to an unbe.lievable 11 9•f for two consecutive
can produce unbearably high temperatures in the northern half days- amazing when you realize that Red Bluff is located at
of California's Central Valley. On August 8, I 978, for example, a about the same latitude as Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
ridge of high pressure formed to the north of this region, while
a thermal low was well entrenched to the south. Titis pressure DESERT WINDS Winds of all sizes develop over the deserts.
pattern produced a north "ind in the area. A summertime north Huge dust stonns form in dry regions, where strong winds are
"ind in most parts of the country means cooler we<!ther and a ableto lift and fill the air with partidesof fine dust. An exception-
welcome relieffrom a hot spell, but not in Red Bluff, California,•
ally lar&>e dust storm (about the size of Spain) during February,
1be loctitio n of ~ d BJuffisshm\'ll on Lhc map in Fig. 9.29. 2001, formed over the African Sahara, then S\\'l!pt westward
• FI GURE 9. 31 From atophisroof, aresident ofOaklands

Rockridgedistrict looks on in disbeliefas his neighbors' homes
are consumed in a raging firestorm on October 20, 199t .
.
"'•
8
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I•• -"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i..r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c ..'ll'tl..
1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,... .t,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
ground. Called dust devils or whirlwinds,• these rotating vor-
tire_~ generally form on dear, hot days over a dry surface where
m0-st of the Slmlight goes into heating the surface, rather than
evaporating '"lier from vegetation. 1 he atm0-~phere directly
above the hot surface becomes unstable, convection sets in, and
theheated airrises, often lifting dlk~t, sand, anddirt high into the
air. Wind, often deflected by small topographic barriers, flows
into this region, rotating the ri~ingair as depicted in • Fig. 9.35.
Depending on the nature of the topographic feature, the spin of
a dust devil around its central core may be cyclonic or anticy-
clonic, and both directions occur with about equal frequency.
Having diameters of only a few meters and heighL~ of usu-
• F I GURE 9. 33 A lruck tries to o utrun o ne o f themanydevastating dust allv less th'm I 00 m (300 ft), mo_st dust devils .are small and last
storms that roared over the Central Plains in the 1930s. only a short time (see e Fig. 9.36). There.are, however, some dust
devils of sizable dimension, extending upward from the surface
offthe African coast, then northeastward for thousands ofmiles for several hundred meters. Such whirlwinds .are capable of
(seee l'ig. 9.32). During thedrought years ofthe I 930s, large dust considerable damage; \\1nds exceeding 75 knots may overturn
s torms formed over the Great Plains of the United States. Some mobile homes and tear the roofa offbuildin(}S. Fortunately, the
individual storms lasted forthreedaysandspread dust forhun- majority of dust devils are small. Also keep in mind that dlk~t
dredsof milesovfT the Atlantic Ocean (see eFig, 9.33). ln desert devils are 1101 tornadoes. The circulation of many tornadoes (as
areas \\•here k>0se sand is more prevalent, sa11dst.or111s develop, ""will see in Chapter 14) usmlty desc.e ndsdown""ard from the
as high winds enhanced by surface heating rapidly carry sand base of a thunderstorm, whereas the circulation of a dtc~t devil
particles dose to the ground. begins at the surface, normally in sunny weather, ,1lthough some
A spectacular example ofa storm comp0-o;ed ofdust or sand li>rm beneath convective-type clouds.
i~ the ha boob (from Arabic hebbe: blown). '!be haboob forms as Desert "fads are not confined to planet Earth; they form
cold downdrafts along the leading edge of a thunderstorm lift on the planet Mars as well. M0-st of the Martian dust storms are
dllst or sand into a huge, tumbling dark cloud that may exrend small, and only cover a relatively small portion of that planet.
horizontally for over a hundred kilometers and rise vertically to 1-!o""ver, during 200 1 an enormous dust storm developed that
thebaseofthethunderstorm (see • Fig. 9.34). Haboobsarem0-~t actually wrapped iL~lf aroundtheentireplmet. Dust deviLsaLro
common in the African Sudan (where about twenty-four occur K>rm on Mars \\•hen high \\•iilds S\\'t?tp over uneven terrain.
each vear) and in the desert southwes t of the United States, Some of the hottest winds in the world blow over deserts.
especially in southern Arizona. For example, extremely hot, dry winds originating over the
On a smaller scale, in dry areas, the wind may also produce
ri~ing.spinning columns ofair that pick up dust or sand from the •in Austr<1!ia. the Aboriginal word w1'1fy·willy r~ fcrs 10 3 dust devil
e FI GURE 9.34 A large haboob (dust

storm) moves through Phoenix.Arizona,
onJutyS, 20tt.
Unstable atmosphere
Wind
Obstruction
-·.Hea1ed
:
surtace
e FIGURE 9. 35 The formation ofa dust devil. On a hot, dryday, the atmosphere next to the ground becomes unstable.As the
heated air rises. \Vind blo\ving past an obstruction hvi.!o1s the rising air, forming a rotating air column or dustdE'llil Air from the sides
rushes into the rising column, lifting sand. dust,. leaves, or any other loose material from the surface.
Sahara Desert are given local names as they move into different much colder than the air over lhe ocean. A large, shallow
regions. Over North Africa the general "1nd flow is from the high-pressure area develops over rontinenralSiberia, producing
oorlheasl. Ho,vever, when a cyclonic storm system is located a clod.wise circu lati on ofairlhar flows our over lhe Indian Ocean
west ofAfrica and southern Spain (position I ,• Fig. 9.37). a hot, and South China Sea (see • Fig. 9.38a). Subsiding air of the
dry, and dllsfy easterly or southeasterly "1nd-lhe /esle-blows anticyclone and lhedownslope movement ofnortheasterly winds
over Morocco and out over lhe Allan tic. If the "ind cr<>'l.>;eS the from the inland plaleau provideeasrern and southern A~ia with
Mediterranean and enters southern Spain, it becomes the hot,
dty leveclie. \.Vhen a lO\\•-pre~~~ure are.a iscentere.d at po.~ition 2. a
hot, dust-laden south or southeast "ind-the sirocco-originate,~
over the Sahara Desert and blows across North Africa.
Astormlocateds1ill farlherlolhe east(p<>~ilion3) may pro-
duce a dry, hot southerly "1nd, called the khamsin, which blows
over Egypt, the Red Sea, and Saudi Arabia. ' lb is wind can be
very hot and raise air temperatures to J 20"F, while lowering !he
relative humidity to less than 10 percent. lflhi~ wind moves into
l~rael, it i~ called the Sham" A~ hot as these winds are, they don't
hold a candle to one of the honest winds on earth, !he simoom .
Called the "poison wind; this strong, dry, and dusty wind blows
OVfT Africa and the Arabian desert, often raisingairlemperalure,~
in excess of 12s• F-ho1 enough tocmL~e heal stroke and death.
SEASONALLY CHANGING WINDS - THE MONSOON On

our planet there are thermal circulations thal are much larger
than those of the more local sea and land breeze,~ . A good ex-
ample ofsuch a ci.rculation i~ the m onsoon, which derive,~ from
the Arabic 1nausi111, meaning seasons. A monsoon wind syst~m
i~ onelhar changes direction seasonally, blowing from one direc-
tion in summer and from the opposite direct ion in winter. Thi~
seasonal rt~versal ofwinds is especially well developed in eastern
and southern Asia.
In so1ne " 'ays. the monsoon is similar to a large-scale sea • FI GURE 9.36 A well'<leveloped dust devil forms over a hot desert
breeze. During the "1nler, the air over the continent becomes land:SC.apeon a dear summer day.
e FI GURE 9. 37 Exceptionallyhot.
dry locahvind.s that form over North
Africaand the Sahara Desert.
ALGERIA
LIBYA
generally fair weather. Hence, the wi11ter mo11soo11, which lasts \\inds in the jet diverge, surface pressures drop, the monsoon
from about December through February, means dear skies (dry depressions intensify, and surface "fads increase. 1 he greater
sea.<011 ), with surface winds that blow from land to sea. inflow of moist air supplie,s larger quantities of latent heat,
Ln stun mer. the \\rind-fio\v pattern reverses itself as air over v.•hich. in turn. intemifits the swnmer monsoon circulation.
the continents become-s much \varmer than air above the \\'ater. 'Jbe strength of the Jndian monsoon appears to be related
A shaUow thermal low develops over the continental interior. to the reversal of surface air pressure that occurs at irregular
1 he heated air within the low rises, and the surrounding air intervals about every two to seven years at opposite ends of the
respon<ts by flowing cou11ferdocbvise into the low center. This tropical South Pacific Ocean. As we will see in Chapter JO, this
condition results in moisture-bearing winds sweeping into the reversal ofpressure (which is known as the Soutlrern Osdfllltio11)
continent from the ocean. The humid air converges with a drier is linked to an ocean warming phenomenon known as El Nillo.
westerly flow, causing it to rise; further lifting is provided by During a major £1 Nino event, surface water near the equator
hills and motmtains. Lifting cools the air to its saturation point, become,s much warmer over the central and eastern Pacific.
resulting in heavy showers and thunderstonns. Thus, the sum- Over the region of '""m water we fmd rising air, huge convec-
mer mo11soo11 ofsoutheastern Asia, which lasts from about June tive clouds, and heavy rain. Meanwhile, to the west ofthe warm
through September, means wet, rainy weather (wet sea.<011) with '"tter (over the region influenced by the summer monsoon),
surface "indsblo"ing from sea to land (see Hg. 9.38b). Although sinking air inhibits cloud formation and convection. Hence,
the majority of rain fa Us during the wet season, it does not rain during £1 Nii\o years, monsoon rainfaU is likely to be deficient.
all the time. Jn fact, rainy periods of between 15 to 40 days Summer monsoon rains over southern A~ia can reach re-
are often followed by several weeks of hot, sunny weather. cord amounts. Located about 300 km inland on the southern
Many factors help create the monsoon wind system. The slopes of the Khasi Hills in northeastern India, Cherrnpunji re-
latent heat given off during condensation aids in the warming of ceives an average of 1080 cm (425 in.) of rainfall each year, mos!
the air over the continent andstrengthens the summer monsoon of it during the summer monsoon between April and October
circulation. Rainfall is enhanced by weak, westward moving (see • Fig. 9.39). Thesummer monsoon rains are essential to the
low-pressure areas called mo11soo11 depressio11s. 'lb e formation agriculture of that part of the world. With a population of over
of these depressions is aided by an upper-level jet stream. Where 900 million people, India depends heavily on the summer rains
• ChemljlUnji
N (al Winier Monsoon N lbJSummerM
• FI GURE 9. 38 Changing annual surface wind"fl""" patterns associated \Vi th the\vinter and summer Asian monsoon.
,... ~
Aveiage a"""al rainfa11 1oeo cm (425 in.)
350
140
300
120
250
100
g: 80 200 e
~
.g" "
.g
""" 60 150 !J
.s<>
f
0..
~
0..
40 100
50
• F I GURE 9.40 Enhanced infrared satellite image\vith heavyarro\vshow·

0 ing strong monsoonal circulation. Moist,souther1ywindsarecausing shO\-.Ets
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D a nd thunderstorms{yellow and red areas} to form over the south\vestern
Month section of the United Statesduring July, 200 1.
• F I GURE 9.39 Average annual precipitation for Cherrapunji, India. Note the
Mon~oon wind systems exist in other regions of the world,
abundant rainfallduring the summer monsoon {April through October)\vith
the lack of rainfallduring the\vinter monsoon (November through March}. such as Australia, Africa, and North and South America, where
large contrasts in temperature develop between oceans and con-
so that food crops will grow. Thepeoplealsodtpendon the rains tinents. (Usually, however, these systems are not as pronounced
!Or drinking water. Unfortunately, the monsoon am be unreli- as in southeast Asia.) For example, a monsoonlike circulation
able in both duration and inten~ity. Since the monsoon is vital to exists in the southwestern United States, especially in Arizona,
the survival ofso many people, it is no wonder that meteorolo- New Mexico, Nevada, and the southern part ofCalifornia where
gists have investigated it extensively. They have tried to develop spring and early summer are normally dry, as warm westerly
method~ of accurately forecasting the intensity and duration of "1nds sweep over the region. By mid-July, however, humid
the monsoon. With the aid of current research projects and the southerly or southeasterly winds are more common, and so
latest di mate models, there is hope that monsoon forecasts "111 are afternoon showers and thunderstorms (see • fig. 9.40 and
begin to improve in accuracy. • Fig. 9.41).
• FI GURE 9.41 Cloudsand thunderstorms

brming over Arizona.as humid monsoonal air
flows north\vard over the region during July, 2007.
T TABLE 9.1 Some Loe.a l Winds o f the World
NAME DESCRIPTION
Cold Winds
Athos A strong northeac;terl)' fall '"ind that descends fmn1 ti/fount Athos over the Aegean Sea
Buran A strong, cold \\'ind that blO\\IS over Ru~ia and central Asia
Purga A buran accompanied by strong l\li:nds and blo\\ling sno\\I
Pa1upero A cold \\find blo\\ting fron1 the s.oulh over Argentina, Uruguay, and into the A.rnazon Basin
Burga A cold northeai;terly \\'ind in Alaska usually acconipanied by sno\''; sin1ilar to the buran and purga of Russia
Bise Generally a cold north or northeast '''ind that blo,,'S over southern France; often brings dan13gingspring frost4i
Papagayo A cold northeasterly \\rind along the Pacific coast ofNicaragua and Guaten1ala; occurs \\lhen a cold air nlass
O\\>rrides the n1ountains of Crotral An>erica
Tehuantepecer A stmng'"ind fron1 the north or north'"e."t funneled through the gap bet\\leen the Mexican and Guaten1alan
n1ountains and out into the Gulf ofTehuantepec
Texas Norther Cold norther!)' \\finds behind an intense nttddle... (atimde cyclone crossing the U.S. Grear Plains~ '"hich ntay
penetrate into Central Anl.erica, '"here the ,,•ind is called a twrte
Mild '\<\rind.s
Levanter A nl.ild, hun1id. and often rainy east or northeast \Vind that blO\\fS across .southern Spain
Harnlattan A dry, dusty but n1ild \\rind fronl. the northeast or east that originates over the cool Sahara in \Vinter and blo\VS
o,q:or the \Ve.lit t'.oa.i;t of Africa; brings relief fmnl. the hot, hun1id \\q:oather along the coastal region
Up to no'"'> '"'</ ve examined a variety of '"'ind systems that • Dust devils tend to form over dry terrain on clear, hot days.
are recognized more than just locally. Yet, there are a number They are not tornadoes, although the winds of a large dust
of other wind system~ that have gained notoriety in different devil may cause minor damage to structures.
region~ of the world, a few ofwhich areli~te.d in "' Table 9.1. • Monsoon winds are winds that change direction seasonally.
In southern Asia, the winter monsoon , which blows from
land to water, is dry; the summer monsoon 1 which blows
BRIEF REVIEW from water to land , i.s wet.
Before moving on to the next section, here Is a brief review of

some of the main points about winds.
• Thermal pressure systems are shallow pressure syst ems that Determining Wind Direction
are driven by the unequal heating and cooling of the earth's
surface.
and Speed
• The sea breeze and the land breeze are types of thermal Wind-the horizontal movement of air -is characterized by
circu lations that are due to uneven heating and cooling its direction, speed, and gustiness. lf" 'e imagine air molecules
rates of land and water. asbeingaswarmofbees, the wind may be seen as the movement
• At the surface, a sea breeze blows from water to land; of theentireswarm. '[ his analogy can be carried a little further:
whereas a land breeze blows from land to water. On a calm day, the swarm will remain in one spot with each bee
• A vall ey breeze blows uphill during the day and a mountain randomly darting about; while on a windy day the entire swarm
breeze blows downhill at night. will movequid<ly from one place to another. The swarm'.~ speed
would be the rate at which it moves past you. In like m an-
• Chinook (foehn) winds are warm, dry winds that blow
ner, wind speed is the rate at which air moves by a stationary
downhill along the eastern side o f the Rocky Mountains.
observer. This movement can be expressed as the distance in
• The main source of warmth for the chlnook lscompressional nautical miles traveled in one hour (knots) or as the number of
heating. meters traveled in one second (m/sec).
• Santa Ana winds are warm, dry downsl ope winds that warm Unlike as'"'arm ofbees.air isinvi.~ible~ '"re cannot really see
by compressional heating and blow from the east or north- it. Rather, we see things being moved by it. Therefore, we can de-
east into Southern California. termine wind direction by watching the movement of objects as
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,....,.._..,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
OflSllo<e wind
• FI GURE 9.42 {a) An onshorevtind blows from water to land; (b} An offshore wind blOW'S from land to water.
air passes them. For example, the rustling ofsmall leaves.smoke where the wind~ are downslope. Prevailing onshore winds in
drifting near the ground, ,Ul([ flags waving on a pole all indicate summer carry moisture. cool air, and fog into coastal regions.
"'°d direction. In a light breeze, a tried and true method of de- where<isprevailing offshore breeze.scarry warmer and drier air
termining wind direction is 10 raise a wet finger into the air. The int<> the same locations.
dampness quickly evaporates on the wind-facing side, cooling Jn city planning, theprevailing "ind can help decide where
the skin 1rafficsoundscarried from nearby railroadrnr airports industrial centers, factories, and city dumpsshould be built. All
can be used 10 help figure out the direction of the wind. £ven of these, ofcourse, mu.~! belocatedsothal the wind will not carry
your nose can alert you to the wind direction as the smell of pollutants into populated areas. Sewage disposal plants must
fried chicken or broiled hamburgers drifts "1th the wind from be situated downwind from large housing developments, and
alocal restaurant. major runways al airports mu.~! be aligned with the prevailing
We already know that wind direction is given as the direc- wind 10 assist aircraft in taking off or landing. In the high coun-
tion from wliid1 ii is blo"1ng-a north wind blows from the try, strong prevailing winds c<in bend and lwi~t tree branches
north toward the south. However, near large bodies of water and toward the downwind side, producing wimi-sculphtred ''flag
in hilly regions, "ind direction may be expressed differently. For trees" (see e Fig. 9.44).
example, wind blowing from the water onto the land is referred The prevailing wind can even be a significant factor in
to as,., onshore wind (seee Fig. 9.42a). Hence, a sea breezeanda building an individual home. In the northe<istern half of the
lake breeze are both onshore winds. Conversely, wind that blows
from the land onto the water is called an offshore wind (see
Fig. 9.42b). So, a land breeze is an offshore wind.
Air moving uphill is an upslope wind; air moving downhill NNW N NNE
is a tiownslope wind. Hence, valley breezes are upslope winds,
and mountain breezes are downslope winds. The wind direction NW NE
may also be given asdegree.sabouta 360• circle. These directions
are expressed by the numbersshown in • Fig. 9.43. l'or example: WNW ENE
A wind direction of360" is a north wind; an east wind is 90-;
a south "ind is 1so•; and calm is expressed as zero. 11 is also
common practice toe.xpress the wind direction in terms of com-
pass points, such as N, NW, N£, and so on. (Helpful hints for
estimating wind speeds from surface observations may be found
in the Beau.fort WimJ Scale, located in Appendix C, toward the WSW
back of the book.)
THE INFLUENCE OF PREVAILING WINDS At many loca-
tions, the wind blows more frequently from one direction than
from any other. '!be prevailing wind is the name given 10 the
wind direction most often observed duringa given time period.
Prevailing winds can greatly affect the climate of a region. For
ex,unple, where the prevailing winds are upslope, the rising, • FI GURE 9.43 Wind direction can be ex.pressed in degrees about a circle or
coolingairmakesdouds, IOg, and precipitation more likely than as compass points.
e FIGURE 9.45 Adndercooe inkeand that hasamoiegen1le~ onil•
right side. Whkhw-aywasthewird blowing when it erupced? AnSW't'r Ourng
erupl~ the prevaiirg wind was from lef't to right beatM! e}Kttd p.v11c}es.
blown by the wind accumU.ated on the wlc.ano's righ1 side, ptOcfuc.lng a n'l>te
gentle slope.
e FIGURE 9.4 4 In the high country. Ute) tllrdlng unPfOWCtfd from the
wind are often K'Ulpted Into ~flag tre a.~ .wch I) th«M trH:i in Wyoming.
industrial stack seule to the ground on its downwind side. Prom
United Stn1es, the prevailing wind in \\inter is northwe•t nnd in the air, the prevailing '"ind direction can be ;een as a discolored
summer it i~ southwcst.1 h1L~, houses built in the northenstern landscape on the downwind ;ide of 1he srnck. WlnJ bkl\•ing
United States should hnve windows facing southwest to provide over surfaces of snow and sand produces ripples with u more
summertime ventilation and few, if any, windows facing the gentle slope facing into the \\fod. As previou<I y mentioned, sand
cold \\inter winds from the northwst. ·1he northwest side of dunes have similar shapes and, thus, ;how 1he prevailing wind
lhe house should be thoroughly in;ula1cd and even protected direction. Look at • Fig. 9.45 and see if you can determine 1hc
by a windbreak. prevailing wind when this cinder cone in Iceland erupted.
~rom the prevailing wind, biologists can predict the direc- The prevailing wind can be represenlecl by a wind rose,
tion disease.carrying insects t\IHI plant spores will move and, which indicates 1he percentage of time the wind blows fmm
hence, how a diseosc may spread. Geologists use the prevail- diffi>rent directions. Extensions from the center of a circle point
ing wind to predict where tjcc1cd debris from po1cn1htlly nctivc to the wind direction, and the length of each exten•iOn indicate.'
volcanoes will land. the percentage of lime the wind blew from that direction.
Mnny local ground and landscape feniures show 1hc • Figure 9.46 shows a \\ind rose for a city avcrng'-d over n
effectofa prevailing wind. Forciaunplc.smokcparticlcs froman period of ten Y"""'s during the month of )ammry. Ob.crve that
the longest extension puinls toward the north••'C•t and t ha! 1hc
wind blew from this direction 25 percent of the t imc. 1 his is
the prevailing "ind for this time period. Ofcourse, n wind rose
can be made for any time of the day, and ii can represent the
wind diredion for any month or season of the>""'·
The prevailing wind in a !Own does DOI alwa)'$ reprc;cnt the
prnailingwind ofan entire region. In mounlllinou.regions, the
wind is usually guided by loPography and is often deflected by
NE obstructions that cause its direction to change abruptly. Within
E 0 6 10 I& "
this region, the"indmay be blo"ingfrom onedireclion on one
I I >ide of a valley and from an entirely different direction on the
SE Scale othcTside.
ln an attempt to harness some of the prevailing wind) en-
s ergy and tum it into electricity, many countries are building
wind generators. More infonnation on this topic is given In the
• FfGURE 9.46 Thl.swind tOM! "'Pftwru11heperc-entof ti~ ttwt wnd
Focus section on p.257.
bkwfrom cfrfferent directions at a given ~ti' di.ring themonlh d Januaryror
the past ten yea~ The prevailngwlrd k tN/andtMwnddft«.donofleast WIND MEASUREMENTS A very old, yet reliable, weather
frequency l.s NE. instrument for determining wind direction is the wind vane.
Wind Power
For many decades thousands of small e FIGURE 5 A\vind farm

windmills-their arms spinning in a stiff near Tehachapi Pass. Ca librnia.
generatesek>ctricitythat is
breeze- have pumped water, sawed
sold to Southern California.
wood, and even supplemented the e l ectri ~
cal needs of small farms. It was not until the
energy crisis of the early 1970s, ho.vever,
that we seriously considered wind-driven
turbines, called wind turbines,. to run gener-
ators that produce electricity.
Wind power seems an attractive way
of producing energy- it isnonpolluting
and, unlike solar power, is not restricted to
daytime use. It does, however, pose some
problems, as the cost of a single wind tur-
bine can exceed Sl million. In addition, a wind, but a flow of air neither too weak nor example, in 2006 more than 18,000 w ind
region dotted with large wind machines too strong. A slight breeze will not turn the machines had the capacity of generating
is unaesthetic. (Probably, though, it is no blades, and a powerful wind gust could more than 11,600 megawatts of e lectricity
more of an eyesore than the parades of severely damage the machine. Thus, rein the United States, which is enough en-
huge electrical towers marching across gionsw ith the greatest potential for wind- ergy to supply the annual needs of more
many open areas.) And, unfortunately, each generated power would have moderate, than 7 million people. In California alone,
year the blades of spinning turbines kill steady winds. there are thous.ands of wind turbines, many
countless birds. To help remedy this p rob- Sophisticated advanced technol09y of which are on wind farms- clusters of SO
lem manywind turbine companies hire allows many modern turbines to sense or more w ind turbines (see Fig. 5). In 2010,
avian specialists to study bird behavior, and meteorological data from their surround- wind provided less than 2 percent of the
some turbines are actually shut down dur- ings. Wind turbines actually produce electricity needs in the United States. How-
ing nesting time. And the blades of modern energy in winds as low as 5 knots, and as ever, present estimates are that wind power
high-capacity turbines turn more slowly, high as 45 knots. maybe able to furnish considerably more of
thereby allowing birds to avoid them. As fossil fuels diminish, the wind the nation's total energy needs by the mid-
If the wind turbine is to produce elec- can help fill the gap by providing a pollu- dle of this century.
tricity, there must be wind, not just any tion- free alternative form of energy. For
Most '"'ind vanes consist of a long arrO\\' \\•ith a tail. \\•hich is cup to the other causes the cups to spin about the shaft. The rate
allowed to mow freely about a vertical post (see. Fig. 9.47). The at which they rotate is directly proportional to the speed of the
arrow always points into the wind and, hence, always gives the wind. The spinning of the cup~ is usually translated into wind
wind direction. Wind vanes can be made of almost any mate- speed through a system of gears, and may be read from a dial or
rial. At airports, a cone-shaped bag opened at both ends so that transmitted to a recorder.
it extends horizontally as the wind blows through it sits near The aer ovane (skyvane) is an instrwnent that indicates both
the runway. This form ofwind vane, called a wind sock, enables wind speed and direction. It consi~ts of a bladed propeller that
pilots to tell the surface wind direction when landing. rotates at a rate proportional to the wind speed. Its streamlined
The instrument that measures \\ind speed is the anem om - shape and a vertical fin keep the blades facing into the wind (see
eter. 1lte oldest type of anemometer i~ the pressure plate ane- • Fig. 9.48). When attached to a recorder, a continuous record
mometer developed by Robert Hook!; in 1667. U consists of a of both wind speed and direction is obtained.
rectangular metal plate, which is free to swing in the vertical. As The wind-measuring instrwnents described thus far are
the speed ofthe wind increases, the force ofthe wind on the plate "growid-based" and only give wind speed or direction at a par-
pushes it outward at a greater angle. The \\fad speed is read from ticular fL<ed location. But the wind is influenced by local con-
a scale mounted adjacent to the arm of the swinging plate. Most ditions, such as buildings, trees, and so on. Also, wind speed
anemometers today consist of three (or more) hemispherical normally increases rapidly with height above the ground. Thus,
cups (cup anemometer) mounted on a vertical shaft as shown wind in~truments should be exposed to freely flowing air at a
in fig. 9.47. "Jbe differenre in wind pres~ure from one side of a height of at least I 0 m (30 ft) above the surface and well above
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,....,.._..,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
• FI GURE 9 .48 The aerotane (skyvane}.
~ and direction are computed at specific intervals - usually every

•
& '-~~~~~~~~~
300 m (1000 ft) - above the surface.
1 he pilot balloon principle can be used to obtain wind in-
• FI GURE 9.4 7 A\vindvaneand acupanemometer.These instrumentsare formation during a radiosonde observation. During this t ypeof
part of theASOS system.(For a complete picture of the system, see Fig. 3.3 1.
observation, a balloon rises from the surface carrying a radio-
p. 87.)
sonde (an in~trwnent package Msigned to measure the vertic"1
proftle of temperature, pressure, and hwnidity - see Chapter I,
the roofa of buildings. In practice, unfortunately, anemometers p. 16). Equipment located on the ground constantly tracks the
are pla~.d at various levels; the result, then, is often erratic wind balloon, measuring its vertical and horizontal angles, as well
observation;;. as its height above the ground From this information, a com-
A simple way to obtain wind data above the surface is \\1th puter determines and prints the vertical proftle of wind from
a pilot balloon. A small balloon lille.d with helium is released the surface up to where the balloon normally pops, typically in
from the surface. The balloon rises at a known rate, but drifts the stratosphere near 30 km (19 mi). '.!be observation of winds
freely with the wind. It is manually tracked with a small tele- using a radiosonde balloon is called a rawinsonde observation.
s cope called a tlieodolite. Every minute (or half minute). the Above about 30 km, rockets and radar provide information
balloon's vertic<1l angle (height) and horizontal angle (direc- about the wind flow. One type of rocket ejecl~ an instrument
tion) are measured. 'Jbedata from the observations are fed into attached to a parachute that drifts with the wind as it slowly
a computer or plotted on a special board, and the wind speed falls to e<1rth. While desc-ending. the instrument is tracked by a
• FI GURE 9.49 Aprofileof\'Anddirectionandspeed
~ ~ ~
~ ~
above Hillsbo"' Kansas, on June 28, 2006.
16
\ 100
15
14
13
12
- 11 200 ~
£ 10
300 l!1
~ 9 =>
a s "'"'
~ 6 7 Q)
d:
500
5
4
3
~ ~ ~
700
~ ~ .....,:
2
~ ~ .._
'"-- ,.,.- .......: ........ 850
1
18:00 '
17:00 '
16:00 15:00 '
14:00 13.'00 '
12:00
local 00\e

C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I•• -"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
Observing Winds from Space
The ocean s cover more than 70 percent

of the earth's surface. For many yea rs,
our onl yobservations of surface winds
over the open seas came from a few
ships a nd bu oys. Today, however, NASA's
QuikSCATsatelli te, equipped with a so-
phisticated onboard instrument, is able
to provide a cl ear picture o f w ind speed
and w ind direction over th e open ocean.
This in strument ca lled SeaWinds, a scat-
terometer, is actually capable o f obtain-
ing wind information during a ll types of
weather.
The scatterometer (a typ e of rada r)
gathers wind data in this manner: From
the satellite, the scatterometer sends out
a microwave pulse o f energy that travels
through the clouds, down to the sea
surface. A portion of this energy is scat-
tered (boun ced) back to the satelli te.
The amount of energy returning to the
• f IGUR E 6 A Qu'SCAT.satellite image of wind direction and \Vind speed associated \'lilh tropical
scatterometer (ca lied t he echo) depends cydonesOlaf and Nancy over the South Pacific Ocean on February 15, 2005. VYlnd direction is shown with
on the roughness of the sea- rougher arro\YS. Wind speed is indicated by colors. \vhere purple represenn the lightest wind.sand fight pink the
seas have a stronger echo beca use they strongest \'linds.
scatter back more in coming energy.
Since the sea's roughness depends upon Surfacewind information of this nature changing. And incorporating sea surface
the strength of the w ind blowing over it, can be extremelyvaluable to the shipping wind information into computer forecast
the echo's intensity can be translated industl)'i as well as to coastal communities. models may have the benefit of imprOYing
into surface wind speed and direction Storms over the open ocean can be care· weather forecasts.
(see Fig. 6). fully monitored to see how their winds are
ground-based radar uni! lhal determines wind information for l "1sting eddie.s 1ha1 move with !he "1nd. Doppler radar works
lhal region of !he atmosphere. Other rockets eject metal strips on 1he principle lhal, as these eddies move toward or away from
at some desired level. Ag,un, radar !racks lhese drifting pieces of !he receiving antenna, !he relurning radar pulse will change in
chaff, which provide valuable "1ndspeed and direction d'lla for fre.quency. The Doppler radar wind profilers are so sensili,'e lhal
elevalions ouL~ide !he normal radiosonde range. l hey can lranslale !he backscallered energy from lheseeddie.s inlo
A device similar lo radar called lidar (light detection and a verticalpictureofo1ndspeed tmddirection in a column a air 16
ranging) uses infrared or visible light in !he form ofa laser beam km (JOmi) thick (see e fig, 9.49). Presenlly, lhere i~ a network of
to determine "rind informiltion. Basically, it sends out anarrO\\' "1nd profilers scatlered across lhecenlral Uni led Sl'1les.
beam oflighl lhal is reflected from particles, such as smoke or In remote regions of !he world where upper-air observa-
dusl-il measures wind velocity by measuring !he movement tions are lacking, wind speed and direction can be obtained
of1hese particles. from sa1eUi1es. As we saw in Chapter 5, geostationary sa1elli1e.s
Wilh l he aid ofUoppler radar, a verlical profile of"1ndspeed po.~ilioned above a parlicular local ion show !he movement of
and direction up lo an ahitude of 16 kilomeiers or so above !he clouds. The direction of cloud movement indicates "1nd direc-
growxl can beoblaine.d. Such a profile i~ called a wind sounding, tion, and !he horizontal distance !he cloud mows during a given
a1xl !he radar, a wind profiler (or simply a profiler). Doppler lime period indicates !he wind speed. Sa1elli1e.s now measure
radar. like conventional radar, emits pulses of miCC0\\ ave radia· 1
surface "1nds above !he ocean by observing !he roughness of
lion lh'tt are relurne.d (backscallered) from a large!, in !hi~ case !he !he sea. (More inform<1tion on !hi~ !Opie is given in !he focu.~
irregularities in moisture and temperature created by turbulent, section above.)
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
SUMMARY KEY TERMS
ln this chapter. we concentrated on microscale and meso- 'The following termsarelisted (with page numbers) in the
scale winds. In the beginning of the chapter, we con~idered orderrhey appear in the text. Defmeeach. Doing so will aid
both how our environment influences the wind and how the you in reviewing the material covered in this chapter.
\\•ind influences our environment. \Vesav1 that the friction
1
scale,~of motion, 230 sea breeze, 24 l
ofairflow-vi~cosity-can be brought about by the random mic.roscale, 230 lake breeze, 241
motion of air molecules (molecular viscosity) or by turbu- mesoscale, 230 land breeze, 241
lent whirling eddies of air (eddy viscosity). The depth of the synoptic scale, 230 sea breeze front, 242
atmospheric layer near the surface that is influenced by sur- planetary (global) valle.y breeze, 244
face friction (the boundary layer) depend~ upon atmospheric scale, 230 mountain breeze. 244
stability, the wind speed, and the roughness of the terrain. macro.o;cale, 230 katabatic (or fall) wind,
Although it may vary, the top oftheboundarylayer is usually turbulence, 230 244
near 1000 meters or about 3300 feet. viscosity, 230 chinook wind, 245
Winds blowing past obstructions can produce a number mechanical foehn wind, 245
of effects, from gusty winds at a sports stadium to howling turbulence, 231 Santa Ana wind, 247
wind~ on a blustery night. Aloft, winds blowing over a moun- planetary boundary haboob, 250
tain range may generate hazardous rotors downwind of the ~ayer, 232 dust devil {whirlwind). 250
range. And the eddies that form in a region of strong wind thermal turbulence, 232 simoom, 251
shear, especially in the vicinity of a jet stream, can produce rotors, 233 monsoon, 2Sl
exlreme turbulence, even in tlear air. wind shear, 234 monsoon wind system, 25 l
Wind blowing overtheearth'.~surfacecan create a variety dear air turbulence onshore \vind, 255
of features. ln deserts, we see sand dunes, and desert pave- (CAT). 234 offshore wind, 255
ment. Over a snow surface, the wind produces snow ripples, snow rollers, 236 prevailing wind, 255
snow rollers, and huge drifts. Where high winds blow over a shelterbelts , ..rind rose. 256
ridge, trees may be sculpted into "flag" trees. ln unprotected {windbreaks), 237 \\rind vane.• 256
areas, she!terbe!ts are pl~nted to protect crops and soil from \vin<l v.·~\ves. 238 anemometer, 257
damaging winds. seiches, 239 aerovane (skyvane). 257
We also eJ<amined winds on a slightly larger scale. Land thermal circulations, 24 l pilot balloon, 258
and sea breezes are true mesoscale winds that blow in respon~ thermal high~. 241 lidar, 259
to local pressure differences created by the uneven heating and thermal lows, 241 "ind profiler, 259
cooling rates of land and water. A sea bree'.te is an onshore
wind because it blows from sea to land, whereas a land bree'.te
is an offshore wind because it blows from land to sea. When
winds move across a large body of water, they often change QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
in speed and direction. Where the winds change direction I. Describe the various scales of motion, and give an ex-
seasonally, they are termed monsoon wind~. Monsoon wind~ ample of each.
exist in many parts of the world, including North America,
2. How does the earth's surface influence the flow of air
Asia, Australia, and Africa.
above it?
Local winds that blow uphill during the day are called
valley bree'.tes and those that blow downhill at night, moun- 3. What causes wind gusts?
tain breezes. A strong, cold downslope wind is the katabatic 4. How does mechanical turbulence differ from therm'1l
(or fall) wind turbulence?
A warm, dry wind that descends the eastern side of the 5. Why are winds near the surface typically stronger and
Rocky Mountains is thechinook.1be samet ypeof '"ind in the more gusty in the afternoon?
Alp.~ is called a foehn. A w'>rm, dry, usually strong dQwnslope
6. Describe several ways in which an eddy might form.
wind that blows into Southern California from the east or
northeast is the Santa Ana wind. 7. A friend has just returned from a trans-Atlantic jet air-
Local intense heating of the surface can produce small craft flight and reported that the plane dropped about
rotating winds, such as the dust devil, while downdrafts in LOOO m when it entered an "air pocket." Explain to your
a thunderstorm are responsible for the de,~rt haboob. Some friend what apparently happened to cause this drop.
'"e
winds, such as the bl iZZ<>rd, snow-bearing. whereas others, 8. Explain " 'hy the car in the diagram in • Fig. 9.50 may
such as the sirocco, are dust-bearing. experience a west wind as it travels past the "'all.
27. If you are standing directly south of a smoke stack <lnd
the wind from the stack is blowing over your head,
what would be the wind direction?
28. How does a wind profiler obtain wind~?
29. Expl1in how satellites are able to estimate surface "1nd~
over the ocean.
30. In what part of the world would you expect to encoun·
ter each of the following winds, and what type of
weather would each wind bring?
(a) foehn (e) chinook
(b) California norther (f) Columbia Gorge wind
(c) Santa Ana (g) sirocco
• FIGURE 9.50 (d) zonda (h) mistral
9. What is wind she-ar and how does ii relate to clear air

turbulence?
I 0. Explain how shelterbelts protect sensitive crops from
wind damage. I. A pilot enters the weather service office and wants to
11. With the same wind speed, explain why a camper is know what time of the day she can expect 10 encounter
more easily moved by the wind than a car. the least turbulent wind~ at 760 m (2500 ft) above central
Kansas. lf you were the weather forecaster, what would
12. What are the necessary conditions for the development
you tcll her?
of large wind waves?
2. Why is it dangerous during hang gliding 10 enter the
13. H0\\1 can a coastal area have- heavy \\'aves on a clear. do"11wind side of the hill when the wind speed is strong>
nonstormy day?
3. After a winter snowstorm, Cheyenne, Wyoming, re-
14. Why do winds usually change direction and speed
ports a total sno"' accumulation of 48 cm (19 in.),
when moving over a large body of water>
while the maximum depth in the surrounding coun·
15. Vsing a diagram, explain how a thermal circul11ion tryside is only 28 cm (11 in.). lf the storm'.~ intensity
develops. and duration were practically the same for a radius of
16. Which wind will most likely produce clouds: a v;>lley SO km around Cheyenne, explain why Cheyenne re-
breeze or a mountain breeze> Why> ceived so much more SOO\Y.
17. Explain why chinook winds are warm and dry. 4. Why is the difference in surface wind speed bet1•<een
18. Name some of the benefits of a chinookwind. morning and afternoon typically greater on a clear,
sunny day than on a cloudy, overcast day?
19. What atmospheric conditions contribute to the <level·
opment of a strong Santa Ana condition> Why is a 5. Might it be p<>-o;sible to have a city/suburb breeze? If so,
Santa Ana \Vind \\•arm? would you expect ii to be more prominent during the
day or night? Describe how ii would form. Vse a dia-
20. How do strong katabatic winds form?
gram to help you.
21. Why are haboobs more prevalent in Arizona than in
6. Average annual wind speed information in knots is
Oklahoma>
given here for two cities located on the Great Plains.
22. Describe how dust devils usually form. Which city would probably be the best site for a wind
23. Discu.o;s the factors that contribute to the formation of turbine? Why?
the summer monsoon and the winter monsoon in India.
Time
24. An upper wind direction is reported as 315•. From
AVERAGE ANNUAL
what compass direction is the "1nd blowing? Ml~ WI® SPEED
25. List as many ways as you can of determining the wind NIGHT l 6 9 NOON l 6 9 !KNOTS)
direction and the wind speed.
CityA: 12 7 8 13 15 1814 13 12.5
26. Name and describe three instruments used to measure
wind speed and direction. CityB: 8 6 6 13 20 22 15 JO I 2.5
I. A model city is to be con~tructed in the middle of an
uninhabited region The wind rose seen here(• fig. 9.52)
shows the annual frequency of wind direclions for this
region. With the aid of the wind rose, on a square piece
of paper determine where the following should be
- located:
(a) industry
• FIGURE 9.51
(b) parks
(c) schools
7. Which of the sites in • Fig, 9.51 would probably bet he (d) shopping centers
best place to construct a wind turbine; A, B, or C? (e) se"•age di~po.~al plants
Which would be the worst? Explain. (f) housing devdopment
(g) an airport with two runways
8. Explain why citie.~ near large bodies of cold water in
swnmer experience well-developed sea breezes, but
only poorly developed land breezes. N
9. Why do clouds tend to form over land with a sea

breeze and over \\1ater \\rith a land bree-te?
JO. The convergence of two sea breezes in Florida fre-
quently produces rain showers; the convergence of two 0 5% 10%
sea breezes in c~lifornia does not. Explain. I I
11. Why don't chinook winds form on the east side of the S<:al&
Appalachian~;
12. Show, with the aid of a diagram, what atmo.~pheric and e FIGURE 9.52
topographic condition~ are necessary for an area in the
Northern Hemisphere to experience hot summer
breezes from the 11ortl1. 2. What would be the total force exerted on a camper
15 ft long and 8 ft high, if a wind of 40 mi/ hr blows
13. The prevailing winds in southern Florida are north- perpendicular to one of its sides?
e.asterly. Knowing this, would you expect the stron-
gest sea breezes to be along the e-ast or west coast of 3. On a map of the United States show where each of the
southern Florida; What about the strongest land winds listed below would be observed. Then determine
breezes; the direction of prevailing wind flow for each wind.
(a) Sant:t Ana '"ind
(b) chi nook wind
(c) California norther
(d) monsoonal winds in summer over the desert
Southwest
(e) Columbia Gorge "1nd (down~lope)
(f) sea breeze along the New Jersey s hore
(g) sea breeze in Los Angeles, California
C...,-nf• )11~ °"'"'°'

1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... ..i M:.y ta>thc....,icd • ........i ,,.. .....,.....,..i,.., ,.f>;ko• in .,.... floe .., ch<......, ..... -11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.h nfl LU;,,.,J\ •
.bmcdfl,...., "'\lrn»<>l"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l""~C~19c1-mll(lfD.._ fl ••,:lo .,,..,•...,:Jj,.,.,,...,.,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.-
«Ii""""' 1f!4".Wt.-,...,.i.....
"ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
GEOSCIENCE ,
-1 Go to the Basic Search field and find three news items that include the term
"wind d'tmage." Based on the description~ of the scope and time frame of wind damage in each 'trtide, where on Figure 9.2
would you place each wind event? ls there a relationship between the size and lifespan of a wind-producing system and the
strength ofits winds?
ONLINE RESOURCES
I!'\ Log in to the OiurseMate website at: www.cengagebrain.com to view the concept animations as noted in the text, as
~ well as additional resources, inducling video exercises, practice <luizzes, an interactive eBook, and more.
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an• Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y ta>thc....,icd >........J ,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;k o•in.,.... floe .., ch<,....., ..... -11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.hnflLU;,,.,J\o «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
.bmcdfl,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f •nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl••,:!o .. •mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
?'''!
Wind: Global Systems

CONTENTS ne sunny August morning, three vessels set sail from Palos,
General Circulation of the Atmosphere
Single-Cell Mod el
O Spain, on an established course. After halting at the Canary
Islands (about 30"N) for a few days, the vessels sailed due west.
Three· Cell Mod el
Average Surface Winds and Pressure: The For most of their Atlantic journey, steady winds from the
Real World northeast filled their sails and blew them along at a hundred
The General Circulation and Precipitation
miles a day. They were quite fortunate. The steady northeast
Patterns
Average Wind Flow and Pressure Patterns winds had edged unusually far north this year, and only for
Aloft about ten days or so did the vessels encounter the light, variable
winds more typical of this region -a notorious reg ion where,
The" Dlshpan" Experiment
Jet Streams years later, ships were freq uently becalmed under a blistering
The Formation of Jet Streams hot sun. And on October 12, 1492, the flotilla landed on a small
The Polar Front Jet
island in the Bahamas. Christopher Columbus had not only
The Subtropical Jet
Jet Streams and Momentum found a rou te to the New World, he had discovered the trade
Other Jet Streams winds-the steady northeast winds tha t arean integral part of
Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions
Global Wind Patterns and Surface Ocean the world's global wind system.
Currents
Upwelling
El Nino a nd the Southern Oscillation
Pacific Decadal Oscillation
FOCUS ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS
El Nino and the Winter Ol ymplcsof 2010
North Atlantic Oscillation
Arctic Oscillation
Summary
Key Terms
Facing page Gentle no rt heastefi y trade w inds

accompanied by altocumulus cloudssettleover
the Everglades in South Florida.
265
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J ,,.. .l....wod,"' "f>•lrc<><in p.... ll<to i;1 '*'<n>•o.- "IJb."*'"'
llo.nl poo-1)' ,.,,..,. ""1 W "'l••-..i..,.,.,h ~dl ... :.1.l\o .0."l'nV I f:1W....rtn1<" '!....
.._,.,..,,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''"... ..,..,,,.,.. -...J4f•nt.•1e_.Jl~""'""l"TIC'>-"c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll""'....., .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,..<>.;•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
n Chapter 9, we learned that local win<ts vary considerably The under! ying cause of the general circulation is the un-
I from day to day and from season to season. As you may sus-
pect, these "'°'ts are part of a much larger circulation-the
lit de whirls within larger whirls that we spoke of before. Indeed,
equal heating of the earth~ surface. We learned in Chapter 2
that, averaged over the entire earth, incoming solar radiation
is roughly equal to outgoing earth radiation. HO\\oever, \\oe also
if the rotating high- and low-pressure areas in our atmosphere know that this energy balance is not maintained for each lati-
we see on a weather map are like spinning eddies in a huge river, tude~ since the tropics experience a net gain in energy. \\•hile
then the flow of air around the globe is like the meandering polar regions suffer a net loss. 1b balance these inequities, the
river itself. When winds throughout the world are averaged over atmosphere transports warm air poleward and cool air equa-
a long period of time, the local "fad patterns vanish, and what torn'1rd. Although seemingly simple, the actual flow of air is
we see is a picture ofthe winds on a global scale-what iscom- complex; certainly not everything is known about it. Jn order to
monly called the general cin:ulation of Lbe atmosphere. Just better understand it, we will first look at some model~ (that is,
as the eddies in a river are carrie.d along by the overall flow of artificially constructed simulations) that eliminate some of the
water, so the highs and lows in the atmosphere are swept along complexities of the general circulation.
by the general circulation. We will examine this ktrge-scale cir-
culation of air, its effects and its features, in this chapter. SINGLE-CELL MODEL 'Jlte first model is the single-cell model,
in v. hich \\'t' as.i;ume that:
1
I. The earth'.~ surface is uniformly covered with water (so th'll

differential heating between land and water does not come
General Circulation into play).
of the Atmosphere 2. The sun is always directly over the equator (so that the winds
will not shift seasonaUy).
Before "-e study the general circulation, we must remember 3. The earth does not rotate (~othat the only force we need 10
that it only represents the avert1ge air flow around the world.
deal with is the pressure gradient force).
Actual winds at any one place and at any given time may
vary con~iderably from this average. Nevertheless, the average With these assumptions, the general circulation of the
can anS\\'er why and how the winds blow around the world the atmosphere on the sid& of the earth facing the sun would look
way they do - why, for example, prevailing surface winds are much like the representation in • Hg. I 0.1 a, a huge thermally
northeasterly in Honolulu, Hawaii, and westerly in New York driven ronvection ce.U in each hemisphere. (For reference., the
City.11ie average can also give a picture of the driving mecha- names of the different regions of the world and their approxi-
nism behind these winds, as well as a model of how heat and mate latitudes are given in Figure JO.lb.)
momentum are transported from equatorial regions poleward, The circulation of air described in Fig. JO. l a is the Hadley
keeping the climate in middle latituMstolerabk. <-CU(named after theeigh1eenth-century English meteorologist
~dr~ 90"~Polar region
~~~ Subpolar region

-SOON
Mid lathudes
- 30"'N
Subtropics
Equat0< - Equalorial or Tropical (j>
' )
L L Subtrop;cs
~ \_:__/
JI,,..~ Mldlllllucles
(a) (b)
• FI GURE 10.1 Diagram (a) sho\\IS the generalc.irculation ofairon the side of th e earth facing th e sun on a nonrotating earth uniformtycov·
e red \Vilh water and \Vith the sun directly abcve the equator. (Vertical air motionsare highlye>Caggerated in the vertical.) Di.lg ram {b) sho\vs the
names that apply to the different regions of the \Vorld and the ir approximate latitudes.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... '"""'''"'"·
George 11 odlcy, who first proposed the idea), It is referred to as first two assumption;. - thnt b, that tbe earth is covered with
a lhcmwl/y dimt cell because it is driven by energy from Lhc water and that the sun b nlwoys directly above the equator.
sun n;, warm nir rise;. and roldair sinks. Exre;sive heat Ing oft he
equatorial af'l'3 producesa broad region of surface low pres;,ure, THREE·CELL MODEL If we allow the mrt.h to spin, the sim-
"'hlle at the poles cxcessi\.., cooling creates a region of >1ltfacc ple con1"cction system breaks into a ><!ties ofcells as shown in
high p~. In response to the horizontal prcs;.ure gradil.'nt, • Fig. 102. Although this model i;, ronsldaably more complex
c:old swfacc polar air Oows equatorward, while at higher level> than the single-cell model there arc i.anc Similarities. The tropi·
air flt>w;, toward the poles. The entire circulation coris1~H t>f a cal regions still n!Ceh" an excess ofht.'Olt and the poles a deficit.
dos..'<! loop with rising air near the equator, sinking air ovcr the In each hemisphen:, three cells in>tcad of one have the task of
poles, an cquatorward flow of air near the surface, and a return energy redistribution. A surface high-pressure area is located at
flow aloft. In thi> mnnner,someoftheexcess energy ofthe trop- Lhe poles, and a broad trough uf surf.tee low pressure still exist,;
ic> is tran•portcd as sensible and latent heat to the regions of at theequator. From the equator to la!itude 30°, thecirculation is
energy dd\cit ot thc poles.' Lhe Hildfey cell. Let's look ot this model more closely by exnrnin·
Such n simple cdlular circulation a.~ this doe; not actually ing what happen•totheairobovcthc equator. (Refer to Fig. 10.2,
exist on the earth. For onething,theearth rotntes,sot hc Coriolis t\S you read the rollowingscction.)
force would deflect the southwnrd-moving surfocc air in the Over equatorial \\'Utcrs.1hc air is \\•arm, horizontal pressure
Northern I lcmisphere to the right, producing easterly surface gradients are weak, and winds arc light. This region is referred
\\inds at practically all latitudes. These wind• would be moving to a.~ the doldrums. ('I he monotony of the weather in this ate'J
inn direction opposite to that of the earth's rotution and, due has given rise to the expression "down in the doldrums~) Here,
to frkdon with the surface, would slow do1•n the ea rthi. •pin. warm air rises, often rondcn;,ing into huge cumulus douru
We know 11131 this doe;, not happen and that prevailing wind. and thunderstorms called coi11.,,cti111? "hot" IOM'rs because of
in middle lnlitudcs actually blow from the '"·'St. 1 hereforc, ob- the enormous nrnount of b11rnt heat they Liberate. This heat
~rv•tlons alone tell us that a~ drcu.lation of airbet\\l:Cn makes the air more buoyant and provides energy to drive the
the cqu:aor and the poles is not the proper model for a rot.1.ting Hadley cell The rising air l'l"Jches Lhe tropopause, which aru
earth. But th.is model does show us how a non rotating planet like a barrier; causing the air 10 move laterally toward the poles.
would balance an excess of energy at the equator and• ddicit at The Coriolis force deflects this pole"'ard Oowtownrd the right
the poles. How, then, does the wind blow on a rotating pbnet? in the Northern Hemisphere nnd to the left in the Southern
'lb an;.wcr, we wiO keep our model simple by retaining our Hemisphere.providing westerly winds aloft in both hemispheres.
(We will see later that these westerly winds reach maximum
'A.ddltlonal lnrornutlon on lhcrm.d circul;ltio1t~ Is found on p. l•l I In Cl\1plt'r9. velocity and produce jet streams near latitude> 30" and 60°.)
• FIGURE 10. 2 Th• ld•abod wind and surface-

peulMedi~trl:>utiMI owr a unifcrmly water·cotered
fOtatS\gelN1h
H\
snrade
winds
\H ~
Sublropic;M
higll•
'' eo>
.,...,,., ~ :siOCallp;-.:21)1
.-...i11.--···~-··-~ ...................... _ ..........,... .. ,.
~._(;_ ._~-- .........._...i_,,,..,_ •..,_ ...""'......,... _._ _....,._.
• FI GURE 10. 3 Subtropical deserts.. such as the
one sho\\111 here, are mainly the result d sinking air
<lSSOC:iated with subtropical high·pressureareas.
As air moves poleward from the tropics, it constantly cools drop copious amounts ofrain in the !Orm ofheavy showers (see
by giving up infrared radiation, and at the same time it aL~o • Fig. 10.4).
begins to converge, especially as it approache,~ the middle lati- Meanwhile, at latitude 30•, not all of the surface air moves
tudes.• 111is convergence (piling up) of air aloft increases the equatorward. Some air moves toward the Poles and deflects to-
mass ofair above the surface, which in turn causes the air pres- ward the east, resulting in amoreorless westerly airflow -called
sure at the surface to increase. Hence, at latitudes near 30•, the the prevailing westerlies, or, simply, westerlies-in both hemi-
convergence of air aloft produces belts of high pressure called spheres. Consequently, from Texas northward into Canada, it
subtropical hig hs (or anticyclones). As the converging, rela- is much more common to experience "1nds blo"1ng out of the
tively dry air above the highsslowly descend~. it warms by com- west than from the east. ' lhe westerly flow in the real world i~
pression. This subsiding air produces generally clear skies and not constant as migrating areas of high and low pressure break
\•.rarm surface temperatures; hence, on earth it is here that \\'t up the surface flow pallern from time to time. In the middle lati-
find the major deserts of the world, such as the Sahara of Africa tudes of the Southern Hemisphere, where the surface is mostly
and the Sonoran of North America (see • Fig. 10.3). \\•ater. \\•inds blo\'' 1nore steadily from the \''e.°'t.
Over the ocean, the weak pre,~sure gradients in the center As this mild surface airtravelspoleward, from latitude 30°,
of the high produceonlyweak "1nds. According to legend, sail- it encounters cold air moving down from the poles. ' I he,se two
ing ships traveling to the New World were frequently becalmed air masses of contrasting temperature do not readily mix. 111ey
in this region, and, a~ food and supplies dwindled, horses were are separated by a boundary called the polar front, a zone of
either thrown overboard or eaten. As a consequence, this region low pressure- the subpolar low- where surface air converges
i~ sometime~ called the horse latitudes. and rises, and storm~ and clouds develop. In our model in
From the horse latitudes, near latitude 30°, some of the sur- Fig. 10.2,someofthe ri~ingair returns at high level~ to the horse
face air moves back toward theequator. lldoes not flow straight latitudes, where it sinks back to the surface in the vicinity of the
back, however, because the Coriolis force deflects the air, mus- subtropical high. The middle cell (a tl1emially indirect cell, in
ing it to blow from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere which cool air rises and warm air sinks, called the Ferrel cell,
and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. 1l1ese after the American meteorologist William Ferrel) i~ completed
steady winds provide.d sailing ships "'th an ocean route to the whensurface air from the horse latitude,~ flows poleward toward
New World;hence, the,se windsarecaUed the trade winds. Near the polar front.
the equator, the northeast trades converge with the soutlieast Notice in Fig. 10.2 that, in the Northern Hemisphere, behind
trades along a boundary called the intertropical conver gence the Polar front, the cold air from the poles i~ deflected by the
zone(ITCZ). In this region ofsurfaceconvergence, airrises and Corioli~ force, so that the general flow of air is from the north-
continues its cellular journey. Along the JTCZ, it is usually east. Hence, this i~ the region of the polar easterlies. Jn winter,
very wet as the ri~ing air develops into huge thunderstorms that the polar front with its cold air can move into middle and sub-
•\bocnn ste why the air converges if )Ou have a globe 01'1.he world Put your linwrs
tropical latitudes, producing a cold polar outbreak. Along the
on 1neridian linesal the equator-and then follow the meridians poleward. Notice front, a portion oftheri~ing air moves poleward, and the Coriolis
how the lines and your linw rs bunch together in the 1niddle lntitudcs:. force deflects the air into a westerly "ind at high levels. Air aloft
C'1')'rif• ) ) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U . ......................... "',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I f:·"'*'"'•...,.....i....
<1<n11....i., ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...~ ,,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll"""....., .,~,.,i.. ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
• FI GURE 10.4 The $Olid red line in this visible
satellite image marks the position o f the ITCZ in
the eastern Pacific. The brighl \Vhi te clouds are
huge thunderstorms forming along the ITCZ..
eventuaUy reaches the poles, slowly sinks to the surface, and In the eastern Atlantic, between latitudes 2s• and 3s•N i~ the
flows back toward the polar front, completing theweakpolarcell. Bermuda-Azores high, often called the Bermuda high, and, in
We can summarize all of this by referring back to Fig. L0.2, the Pacific Ocean, its counterpart, the Pacific high. ' Ib ese are
p. 267, and noting that, at the surface, thereare two major areas the subtropical anticyclones that develop in response to the con-
of high pressure and two major areas oflow pressure. Areas of vergence ofair aloft near an upper-levdjetstream. Since surface
high pressure exist near latitude 30• and the poles; areas of low "1nds blow dockwi~e around these systems, we find the trade
pressure exi~t over the eq<k1tor and near 60• !;11itude in the vi- "1nds to the south and the prevailing westerlies to the north.
cinity of the polar front. Knowing the way surface winds blow In the Southern Hemisphere, where there i~ relatively less land
around these pressure systems on the three-cell model gives <L~ area, there is less contrast between land and water, and the sub-
a generali1.ed picture of how surface "ind~ blow throughout tropical high.~show up as well-devdopedsystern~ with a dearly
the world. 111e trade winds extend from the subtropical high to defined circulation.
the equator, the westerlies from the subtropical high to the polar Where we would expect to observe the polar front (between
front, and the polar easterlies from the poles to the polar front. latitudes 40• and 65°). there are two semipermanent subpolar
How does this three-cell model compare with actual ob- lows. Jn the North Atlantic, thereisthe Grermfand-Jcela11dic/oiv,
servations of winds and pressure in the real world? We know, or simply kelandic low, which covers Iceland and soutl1ern
for example, that upper-level winds at middle latitudes gener- Greenland, while the Aleutian low sits over the Gulf of Alaska
ally blow from the west. The middle Ferrel cell in our model, and Bering Sea near the Aleutian Islands in the North Pacific.
hO\\•ever, suggests an east \-..ind aloft as air flO\\•sequator'''ard. 'Jbese zones ofcyclonic activity actually represent regions where
Hence, discrepancies exist between this model and atmospheric numerous storm'). having traveled east\\•ard, tend to converge.
obsenr.1tions. This model does, however, agree closely "'th the especially in winter. In the Southern Hemisphere, the subpo-
\\fods and pre.~ure distribution at the surface, and so we"'!! lar low forms a continuous trough that rompletely encircles the
examine thi~ next. globe.
On the January m ap (Fig. LO.Sa). there are other pressure
AVERAGE SURFACE WINDS AND PRESSURE: THE REAL systems. which arenotsemipermanentin nature. Ove.r Asia. for
WORLD When we examine the real world with its rontinents example, there isa huge (but shallow) thermal anticydonecalled
and oceans, mountain~ and ice field~. we obtain an average di~ the Siberian hig h, which forrn~ because of the intense cooling
tribution ofsea-level pre.~ure and winds for Jammy and July, of the land. South of thissystem, the \linter monsoon shows up
as shown in • Fig.JO.Sa and JO.Sb. Look closely at both maps dearly, as air flows """"Y from the high across Asia and out over
and observe that there are region~ where pressure systems ap- the ocean. A similar (but less intense) anticyclone (called the
pear to persi~t throughout the year. These systems are referred Canadian high) is evident over North America.
to as semipermanent highs and lows because they move only As summer approaches, the land warms and the cold
slightly during thec-0urse of a year. shallow highs disappear. Jn some regions, areas of surface low
In Fig. JO.Sa, we can see that there are four semipermanent pressure replace areas of high pressure. ·1he lows that form
pressure systems in the Northern Hemisphere during January. <Ner the warm land are shallow /henna/ loM. On the July map
30
j
60
-
180
- - 90 --- Longaude
0
--- - 90
1008
100
60
(a) January
90 0 90
I I
• ~ '
101 ~ r. (
\ (
) 008
60
30
I
..
!l r;:
""
!I 0 '\
-
30
\ \..__ H 30
}
60
--- - 1004 1014
1008 - 60
160 90 90
(b) July Loogltude
• F I GURE 10. S Average sea.level pressuredistribution and surface win d~fl o\V patterns for January{a) and for July (b}. The solid red line represents t he
position of t he ITCZ.
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c ..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
(Fig. JO.Sb), warm thermal lows are found over the desertsouth-
westofthe United States and over the plateau oflran. Notic-e that
E:~fes
these systems are located at the same k1titudes as the subtropical
highs. We can understand why they form when we realize that,
during the smnmer, the subtropical high-pressure belt girdles
the world aloft near 30• latitude.• Within this system, the air
-.....
~--...~···dran
H H•gh / G L--__
J
\
'
/
..--
sinks and warms, producing dear s kies (which allow intense _ H
Poiar
e,.,11... / J f/ /
surface heating by the sun). 'Jbis air near the ground warms
t;;;" \,HJ \~~ I
~~··~ ,~'
rapidly, rises only slightly, then flows laterally several hund red
meters above the surface. 1 he outflow lowers the surface pres-
sure and, as "-e saw in Chapter 9, a shallow thermal low forms. ( f / / 4estertles ( B<lrmuda High
'Jhethermal low over India, also called the monsoon low, devel-
ops when the continent of Asia warms. As the low intensifies,
\\•arm) moist air from the ocean is dra\\'n into it. producing the
wet summer monsoon so char acteristic oflndia 'Uld Southeast
/
®
Pacific Ho / / / /
®J
./ Nor1heasl Trades
Asia. Where these surface "fads converge with the general
westerly flow, rather weak monsoon depressions form. 1 he.se
• FI GURE 10.6 A \Vinter we.ather map depicting the main features of the
enh,UlCe the pc>-sition of the monsoon low on the July map. generalc.irculation over North America. Notice that the Canadian high, polar
When we compare the January and July m aps (Figs. LO.Sa front.. and subpolar le>.vs h.lveall moved south\\erd into the United States.and
and LO.Sb), we can see several changes in the semipermanent that the prevailing \Vester lies ex.isl south o f the polar fronL The arrows on the
map illustrate\vind d irection.
pres.sure systems. The strong subpolar lows so well developed in
January over the Northern Hemisphere are hardly discernible on
the July map. ' lb esubtropical highs, however, remain dominant During the smnmer, the Pacific high drifts northward to a
in both seasons. Because the sun is overhead in the Northern position off the California coast (see • Fig. I 0.8). Sinking air on
Hemisphere in July and overhead in the Southern Hemisphere its eastern side produces a strong upper-level subs idence inver-
in January, thezone of maximum surface heating shifts season- sion, which tends to keep summer weather along the West Coast
ally. In response to this shift, the major pressure systems, wind relatively dry. 'Jhe rainy season typically occurs in winter when
belts, and ITCZ(heavy red line in Fig. 10.5) sliift toward tlie nort/1 the high moves south and the polar front and storms are able
in July and toward tlie soutli in January... e l'igure !0.6 illustrates to penetrate the region. Observe in Fig. 10.8 that along the East
a \\1nter weather map where the main features of the general
circulation have been displaced southward.
THE GENERAL CIRCULATION AND PRECIPITATION PAT·

TERNS The p<>-sition of the major features of the general cir-
cuk1tion and their latitudinal displacement (which annually
averages about to• to 15°) strongly influence the precipitation of
m any areas. For example, on the global scale, we would expect
abundant rainfall where the air rises and very linle where the
air sinks. Consequently, areas of high rainfall exist in the trop-
ics, where humid air rises in conjunction with the lTCZ, and
bet" -een 40° and 55° latitude, where middle-latitude cyclonic
storms and the polar front force air upward. Areas of low rain-
fall are found near 30° latitud ein the vicinity oft he subtropical
highs and in polar regions where the air is cold and d ry (see
e Fig. 10.7).
Poleward of the equator, between the doldrums and the
horse latitudes, the area is influenced by both the lTCZ and the
subtropical high. Jn smnmer (high sun period), the subtropical
high moves poleward and the rrcz
invades this area, bringing
with it ample rainfall. In winter (low sun period), the subtropi-
cal high movesequatorward, bringing with it dear, dry weather.
•An easy \~'il Y to remc1nbcr 1hc seasonal shift o f pro sure sy.ste1ns is to think of • FI GURE 10.7 Rising and sinking air associated w ith the major pressure
birds - in the Northern He1nisphrre. 1hcy 1nigrate south in the winterand north .systemso f theearth'sgeneral circulation. Where the air rises, precipitation
in the su1n1ncr. tend.s to be abundant {blue shade}; where theair sinks, drier regiom prevail
...This b elt of high p 1~ s.sure aloft shows up well in Fig. 10 .IOb. p. 273. lhe m-crage {tan shade}. Note that the sinking air o f the subtropical highs produces the
500-n1b 1nap tb r July. major desert regionso f the \o,orkL
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
• F I GU RE 10.8 During Lhesumm ~. the Pacific high moves r-------=r-r------~-----,---~------
north\vard. Sinking air along itse<l!.1ern margin (over Califor-
nia} produces a strong subsidence inversion, which causes
relatively dry \\eatherto prevail. Along the westem margin of
the Bermuda high, southerly \'Jinds bring in humid air, \Vhich • Port!Md
G
rises., condenses, and produces abundant rainfall.
f'lloladelphia •
• Sall Francisco
Dry
• Los Angeles
Pacific High
Benroda High
WEATHER WATCH AVERAGE WIND FLOW AND PRESSURE PATTERNS

ALOFT e Figures 10.!0aand JO.I Ob are average globa!SOO-mb
Strong upper-level winds du ri ng Ap ril, 2010, blew tons
of dust a nd ash from an Icelandic vo lcano over much
charts for the months of January and July, respectively. Look at
of Western Eu rope. The ash cloud closed most of the both ch.~rts carefully and observe that some of the surface fea-
continent's airpo rts fo r a week, which in tu rn affected tures of the general circulation are reflected on these upper-air
mo re than a million pas.sengers a day, and cost the a irli ne charts. On the January map, for example, bOlh the Icelandic lo'"
indu st ry more than S1 .7 billi on in lost revenues. and Aleutian low are located to the west of their surface coun-
terpart~. On the July map, the subtropic.al high-pressure areas
of the Northern Hemisphere appear as bl~Lrnfhigh height (high
Coast, the clockwise circulation of winds around the Bermuda pressure) that tend 10 circle the globe south of 3o•N. ln both
high brings warm tropical air north"'"d into the United Slates hemispheres, the air is "'"'mer over low latitudes and colder over
and southern Canada from the Gulfof Mexico and the Atlantic highlatituMs. This horizontal temperature gradient establishes
Ocean. Because sinking air is not as well developed on this side a horizontal pressure (contour) gradient that causes the winds
of the high, the humid air can rise and condenw into tower- 10 blow from the west, especially in middle and high latitudes.•
ing cumulus clouds and thunderslonns. So, in part, it is the air Notice that the temperature gradient~ and the contour gradients
motions associated with the subtropical highs that keep sum- are steeper in January th'm July. Consequently, the winds aloft
mer weather dry in California and moi~t in Georgia. (Compare are stronger in \\•inter than in summer.1"ht\\•esterly \\•ind~. hO\\'-
the rainfall patterns for Los Angeles, California, :md Atlanta, ever, do not extend all the way to the equator, as easterly wind~
Georgia in e Fig. 10.9.) appear on the equatorward side of the upper-level subtropical
high-~.
In middle and high latitudes, the westerly winds continue to
increase in speed above the 500-mb level. We already know that
6 ..-----~-~
Los A119eles
r - - -Atlanta
- - - --.. 15 the wind speed increases up through the friction layer but why
should il continue to increase at higher level.~? You may remem-
ber from Chapter 8 that the geostrophic wind at any latitude is
directly related to the pre,~sure gradient and inverse! y related 10
the air density. Therefore, a greater pressure gradient "'LI result
in stronger wind~. and so will a decrease in air density. Owing
10 the fact that air density decreases with height, the same pres-
sure gradient will produce stronger "fads at higher levels. In
addition, the north-to-south temperature gradient causes the
horizontal pres.~ure (contour) gradient to increase with height
up to the tropopause. A~ a result, the winds increase in speed
up to the tropopause (about 11 km or 33,000 ft above sea level).
Above the tropopause, the temperature gradients rt~verse. This
changes the pressure gradients and reduce,~ the strength of the
westerly wind~. Where strong winds tend 10 concentrate into
narrow ban d~ at the tropopause, we find rivers offa.~t-flowing
·Rc1nc1nbcr th<lt.at this level (about 5600 m or 18,000 fl ~bove sel level). thc winds-
• F I GURE 10. 9 Averageannual precipitation for Los Angeles., California, and nreapproximatcly g~t 1uphic.nn d tend to hJow 1nore or ICS$ pl •~U cl to thecontour
Atlanta, Georgia.. lin ~.
°*"'"''".. niJb."*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni>, t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i M")' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,....,.._..,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1
<1<n11...i fl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""",,..~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
e FI GURE 10.10
180 0 90 Average .SOO·mbchart
for the mo nth o f
January fa) and for
July{b). Solid lines are
conto ur lines in meter·s
above sea level.Dashed
red lines are isothe rms
in °C.Arrowheads illus-
tra te w ind dfrection.
30
5,..,_ _ __ ...... ---.... . ·-·--20~ . --· ·-- . -.• _·-•••..•

·············· ••• 60
60 ··-•• ~()() •••••• •••
... ---· -········ 524 -30' --
•...••~.: :: ·.: :::::•..•..... .. ••...•.... •. ·30" •. .•. . • . •• • . . . ••....••. .• . . .. .• .. ••. . •.• . . . . ..••. •. •.•. .. ..••
180 90 0 90
(a) Jaroaiy. 500 mb Longitude
180
60 ·····.r.t. 60
57
·····-·······
...
30
H
( i_:!.L~ 0
~
30 . . .. .. .............. ..... .... ..........
~
_,Cl",,............................
5720 -
:1-········10". .......- ···········
---- , .... 30
5720-_ ----
.....~............................. t2CI<....:~~··· ...... ···2CJ" ... ..... ...........J. •••••
. •. ·30° •• .•.•.. •. ••.••. .•.••.•. ••••.•••••••.••.•• -30' . •• . • •• •. . •• . • •• . • •. •. • •• 60
60 ....... .......... ..... ...... ...... .. .
·····S:.............. -~··~~p--41Y-.Siiiio-· ············..····"'-·"·"'··"'··~·=:lll;....-=<.."'.."'.."-•."-.::.··.:.:··.:.:··~··=··J·
180 90 0 90
(b) July, 500 mb Loogitu<le
'°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-
<1<n11....ifl ,.....,.._,~ ..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""" ""~c ..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i..
"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,..
.....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. ,.,.,,,•.O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
"<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
The "Dishpan" Experiment
We know that the primary cause of the here. When the pan is rotated counter- earth's surface., they occur as winds circu-
atmosphere's general circulation is the clockwise, the temperature difference lating around centersof low- and high-
un equal heating that occurs between between "equator" and "pole" produces a pressure. Aloft, the waves appear as a
tropical and polar regions. A laboratory thermallyd riven circulation that transports series of troughs and ridges that encircle
demonstration that tries to replicate this h eat poleward. t he globe and slowly migrate from west to
.situation is the "dishpan" experiment. Alum inum powder (or dye) is added to east (see Fig. 2). The waves represent a
The dishpan experiment consists of a the water so that the motions of the fluid fundamental feature of the atmosphere's
flat. circular pan1 filled with water several can be seen. If the pan rotates at a speed circulation. Later in this chapter we will see
centimeters deep. The pan is positioned that corresponds to the rotation of the how they transfer momentum, allowing
on a rotating tabl e(see Fig. la). Aro und earth, the flow develops into a series of the atmosphere to maintain its circulation.
the edge of the pan, a heating coil supplies waves and rotating eddies similar to those In Chapter 12, we w ill see that these waves
heat tothepan's "equator." In the center of shown in Fig. 1b. The atmospheric counter- are instrumental in the development of
the pan, a cooling cylinder represents the part of these eddies are the cyclones and surface mid-latitudecyclonic .storms.
"pole.," and ice water is continua Hy supplied a nticyc:lones of the m iddle latitudes. At the
\
)
Rotating
I
table
(a) (b)
• FIG URE 1 (a)A ...dishpan'"\vith a hot •equator'" and a cold"pole'"rotating at a speed cor- • FIG URE 2 The circulation of the air aloft is in
responding to that of thee.Jrth (b) produces troughs. ridges.and eddies. which appear (\vhen the form cJ waves- troughs and ridges - that
viewed from above) very sim~ar to the pattems,ve see on an upper..level chart. enc:irde the globe.
air- jet streams. (In the follo,ving section, you ""I read about cirrus douds had revealed that westerly winds aloft mu.~t be
a wavy jet stream. "!be Focus section above describes an experi- moving rapidly.
ment that illustrates how these waves form.) • Figure 10. 11 illustrates the average position of two jet
streams, the tropopa<L~e. and the general circulation of air for
the Northern Hemisphere in winter. The two jet streams are lo-
cated in tropopause gaps, where mixing between tropospheric
Jet Streams and strat0-~pheric air takes place. The jet stream situated near
30• latitude at about 13 km (43,000 ft) above the subtropical
Atmospheric jet streams are swiftly flowing air currenl~ thou- high is the subtropical jet s tream. • The jet stream situated at
sands of kilometers long, a few hundred kilometers wide, and a lower altitude at about lO km (33,000 ft) near the polar front
only a few kilometers thick. Wind speeds in the central core is known as the polar front jet stream or, simply, the polar j"1
of a jet stream often exceed IOO knol~ and occasionally exceed stretlm. Since both are found at the tropopause, they are referred
200 knots. Jet streams are usually found at the tropopause at to as tropopause jets.
elevations bet ween IO and 15 km (6 and 9 mi). although they In Fig. Hl.11 , the wind in the center of the jet stream would
may occur at both higher and lower altituMs. be flowing as a westerly wind away from the viewer. This direc-
Jet streams were first encountered by high-flying military tion. of course. is only an average. as jet streams: often flo\"' in
aircraft during World War JI, but their existence was suspected
before the war. Ground-based observations of fast-moving 1be sublropical jet strea1n is nornl.'IHy found belwttn 20"and 30° latitude.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,....,.._..,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
• F I GURE 10.11 Average position of lhe polar j et
Slratosphera stream and the subtropical jet stream, with respect to
-70 a model of the general circulation in \Vinter. Both jet
-60 streamsareflO\ving from \Vest to east.
Subtroplcal j<ll
- 50
1~~
Polar
jet =
15 - -40 §
E rt>""'
l
- 30 :::.
<!.
{'j 10-
.~
~
"-"'"' I.- Hadley
cell
- 20
-10
{'j
.~
<
5- 0
0
,;?!"'
a "'avy west-to-east pattern. When the polar jet stream flows The Polar Front Jet Horizontal variations in temperature
in broad loops that sweep north and south, it may even merge and pre.ssure offer clues to the existence of the polar jet stream.
with the subtropical jet. Occasionally, the polar jet splits into e Figure J0.14a is a 3-D model that shows a side view of the
two jet streams. 'Jlte jet stream to the north is often called the atmosphere in the region of the poktrfront. Since the polar front
11orthem bra11ch of the polar jet, whereas the one to the south is a boundary separating cold polar air to the north from warm
is caUed the soutl1em bm11ch. e Figure 10. 12 illtLStrates how the subtropical air to the south, the greatest contrast in air tempera-
polar jet stream and the subtropical jet stream might appear as ture occurs along the frontal zone. We can see this contrast as
they sweep around the earth in winter. the-20'C isotherm dipssh,1rply cro_ssing the front. ' lltis rapid
We can better see the looping pattern of the jet by studying change in temperature produces a rapid change in pressure (as
o Fig. J0.13a, which shows the po-sit ion of the polar jet stream shown by the sh,1rp bending of the constant pressure (isobaric)
and the subtropical jet stream at the 300-mb level (near9 km or 500-mbsurface as it passes through the front). The sudden diange
30,000 ft) on March 9, 2005.1 he fastest flowing air, or jel core, is
represented by the heavy dark arrows. The map shows a strong
polar jet stream sweeping south over the Great Plains with an
equaUy strong subtropical jet over the Gulf states. Notice that
the polar jet has a number of loop.s, with one off the west coast
of North America and another over eastern C'.anada. Observe
in the satellite image (Fig. I0.13b) that the polar jetstream(blue
arrows) is directing cold, polar air into the Plains States, while
the subtropical jet stream (orange arrow) is sweeping subtropi-
cal moisture, in the form ofa dense cloud cover, over the south-
eastern states.
'fhelooping (meridional) pattern of the polar jet stream h'1s
an important function. In the Northern Hemisphere, where the
air flows southward, swiftly moving air directs cold air equator-
\\•ard; \\•here the air fl0\\1S north \\1ard. \\•arm air is carried tO\vard
the poles. Jet streams, therefore, play a major role in the global
transfer of heat. Moreover, since jet streams tend to meander
around the world, we can easily tmderstand how pollutants or
volcanic ash injected into the atm0-sphere in one part of the
globe could eventually settle to the ground many thousands of
kilometers down\\1nd. And, as we will see in Ch<1pter 12, the
looping nature of the polar jet stream has an important role in
the development of mid-latitude cyclonic storms.
• FI GURE 10.12 A jet stream isa swifttyflo\yjng current of air that moves
in a \vaVy\vest-tO·east direction. The figure shavs the position of the polar jet
THE FORMATION OF JET STREAMS Theultim.11e cau.se of jet stream and sublropical j et stream in \'linter.Although j et streams are ~hown as
streams is the energy imbalance that exists between high and one continuous river of air, in reality l heyarediscontinuous, \Vith their position
low btitudes. How, then, do jet streams actually IOrm? varying from one day to the next.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<l<nlonlfl •...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~,,..~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""......, fl~••"-"''..,....,:.11,.,.,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
(a) (b)
• FIGURE 10.13 (a} Position of the polar jet stream (blue arrows) and the subtropical jet stream {orange arrows) a t the 30:l•mb level (about9 km or
30,000 ft above sea level} on March 9, 200S. Solid lines are lines of equal wind speed (isotach:sl in knots. {b} Satellite image showing doudsand positions
d the jet streams for the same day.
in pressure along thefront sets up a sleep pressure (contour)gmdi- boundary sometimes called the subtropicnlfro11t. l n the vicinity
ent tl1al intensifies the wind speed and causes lhe jet stream. ofthesubtropical front (which does nol have afrontal slructure
Observe in Fig. JO. Ma and ontheSOO-mbcharl (Fig. JO.J4b) extending to lhe surface). sharp contrasts in temperature pro-
thal the "'°di~ blowing along the fronl (from 1he wesl). parallel duce sharp contrasts in pressureandslrong winds.
to the contour lines, with cold air on ils le.ft side.• ' l he north- When weexaminejetstrearn~ carefully, weseethat another
soulh lemperalure conlrasl along lhe Polar fronl is strongesl in mechanism (other than a steep temperature gradient) C'1uses
"1nte.r and weakest in summer. 'Jbissiluation explains why 1he a strong weslerly flow aloft. 'Jhe c'1use appears to be the same
Polar-fronl jel shows seasonal varialions. Jn winler, lhe winds
blow slronger and 1he jel moves farther soulh as 1he leading
edge oflhe cold air can ex lend into subtropical regions. Jn sum-
mer, !he jet is weaker, and is usually found over more northern
latitudes.
The Subtropical Jet The subtropical jet slream, which is usu-

ally strongest slightly above lhe 200-mb level (above J2 km).
tends 10 form along the pole.w ard side of the Hadley cell as
shown in Fig. 10.lJ, p. 275. Here, warm air carrie.d poleward by
the Hadley cell produces sharp temperature contrasts along a 600mb
---
-20'C" -
•RccaUfro1n Ch:tptcr S that any horizon1al ch3nge: in ICnlpcrnture 01us.es the iso·
blric surfaces 10 dip orslnnt The gre:ite:r I he lt1npe1-ature diffc1ence, lhe gre.-itcr the
slanting, nnd the stronger the wind.s. The changing wind speed with height due to
horirontal 1cn1pcr.:i111rc variations is rc(crred to as the thcr11111l wiud. The thcnnnJ
N
wind illWilfS blows with coJd air on its left.side in the Northern Hen1ispheri'nndon
its right side in the Southern Hcn1isphcre.
(a) 3-0 V.ew
• FIGURE 10.14 Diagram (a} is a model that shO\vs a vertical 3·0 view o f the
polar front in association with a sharptydipping soo ..mb pressure surface.an
isotherm {dashed line}, and the position o f the polarfrontjet ~1ream in \vinte:r.
The diagram is highlyexaggerated in the vertical. Dia.gram {b) representsa
SOO·mbchart that cuts through the polar front as illustrated by the dipping
SOO·mb surface in (a}. Sharp te:mperaturecontra.sts along the front produce
tightly packed contour lines and strong \Yind.s{contour linesare in meters
N
above sea leveU.
tf the air just tot he south of the front
warms. and the air just behind the
front becomes much cofder, how 1'iould these temperature changes Low heights W Hlgll heights
influence the SOO·mb surface and the winds of the jct stream?
(b) 500<nb surface
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*<' niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c.. 'll'tl<'l~..,'11"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
as that which make.~ an ice skater spin faster when the arms
are pulled in close to the body-the conservation of anguftir
1no1nentt11n.
Jet Streams and Momentum At the equator, the earth rotates

toward theeastataspeedclose to 1000 knot~. Ona windless day,
the air above moves easl\"trdat the same speed. Ifsomehow the
earth should suddenly stop rotating. the air above would con-
tinuetomoveeastwarduntil friction with the surface brought it
to a halt; the air keeps moving because it h'1s momentum.
Straight-line momentum- called linear momentum- is
the product of the mas.~ of the object times its velocity. An in-
cre,tse in either the mass or the velocity (or both) produces an
increase in momentum. Air on a spinning pkrnet moves about
an axis in a circular parh and has angular momentum. Along
with themassandthespeed, anguktrmomentum depends upon
the distance ( r) between the mass ofair and the axis about which
it rotates. Angular momentum is defmed as the product of the
mass (m) times the velocity (v) time.~ the radial distance ( r). Thus
angular momentum = 1nvr.
As long as there are no external twisting forces (torques)

acting on the rotating system, the angular momentum of the • FI GURE 10.15 Air flowing poleward at the tropopause moves closer to
system doesnot change. We say that angular momentum is con- the rotational axis of the eart h {t1 is less than r 1}. This decrease in radiusis com-
served; that is, the product of the quantity mvr at one time will pensated for by an increase in velocity and the formation ofa jet stream.
equal the numerical quantity mvr at some later time. Hence,
a decrease in radius must produce an increase in speed and resolved, its formation appears to be, at least in part, related to
vice versa. An ice skater, for instance, "'th arms fully extended the warming of the air over large elevated landmasses, such as
rotates quite slowly. As the arms are drawn in dose to the body, Tibet. During the summer, the air above this region (even at
the radius of the circular path (r) decre<1ses, which causes an high elevations) is warmer than the air above the ocean to the
increase in rotational velocity (v), and the sbter spins faster. As south. This contrast in temperature produces a north-to-south
arms become fully extended again, the sbter'sspeed decreases. pre.ssure gradient and strong easterly winds that u.sually reach a
1 heconservalion of angular momentum, when applied to mov- maximum speed near ts• N latitude.
ing air, will help us to understand the formation of fast-flowing Not all jet streams form at the tropopause. For example,
air aloft. there is a jet stream that forms near the top of the stratosphere
Consider heated air parcels rising from the eqt•1torial sur- over polar latitude,s. Because little, if any, sunlight reaches the
face on a calm day. A~ the parcels approach the tropopause, they polar region during the winter, air in the upper stratosphere is
spread laterally and begin to move poleward. If we follow the able to cool to low temperatures. By comparison, in equatorial
air moving northward(• Fig. 10.15). we see that, because oft he regions, sunlight prevails all year long, allowing stratospheric
curvature of the earth, air constantly moves d0-ser to its axis
of rotation (r decreases). Because angular momentum is con-
served (and since the mass of air is unchanged), the decrease WEATHER WATCH
in radius must be compensated for by an increase in speed. The The jet stream is in part responsible for the only American
air must, therefore, move faster to the east than a point on the casualties by enemy attack on the continental United States
earth~ surface does. '10 an observer. this is a \\'eSt \\•ind. 1M
lence. in World War II. During the war, when the existence of the
the conservation of angular momentum of northward-flowing jet stream was first confirmed , the Japanese attempted
air leads to the generation of strong westerly "fads and the for- to drop bombs on the United States mainland by launch -
ing balloons that carried explosives and incendiary de-
mation of a jet stream.
vices. The hydrogen-filled balloons drifted from Japan for
thousands of miles across th e Pacific Ocean at an altitude
OTHER JET STREAMS There is another jet stream that forms above 30,000 feet. Unfortunat ely, a group of six picnick-
in summer near the tropopause above Southeast Asia, India, ers in Oregon found a balloon bomb in the woods and
and Africa. Here, thealtitude of the summer tropopause and the attempted to move it, which caused it to explode, killing
jet stream is near 15 km. Because the jet forms on the equator- all six people. Estimates are that as many as 300balloon
wardside of the upper-level subtropical high, its winds are east- bombs may still be scat tered throughout regions of the
erly and, hence, it is known as the tropical easterly jet s tream. western Uni ted States.
Although the exact causes of this jet have yet to be completely
ozone to absorb sobr energy and warm the air. 1 he horizon- middle latitudes from the cold, polar easterlies of the high
tal temperature gradients between the cold poles and the warm latitudes.
tropics create steep horizontal pressure grad ients, :md a strong • In equatorial regions, the intertropical convergence zone
westerly jet forms in pobr regions at an elevation near SO km (ITU) is a boundary where air rl.s es in response to the con-
(30 mi). Because this wind maximum occurs in the stratosphere vergence of the northeast trades and the southeast trades.
during the dark polar \\foler, it i~ known as the stratospheric Along the ITCZ huge thunderstorms produce heavy rain
polar night j&tstream. showers.
Jn summer, the polar regions experience more hours ofsun- • In the Northern Hemisphere, the major global pressure sys-
light than do tropical areas. Strato.~pherictemperature.sover the tems and wind belts shift northward In summer and south-
poles increase more th:tn at the same altitude above the equator, ward in winter.
which causes the horizontal temperature gradient to reverse
itself. The jet stream disappears, and in il~ place there are weaker • The northward movement of the Pacific high in summer
easterly winds. tends to keep summer weather along the west coast of
Jet streams also form in the upper meso.~here and in the North America relatively dry.
thermosphere. Not much is known about the "1ndsat these high • Jet streams exist where strong winds become concentrated
le.vels, but they are probably rebted to the onslaught of charged in narrow bands. The polar-front jet stream Is associated
particle,~ that constantly bombard this region ofthe atmosphere. with the polar front. The polar jet meanders in a wavy
Jet streams form near the earth's surface as weU. One such west-to~ast pattern, becoming strongest In winter when
jet develops just above the central plains of the United States, the contrast In temperature along the front Is greatest.
where it occasionally attains speeds of60 knots. This wind speed • The subtropical jet stream Is found on the poleward side of
maximum, \\•hich u.o;ually fJO\\'S from the south or south\\'eSt, the Hadley cell, between 20' and 30' latitude. It is normally
is known as a low-level jeL It typically forms at night above a observed at a higher altitude than the polar jet stream.
temperature inversion, and so it is sometimes caHe-d a noc:h-1r- • The conservation ofangu lar momentum plays a role In pro-
11a/ jet stream. Apparently, the stable air reduces the interaction ducing strong, westerly winds aloft. As air aloft moves from
between the air \\1thin the inversion and the air directly above. lower latitudes toward higher latitudes, its axi.s of rotation
Consequently, the air in the vicinity of the jet is able to flow decreases, which results in an Increase In Its speed.
faster because it is not being slowed by the lighter winds below.
Al~o. the north-south trending Rocky Mountains tend to fun-
nel the air northward. Another important element contributing
to the formation of the low-level jet is the downward sloping of
the kmd from the Rockies to the Mississippi Valley, which causes
nighttime air above regions to the \\'eSt to be cooler than air at
the same elevation to the east. This horizontal contrast in tem-
Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions
perature causes pressure surfaces to dip toward the west. The 'Jbe atmosphere and oceans are both dynamic fluid systems that
dipping of pressure surfaces produces strong pressure gradient interact with one another in many complex ways. For example,
forces directed from east to \\•est \\•hich, in turn, cause strong evaporation of ocean water provides the atmosphere with Sur·
southerly winds. plus water that falls as precipitation. Thelatent heat that is taken
During the summer, these strong southerly \\fads carry up by the water vapor during evaporation goes into the atmo-
moist air from the Gulf of Mexico into the Central Plains. ' Ibis sphere during conden~tion tofuelstorms. The storms, in turn,
moisture, coupled with converging, ri~ing air ofthe low-level jet, produce \\•inds: that bl0\\ over the ocean. v.•hich cause$ \\ aves
1 1
enhances thunderstorm formation. ''Jlterefore, on \\"arm, moi~t. and currents. 'Jbe currents, in turn, may modify the weather
summer nights, when the low-level jet is present, it is common and climate of a region by bringing in va.~I quantities of warm
to have nighttime thunderstorms over the plains. or cold water.
The complexity between the atmo.~phere and ocean makes
our scientific understanding of how one influences the other
BRIEF REVIEW on a global scale far from complete. What we will focus on in
Before going on to the next section, which describes the many the remainder of this chapter is what we do know, beginning
Interactions between the atmosphereand the ocean, here is a \\1th ocean currents. Later. \\•e \\•ill concentrate on some of the
review of some of the important concepts presented so far: mo.~t important weather and di mate o.~illations that result from
atmo.~phere-ocean interactions.
• The two major semipermanent subtropical highs that influ-
ence the weather of North America are the Pacific high situ- GLOBAL WIND PATTERNS AND SURFACE OCEAN CUR -
ated off the west coast and the Bermuda high situated off RENTS As the wind blows over the oceans, it causes the sur-
the southeast coast. face water to drift along with it 11ie moving water gradually
• The po lar front Is a zone of low pressure where cyclonic piles up, creating pressure differences within the water itself.
storms often form. It separates the mild westerlies of the This leads to further motion several hundreds of meters down
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i """>' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
into the water. In this manner, the general wind flow around Stream. "lbe Gu! f Stream carries vast quantities ofwarm tropical
the globe starts the major surface ocean currents moving. The water into higher btitu<k~. Off the coast of North Carolina, the
relationship bet ween the general circulation and ocean currents GulfStream provides warmth and moisture for the development
can be seen by comparing Fig. 10.5, p. 279 and • Fig. 10.16. of mid-latituM cyclonic storms.
Because of the larger frictional drag in " "at er, ocean cur- To the north, on the western side of the smaller subpolar
rents move more slowly than the prevailing winds above. Typi- gyre, cold water moves southward along the Athmtic co;1st of
cally. these currents range in speed from several kilometers per North America. 1 his Labrador Current brings cold water as far
day to several kilometers per hour. A~ we can see in Fig. I 0.16, south as Massachu.setts in summer and North Carolina in win-
major ocean currents do not follow the wind pattern exactly; ter. In the vicinity of the Grand Banks of Newfound kind, where
rather, they spiral insemido.sed circular whirls calledgyre<. l n the two opposing currents flow side by side., there is a sharp
the North At km tic and North Pacific, the prevailing winds blow temperature gradient. When warm Gulf Stream air blows over
clockwise and out\\"ard from the subtropical highs. As the water the cold Labrador Current " "ater, the stage i~ set for the forma-
moves beneath the wind, the Corioli~ force deflect~ the water to tion of the fog so common to this region.
theright in the Northern Hemisphere (to the left in the Southern Meanwhile, steered by the prevailing westerlies, the Gulf
Hemisphere). 1 his deflection causes the surface water to move Stream s"1ngsaway from the coast of North America and moves
at an angle between 20• and 45• to the direction of the \\ind. eastward toward Europe. Gradually. it widens and slows as it
1-lenc.e.surface \\'ater lend-; to move in a circuL'lT pattern as \\rinds merges into the broader North Atltmtic Drift. A~ this current
blow outward, away from the center of the subtropical highs. approaches Europe, it divides into two currents. A portion flows
Important interactions between the atmo.~phere and the northward along theeoasts of Great Britain and Non"ay, bring-
ocean can be seen by examining the huge gyre in the North ing "1th it warm '"'ter (which help~ keep winter temperatures
Atlantic. Flowing north"md along the east coast of the United much warmer than one would expect this far north). The other
States is a tremendous warm water current called the Gulf part of the North Atlantic Drift flows southward as the Canary
t
;;:_Ba,
Cooen1
30
Anlatetic Circumpolar Curren1

(We5* Wind Oritt)
90 180 90 0
longkude
• FIGURE 10.16 Average position a nd extentof the major surface ocean currents.Cold currents are shO\vn in blue;\varm currentsaresho\vn in red.
from surface ocean currents. 'lbe environmental implications of
this heat tran~fer are tremendous. lf the energy imbalance were
to go unchecked, yearly temperature differences between low
and !Ugh latitudes would increase greatly, and, as we will see in
Chapter 16, theclimate wotdd gradually ch;mge.
Satellite pictures reveal that distinct temperature gradi-
ents exist along the boundaries of surface ocean currents. For
example, off the easr roast ofthe UnitedSrates, where the warm
Gulf Stream meets cold waters to the north, sharp tempera-
ture contrasts are often present. The boundary separating the
two masses ofwater with contrasting temperatures and densities
is called an oceartic front. Along this frontal boundary, a par-
tion of the meandering Gulf Stream occasionally breaks away
and develops into a do.sed circulation of either cold or warm
'"'ter-a whirling eddy (see . Fig. 10.17). Becalkse these eddies
tr>mspnrt heat and momentum from one region to another, they
• FI GURE 10.17 The Gulf Stream {dark. red band) and its eddies are revealed
may have a far-reaching effect upnn the climate and a more im-
in this satellite mosaic of sea surface temperaturesof the \\le stern North A tlan~ mediate impact upon coastal waters. Scientists are investigating
tic during May, 2001. Bright red sho\vs the\varmest water, follo\ved by orange the effects of these eddies.
and yello\v.Green, blue, and purple represent the widest \Yater.
UPWELLING Earlier, w1~ saw that the cool California Current
Current, which transports cool northern water equatorward. flo",; roughly parallel to the west ooastofNorth America. From
Eventually, the Atlantic gyre is completed as the Cmary Current this observation, we might conclude that summer surface ""ater
merges with the west""ard-mo,ing North Equatorial Curren~ temperature,s would be cool along thecoast ofWashington and
which derives its energy from the northeast trades. gradually ""'mas we move south. A quick gk1nce at the water
The ocean circtdation in the North Pacific is simihr to temperatures along the wesr coast of the United States during
that in the North Athmtic. On the western side oflhe ocean is August (see • Fig. I0.18) quickly alters that notion. 'fhe coldest
the Gulf Stream's counterpart, the warm, northward-flowing '"'ter is observed along the northern California coast near Cape
Kuroshio Current, which gradually merges into the slower- Mendocino. Why there? To answer this, we need to examine
moving North Pacific Drift. A pnrtion of this current flows ho,,, the \Vind influences the movement of surface \\•ater.
southward along the coastline <i the western United States as the As the wind blows over an open stretch ofocean, the surface
cool Ca/ifomia Current. ln the Southern Hemisphere, surface '"'ter beneath it i~ set in motion. 'fhe Coriolis force bends the
ocean cin:ulationsare much the same ex<:ept that the gyres move
counterdockwise in respnnse to the "'°d~ around the subtropi-
cal highs. Notice that the ocean currents at higher latitudes tend
to move in a more west-to-east pattern than do the currents of
the Northern Hemisphere. This zonal pattern limits, to some
extent, the pnleward transfer of warm tropical water. Hence,
there is a much smaller temperature difference between the
ocean's surface ,md the atmosphere than exi~ts over Northern
Hemisphere oceans. 'frussituation tends to limit the develop-
ment of vigorous convective activity over the oceans of the
Southern Hemisphere. In the lndian Oc-ean, monsoon circula-
tions tend to complicate the general pattern of ocean currents.
'lb sum up: On the eastern edge of continents there usually
is a \\farm current that carries huge quantities of \\•arm \\'ater
from the equator toward the pole; whereas on the western side
of continents a oool current typically flows from the pole toward
the equator.
Up to now, we have seen that atmospheric circulations and
ocean circulations are closely linked; wind blowing over the
oceans produces surface ocean currents. The currents, along with
the "ind, transfer heat from tropical areas, where there i~ a sur-
plusofenergy, to polar regions, where there isa Mfidt.1 his helps
to equalize the latitudinal energy imbalance "1th about 40 percent • FI GURE 10. 18 Average se.a surface temperatures r F)along the\vest coast
of the total heat transport in the Northern Hemisphere coming d North America during August
is known ttsthe Ekman Spiral.• The Ekman Spiral in Fig. 10.19
Surfac<l waler
shows us that the average movement of surface water down to a
depth ofabout JOO mis at right angles (90") to the surface wind
direction. The Ekman Spiral helps to explain why, in summer,
surfac-e water is cold along the west coast of North America.
The summertime position of the Pacific high ttnd the low
-
Wind coastal mountains cause winds to blow parallel to the California
coastline (see e Pig 10.20). ' lhe net tran~port of surface water
ir~~
E
§ (called the Ekman transport) is at right angles to the wind, in
transport this case, out tosea. Assurface water drifts away from the coast,
rold, nutrient-rich water from below ri~es to repk1ceit. 'lhe ris-
ing of cold water is known as upwelling. Upwelling is strongest
- and surface water is coolest in this area becau.se here the wind
parallels the coast.
Summertime weather along the West Coast often consist.~
oflow clouds and fog, as the air over the water is chilled to it.~
• FIGU RE 10.1 9 The Ekman Spiral Winds move the water, and the Coriolis saturation point. On the brighter side, upwelling produces good
fora:> deflects the \Valer to the right {Northern Hem5phere}. Below the surface fishing, as higher concentrations ofnutrients are brought to the
each successive layer of \Yater moves more slowly and is deflected to the right
of the layer above.. The average transport of surface water in the Ekman layer is
surface. But swimming along the coast of Northern California
a t right angles to the prevailing \Yind.s. is only forthehardiestofsouLs, as the average surface water tem-
Suppose Fig. 10.19 is in tile Southern
perature in summer is nearly JO"C (J s•F) colder than the aver-
Hemisphere. lfthe surface wind is still age coastal ""Jter temperature found at the same latitude along
blowing f-rom the .same direction, how would the Ekman Spiral appear the At kmt ic Coast.
beneath the surface? Between the ocean surface and the ati=sphere, there is an
exchange of heat, moisture, and momentum that depends, in
moving water to the right in the Northern Hemisphere. Thu.~. if part.on temperature differences bet\\•een \\•ater and air. Jn \vin-
we fookat a shallow surfacelayer of water, we see in e Fig. J0.1 9 ter. \\•hen air-\vater temperature contrasts are greatest. there is
that it moves at an average angle of about 45• to the direction of a substantial tr<tnsfer ofsen.~ibfeand latent heat from the ocean
the wind. If we imagine the top fayer of ocean w;~e.rtobe broken surface into the atm<>sphere. This energy helps to maintain the
into a series off ayers, then each fayer "ill exert a frictional drag global air flow. Because of the difference in heat capacity be-
on the fayer belo''' Each successive fayer will not only move a tween water and air, even a relatively small change in surface
littk slower than the one above, but (because of the Coriolis ocean temperature,s could modify atmospheric circulations.
effect) each layer will also rotateslightfy to the right of the layer Such change could have far-reaching effects on global weather
above. (The rotation ofeach layer is to theright in the Northern and climate patterns. One ocean-atm<>~pheric phenomenon
1-lemi~phere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.) Con- that is linked to worldwide weather events is a warming of the
sequently, descending from the surface, we would find water tropical Pacific Ocean known as El Ni1io.
slowing and turning to the right until, at some depth (usually ·lhe Ek1nnn Spiral is abo present in the~tmo sphcri c boundary b)"r. fro1n the sur-
about J00 m). the water actually moves in a direction opposite to face up to 1.he top of the frktion byer. which is usuolly about 1000 Ill above 1.he
the flow ofwater at the surface. This turning ofwater with depth surface.
e FIGURE 10.2 0 k windsblo\vparallel to

the \...est coast of North America. surface \I.later is
transported to the right (out to .sea}.Cold \Valer
moves up from below{up•wells) to replace the
surface \Vater.The large H represents the position
of the Pacific High in summer. Bluearro\vssho\V
the movementofwater.
C'1')'rif• ) ) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' ..... buq10.U . ......... ................ " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r..........i....
<1<n11....i., ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll-....... .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,......, ,..... o1.."""I"""' "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH years and covers a large area ofthe tropical f>acilicOcean, is now
referred lo as a major El Ni11o evenl, or simply El Niilo.•
We have up welling to t hank fo r t he f amo us q uote of During a major £l Nii\o even!, ktrge numbers of fish and
Mark Twain: '' Th e co l dest w i nter I ever ex peri en ced w as
marine planls may die. Dead fish and birds may liuer 1he
a s umm e r in Sa n Fra ncisco:''
'"'ler and beaches of Peru; their decomposing carcasses deple1e
1he waler's oxygen supply, which leads 10 !he baclerial produc-
lion of huge amotmts of smelly hydrogen sulfide. The £l Nii\o
El NINO AND THE SOUTHERN OSCILLATION Along 1he of 1972-1973 reduce<l 1he annual Peruvian anchovy calch from
west coasl of Soulh America, where 1he cool Peru Curren! 10.3 million metric ions in 197 1 10 4.6 million metric Ions in
sweeps norlhward, southerly winds promole upwelling ofcold, 1972. Since much of 1he harvesl of !his fish is conver1ed inlo
nulrienl-rich waler lhal gives rise 10 large fish populalions, espe- fishmeal and exporled for lkS. in feeding liveslock and poullry,
ciall y anchovies. The abundanceof frsh supporlsa large popula- 1he world's fishmeal produclion in 1972 was greally reduced.
tion of sea birds whose droppings (called gutmo) produce huge C'.ounlries such as 1he Uni!ed Stales 1ha1 rely on fishmeal for
phosphale-rich deposils, whichsupporl !he fertilizer induslry. animal feed had 10 use soybeans as an al1erna1ive. This raised
Near the end of!he calendar year, a warm currenl of nutrienl- poultry prices in !he Uni led Stales by more lhan 40 percenl.
poor lropical waler often moves southward, replacing 1hecold, Why does !he ocean become so warmoverlheeaslern lrop-
nulrienl-rich surface waler. Because !his condition frequently ical Pacific? Normally, in !he tropical Pacific Ocean, !he trades
occursaroundChristrnas, local residenlscall ii El Nillo (Spanish are persislenl winds lhal blow wesl""ard from a region of higher
tOr boy child), referring lo lheChrislchild. pressure over !he easlern Pacific loward a region of lower pres-
In mos! years, !he warming Iasis tOr only a few weeks lo a sure cenlere-0 near Indonesia (seee Fig. I0. 2la). The tradescre-
monlh or mor<; af1er which we.tther patlerns usually relurn 10 ale upwelling thal brings cold waler 101he surface. Aslhiswaler
normal and frshing improves. Howeve.r, when fl Nii\oconditions •11 \\'Mo nce lhough1 thnt El Ni1lo wasa l ocal event that occurs along 1he westcoost
last for m..1.ny n1onths, and a more exten~ive oce.an \\•arming oc- of Peru and Ecuador.h is now kno"'1l that lhe ocean·wanningassociatcd \\'ith a
curs, !he economic results can be calastrophic. 1bis extremely nujor El Niilo can cover an a 1'e.l of 1he tro piOll P..'ldfic much larger than 1he conti·
warm episode, which occurs al irregularinlervalsoflwoloseven ncntnl United St:ites..
• FI GURE 10.21 lndiagram (a), underordinary --J. Walker circulallon ~

!"" ....
conditions higher pressure wer the southeast· N
em Pac-itic and lo\ver pressure near lndon~iil
produ ce east erly t rade \vinds along t he equ ator. ~islng SIJong lrade winds 501,,".!ngwf 1r
~2"9).. ~- • i:.llllllllllo- - - ~ --
These \vinds promote upwelling and cooler ocean
\vater in t heeastem Pacific,. \Yl'lite \Vanner water
prevails in the\veslern Pac.i6c. Thetradesare part
Equator •; J'!L'.JI • - _/ / / Equata<
d a circulation {called t he 11\0.IJcercUcufation) that L WET ..) ·~ *""'..
typicaUyfinds rising air and heavy rain oterthe
Strong ira'& d
\Wstem Pad6c and sinking air and generally dry
\\leather over the eastern Pacific. When the tr3des Ocean
are exceptionalty strong, water along theequa· water warm water SOm
tor in t he eastern Pac.ihc: becom es quite cool.
level
hil11ef
This cool event is called La Nifla. During El Nirlo Thecmocline
conditions-diagram (bl - atmospheric pressure
decreases over t he eastern Pacihc: and rises over t he
\\le stem Pacific. This c hange in pressure causes the
200m
.... ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--'
(a) Non.fl Nino condllloos
Ccldwal•
trades to weaken or reverse dir ect ion. This situation

enhances t he countercurrent that carries warm \Va.-
ter from the west over avast region of theeastem
tropical Pacific. The thermocline, whic.h separates
the\varm \Val erof the upper ocean from the cold Ris!ng
\\lat er below,changes as t he ocean condi tions ••
change from non-8 Niflo to El Nilio.
Equalor
Thermocllne watmw;11e<
Ccldwaler
(b) El Nino Condilioos
°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> , t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i M")' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,....,.._..,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1
_..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""",,..~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FI GURE 10.22 These three images depict the
evolution of a \Y<l:rm \Yater Kelvin wave moving
east\vard in the equatorial PacificOcean during
March and April, 1997. The \Yhite areas near the
equator represen tocean levelsabout 20cm (8 in.}
higher than average, \Vhile the red areas represent
ocean levels about I Ocm (4 in.} higher than aver·
age. Noticeho\vthe \Yave (high region} moves east~
\\la rd across the tropical Pacific Ocean. These data
~re collected by thealtimeter on board the joint
United Stales/French TOPEX/Pos6don satellite.
moves westward, it is heated by sunlight and the atmosphere. The added warmth from the oceans and the release of latent
Consequently, in the Pacific Ocean, surface "'ater along the heat during condensation apparently influence the westerly
equator usually is cool in the east and warm in the west. In ad- "fods aloft in such a way that certain regions of the world expe-
dition, thedragging ofsurface water by the trades raises sea level rience too much rainfall, whereas others have too little. Mean-
in the western Pacific and lowers it in the eastern Pacific, which while, over the warm tropic.al central Pacific, the frequency
produces a thick layer of warm water over the tropical western of typhoons usually increases. However, over the tropical
l~tcific Ocean and a weak ocean current (called the cou11te n-ur- Atlantic, between Africa and Central America, the wind~
re11t) that flows slowly east"'ard toward South America. aloft tend to disrupt the organization of thunderstorms that is
Every few years, the surface atmospheric pre,~sure patterns necessary for hurricane development; hence, there are fewer
break dov111 1 as air pressure rises over the region of the \\•est-
ern Pacific and falls over the eastern Pacific (see Fig. 10.2 l b).
'Ibis change in pressure weakens the trades, and, during strong
pressure reversals, east winds are replaced by west winds that
strengthen the c.ountercurrent. Surface \\•ater \vanns over a
broad area of the tropical Pacific and heads eastward toward
South America in a surge knO\\'tl as a Kelvin lVtive, \\•hich ii) an
enormous wave perhaps 15 centimeters high but extending for
hundreds of kilometers north and south of the equator (see
• Fig. 10.22).
Toward the end of the warming period, which may last be-
tv,,•een one and f\VO years.atmo.s:pheric pressure over the eastern
Pacific reverses and begins to rise, \\•hereas, over the \\•estern
l~tcific, it falls. Thisseesaw pattern of reversing surface air pres-
sure at oppo.~iteends ofthe Pacific Ocean is called the Southern
Oscillation. Because the pres.~ure reversals and ocean warming ~a) El Ntlo Condil)Ons. Decembef. 1997
are more or less simultaneous, scientists call this phenomenon
the Fl Ni1io/Southen1 Oscillatio11 or ENSO for short. Although GttN
most ENSO episode.~ follow a similar evolution, each event has
its own personality, differing in both strength and behavior. ..,.,,
During especially strong ENSO events (such as in 1982-83
:!<l'N
and 1997-98) the easterly trades may actually become westerly
"1nds, as shown in Fig. 10.21b. A~ these winM push eastward,
0'
they dragsurface ""Jter "1th them. 'fhis dragging raisessea level
in the eastern Pacific and lo,vers se<1 level in the western Pacific. '20'S
'!be eastward-moving water gradually "'arms under the tropical
sun, becoming as much as 6• C ( 11• f) warmer than normal in <O'S
the eastern equatorial Pacific. Gradually, a thick layer of warm
60'$
""Jter pushes into coastal areas of Ecuador and Peru, choking
offtheupwelling thatsuppliescold, nutrient-rich water toSouth 140"E ......w
100'E •80' 1CX1'W
America~coastal region. ' lbe um1sually warm water may extend (b) La Nll\a Condiliom. Oecembe1, 1998
from South America'.~ coastal region for many thousandsofkilo-
meters west"'ard along the equator (see • Fig. I 0.23). • FI GURE 10.23 (al Average sea surface temperature departures from
normal as measured by satellite. During El NiliocondHions UP\Velling isgreatty
Such a largeare<1 of abnormally warm water can have an ef- diminished and \Varrner than normal water (deep red color'Jextends from the
rect on global \\fod patterns. ' lbe "'arm tropical water fuel~ the roast of South Arneric.a\vest\vard,across the Pacific.. {b} During La Nilia condi·
atmosphere with additional warmth and moisture, which tions,strong trade\vinds promote UP\o..Elling,and cooler than normahvater
the atmosphere turns into additional storminess and rainfall. {dark blue color} ext ends over the eastern and central Pac.Ifie. {NOAA/PHEUTAO)
e F I GURE 10.24 TheOceanNiflo
Index (ONO. The numbers on the left +3
sideofthedagram representa running El Nina '97-'98
3-mo nlh mean for sea surface tempera- 72-73 '112-113
Warm+2 '91-'92
ture variations (from normaO over the event ~-'68 '86-'87
t ropical Pacific Ocean from latitude S"N
to ~Sand f rom longitude 11.0'W to +1
170'W. W<lrm El Niiio episodes are in red;
cold La Nirlaepisodesare in blue. \Narm Index 0
a nd mid eventsoccur \Vhen t he devia-
t ion from the normal is 05 o r g reater.An -1
index value between O.S and 0 .9 is co n~
Cold
.sidered \veal<; an index value behveen
event -2 e;e:'B9
1.0 an d 1.4 is considered moderate, and
a n index. value of 15 o r g reater iscon 4
La N~a
.sidered sttong. {Courtesyof NOAA and -3
Jan Null) 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
hurricanes in this region during strong£! Niilo events. And, as strongest El Nii\0-~ were 1982- 83 and 1997-98. The 1997-98
we saw in Chapter 9, during £1 Nino events there i~ a tendency event had remarkable impacts world wide. In 1998, the global
for monsoon cond itions over India to weaken. average temperature was the warmest on record until 2005. In
Although the actual mechanism by which changes in sur- South America, rains were I0 times normal, causing flooding.
face ocean temperatures influence global "'°d patterns is not er0-~ion, mudslides, and de'1ths. California an d the southern
fully understood, the by-products are plain to see. l'<>r example, United States had near-record rainfall. Worldwide, 24,000 people
d uring e.xceptionally warm£! Niilos, drought is normally felt in died due to d roughts, flooding, famine, and d isease associated
lndonesia,southern Africa, and Australia, while heavy rains and with thi~ severe f.I Nino.
flooding often occur in £cuadorand Peru. Jn the Northern Hemi- The weaker£! Nino events also have an effect on the Northern
sphere, a strong subtropical westerly jet stream normally directs Hemisphere'.~weather patterns. For example, during the El Niilo
mid-latitude cyclonic storms into California and heavy rain into of 1986-87, thesubtropical jet stream (being fueled by the warm
the Gulf Coast state.s. The total damage worldwide due to flood- tropical waters and huge thunderstorms) curved its way over the
ing. "1nds,and drought may exceed many billions of dollars. southeastern United States, where it brought abundant rainfall to
Following an ENSO event, the trade "'°d~ u.~ually return a region that, during the previous summer, had suffered through
to normal. However, if the trades are exceptionally strong. a devastating d rought. During the El Nii\o of 199 1- 92, the sub-
unusually cold surface water moves over the centra I and eastern tropical jet stream once again swung over North America. Water
Pacific, and the warm water and rainy weather isconfmed mainly evaporating from the warm tropical oceans fueled huge thunder-
tot he western tropical Pacific (see Fig. J0.23b). This cold-water storm~. 'Jl1e s ubtropical jet stream initrally swept this moisture
epi~ode, which is the opp0-~ile of El Nino conditions, has been into Texas, where it caused e.xtensive flooding.
termed La Nifta (the girl child ). • Figure I0.25a illustrates typical winter weather patterns
• Figure 10.24 shows warm events, El Nii\o years, in red over North America d uring £1 Niilo conditions. Notice that a
and cold events, or La Nina years, in blue. Notice that the two persistent trough oflow pressure forms over the north Pacific
' Warm
L
Dry
Cool
Wei
Jelstream
(a) El Nino winter conditions (b) la Nina willer cooditians
• F I GURE 10.2 5 Typical \Vinter \veather patternsac.ros.s North America d uring a n El Niflo\varm event laJand d uring a La Nifla m id event
(bJ. During El Niflocondition.s,a persistent trough o f lo\v pressure form sover the north Pacific and, to the south of the low, thej et stream (from
off the Pacific) steers\vet \'leather and storms into Cali fornia and t he .southern part of the United States. During La Ni fl acond itions,a persistent
hig h~pressu re area forms south ofAlaska forcing the polar jet stream and accompanying mid air over much o f \Vestern North A merica. The
southern branch of the polar j et st ream directs moist air fro m the ocean into the Pacific North \vest, producing a \\let \vinter for that region.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<l<nl1nlfl .._...,.._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,...,..,........c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,,..,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• ""''"""..,,....,,..,n.
and, to the south of thelow, the jet stream (from off the Pacific) regions in the world where significant climatic responses to an
steers wet weather and storms into California and the southern ENSO event a~ likely. U~ing data from previous £NSO episodes,
part of the United States. A weak polar jet stream forms over scienli~tsat the Nmional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
eastern Canada allowing wanner than normal weather to pre- tion's Climate Prediction Center have obtaine.d a global picture
vail over a large part of North America. cL wherecli1naticabnormalitiesaremo.~t likely (see. Fig. 10.26).
Figure I0.25b shows typical winter weather patterns with Such ocean-atmosphere interactions where warm or cold sur-
a La Nina. Notice that a persi~tent high-pressure area (called face ocean temperatures can influence precipitation pallerns in
a blocking liiglr) forms south of A"1ska forcing the polar jet a distant part of the world are called teleconnectio ns.
stream into Alasb, then southward into Canada and the west- Some scientists feel that the trigger necessary to start an
ern United States. 1 he southern branch of the polar jet, which £NSO event lies \\1lhin the ch;mging of the seasons, especially
forms south of the high, directs moist air from the ocean into the transition periods ofspring and fall Others feel that the win-
the Pacific northwest, producing a wet winter for that region. ter monsoon plays a major role in triggering a major f.l Nino
Meanwhile, winter months in the southern part of the United event. As noted earlier, it appears that an ENSO episode and the
States tend to be warmer and drier th'Ul normal. monsoon system are intricately linked, so th.i a change in one
As we have seen, f.l Nino and the Southern Oscillation are brings about a change in the other.
part ofa large-scale ocean-atmosphere interaction that can take ls there a similar pauern in the Atlantic that compares
several years to run il~course. During this time, there are certain to the Southern Oscillation in the Pacific.? Typically in the
180 0 90
,,,_,
,. 60
.,_,
..
~ •
30
;
~'
•- -· 30
0
(a) El Nino, De<:ember-fellruary
LEGEND CJ Ory
-
l1Z! Cold and dry IZaWarm and dry
• warm . Wet C!ZCold and wet rl.iil Warm and wet
60 60
~
30
30
0 0
~"'
30
(b) El Nino, June-August - HIO

•
0
30
• FIGURE 10. 26 Regionsofc:limaticabnormalitiesassociated \\lith El N iflo-Southern Osc:illation conditions (a) during December through
February and (b) during June through Augu~1 . A strong ENSO event may trigger a response in nearly all indicated areas. whereasa weak event
\Yill tikely play a role in only some areas. {After NOAA Climate Prediction CenterJ
°*"'"''"..
..
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,. ,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
WEATHER WATCH predict climatic fluctuations (such as ENSO) that occur over
periods of months and years. 'Jlte hope is that a belier under-
The strong El Nino of 1982 and 1983 disturbed the weather standing of £1 Nii\o and the Southern Oscillation will provide
worldwide. In California, for example, many areas expe-
improved long-range forecasts of weather and climate.
rienced their rainiest season ever. Musolitt, in northern
Up 10 this point, we have looked al £1 Nii\o and the
California , recorded 185.5 inches of precipitation in 1983,
a record for a calender year in California. In South America, Southern Oscillation and how the reversal of surface ocean
Guayaquil, Ecuador, recorded 165.6 inches of rain between temperatures and atmospheric pressure combine to influence
November, 198~ and June, 1983, nearly four times the regional and global weather and climate pa!lerns. There are
average for this period. The worst drought on record hit other atmosphere-ocean inleraclionsthal can have an effect on
southern Australia, which culminated during February, large-scale weather patterns. Some of these are described in the
1983, with the A sh Wednesday Fire that killed 72 people li>Uo"fagsections.
and burned over 2000 homes in southeast Australia. Dur- Before going on, you may \\ish 10 read the Focus section on
ing the drough~ a dust storm plowed through Melbourne, p. 287 that describes the social and economic impact £1 Nii\o
dumping more than 11 ,000 tons of dry soil onto the city in
had on the Winier Olympics of2010.
40 minutes.
PACIFIC DECADAL OSCILLATION Over the Pacific Ocean,

eastern Atlantic (off the coast of Africa), the water is cool and changes in surface water temperatures appear 10 influence
the weather is drier than in the tropical western Atlantic. Peri- winier weather along the west coast of North America. Jn the
odically, the cool water along the African coast is replaced by mid 1990s, scientists al the University of Washington, while
\•.rarm \'-'ater and heavy rainfall. 'lbi~ Atlantic \'-'arming. ho'"' ever, researching connections between Alaskan salmon produc-
occurs more sporadically and is not as strong as the wanning in tion and Pacific climate, identified a long-term Pacific Ocean
the tropical Pacific. temperature fluctuation, which they called the Pacific Decadal
Presently. scientist~ (using general circulation models) are Oscillation (PDO) because the ocean surface temperature re-
trying to simulate atmospheric and oceanic conditions, so that verses every 20 to 30 years. The Pacific Decadal Oscillation is
El Nii\o and the Southern Oscillation can be anticipated. At this like ENSO in that il has a warm phase and a cool phase, but its
point, several models have been formulated that show promise temperature behavior is much different from that of El Niiio in
in predicting the ono;et and evolution of an ENSO event a season the tropical Pacific.
or more in advance. In addition, in-depth studies of the tropical During the warm (or positive) phase, umc~ually warm sur-
Pacific Ocean are providingscientists with valuable information focewater exist~ along the west coast of North America, whereas
about the interactions that occur between the ocean and the over the central North Pacific, cooler than normal surface waler
atmosphere. The primary aim of these ocean studies is lo pro- prevails (see • Fig. 10.27a). Al the same time, the Aleutian low
videenoughscientific information so that researchers can be!ler in the Gulf of Alaska strengthens, which causes more I'acific
o.a c 0
0.4
0.2
o.o
-0.2
- 0.6
(a) Watm (positive) phase (b) Cool (negative) phase

• FI GURE 10.2 7 Typical \Vintersersurface temperaturedeparture from normal in °Cduring l he Pad fie Dec.adalOscillation'swarm phase (a) and cool
phase (b). (Source: JISAO, Universityof Washington, obtained via http://WW\v. tao..atmos..washington.edufpdo. Used with permission cl N. Mantua.)
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~ ,,..~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
Er Nino and the Winter Olympics of 2010
As they do in many oth er parts of the days, somecourses had to be protected

world, El Nino and La Nina play a major w ith tarpaulins between races, and many
role in the w inter weath er of south west fans carried umbrellas instead of gloves
Canada. The conditions spawned by (see Fig. 4). At least 8000 tickets for
El N ino dampened spirits (and ski slopes) standing-r oom v iewing areas were can-
for thousands o f athletes and spectators ~ celled out of concern that rains had com-
during t he twenty-first O lympic W inter • promised the safety of th e snow-<:overed
j
Games, w hich were held in Vancouver in ~ straw bales w here spectators would have
Februar y, 2010. ~ stood. Sunshine arrived for the la.st few
j•
Located in the far south west corner of t days o f t he Olympics, b ut conditions
British Columbia, Vancouver sits about remained less than ideal; w ith snowfall
100 miles east of the Pacific Ocean still absent and temperatures mild.
<;
between the Strait of Georg ia and t he .:: High latitudes o f the Northern
Coast Mountains (see Fig. 3). At a latit ude
~ Hemisphere have been war ming more
o f about 49.4QN, it is farth er north than quickly than low la titudes in r ecent de-
Montreal, Munich, and Beij ing. However, • FI GURE 3 Satellitevi£'\v thatsho\vsrelative cades, so those w ho make long-range
position ofVanc.ower, British Colum bia.and
Van couver weather is usually much milder plans for w inter-weather spor ts may
Cypress Mountain, the home of freestyle skiing
than t hat of those cities in midwinter due and sno\Vboarding eventsduring t he 2010Winter find t hemselves increasingly hedging their
to the frequent arriva I of moist Pacific air. Olympics.. bets and hoping that El Nino doesn't spoil
During El Nilio, midwinter is usually their event .
warmer and drier than average. w hereas stren gthened and m ild Pacific flow domi-
relatively cold and wet conditions are nated . Va ncouver experienced its warmest
common during La Nina (see Fig. 10.25, Januar y on record and o ne o f its war mest
p. 284). Out of seventeen El N ino events Februarys, w ith 43 total days o f r ain b ut no
between 1950 and 2010 analy zed by Envi- measurable snow. Th e persistent El N in o
ronment Canada (a Canadian government ca used the city to stay above freezing
agency), all but three produced above for six weeks straight, w ith man y nights
normal w inter temperaturesa nd less snow never d ropping below 4 0'F. At the lower-
than average in Vancouver. elevation venue o f Cypress Mountain,
Even w ithout El Nilio, the Vancouver which p layed host to six major ski an d
climate is m ild enough to put winter snowboar ding events, conditions were too
sports at risk. T he averageFebruar ytem- mild and moist for snONmakin g machines
peratures in Vancouver are warmer than to operate. Helicopters an d trucks had to
those o f an y city that had previ o u~y bring in vast amounts of snow from higher
hosted the Winter Olympics. In fact, the elevations.
region was removed from the World The Olympics are b ig b usiness-the
Cup ski circuit after heavy fo9 forced the 2010winter gamesalone cost more than
cancellation of early season events for Sl billion to produce-so there is plenty of
three yea rs in a row in the m id-1990s. incent ive to fight even the most unfavor-
• FIGURE 4 Spectators stand in pouring raindur-
Heavy autum n snow p receded able weather. As the various games ing the\Wm en's mogul event at Cypress Mountain
the 2010 Games, but El N ino soon slogged throug h theirwarm, wet opening during February, 20 10.at the Winter Olympic Games.
stor~ lo move into Alaska and California. This situation causes mid- 1998, after which ii began to oscillate between cool and
\\inters. as a \\•hole, lo be \\•armer and drier over north\\fest- warm ph,tses (see o Fig. I 0.28).
ern North America. EL~ewhere, "1nte.rs tend 10 be drier over Cool (or negative) f>DO phases have cooler-than-average
!he Great Lakes, and cooler and wetter in !he southern United surface water along !he west coast of North America and an
States. Meanwhile, during !his warm phase.salmon populations area of warmer-than-normal surface water extending from
increase in Alaska and diminish along !he Pacific Northwest Japan into !he central North Pacific (see Fig. 10.27b). Winters
roast. 'Jl1e latest warm phase began in 1977 and continued until in the cool phase tend 10 be cooler and wetter than average over
°*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl poo-1)' ,.,...,.""1 W "'l••- ..i ..,n.,h ~dl ... :.1J>• .0."l'nV 1 f:1W.....rt..,,...,.!....
C'1'1'rif* ) l I~ On~ t.cmn~ All l!itJ!af(_....41 M")' ""t buq10.U >.....W ,............... 111 "f>•lrc111in p .... ti..: i;1
<l<nlonlfl •...,.._,~ ..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11..,......., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,n.
• FI GURE 10. 28 The PocilicDecadal
Oscillation {PDO) Index sho\vn here is +3
based on 12·month averages of sea
surface temperatures {SST) o f the Pacific
Warm+2
Ocean north o f 20"N from 1950 to 2010.
phase
Positivevalues (in red) indic.ate the\varm
pli.lse. \Vhereas negative values (in blue)
represent the cool phase. {Source: JISAO,
Universityofwashing ton. Found at: http:// Index o
jisao.\Ya shington.ed ulpdo/ PDO. latest.
Courtesy o f N. Mantua.}
•1
Cold
phase ·2
.3 -.------
1-~~~ ......~--.~~+-~~~......~--.....-~..-~~~--.~~....-~.......
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Year
northv,•<Stern North America, \\'etter over the t)reat Lakes, and NORTH ATLANTIC OSCILLATION O ver the Atlantic there is
"'armer and drier in !hesouthern United States. Sabnon fishing a reversal of pressure called the North Atlantic Oscillation
diminishes in Alaska and pick~ up along !he Pacific Northwest ( NAO) that has an effect on the weather in £urope and along
Coast. the east coast of North America. For example, in winter if the
The climate parrerns described so far only represent aver· atmospheric pre,~sure in !he vicinity ofthe Icelandic low d rops.
age condition~. as individual years "1!hin eitherphasemayvary and !he pre,'lsurein theregion ofthe Bermuda-Azores high rises,
considerably. In fact, the Pacific Ocean temperaturepaHern in a there is a corresponding large difference in atmospheric pres·
particular phase may even reverse for a few years, as it did from s ure between these two regions !hat strengthens the ' "esterlies.
1958 to 1960 and from mid· 1998 into the t>Venty·first century. The strong westerlies in turn direct strong cyclonic storms on a
These small reversals can make it difficult to decipher exactly more northerly track into northern £uropc, where winters tend
when the ocean temperature changes from one phase to another. to be wet and mild. During this posil ive phase of the NAO, win·
Hopefully, as our understanding ofthe interactions between the ters in the eastern United States tend to be wet and relatively
ocean and atmosphere improves, di mate forecasts aero.~ North mild, while northern Canada and Greenland are usually cold
America and elsewhere will improve as well. and dry (see • Fig. JO. 29a).
• FI GURE 10.29 Change in surfaceatmospheric: pressure and typical \Yinter\ve.ather patterns associated \Vith the (a} positive phase and
(b} negative phaseof the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO).
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• F I GURE 10. 30 Change in surfaceatmospheric pressure in polar regions and typical \\linter \VE?ather patterns as.wciated \Vi th the
(a} positive {\varm) phase and the {b} negative {cold) phaseoftheArcticOsdllation {AO).
'Jhe negative phase of 1he NAO occurs when !he almo- arcticairin place to the north, winters over Newfoundland and
spheric pressure in 1he vicinily of !he lcekmdic low rises, while G rec.iland tend to be very cold. Meanwhile, strong winds over
lhe pressure drops in !he region of !he Bermuda high (see the Atlantic direct storms into northern Europe, bringing with
Fig. J0.29b). Thi~ pressure change result~ in a reduced pressure them \\'et. mild weather.
gradient and 'veaker vlesterlies that steer fe,..ier and "''e~lker ,... m- During !he negative cold plum of the AO (Fig. I 0.30b),
l er s1orms across !he Atlantic in a more wes1erly palh. 1110se small pressure differences between !he arctic and regions to
slorrn~ bring wel weather to soulhern £urope and to !he region the south produce weaker westerly winds aloft. Cold arctic air
around !he Mediterranean Sea. Meanwhile, "inters in Nor1hern is now able to penetrate farther soulh, producing colder lhan
Europe are usuallycoldand dry, asare1hewin1ers along !he east normal winters over much of the United States. Cold air also
coast ofNorlh America. Greenland and nor1hern Canada usu- invades northern £urope and Asia, while Newfoundland and
ally experience mild winters. Greenland expe.rience "''armer tha.n nor1nal "''inters.
Although the NAO varies from year 10 year (and sometimes So when Greenland has mild winte.rs, northern£uropehas
from month to monlh), it may exhibit a tendency to rellk~in in c.otd "''inters and vice vers..-:a. '11tis sees..1"' ill \\inter temperature.s
one phase filr several years. II is interesting 10 note !hat !he NAO between Greenland and norlhern Europe has been known for
during !he pas! 30 years or so has been trending toward a more many years. W'hat was not known until recently is !hat during
positive phase. the warm Arctic Oscillation phase relatively ""arm, salty water
from !he Atlantic is able to move into the Arctic Ocean, where
ARCTl C OSCILLATION Closely related 10 the North Atlan- it melts sea ice, causing it to lhin by more than 40 centimeters.
tic OsciUation i~ the Arctic Oscillalion (AO), where changes During the cokt phase, surface winds tend to keep warmer
in atmospheric pressure between the Arclic and regions to the Atlantic water to the south, which promotes 1hicker sea ice.
south cause changes in upper-level westerly winds. During 1he Although the Arctic Oscillation switches from one phase to
posilive wt1rm pl1"se of the AO (see • Fig. 10. 30a), strong pres- anolher on an irregular basis, one phase may persi~t filr several
sure differences produce strong westerly winds aloft !hat prevent years in a rov..i, bringing "'ith it a succession of either cold or
cold arctic air from invading the United State.s, and so win- mild \\rintf'rs.
ters in this region tend to be warmer lhan normal. Wilh cold
C'1')'rif• ) ) ·~ On~'-""~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i """>' ""'buq10.U . ......................... " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, "" "'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r..........i....
<1<n11...i ., ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll-....... .,~,.,i...,,.......,,..u,,..,,.•.,,.... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• ..,,,,-.11.... ....,,..,...
SUMMARY KEY TERMS
In this chapter, "" dc.ccibed the la rge·saile pat terns of wind 1befollowingtennsarelisted (with page num~) in the
and pressure that pcrsi>1 arowxi the world. We found tho~ ordertbeyappear in the text. Define each. l>oingso will aid
at the surface in both bemispheres, the trade "~nds blow you in reviewing the material CO\'l?red in this ch:ipter.
equaton"3rd from the semipermanent high-pressure areas
centert>d near 30° latilude. Near the equator, the trade winds general circulation oflhe sublropical jet strerun, 27•1
com'Crge nlong a boundary known as the intertrop!al con - atmosphere, 266 polar front j<'l stream, 274
vergence tone (ITCZ). On the poleward side ci the subtropicul Hadley eel~ 266 tropical eask-rly jet
doldrums, 267 stream. 2n
highs arc the prevailing westerly winds. The westerlies meet
cold pol or e:uterly winds along a boundary calkd the polar subtropical highs, 268 low-level jet. 278
front. n zone o( low pressure where middle-latitude cyi:lonk horse latitudes, 268 G1df Stream, 279
trnde winds, 268 oceanic front, 280
storm.' often form. 11ie tmnual shifting of the mnjor pr<,.;11re
areas tmd wind bdts- nortbward in July and •0111hwarcl In intertropical convergence Ekman Spiral, 28 1
Jam111ry - s1rongly influences the annual prccipi1111io11 of zone (lTC.Z), 268 Ekmun transport, 28 1
many "•'Sions. westerlies, 268 upwelling, 281
Warm air aloft (high pressure) over low latitudes nnd colu polar front, 268 El Nhio, 282
air aloft (low pr•~•ure) over high latitudes produce westerly •ubpolar IO\'\ 268 Sou1hern Oscil.1'llion. 283
\\indsaloft in ooth hemispheres,especiallym midd~andhigh polar easterlies, 268 ENSO, 283
latitude$. Near the equator,ea.1erlywindsexist.1.hejct stream. semipermanent highs La Nil\a, 284
are locouxl whett strong winds concentrate into narrow bands. and lows, 269 telcconntctions. 285
Thr pob r jet stream forms in response to temperature cmtrasts Bermuda high, 269 Pacific Dcc:idal Oscillation
Pacific high, 269 (PDO), 286
nlong the polar Cron~ while the subttop;cal jet stream fomu
ut h;gher d ....11oos abowthe subtropics. along an upper·le\'1?1
bound•l')' COUed thesubtmpicul fronL
kclandic '°'" 269
Alrutian low, 269
North Allantlc Oscillation
(NAO). 288
Neorthe surfaa, we examined the interaction bet ween the Siberian high, 269 Arctic Oscillation (AO), 289
atmosphere and oceans. We found the interaction to be an on· jet streams, 274
going proces. where everything. in one way or another, seems
to influence evcrylhing else. On a large scale, winds blowing QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
C'J\.'er the~urfacedthe \\'at er drive the major ocean currcnt~j. th~
oceans, In turn. release energy to the atmosphere, which helps I. Dntw a large circle. Now, pince the mnjor.urface pressu~
to malnt" in I he general circulation of wind>. Where wln<L\ ~md and wind belts of the world nt their npproprit\lc latitudl'S.
the Ekman Spira l mow •urface water away from a coa•llin•:, 2. .Explain how and why the ovcrngc surface pressure fea·
rold, nulrlen1-rkh \"3ler upwells lo replace it, creating good turesshift from summl'r co ,.,,int<!r.
f~hingand coolersurfuce water. 3. Why is it impossible on the earth for a Hadky ccll to
When atmospheric circulation patterns change owr the extend from the pole to the eqwtor?
tropbll P3Cific, and the tradewindsweal<en or"""™' dm.'C· 4. Along a meridian line running from the equator to the
tion, wann lfl'lp>c:al wat<Y is aNe to flow eastward tow•rdSouth poles. how does the g!!l1<ral circulation bclp to explain
America, w~ilchokcsoJfupw•llingandprodua:sdisaslrOU\ zones of abundan1 and sparse prccipitatfon?
ttenomk rondiUons. When the warm water extend• over a 5. Most of the United States is in whal WU1d heh?
vast""'" o(lhe tropkal Pacific, the warming is cnUrd a 1n.1jor 6. Explain why summers along the \\'l?~t coast of the
El Nino event and the associated rewrsul o( pressure"''" the United States tend to be dry. whereas nlong the east
PacificOcean iscaUed the Southern Oscillation. The lar(,>e·.cale coast summers tend to be wet.
interaction behwen the atmo.-phere and the ocean during El 7. Explain why the winds in the middle and upper tropo·
Nil\o and the Southern Osdlla1ion (ENSO) affect>globo l ntmo· sphere tend to blow from west to easl in both the
spheric circulation patterns. The sweeping windsnlo(l provklc Northern and the Southern I lcmlsphcres.
too much min in some nre-..1s and not enough in others. La Ni1)n 8. I low does the polar front influence the dcvdopment of
L'i th(• na n1c given to the!l;ituation \vhere the .surf':.1ce ,.,.~lterof thc the polar front jel stream?
central nncl eastern lropical Pacific turns cooler than n<.. mnl. 9. Describe how the con>ervation o( angular momentum
Over the north-central Pacific and along the west GOalream.
North America 1here isa reversul cisurface water tempera tu re, 10. Why is the polar fronl jet Mream !.trongcr in wintcr
called the l'adflc Decadal Oscillation that occurs every 20 to than in swnmer?
30 yea~ Over the Atlantic Ocean there is a re\wsal ri pressure 11. Explain the relationship bel\\1!Cn the gcnernl drcula·
calk.>d the North Atlantic Oscillation that inJluenccs wrother lion of air and the circulation o( ocean curttnts.
in various r.glo11> ofthe world. Surface atmosphenc pressure 12. List at least four important intcroctions that exist
change~ o•'l?r thr Arcbcalso seem to inJlumcewe:ither p between the ocean and the atmosphere.
O\'l?r region> ci the Northern Hemisphere. 13. Describe how the £1:man Spiral forms.
14. What conditions are ne.cessary for upwelling to occur 8. You are given an upper-level map that shows the posi-
along the west coast of North America? The east co,1s1 tion of two jet streams. If one is the polar front jet and
of North America? the other the subtropical jet, how would you be able 10
15. (a) \\That is a major El Nii\o event? tell which is which?
(b) What h3f>pens to the surface pressure at opposite end~ 9. 1he Coriolis force deflects moving water to the right of
of the Pacific Ocean during the Southern Oscillation? its intended path in the Northern Hemisphere and 10
(c) Describe how the Southern Oscillation influences the left of it~ intended path in the Southern Hemi-
a major El N ii\o event. sphere. Why, then, does upwelling tend to occur along
16. What are the conditions over the tropical eastern and the "'estem margin of continents in both hemispheres?
central Pacific Ocean during the phenomenon known
as La Nina>
I 7. What type of weather (cold/warm, wet/dry) would you PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES
expect over North America during a strong El Niilo? I. Locate the following cities on a world m"f>. Then, based
During a strong La Ni1ia> on the general circulation of surface wind~, predict the
18. Describe the ocean surface temperatures associated prevailing wind for each one during July and January.
with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation. What climate pat- (a) Nashville, 1enne,~e; (b) Oklahoma City, Oklahoma;
terns (cool/warm, wet/dry) tend to exist during the (c) Melbourne, Australia; (d) London, England;
warm phase and the cool phase? (e) Paris, France; (f) Reykjavik, Iceland;
19. How does the positive phase of the North Atlantic (g) Fairbanks, Alaska; (h) Seattle, Washington
Oscillation differ from the negative phase? 2. In the column below is a list of average weather conditions
20. During the negative cold phase of the Arctic Oscilla- that prevail during the month of July al San Francisco,
tion, \\rhen Greenland is experiencing mild \\•inters. California, and Athlntic City, New Jersey. Both cities lie
what type of winters (cold or mild) is northern Europe ad~1cent 10 an ocean at nearly the same latitude; how-
usually experiencing? ever, the average weather conditions vary greatly. In
tenn~ of the average surface winds and pressure sys-
te1n~ (see Fig, IO.Sb, p. 270) and the interaction between
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT the atmosphere and ocean, explain what accounts for
I. What effect would continents have on the circulation the variation between the two cities of each weather
of air in the single-cell model? element.
2. How would the general circulation of air appear in
Atlantic City, New Jersey (latitude 39•N)
summer and winter if the earth were tilted on its axis
at 'ln angle of 45• instead of 23\(?•?
Average weather, July
11?mperature maximwn and minimum
3. Summer weather in the southwestern section of the
United Stales is influenced by a subtropical high-
JR\"' point
Precipitation 3.72 in.
pressure cell, yet Fig. JO.Sb (p. 270) shows an area of
low pressure al the surface. Explain.
J'revailing wind s
\Valer temperature
4. Explain why icebergs tend to move at right angles to
the direction of the "ind. San Francisco, California (latitude 3~N)
5. Give 1.wo reasons why pilot~ would prefer to fly in the Average weatl1er, July
core of a jet stream rather than just above or below it. 1emperature maximum and minimum 64•F, 53•F
6. Why do the major ocean currents in the North Indian Dew point 53•f
Ocean reverse direction bet\\•een summer and '"'inter? l)recipitation 0.01 in.
7. Explain \Vhy the surface water temperature along the Prevailing wind NW
northern California coast iS\v~\rmer in \\•inter than it is Wat er tempera! ure 53•p
in summer.
GEOSCIENCE •
I Go 10 the Reference section of the Global Environment Watch: Meteorology
partal. Search under the term "El Nino" and consult the document "El Nino and La Nina," from Environmenu.l Science: In
Conl< ttt(or other reference works in this portal) to a"~"'erthesequestions: What istheearliest recorded use ofthe term El Nii\o?
Mave scientists found evidence for El Niilo and La Nina in prehistoric times~ Are£! Niilo and La Nina expected 10 change as
Earth'.~ climate warms?
ONLINE RESOURCES
I!\ Log in to the CourseMate w~bsite at: w\~w.cengagebrain. co~ 10 v~ew co.ncept a~imations as noted in the text, as
~ well as additional resources, including video exercises, practice quizzes, 1nteract1ve eBooks, and more.
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J ,,.. .1....wod,"' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11...t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h~dlLU;,,.,,h• «It""""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl••,:!o .. •m•"":JJ'"*',...,.,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_ .....,.,.,..,,
- ................__
?'''!
Air Masses and Fronts

CONTENTS bout two dclock in the afternoon it began to grow dark
Air Masses
Source Regions
A from a heavy, black cloud which was seen in the northwest.
Almost instantly th e strong wind, traveling at th e rate of 70 miles
Classification
Air Masses of North America an hour, accompanied by a deep bellowing sound , with its icy
Continental Polar(cP) and Continental blast, swept over th e land, and everything was frozen hard .The
Arctic (cA) Air Masses
water in the little ponds in th e roads froze in waves, sharp edged
Lake-Effect (Enhanced) Snows and pointed, as the gale had blown it. The chickens, pigs and
M aritime Polar(mP) Air Masses other small animals were frozen in their tracks. Wagon w heels
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC ceased to roll, froze to the ground. Men, going from their barns
The Return of the Siberian Express
or fields a short distance from their homes, in slush and water,
Maritime Tropical (mTJ Air Masses
Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses returned a few minutes later walking on the ice. Those caught
Fronts out on horseback were frozen to their saddles, and had to be
Stationary Fronts
lifted off and carried to the fire to bethawed apart. Two young
Cold Fronts
Warm Fronts men were frozen to d eath near Rushville. One of them was
Drylines found with his back against a tree, wit h his horse's bridle over his
arm and his horse frozen in front of him. The other was partly in
The Wavy Warm Front
Occluded Fronts a kneeling position, with a tinder box in one hand and a flint in
Upper- Air Fronts the other, with both eyes wide open as if intent on trying to
Summary
strike a ligh t. Many other casualties were repo rted. As to the
Key Terms
Questions for Review exact temperature, however, no instrum ent has left any record;
Questions for Thought but t h e ice was frozen in the stream, as variously reported, from
Probl em s and Exercises
six inches to a foot in thickn ess in a few hours.
John Moses, Illinois: f{jsrorical andSratistical
Facing page: A cold arctic air massand heavy sno\v

cover Colorado'sWhite River National Foresl
293
°*"'"''"..
llo.nl poo-1)' •.,,..,. ""1 W "'l••-..i ..,.,.,h~dl ... :.1.l\o .0."l'nV I f:1"'-i.rtn1•"'!....
<>.;•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
.._,.,..,,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''"... ..,..,,,.,.. -...J4f•nt.•1e_.Jl~""'""l"TIC'>-"c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll""'......, .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,..
he opening derails !he passage of a specraculir cold fronr "111 drifr eastward, carrying wilh it the temperature and moisture
T as ii moved rhrough Jllinois on December 21, 1836.

Alrhough no reliable remperalure records are available,
eslimates are that, as !he front swept through, air temperature.s
characreristic of the region where the air mass formed; hence,
in a day or two, cold air will be located over !he central Arlantic
Ocean. Part of weather forecasting is, then, a matter of deter-
dropped almost instantly from !he balmy 40s (<F) 10 0 degrees. mining air mass characteristics, predicting how and why they
Fortunately, temperature ch,mges of !his magnitude \\1th cold change, and in what direction the systems will move.
fronts are quite rare.
ln this chapter, we will examine the more typical weather SOURCE REGIONS Regions where air masses originate are
associated wirh cold fronts and warm fronts. We will address known as source regions. Jn order for a huge mass of air 10 de-
questions such as: Why are cold fronts uSt••lly associated with velop unilOrmcharacteristics, its source region should be gener-
shO\\'t'ry \\•eat.her? liO\\' c.an \\•arm frontsduringthe \vinter cause ally flat and of uniform composition wirh light surface winds.
freezing rain and sleet to form over a vast area> And how can 1 he longer the air remains stagnant over its source region, or
one read the story of an approaching warm front by observing the longer the palh over which the air moves, the more likely it
its clouds? But, first, so that we may better understand fronts, will acquire properties of the surface below. Consequently, ideal
we will examine air masses. We will look at where and how !hey source regions are uSlOtlly those areas dominated by surface
form and !he type of wealherust••lly associated wilh them. high pressure. They include the ice- and snow-covered arctic
plains in winter md subtropical oceans in summer. The middle
latitudes, where surface temperature,~ and moisture character-
istics vary considerably, are not good source regions. Instead,
Air Masses this region is a transition zone \\•here air masses \\•ith different
physical properries move in, dash, and produce an exciting
An air mass is an extremely large bodyofair whose properties array of \\•eather activity.
of remperature '1nd humidity are fairly similar in my horizon-
tal direction at any given altitude. Air masses may cover many CLASSIFICATION Air masses are usually classified accord-
thousmds ofsquare kilometers. Jn e fig. 11.l, a large winter air ing 10 their temperature and humidity, both of which usually
mass, associated with a high-pressure area, covers over halfofthe remain fairly uniform in my horizontal direction.• ' lbere are
United States. Note that, although the surface air remperature •fn dassifying air nus.ses. ii isconlnlon to use the poteutial ttrnperdturc of the air.
and dew point vary somewhat, everywhere Lhe air is cold md lhe po1ential te1nperature ii Lhe 1e1nperarure th.11 unsaturatcd (dry) air would hnve
dry, with the exception of the zone of snow showers on the if 1noved fro1n its original level to a pressure of 1000 1nillib.1rsu1 1he d1y ndiab.ltic
easrern shores oft he Great Lakes. Th is cold, sh allow anticyclone ra1e ( l<rc/ 1000 m).
• FI GURE 11 .1 Here.alarge,extremety
cold \Vinter air mass is dominating the
\\leather over much of the United States..
Atalmostallcities, the air is cold and dry.
Upper number is air temperature ttFl; bot·
tom number is dew point (l'F}.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
,. TABLE 11.1 Air Mass Classification and Characteristics
SOURCE REGION ARCTIC REGION IAI POLAR IP) TROPICAL ITI
Land cA cP cT
Continental (c) extremely cold, dry s table; cold, dry, s table hot, dry, stable air aloft;
ice• and sno,v-co,\"red surface un.o;cable surface air
Water mP mT
Maritim e (m) cool, nloist, unstable '"'arm, moist; usually unstable
cold and '''arm air masses. humid and dry air masses. Air After the air mas~ spends some time over its source region,
masses are grouped into five general cate{,'()ries according it usually begins to move in response to the winds aloft. As it
to their source region. Air masses that originate in polar moves a'"'ay from its source region. it encounters surfaces that
latitudes are designated by the capital letter "P" (for po/11 1~; may be warmer or colder than itself. When the air m ass is colder
those that form in warm tropical regions are designated by than the underlying surface, it is warmed from below, which
the capital letter "T" (IOr tropical). lf the source region is land, produces instability at low levels. In this case, increased con-
the air mass will be d ry and the lowercase letter "c" (for co11ti- vection and turbulent mixing near the surface usually produce
11e11tal) precedes the P orT. lfthe air mass originates over water, good visibility, curnuliform dou<l~. andshowersof rain or snow.
it will be moist - at least in the lower layers - and the lower- On the other hand, when the air m ass is warmer than the surface
case letter "m" (for maritime) precedes the P orT. We can now below, the lower layers are chilled by contact "1th the cold e<1rth.
see that polar air originating over land will be classified ct' on Warm air above cooler air produce.sstable air "1th little vertical
a surface v.-eather map. '''hereas tropical air originating over mixing. 1hi~situation causes the accumulation of d ust, smoke,
water will be marked as mT. In winter, an extremely cold air mxl pollutants, which restricts surface visibilities. In moist air,
mass that forms over the arctic is designated as cA, co11ti11e11tal stratiform clouds accompanied by d rizzle or fog m ay form.
arctic. Sometimes, however, it is diffiC<Llt to distinguish between
arctic and polar air masses, especially when the arctic air m ass AIR MASSES OF NORTH AMERICA The principal air mas~s
has traveled over ""rm er terrain. ,.1able l l. I lists the five basic (with their source regions) that enter the United States are shown
air masses. in a Fig. 11.2. We are now in a position to study the formation
• FI GURE 11.2 Airmasssource

regionsand their paths.
temperatures. If the cold air moves ns for .outh as cent ml or
southern Florida, the winter vci,oetablc crop may be severely
damaged. When th<? cokl, dry nir mas:. mows over a relatively
WJrm body of water, such "' the Great ukes, heavy snow
showers-called lake-dfect snows - often fonn oodowm,•md
shore>. (More information on lake-effect snows is provided in
the l'ocus section on p. 297.)
In winter; the generally fair weather accompanying palar
rontinentnl and arctic air IJl3S$e$ is due to the stable nature ofthe
:itmosphcre alofL Smiting air develop> abow the large dome of
high pressure. The subsidingairwarrns by compression and ae-
ate> waan<r air, which lies above colder surface air. Therefore,
u >trOng uppcr-le,-el subsidencc invct>ion often forms. Should
the ttnlicydone stagnate over a region for :.cvernl days, the vis-
• FI GURE 11 .3 A shallow bul lil19edomeof extremely cold alr-u mntl- ibility grndually drops as pollutan~• become trapped in the cold
nentaJ ~rc'l lc alt mass- move.silowty southe.'t$1\vard aaos1 the upper ploln1. 'tir 1iettr the ground. Usually, however, \\fads oloft move the cold
Theleadlng ed9eof thealr ma.uh.marked bya cold fronL {Numbe.ll repfeJent air 1nass either ea..o;l'\... ard or southca,,l\\'Urd.
aif tempen11 urt, "FJ
·nwRockies, Sierra NevacLi , ond Cascade> normally pro-
lL'ct the Pacific Northwest from the on.I aught of arctic air, but,
and modifi~tlon ofeach of these air masses and the variety of occnsiOnall y, vtty cold air ma i.ses do invade these regions. When
weath.,,-th31 accompanies Wm. the uppcr-levcl wmds over Wa.~ngton and Oregon blow from
the north or northeast on a trajectory beginning O\"er northern
Continent'! Polar (cP) and Continental Arctic (cA) Aor Omadii or Alaska, cold air~ slip owr the mounttins and ex·
Masses The bitterly cold weather that invades •outhern tend its icy lingers all the way to the Pacific Ocean. As the air
Canada and the United Slates in winier is associated with 'on· W0\1.'$ off the high plateau, owr the mountniJis, and on into the
tinental polar nnd 'ontinentaJ arctic air masses. ' rhese nir '°"'"valleys. compressiomlheating of the sinking air causes its
masses originate o''" the ice· and snow-covered regiOI\~ oft he tempcr31ure to rise, so that by the time h reaches the lowlands,
arctic, north em Canada. and Ala ska where long, dear nights ii Is co11>ickrably warmer than it wns originally. However, in no
allow for strong rudiationnl cooling of the surface. Air in con· w,1y would this air be considered worm. In some cases, the sub-
tact with the >urfocc becomes quite cokl and stable. Since little free-ting temperatur.s slip overt he Casco des nnd extend south-
moisture is added to the air, it is also quite dry, and dew·point ward into the coastal nrel\s ofsouthern California.
tm1pcrntu res are often less than - 30'C (-22•t'). Eventua lly" por· A similar but less dramatic warming of continental polar
li<>n of thb cold air breaks away and, under the influence oft he and llrCticairmassesoccurs alongtheea.tern coastoftbe United
air f!()'.v a loft. moves southward as an mormoussha !low high· States. Air rides up and over the lower Appalachian Mountains.
pressure area, as iUustrated in e fig. ll 3 . 1\irbuknt mixing and compressional heating increase the
A' the cold nlr moves into the interior plains, there arc no air temperatures on the clowmvind >ide. Consequently, cities
ti>p0grnphic barriers to restrain it, so it continues southward. ~<itcd to the east of the Appalachian Mountains usually do not
bringing with II cold wa•-e warnings and frigid temperntures. CJ<Pcrience tempeTaturcs as low as those on the " -est side. In
The infamow; Tcx11s 11ortlier is associated with continental l'ig. I I.I , p. 294, notice that for the same time of day-in this
arctic {and continental polar) air. As the air mass moves O\'Cr ClSC 7A.M. EST - Philadelphia, on the eastern side ofthe moun-
wormer land to the south, the air tempeTature moderntes tains, with an air temperature of l•t•h is 16•F Watllk'r than
•lightly os it i• heated from below. Ho\\>!ver, even during the Pltt>burgh, with an air temperature of 2•r on the western side
afternoon. when the surface air is most unstable, cumulus of the mountains.
cloud, nrc rare because of the extreme dryness of the nir mass. • Pigure 11.4 shows t\\'l upper·nir •-'nd patterns that led
At night, when the winds die down, rapid radiational >urfoce to extremely cold outbreaks of arctic nlr during December
aioling nnd dcttr >kles combine to produce very low minimum 1989 and 1990. Upper-level winds 1ypicnlly blow from west to
east, but, in both of these cases, the flow, as given by the
WEATHER WATCH hc,IVy, dttrk arrows, had a s1rong north· south (meridional)
A continental arctic air mass duri ng February, 1899, pro·
trajectory. 111e H represent> the positions of the cold sur-
duced the greates t co ld wave ever in the United States focc anticydones. Numbers on the mup represent minimum
when arcti c ai r pushed all the way south to the Gulf of temperatures ("I') recorded during the cold spclb. East of the
Mexico. and for the only time on record every state r e· Rocky Mountains, over 350 n'Cord low tcmperntures wt>rc se.t
ported below zero temperatures, including Florida, where bef\Vcen December 21 and 24. 1989, wfth the arctic outbreak
the low in Tallahassee d ipped to -2•r. causing an estimated S48l million in damage to the fruit and
vegt'toble crops in Texas and Florida. Along the West Coast, the
,..,.... )11,J{.,~.._..,tAl'°'lln a-....i '"""'*''ion..-'--- .,.i......,"""'•"'t.-11r•,...t-l!l.W.,__,.__...,,..., ..,._..., • .,ft"'..... ..,•1!114M!l- ....Not.ll.....•ll.......,t•-•

.-...i11.--···~-··-~ ...................... _ ..........,... .. ,.
~._(;_ ._~-- .........._...i_,,,..,_ •..,_ ...""'......,... _._ _....,._.
Lake-Effect (Enhanced) Snows
During the w inter, w hen the weather in th e

Midwest is dominated by clear and cold
polar o r arctic air, people liv in g on the
eastern or southern shores o f the Great
Lakes brace t hemselves for heavy snow
Cold, dry
showers. Snowstorms that form on the
downwind side o f o ne of th ese lakes are
known as /ake-effed snows. Since the lakes
are responsible for enhancing t he amount
air mass
Fog
.. .
Evaporation atid warml~
\
of snowthatfalls o n its downwind side,

these snowstorms are also called Jake- Windward Leewaro
enhanced snows, especially w hen the snow
accompa nies a cold front or mid-latitude • FIGUR E 1 The format ion o f lake-effect sno\vs..Cold, d ry air crossing the lake
cyclone. These stor ms are highly localized, gains m oisture and \Wrmth fro m the \Wter. The m ore buoyant air no\v rises, form-
ing clouds that deposit large q uantities o f sn~vo n the lake's lee\vard {do\Vn\vind)
exte nding from just a few kilometers to
sho res.
more than 100 km inland. The snow usually
falls as a heavy shower or sq ua II in a con- reach the downwind side of th e lake, addi-
centr ated zone. So centralized is the region tional lifting is provided by low hills and
of snowfall, that o ne pa rt of a city may
accumulate many inches of snow, while,
the convergence of air as it slows down
~
o ver the rougher terrain. In late w inter, the NY
in another part the g round is bar e. Th e frequency and intensity of lake-effect · Buffalo
amount o f snow that falls can be enor- snows often taper off as the temperature
mous, as over 7 feet of snow fell on contra.st between water and air d iminishes PA
Montague, New YOrk (which lies on the and larger por tions of the lakes freeze.
eastern side of Lake Ontario), in less than IL IN
Generally, the longer the stretch of
for ty-eight hours durin g January, 1997. water oter which the air mass travels (the
Lake-effect snows are most numerous longer the fetch), thegreater the amount of • FIGURE 2 Areas shaded w hite show regi ons
from November to Januar y. During these warmth and moisture derived from the lake, that experience heavy lake· effec-t sno\YS.
months, cold air moves over the lakes and the greater the potential for heavy
w hen they are relatively warm and not snow showers. In fact, studies show that, for heavier showers. The heat g iven off during
quite frozen. The contrast in temperature significant snowfall to occur, theair m ust condensation warms the air and, as the air
between water and air can be as much as move across 80 km (SO mO of open water. descends the eastern slope, compressional
25°( (45°F). Studies show that the greater Co nsequently, forecasting lake-effect snow-- heating warms it even more. Snowfall
the contrast in temperature, t he greater falls depends to a large degree on determ in- ceases, and by the time the air arrives in
the potential for snow showers. In Fig. 1 we ing the trajectory of the air as it flows over Philadelphia, New York. or Boston, the only
can see that, as the cold air moves over the the lake. Regions that experience heavy remaining trace o f the .snow showers occur-
warmer water, t he air mass is quickly lake--€ffect snowfalls are shown in Fig. 2.* ring on the other side of the mountains are
warmed from below, making it more b uoy- As the cold air moves farther east, the the p uffy cum ulus clouds drifting overhead.
ant and less stable. Rapidly, the air sweeps heavy snow shower s usually taper off; Lake-effect .snows are not confined to
up moisture, soon becoming saturated. however, the western slope of the Appala- the Great Lakes. In fact, any large unfrozen
Out ov er the water, the vapor condenses chian Mountains produces further lifting, lake (such a.s th e Great Salt Lake) can en-
into steam fog . As the air continues to enhancing the possibility of more and hance snowfa II w hen cold, relatively dry air
warm, it rises and forms billowing cumuli- sweeps over it . Moreover, a t ype of lake-
form clouds, w hich cont inue to grow as the •euffalo, New York,. i sa c ity that experiences heavy effect snow occurs w hen cold air mov es
air becomes more unstable. Eventually, lake-effect snows. Vi ~i t the National \\leath er Ser-
CNer a relatively warm ocean, then lifts
vice \vebsite in Buffalo at http1/W\V\V.erh.noaa.
these clouds produce heavy showers of slightly as it moves over a land mass. Such
g oWbuf/lakeffect/index:lk..htmla nd read about
snow, w hich make the lake seem like a lake-effect sno\vstorm s m easured in feet, as well as ocean· effect snows are common ov er Cape
snow factory. Once the air and clouds interesting \<Jeather stories.. Cod, Massachusetts, in w inter.
<1<n11...ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
e FI GURE 11.4 Average upper-level
\'Jind flo\v (heavy arro\\IS) and surface po-- f
sit ion of antic.ye-Ion~ {H) <lSSOCiated \vi th
t\vo extremetycold outbreaksof arctic air
during December. Number·son the map
represent minimum temperatur ~ r F}
measured during each cold snap.
13
\
-14
23 H
13 \'
'.\
20 15
21
16
-5 14
8 22
11
14
\ 31
1)
frigid air during December, 1990, caused over $300 million in Continental Polar air that moves into the United States in
damage to the vegetable and citrus crops, as temperatures <Ner summer has properties much different from its "int er counter-
parts of California plummeted to their lowest readings in more part. The source region remains the same but i~ now character-
than fifty years. Notice in both cases how the upper-level "ind ized by long summer days that melt snow and warm the land.
direct~ the path-~ oflhe air masses. The air is only moderately cool, and surface evaPoration adds
water vaPor to the air. A summertime continental polar air mass
usua!l y brings relief from the oppressive heat in the central and
eastern states, as cooler air lovJers the air temperature to more
comfortable levels. Daytime heating warms the lower layers,
6 producing surface instability. The water vaPor in the rising air
may condense and create a sky doued with fair weather cumu-
5 lus clouds (cumulus humilis). A typical profile of temperatures
for a summer and a \vinter continental polar air mass i~ given
in • Fig. 11.5. Notice that the strong inversion so prevalent in
\\tinter is absent in summer.
When an air mass moves over a large body ofwater, its origi-
nal properties may change considerably. fur instance, cold, dry
continental polar air moving over the Gulf of Mexico " 'arms
rapidly and gains moisture. 'Theairquid<ly assumes the qualities
2 of a maritime air mass. Notice in • Fig. 11.6 th'tt row~~ of cumu-
llls douds (cloud streets) are forming over the Gulf of Mexico
parallel to northerly surface "1nds as Polar air i~ being " 'armed
by the water beneath it, cmtsing the air mass to destabilize. As
the air continues its journey southward into Mexico and Central
o"--==...._~.....,'--~-'-~....._~__,.__~"'-'-~-" America,strong, moist northerly winds build into heavy clouds
'C -JO - 20 - 10 0 10 20 30 and showers along the northern coast. Hence, a once cold, dry,
'F - 22 -4 14 32 50 68 86 and stable air mass ctn be modified to such an extent that its
Tempeiature original characteristics are no longer discernible. When this
happens, the air mass is given a new designation.
• F I GURE 11 .5 Typicalvertical temperature profile over land for a summer Notice also in Fig. 11.6 that a similar modification of
and a\vinter cP air mass. continental polar air i~ occurring along the Atlantic Coast, as
C'1')'rif• ) ) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' ..... buq10.U . ......................... " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, "" "'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i ., ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll"""....., .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,.,... o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
• FI GURE 11.6 Visible satellite image sho\ving the modi·
flcation of cold continenta I po~ar air as it moves over the
\YarmerGulf of.Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean.
norrhwesre.rly "'°ds are blo"1ng over !he mild Arlan!ic. When rhese mountains, it travels over a cold, elevated plateau that
!his air encounlers !he much warmer Gulf Srream waler, ii chills rhe surface air and slowly transforms !he lower level inro
warms rapidly and becomes conditionally un~table. Vertical dry,st:lblecontinenral polar air. fast of!he Rockies this air mass
mixing brings down faster-flowing cold air from aloft. 'Jhis mix- is referred to as J>adficair (see • Fig. 11.8). Here, ii ofren brings
ing creates strong, gusty surface winds and choppy seas, which fair wearher and remperature.s rhat are cool but not nearly as cold
can be hazardous to shipping. as the continental polar and arcric air that invades this region
In summary, polar and arcric air masses are responsible from northern Canada. In fact, when Pacific air from !he west
for the biller cold winier " 'eather that can cover wide sections replaces relrearing cold air from !he norrh, chinook windsofren
of Norrh America. When !he air mass originates over rhe develop. Furthermore, when rhe modified maritime polar air
Canadian Norrhwesr Territories, frigid air C'1n bring record-
breaking low remperatures. Such was the case on Chrisrrnas
Eve, 1983, when arcric air covered mos! of North America. (A
derailed look at this air mass and irs accompanying record-
setting low remperatures is given in !he Focussecrion on p. 300.)
Maritime Polar (mP) Air Masses During rhe winter, cold polar
and arcric air originaling over Asia and frozen polar regions is
carried easrward andsourhward over the Pacific Ocean by rhe
circulation around the Aleutian low. The ocean water modifies
rhese cold air masses by adding warmrh and moisture to them.
Si rice this air travels across many hundreds or event housand~ of mP
Nr
kilomerersof water, ii gradually changes into maritime polllrair. fTl<l$S
By the time this m aritim e polar air m ass reaches rhe
f'acific Coast, it is cool, moisr, and conditionally unstable. 'Jlte
ocean's effect is to keep air near !he surface warmer than !he air
aloft. Temperature readings in the40sand SOs (<F) are common
near !he surface, while air at an al ti rude of about a kilomere.r
or so above !he surface may be at !he freezing point. Wirhin
!his colder air, characreristics of the original cold, dry air mass
may still prevail. As rhe air moves inland, coastal mountains
force it to rise.and much of its \vater vapor condenses into rain·
producing clouds. fn the colder air aloft, the rain change,~ 10 :I
SOO\''• \\•ith heavy amounts accwnulating in mountain regions.
Over rhe relarively warm open ocean, rhe cool moist air mass
2------
• FI GURE 11 .7 Cloudsandairflowaloh (largebluearro\v} associated\vith
maritime polar {mP)air moving into California. The large L sha.vs the position
produces cumulus clouds thar show up as riny white splotches
of an upper·level low. Reg ions experiencing predpitationarealso sho\vn.
on a visible sarellire image (see • Fig. 11. 7). The small \Yliite c:loudsover the open ocean arec:umulusc:louds forming in
When !he maritime polar air moves inland, it loses much the conditionally unstable ah ma.ss.{Predpltation symbolsaregiven in
ofirs moisture as it crosses a series of mountain ranges. Beyond Appendix B.}
C'1')'rif• ) ) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' ..... buq10.U . ......................... " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, "" "'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i., ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll"""......, .,~,.,i.. ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
The Return of the Siberian Express
Th e w inter of 1983- 1984 was one o f th e

coldest o n record across North Amer ica.
Unseasona bly cold weath er arri\Ed in
December, w hich, for mu ch o f th e United
States, wasoneof t hecoldest Decembers
since records h ave been kept. D uring th e
first par t of th e montl\ con tinen tal polar air
covered most o f th e n orth ern an d cen tral
plains. As th e cold air moderated slightly, far
,
1
to th e n orth a huge mass o f bitter cold arctic
air was form ing over th e frozen reach es o f
th eC an adian Nor th west Territories.
By midmon th, th e frigid air, associated
w ith a massive high -pressure area, covered
all o f n orthwest Canada. Mean while, an
upper-level ridge was form ing over A laska.
On th e eastern side of th e ridge, stron g
northerly winds associated with the polar jet
stream directed th e frigid air sou th ward over • F IGURE 3 Surface\veather m ap for 7 AM. EST, December 24, 1983. Solid 6nesare i sobar s.. A reas shaded
\YhHe represent snow. An extrem ely cold arctic air mass covers nearty90 percent o f the United States..
th e p rairie p rovinces o f Can ada. A portion o f {Weather symbols for the surface map are given in Appendi x B.}
th e extraordinarily cold air broke away, an d,
like a large swirling bubble, moved as a cold, brou gh t ligh t amounts o f upslope snow" to stron g upper-level n orth erly w inds, impulse
shallow an ticyclon e s.ou th war d into th e section s of th e Rocky Mountain states. No- after impulse of arctic air from Can ada swept
United States. Becau seth e frigid air was ac- tice in Fig. 3 th at, on Christmas Eve, arctic air across th e United States. O n Januar y 18, a
companied in some region s by winds gu st- covered almost90 percen t of th e United low o f -65"F was recorded at Middle Sinks,
ing to45 knots, at least on e n ews repor ter States. As th e cold air swept eastward an d Utah. On January 19, temperatures plum-
dubbed th e on ~a u g ht o f this arctic blast sou th ward, a h ard freeze cau sed hundreds meted to a n ew low o f - 7°F for the airports in
"th e Siberian Express." o f million s o f dollars in damage to th e fruit Philadelphia an d Baltimore. Toward th e end
Th e express d ropped temperatures an d vegetable crops in Texas, Louisian a, an d o f th e mon th, th e upper-level winds o n ce
to some of th e lowest readings ever re- Florida. O n Christmas Day, 125 record low again became more westerly. Over mu ch o f
corded during th e mon th o f December. On temperature read ings were set in tw-en ty- the n ation, the cold air moderated. But th e
December 22, Elk Park, Mon tan a, recorded four states. T h at afternoon, at 1:OOv.M., it was express was to return at least on e more time.
an unofficial lowof -64' F, only 6' F high er actu ally colder in Atlan ta. G eorgia, at 9"F Th e beginning of February saw rela-
th an th e all-time low of - 7<:f'F for th e United th an it was in Fairbanks, Alaska (l <:f'Fl. On e o f t i ~ l ywa r m air covering much o f th e n ation
States (excluding A laska) recorded at Rogers th e worst cold waves to occur in December from California to th e Atlan tic coast. On
Pass, Mon tan a, on Januar y 20, 1954. during th e twen tieth century con tinued February 4, an arctic o u tbreak spread south-
Th e cen ter o f th e massive an ticyclon e throu gh th e week, as man y n ew record lows ward an d eastward across th e United States.
gradu ally pu sh ed sou th ward ou t o f were established in th e Deep Sou th from Alth ou gh freezing air exten ded sou th ward
Can ada. By December 24, its center was over Texas to Louisian a. into cen tral Florida, th e express ran out o f
eastern Mon tan a (see Fig. 3), w h ere th e sea- By January 1, th e extreme cold had steafl\ an d a Februar y h eat wave soon en -
level p ressure at Miles City reach ed an in- moderated, as th e upper-level winds be- g ulfed most o f th e states east of th e Rocky
credib le 1064 mb (31.40 in.) - a new United came more westerly. Th ese winds b rough t Mountains as war m, humid air from th e Gulf
States1 record excluding A laska. An en or- milder Pacific air eastward into th e Great o f Mexico spread n orth ward.
mou s ridge o f high pressure stretch ed from Plains. Thew armer pattern con tinued until Even th ou gh February was a warmer-
th eC an adian arcticcoastto th e Gulf o f abou t January 10, wh en th e Siberian Express t h an -n ormal mon th <1i1er most of th e United
Mexico. O n th e east side o f th e ridge, cold decided to make a return v isit. Driven by States, th e w inter o f 1983- 1984 (December,
westerly w inds b rough t lake-effect sn ows to January, an d February) w ill go down in th e
• Upslop e sno\V forms as cold a ir m oving f rom east
th e eastern .shores o f th e Great Lakes. To th e r ecord books as on e of th e coldestwinters
to \<Jest over the Great Plainsgradually rises(and
sou th o f th e high -pressure center, cold east- cool$even m ore) as it approaches the Rocky for th e United States as a w h ole since reli-
erly w inds, rising alon g th e elevated plains, M ountains.. able record keeping began.
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""" ""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FI GURE 11.8 Afterc:rossing.several mountain
ranges, cool moist maritime polar (mP} air from
off the Pacific Ocean descends the eastern side of
S"oweis the Rockies as modified. relatively dry Pacific air.
Rain ,,,--.
mP
air - m oist
Cool
Heavy rain
..
-
'-.. Modified. dry
Pacific aif
Pac1ric Olympic Cascade Rocky

WEST Ocean Mountains Mounta1ns Mountains EAST
replaces moist tropical air, thunderstorms can form along the near the Hawaiian Islands, was termed by at leas! one forecaster
boundary separating the two air masses. as "tlie pineapple express." After battering the Pacific Northwest
Along the East Coast, maritime polar air originate.s in the "1th he,wy rain, the pineapple expres.s roared into northern and
North Atlantic as continental polar air moves southward some central California, causing catastrophic floods that sent over
distance off the AtL1ntic Coast. (Look back at Fig. 11.2, p. 295.) 100,000 people fleeing from their homes, mud slides that chsed
Because the water of the North Atlantic is very cold and the air roads, property damage (including crop losses) that amow1ted
m..i.ss travels only ashort distance. \\•interrime Atlantic m..i.ritime to more than $1.5 billion, and eight fatalities. Yosemite National
polar air !lk1sses are usually much colder than their Pacificcoun- J'ark, which sustained over $170 million indamage.s duemainly
terparls. Because the prevailing winds aloft are wester! y, At L1ntic to flooding, was forced to dose for more than two months (see
m..i.ritime polar air m..i.sse,s are also much less: common. e fig, 11.11 ).
e figure 11.9 illustrate.s a typical klte winter or early spring 'Jbe warm, humid subtropical air th:ll influences much
surface weather pattern that carries maritime polar air from of the we:lther east of the Rockies originates over the Gulf of
the Ad antic into the New England and middle Atlantic states. Mexico and Caribbean Sea. In winter, cokl polar and arctic air
A slow-moving, cold anticyclone drifting to the east (north of tends to dominate the continental \\'t-ather scene, so maritime
New England) causes a northeasterly oi>shore flow ofc.old, moist
polar air to the south. 'Jhe boundary separating this invading
colder air from warmer air even farther south is marked by a
stationary front. North of this front, northeasterly winds pro-
vide generally undesirable weather, consisting of cold, damp
air and low, thick clouds from which ligl1t precipitation falls in
the form of rain, drizzle, or snow. When upper atmospheric
conditions are right, mid-httitude cyclonic storms may develop
along the stationary front, move eastward, and intensify near
the shores of Cape Hatteras. Such storms, called Hrltteras lows,
sometimes swing northeastward along the coast, where they
become 11ortliemters (commonly called 11or'easters) bringing
\\1th them strong northea.o;terly \\•inds, ht.avy rain or SllO\\'• and
coastal flooding, (Such developing storms will be treated in
detail in Ch"Pter 12.)
Maritime Tropical (mT) Air Masses 1be wintertime source

region for Pacific m aritime tropical air masses is the subtropi-
cal east Pacific Ocean. (Look back at Fig. 11.2, p. 295.) Air from
this region must !ravel over 1600 km of w:lter before it re:iches
the southern California coast. Consequently, these air masses Light show
are very warm and moist by the time they arrive along the We.s t **
C'U Free:Zlng rain
Coast. In \\•inter, the\\•armair produces heavy precipitation usu-
ally in the form ofrain, even at higl1 eltva!ioi>~. Mehingsnowand Light drizzle
rain quickly fill rivers, which overflow into the low-lying valleys.
The rapid snowmeh leaw.slocalski slopes barren, and the heavy
' • • •" S!at1
• FI GURE 11 .9 Winter and early spring surface weather pattern that usually
ry from
rain can cause disastrous mud slides in the steep canyons.

prevails during the invasion of cold, moist maritime polar {mP)air into the mid-
e figure I I.JOshows maritime tropical air (usually referred Atlantic and New England states. (Green.-shaded area represents fight rain and
to as subtropical air) streaming into northern California on drizzle; pink-shaded region represents freezing rain and sleetwhite.._s:haded
January I, 1997. The humid, subtropical air, which originated area is experiencing snO\vJ
°*"'"''*..
C'1'1'rif* )l I~ On~ t.cmn~ All l!itJ!af(_....41 M")' ""tbuq10.U >.....W ,............... 111" f>•lrc111in p.... ti..: i;1 "'l••-..i
"IJb. "*'"' llo.nl poo-1)' ,.,.,..,. ""1 W ..,n.,h ~dl ... :.1J>• .0."l'nV 1 f:1W.....rt..,,...,.!....
<l<nlonl fl •...,.._,~..,,*_ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i.,.,_,u""""""n~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,.,..,. ,.,,..,,n... .t"b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,n.
• FIGURE 11.10 An infra-
red satellite image that sho\vs
maritime tropical air {heavy
yellO\V a rrO\V} moving into
northern California on
January 1, 1997. The \varm.
humid airtlO\v (sometimes
called . the pineapple(')(.·
press"} produced heavy
rain and extensive flooding
in northern and c entral
Cafifornia.
tropical air i~ usuallyconfmed to the Gulfandextreme southern the north bl>hind the eastward-moving storm system. Along the
states. Occasionally, a slow-moving cyclonic storm system over bow1dary bet\\'een the l\\'0 air mas.~s. the \\•arm. humid air i~
the Central Plains draws warm, humid air northward. Gentle lifted above the more dense cold, pol" air-a situation that of-
south or southwesterly winds carry this air into the central and ten leads to heavy and widespread precipitation and storminess.
eastern parts of the United States in advance of the storm. Since When a large mid-latitude cyclonic storm system stalls
the land is still extremely cold, air near the surface is chilled to over the Central Plains, a constant supply of warm, humid air
its dew point. Fog and low clouds form in the e<1rly morning. from the Gulf of Mexico can bring record-breaking maximtun
dis.sipate by midday, and reform in theevening.1bismild "inter temperatures to the eastern half of the country. Sometimes the
weather in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys lasts, at best, only air temperatures are higher in the mid-Atlanticstatesthan they
a few days. Soon cold polar or arctic air will move down from are in the Deep South, as compressional heating warms the air
• FIGURE 11 .11 During January, 1997, amoist,

subtropical air mass caused extensive flooding 0ter
parts of northem California. including Yosemite
National Park.. as shown here.
°*"'"''"..
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.....
o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
i • FIGURE 11 .12 Weatherconditions
, • • during an unseasonably hot spell in the
r·
'
ea stem portion of the United States that
y
occurred between the 15th and 20th of
April 1976. The surface l"'v~pressurearea
and fronts are sho\vn for April t7. Numbers
to the e.ast of the surface low (in red} ate
:i2
29,
26
Continenlal
polar air
35
"'
1l6
J
~
·:!' maximum temperatures recorded during
the hotspel~ \Yhile those to the \Yest of the
lo.v{in blue) are minimum temperatures
reacht?d during the same time period. The
heavy arro\Y is the average upper· level
flow during the periocl. The purple land H
~ rl~
show average positions of the upper+level
<
~
i6 trough and ridge.
~
~' 1
16 L , 39 r:.
36
3i2
25
24
29 f
)86
86
.~~ ~,-H
~~
SS
'"~
k
;-
' \
tem~re's ('I')
~
Minimum Maxinun temperatures (•F)

.
'
~
,j,
even more as it moves downslope after crossing the Appalachian showers and thunderstorms. You can almost count on thunder-
Mountains. storms developing along the Gulf Coast every summer after-
e Hg. J l.1 2showsasurfaceweatherm:lp and the associated noon. As evening approaches, thunderstorm activity typically
upper airflow (heavy arrow) that brought un.~easonably "".!rm dies off Nighttime cooling lowers the temperature of this hot,
maritime tropical air into the central and eastern states during muggy air only slightly. Shottld theair become saturated, fog or
April, 1976. A large surface high-pressure area centered off the low cloud~ usually form, and these nonnalty dissipate by late
southeast coast coupled with a strong southwesterly flow aloft morning as surface heating '"tr ms the air again.
carried \\'arm moi'\t air into the Mid\\'"e-St and East, cau.'\ing a A weak, but often persistent, flow around an upper-level
record-breaking April heat wave. The flow aloft prevented the anticyclone in swnmer \\•ill spread \\•arm, humid air from
surface low and the cold palar (cf>) air behind it from mak- the Gulf of Mexico and from the Gulf of California into the
ing much eastward progress, so that the wann spell lasted for southern and central Rockies, where it causes afternoon thun-
five days. Providence, Rhode Island, experienced a record- derstorms. Occasionally, this easterly flow may work its way
breaking high temperature for April of %•F. Note that, on the even farther west, producing shower activity in the otherwise
west side of the surface low, the winds aloft funneled cold air dry southwestern desert.
from the north into the western states, creating unseasonably Jn summer, humid subtropical air that originates over the
cold weather from ('.alifornia to the Rockies. Hence, while southeastern Pacific and GtM of California normally remain.~
people in the Southwest were huddled around heaters, others south of California. Occasionally, an upper-level southerly flow
several thousand kilometers away in the Northeast were turn- ,,;ll spread this humid air northward into the southwestern
ing on air conditioners. We can see that it is the upper-level
meridional flow, directing cold polar air southward and warm WEATHER WATCH
subtropical air northward that makes these contrasts in tem -
perature possible. A continental tropical air mass, stretching from southern
California to the heart of Texas, brought record warmth to
ln summer, the circulation of air around the llennuda
th e desert southwest during the last week of June, 1990.
High (which sits off the southeast coast of North America-see The temperature, which on June 26 soared to a swelter-
Fig. JO.Sb, p. 270) pmnps wann, humid, (maritime tropical) air in g peak of 122° F in Pho enix, Arizona, caused officials to
northward from off the Gulfof Mexico and from off the Atlantic suspend a ire raft takeoffs at Sky Harbor Airport, as the ex-
Ocean into the eastern half of the United States. As this humid treme heat had caused portions of the tarmac to become
air moves inland, il \\'arms even more, rises, and frequently spongy.
condenses into cumuliform clouds, which produce afternoon
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I•• -"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<l<nlonl fl •...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,... ~,,..~c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll """......, fl~••"-"' '"'"""'"11 '""',."'".,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
continental tropical air produces hot, d ry weather over a large
portion of the southwestern United States during July, 2005.
So far, we have examined the various air masses that enter
98 North America annually. The characteristics of each depend
1<)0 upon the air m ass source region and the type of surface over
which the air m ass moves. The winds aloft determine the trajec-
. .
109 106 102
tories of these air m:1sses. Oa:asionalty, an air mass will control
the weather in a region for some time. 1 hese persistent weather
103 ronditions are sometimes referred to as <Jinnass 1veatlier.
Airmass weather is especially common in the southeastern
. 109 United States during summer as, day after day, humidsubtrop-
103 ical air from the Gulf brings sultry cond itions and afternoon
102
thunderstorms. Jt is also common in the Pacific North"'est in
125 . H \\inter when cond itionally unstable, cool moist air accompa·
11e 10s 103 nied by widely scattered showers dominates the weather for
.'"'
•)17 11 1 several days or more. 111ereal \\~at her action, hov\"ever,usually
occurs not \vithin air masses but at their margins. \\•here air
masses \\1th s harply contrasting properties meet-in the zone
marked by weather fronts.'
( BRIEF REVIEW
• FIGURE 11 .13 From July 14 tlvough July 22, 2005, continental t ropical air Before we examine fronts, here Is a review of some of t he Im·
covered a largeareaofthesouthwestern United State~N um ber son t he map portant facts about air masses:
represent m aximum t em peratures ttF}during this period. The large H \Vi th the
i sobar ~ho\YS the upper-level position of the subtropical high. Sinking air * • An air mass Is a l arge body of air whose properties of tem-
sociated \Vilh the high contributed to the ho t. d ry weather. Wind.saloft \vere perature and humidity are fairly similar In any horizon tal
\vea.k. \Vilh the m ain flo\vover centralcanada.
direction.
• Source regions for air masses tend to be generall y flat, of
United St>\les, most often Arizona, Nevada, and the southern uniform composition, and In an area of light winds, domi-
part of California. Jn many places, the moist, conditionally un· nated by surface high pressure.
stable air aloft only shows up as middle and high cloudiness, • Continental air masses form over land. Maritime air masses
especially altocumulus and cirrocumulus c1stellanus. However, form over water. Polar air masses originate In cold, polar re-
"'here the moist flo,,, meets a mountain barrier. it usually rises gions, and extremely cold arctic air masses form over arctic
and condenses into towering.shower-producing clouds. More- region s. Tropical air masses originate In warm, tropical
over. if th~ air is sufficiently moist. it c.an cause heavy sho,•.rers region s.
over a broad area. (For an exceptionally strong flow ofsubtropi·
cal air into this region, look at Fig. 9.40, on p. 253.) • Continental pol ar (cP) air masses are co ld and dry; continen-
tal arctic (cA) air masses are extremely cold and dry. It Is the
Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses T he only real source continental arctic air masses t hat produce the extreme cold
of winter as they move across North America.
region for hot, dry continental tropical air masses in North
America is found during the summer in northern Mexico and • Continental tropical (cl) air masses are hot and dry, and are
the adjacent arid southwestern United States. Here, the airmass responsible for the heat waves of summer In t he western
ishot, dry, and conditionallyunst:lbleat low levels, with frequent half of the United States.
d ust devils forming during the day. Because of thelow relative • Maritime pol ar (mP) air masses are cold and moist, and are
humidity (typically less than JO percent during the afternoon), respon sible for the col d, damp, and often wet weath er along
air must rise over 3000 m (10,000 ft) before condensation begins. the northeast coast of Nort h America, as well as for t he co ld,
Furthermore, an upper-level ridge usually produces sinking air rainy winter weath er along the west coast of Nort h America.
over the region, tend ing to make the air aloft rather stable and • Maritime tropical (ml) air masses are warm and humid, and
the surface air even warmer. Consequently, skies are generally are responsible for t he hot, muggy weather that frequentl y
dear, the " 'eather is hot, and r ainfall is practically nonexistent plagues the eastern half of the United States In summer.
where continental tropical air masses prevail. Jf this air mass
moves outside its source region and into the Great l~ains and '1he wordfro11t Is used to d enote the clash Ing or roeetlng of two air nlas.ses. prob·
stagnate,r nver that region forany length oftime, a severe drought ably btcause it ra.e1nbles the lighting in \\ftstcrn Europeduring \\'Orld \\tar r. when
m ay result. e Figure JJ. 13 shows a weather m ap situation where 1.hc ter1n origin:ued .
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i fl ,...., .._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.....
o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Fronts
Although w<·brieflylookedat fronts in Chapter I, we are now in
a position to study them in depth, which will aid us in IOrecast-
ing the weather. We will now learn '1bout the general nature of
fronts- how they move and what weather patterns are associ-
'1ted with them.
A front is the tnmsition zone between two air masses of
different densities. Since density differences are most often
caused by temperature differences, fronts usually separate air
masse-~ with contrasting temperatures. Often, they separate
air masses with different humidities as well. Remember that air
masse_~ have both horizontal and vertical extent; consequently. Arctic Polar
from front
the upwarde.xte.nsion ofa front is referre.d to as afront.al surft•re,
or afrontal zone. • FI GURE 11 .14 The polar fron t represents a cold frontal boundary that
separates colder air from \Yarmer air at the surface and aloh. The more shalle7\v
• Figure 11.1 4 illustrates the vertical extent of two fron- arc-tic front separate.scold airfrom extremely cold air.
tal zones-the polar front and the arct.icfront.. 'Jl1e polar front
boundary, which extends upward to over 5 kilometers, separates
warm, humid air to the south from cold polar air to the north. weather map, keep in mind that all fronts have horizontal and
'I he arctic front, which separate_~ cold air from extremely cold vertical e.xtent.
arctic air, is much more shallow than the polar front and only e Figure 11.1 Sshows a surface weather map illustrating four
extends upward to an altitude ofaboutoneortwokilometers. Jn different fronts. Noticethat the fronts are associated with lower
the next several sections. as \\'e examine fronts on a flat surface pressure and that the fronts separate differing airmasse.s. A.swe
1024
1028
SIMPllFIED KEY
~ Coldlront
-..... Warm lron1
......... Stationary frool
1024 .......,,. Occluded frool
1020 ** Ugh1snow
•• Light rain
1£,. Sleet
Wind direction (N)
l
v
Wind speed
(IOknots)
0 250 500 22
15
6 Air tempe<arure
Dewpolnl
O 200 400 mi
• F I GURE 11 .15 A surfaceweather mapshO\ving surface-pressure systems,airmasses. fronts, and isobars (in mil6bars} as solid gray lines. Large arrows
in color shav air flo\v. (Green~shaded area represents rain; pink.-shaded area represents freezing rain and .s.leet;\Vhite-shaded area representssnO\vl
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''*..
niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....ifl ,....,.._,~ ..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""" ""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
move from west to east across the map, the front~ appear in the vast area.1hesearethe conditionsth'lt prevail north of the east-
following order: a stationary front between points A 'md B; a west running stationary front depicted in Fig. 11.9 (p. 301).
cold front between paints Band C; a warm front between points Jf the warmer air to the west begins to move and replace
C and D; and an occluded front between points C and L Le(s the colder air to the east, the front in Fig. 11.15 "'ll no longer
examine the properties of each of these fronts. remain stationary; it "'ll become a warm front lf, on the other
hand, the colder air slides up over the mountain and replaces the
STATIONARY FRONTS A stationary front h'1s essentially no '""mer air on the other side., the front "'ll become a cold front.
movemrot.'" On a colore.d \\•eat her map. it is drav"n as an alter- lf either a cold front or a '""m front stop moving, they become
nating red and blue line. Red semicircles face toward colder air a stationary front.
on the red line and blue triangles Point toward warmer air on
the blue line. The stationary front between points A and Bin COLD FRONTS The cold front between paints B and Con the
Fig. 11.15marksthe boundarywherecold, densecootinental Po- surfaceweatherm'1p(in Fig. 11.15) repre.sents a zonewherecold,
lar (cl') air from Canada butts up against the north-south trend- dry stable palar air is replacing ""arm, moist, conditionally un-
ing Rocky Mountains. Unable to cross the barrier, the cold air stable subtropical air. 1 hdront is drawn as a solid blue line with
shO\\'S little or no \\•est\\'3rd movement. 1 he stationa.ry front is the triangles a long the front showing its direction ofmovement.
drawn along a line separating the continental Polar air from the How did the meteorologist know to draw the front at that loca-
milder, more humid maritimepoktr(mP) air to the west. NOi ice tion? A closer look at the front will give us the answer.
that the surface winds tend to blow parallel to the front, but in The weather in the immediate vicinity of this cold front in
opp<>-~ite directions on either side ofit. Upper-level winds often the southern United States is shown in e Fig. 11.16. ' lb e data
blow parallel to a stationary front. plotted on the m.1p represent the current weather at selected
111<' weather along the front is clear to partly cloudy, with cities. The station model used to represent the data at each
much colder air lying on its eastern side. Because both air masses reparting station is a simplified one that shows temperature,
are relatively dry, there is no precipitation. ' Ib is is not, however, de'"' point. present '"'eather. cloud cover. sea-level pres.i;ure.•
always the case. When "".lrmmoist air rides up and overt he cold \\fad direction and speed. The little line in the lower right-hand
air, widespread cloudiness \\1th light precipitation can cover a corner of each station shows the pressure tendency-the pres-
'They nrc usu>llly called q 1uui·.statio11ary / routs because they can show so1ne
sure change, whether rising(/) or falling (\)- during the last
lllOVe O'lelll. three hours. With all of this information, the front can be prop-
erly located.' (Appendix Bexplains the weather symbols and the
station model more completely.)
32<'007 We can use the follo,,fog criteria to locate a front on a sur-
**.
29 /
face weather map:
:i 1oo6 I. sharp temperature changes over a relatively short distance
x
\
-~· /
34 2. changes in the air's moisture content (as shown by marked
changes in the dew point)
\ 3. shif1S in "fad direction
\ 4. pressure and pre.ssure changes
J . . 1013 5. clouds and precipitation patterns
·~ / Jn Fig. 11.16, we can see a large contrast in airtemperature
;md dew paint on either side of the front.1b ere is also a wind
"f~010 shift from southwesterly ahead of the front, to northwesterly
'49' J. behind it. Notice that each isobar kinks as it crosses the front,
forming an elongated area oflow pressure - a trough - which
_ _ _ __ _ _ _ _,_:-- 1012 ---~ accounts for the "fad shift. Since surface winds normally blow
acros:s the isobars to'''ard lo'''er pressure, '''e find '''inds \vith a
\ southerlycompanent ahead ofthe front and winds wit ha north-
~~
1~3 /
~1013 \ erly component behind it.
X' Since the cold front is a trough of low pressure, sharp
51 '
~ l<m Warm
change.s in pre.ssure can be significant in locating the front'.s po-
0 50 5~ 1014
I i-1_ __,_
, ....., air sition. One important fact to remember is that the lowest pres-
N 0 sbmi '49_ " sure usually occurs ju.~t as the front passe.s a station. Notice that,
as you move toward the front, the pressure drops, and, as you
• FIGURE 11 .16 Ac.loser look.at the surface \Veather associated \Yith the
cold front situated in the southern United States in Fig. 11 .15. (Gray lines are
isobars.. Green..-shaded area represents rain;\vhite-shaded area represents "Locatingnny front on ti we:ither 1nap Ii not always.a d ear-cut process. Even 1neleo·
sno\v.} rologist.sC'ln diSO'lgrtt on an aacl position.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w....r....,.....i....
J<nionl fl •..., .._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i., .,_,u~n~C.,'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......., fl~•'tlf. .,,..,....,,..u,n.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b>nj"""' n<i•• ..,,,,-.11..,,....,,..,.,.
Thunderstorms (color red) do not occur everywhere, but only
in certain areas along the from.
1b edoud and prccipitntion patterns in Fig. I 1.16areshown
in a side view of the front olong the line X-X' as illustrated in
• Fig. 11.18. Wecanseefroml'ig. ll.18tbat,atthdront,the
cold, dense air wedge. under the wann 3.ir, forcing the wann
air upward, much like a snow $howl forces snow upward as the
sho'-d glides through the snow. As the moist, conditionally un·
stable air rises, it condenses into a series of cumulifonn douds.
Strong. upper-level w~sterly wind> blow the delicate ice crystals
(which form near the top of the cumulonimbus) into cirrostra·
tus (Cs) and cirrus (Ci). ' lhe;e clouds usua~Dy appear far in ad-
vance of the approaching front. Al the front itself, a relatively
narrow band ofthunder;torrn> (Cb) produces heavy showers
with gusty wind>. Behind the front, the airc.ools quickly. (Notice
how the freezing lcvd dips as it cro»CS the front.) 'Jbe winds
shift from southwesterly to northwesterly, pressure rises, and
precipitation ends. A< the air dries out, theskiesdear, cxcept for
e rlGURE 11 .17 A Ooppterradarimage.s;h~ng Pfedpll~llon PIU« ni:
•ionQ • <old horniinlas to the cold front in fig. t 1.16. Gleen f\"P<tiel'OUght· a few lingering fair went her cumulus clouds.
t~•t.t P'f'CfpA•tiCHt y81ow represents heavier Pfec1>llJtlon; M\d ..ct the Observe that the lcadingcdgcofthe front isstccp.1bestecp-
,_.,,_,
~1 lbly1t6"fot thunden.t onns.Clhecokj hontlswpedmpouid on U. ness isduc to friction, which slows the airflow ocarthe ground
The air aloft pushes forwnrd, blunting the frontal swface. If
CRmCAL THINKING QUESTION How would you oxpt<t the we could walk from where the front touches the surface back
prKipitation panem to ch1nge ak>ng
th.tcold ftonl If th•ftont !ft~fast-moving and thtalrbthfnd tht into the cold air, a distance of 50 km. the front would be about
front w1.s continental arctic air? I kmabO\'eus. Thus, the slopeofthe front-theratio of'-ertical
rise to horizontal distance- is I:SO. lhis is typical for a fast-
move away from it, the pressure rises. This is dearly shown by moving cold front- those that move about 25 knots. In a slower-
the pressure tendencies for each station on the m.1p. )U>t before moving cold front - one that moves about l 5 knots-the slope
the front p•l>Sts, the pressure tendency shows the atmospheric is much more gentle.
pres>urc is falling (\), while just behind the front, the pressure With slow-moving cold fronts, clouds and precipitation
is now beginning to rise (./), and farther behind the frMt. the mu.1llycover a broad aren behind the front. When the ascend·
pressure ls rising steadily(/). ing "'arm air is stable, strn1ifor1n clouds, such as nimbostralLLt;•
1 he precipitation pattern along the cold front in Pig. I1.1 6 become the predominant cloud t ypc and even fog may develop
might appear similar to the Doppler radar imai,oe shown in in the rainy area. Occa>ionally, ou1ahcnd ofa fast-moving front,
• Fig. 11.1 7. 1he region in rolor extending from northeast to a line of active shower> nnd thunderstorms, called a squall line,
southwest represents precipitation along a cold front Notice de"'1ops parallel to and often a head ofthe advandngfront, pro·
that llght· to-moderate rain (color gn...,n) occur> over a "~de ducing heavy precipitation and strong gusty winds.
area along the front, while the hc>avier prcd pttation (color As the temperature cuntrast across a front lessens. the front
ydlow) tends to occur in a narrow band along the front itsdL will often weaken and dissip.ue. Such a roodition is kno•m as
• FIGURE 11 ,18 Avertblviewoftteweatt'er

il(:l'OSS tMcold front in F'ig. It. 16 along the lbe
x..x'.
Ct
32'F
Wam),lll_r.....__ _.,,,.._
.,,,,. N/
Att•b~:siO~l!J!l
,..,.... )11,J{.,~.._..,tAl'°'llna-....i
.-...i 11.--···~- ··-~
'°""''*''ion..-'--- .,.i......,"""'•"'t.-11r"''""'-l!l.W.,__,.__..., ,..., ..
...................... _ ..........,... .. ,.
~._(;_ ._~--
,._...,_.,ft"'
.........._ ...i_,,,..,_ •..,_.........
..,•llll4Mli- ....Not.ll.....•ll.......,t•-
""'......,... _._ _....,._. •
(aj (b)
• FIGURE 11 .19 The infrared satellite image {a} sho\vsa\veak:ening cold fron t over land on Tuesday morning, November 2 t.
intensifying into {b} avigorous front over warm Gulf Stream water on Wednesday morning, November 22.
frontolysis. On the other hand, an increase in the temperature those described in the previousse.ction. are never seen. In fact,
contrast acros.~ a front can cau.~e it to strengthen and regen- as a cold front moves inland from the Pacific Ocean, the surface
erate into a more vigorous frontal system, a condition called temperature contrast across the front maybe quite small.1bpo-
frontogenesis. graphic features usually distort the "1nd pattern so much that
An example of a regenerated front is shown in the infra- locating the position of the front and the time of its passage is
red satellite images in • Fig. l l.1 9. The cold front in Fig. l l.19a exceedingly difficult. Jn thi~ case, the pre.~ure tendency is the
i~ weak, as indicated by the low clouds (gray tone.~) along the mo.~t reliable indication of a frontal passage.
front. As the front moves offshore, over the "'arm Gulf Stream Jn some instances along the West Coast, an approaching
(Fig. l l.l9b), it intensifies into a more vigorou.~ frontal system as cold front (or upper-level trough) will C'1use cool marine air at
surface air becomes conditionally unstable and convective act iv- the surface to surge into coastal and inland valleys. The cool air
ity develops. Notice that the area ofcloudiness is moree.xtensive (which is often accompanied by a wind shift) may produce a
and thunderstorms are now forming along the frontal zone. sharp drop in air temperature. Thi~ may givethe impre.ssion that
So far, we have considered the general weather patterns of a rather strong cold front has moved through, when in reality,
"typical" cold fronL~. There are, of course, many exceptions. In the front may be many kilometers offshore.
fact, not wo fronts are exactly ,dike. In some, the cold air is very Cold fronts usually move toward the south, southeast, or
shallow; in others, it is much deeper. If the rising warm air is east. But sometimes they \\ ill move south\,'CShvard. Jn Ne\''
1
dry and stable.scattered clouds are all that form, and there is no England, thi~ movement occurs when northeasterly surface
precipitation. In extremely dry weather, a marked change in the winds, blowing clockwise around an anticyclone centered to
dew point, accompanied by a slight wind shift, may be the only the north over Canada, push a cold front southwestward often
due to a passing cold front. as far south as Boston. BeatlLse the cold front moves in from the
During the winter, a series of cold polar or arctic out- east, or northeast, it is kno\''n as a "'bade door" c.o ld front. As
breaks may travel across the United States so quickly that warm the front passes, westerly surface wind~ usually shift to easterly
air is unable to develop ahead of the front. Jn this case, frigid or northeasterly and temperatures drop as moist maritime polar
arctic air associated with an arctic front usually replaces cold air flows in off the Atlantic Ocean.
polar air, and a drop in temperature is the only indication that a An example of a "back door" cold front is shown in
front has moved through your area. Along the West Coast, the e Fig. l 1.20. This is a springtime situation where, behind the
Pacific Ocean modifies the air so much that cold fronts, such as front, the weather is cold and damp with drizzle, as northeasterly
winds sweep into the region from off the chilly Atlantic. 1b the
WEATHER WATCH south ofthefront, theweatherismuch warmer. Should the front
move through this area, the more summerlike weather would
One of the strongest cold fronts on record rapidly swept
change, in a matter of hours, to more "1nterlike. The cold, dense
across the Great Plains and Midwest on November 10-11 1 1911.
air behind the front is rather shallow. Consequently, the Appa-
On November 10, the air temperature in Rapid City1South
Dakota, dropped an incredible 75°F in just two hours - from lachian Mountains act as a dam to the front'.~ forward progress,
62° F at 6 P.M. to - 13° F at 8 P.M. halting its westward movement. This situation, where the cold,
dampairi~confmed to the eastern side ofthemountains, i~ called
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i """>' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11...ifl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..nt,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., ,..u,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• ..,,,,-.11..,,....,,..,...
•••,~t•4;14~11*1b)it.1~1~============
H
Cool moist
: air
t
For a visualization ofa cold froot moving across the landscape,90 to
Appalachian theCengage Co urseMate website at wv1W.cengage.com and view the
m6untalns animation entitled Cold Front.
~ ~ '-/ Warm8lf
I ') ,
tropical) air from the Gulf of Mexico replaces the retreating cold
maritime polar air from the North Atlantic. The d irection of
frontal movement is given by the half circles, which point into
• FI GURE 11 .20 A ...backdoor"cold front moving into New England during
the spring. Notice that. behind the front.. the \Wather iscold and damp\vith driz•
the cold air; this front is heading toward the northeast. As the
z.Je. \vl'lile to the south, ahead of the front. the weather is partty cloudy and \varm cold air recedes, the warm front slowly advances. 'Jl1e average
speed of a warm front is about JO knots, or about half that ofan
cold air damming. The staUed cold front now becomes a sta- average cold front. During the day, as mixing occurs on both
tionary front. The cool air behind the front m ay linger for some sides of the front, its movement may be much faster. Warm
time as warmer, less-dense air to the south rides u p and over it. fronts often move in a serie.s of rapid jumps, which show up on
Fon;casting how far south the "back door" cold front wiU move succes.~ive weather m aps. At night, however, radiational oooling
and when the entrenched cold air wiU leavecan be a bit tricky. creates cool den~ surface air behind the front.1b is inhibit.~ both
Even though cold -front weather patterns have manyexcep- lifting and the front'.~ forward progress. When theforward sur-
tions, learningthe,se patterns can be to your advantage ifyou live faceedgeof the warm front pas~s a station, the wind shifts, the
in an area that experience~ well-defined cold fronts. Knowing temperature rises, and the overall weather cond itions improve.
them improves your own ability to make short-range weather 1b see why, we will e.x amine the weather commonly associated
forecasts. For your reference, • 1a ble I L2 summarizes idealized with the warm front both at the surface and aloft.
cold-front '"'~at her in winte.r in the Northern Hemisphere. e Figure 11.21 is a surface weather m ap showing the
position of a \\•illtertime \\'arm front and its associated \\•eather.
WARM FRONTS In Fig, II.IS, p. 305, a warm front is drawn e Figure ll.22 i~ a vertical view of the warm front in Fig. l l.21.
along the solid red line running from points C to 0 . Here, the Look at these two figures and observe that the warmer, less-
lead ing edge of advancing ""arm, moist, subtropical (maritime dense air rides up and over the colder, more-dense surface air.
., TABLE 11.2 Typical Weather Conditions Associated with a Cold Front In Winter In the Northern Hemisphere
1
WEATHER ELEMENT BEFORE PASSING WHILE PASSING AFTER PASSING
Winds South or south\\Test Gu<ty. shifting \.Yest or oortln\lest
Tenlperature VYarnl: Sudden drop Steadily dropping

Pressure Falling steadily Mininlun1. then sharp rise Ri.<ingsteadily
Clouds Jncreasing Ci, Cs, then Tcuor Cb Often Ca, Sci!" '''hen
eitherTcu• or Cb" ground i.4i \\•am1
Precipitation Short period ofshO\V'ers Heavy sho\\1ers of rain or sno\\f1 sonletinles Decreasing intensity of
""h hail, thunder. and lightning shc)\\lers, then clearing
Visibility Fair to poor in haze fuor, follO\\\?d by improving Good, except in .sho\\lers
De'" point High; renlains steady Sharp drop l..o\\lering

•Tcu .SL'lnds for towering nunul~. such 3Scunluluscongcstus: where& Cb stands tb rnunulonilnbos.Sc stands tb r stratocu1nulus..
J.r:oi 1l11111~e1:i;«lCerq11ge2012
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i M")' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''"..
niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> , e,w...,.r,..,,...,.i....
..
<1<n11....i fl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
1 hi~ rising ofwarm air over cold, called overrunning, produces
1008
clouds and precipitation well in advance of the front~ surface 100\ 22 1009
boundary. The warm front that separates the two air masses 25 24 ~006
15 "
*J~\
has an aver;1ge slope of about I:300' -a much more gentle or Slan
•P here
inclined shape than that of a typical cold front. Warm air over- 18 )'
riding the cold air creates a stable atmo.~here (see the vertical 26 ~1007 25 1010
temperature profile in Fig. l 1.22b). Notice that a temperature 23 )'- 22 o...,"
inversion- called a frontal inversio n -exists in the region 31 1002 29 1005
~..,,, ~....., , 27 ,,1ro!
of the upper-level front at the boundary where the warm air
overrides the cold air. Another fact to notice in Hg. 1J.22b is
that the wind veers (shifts clockwise) with altitude, so that the ~\v
32 1005 /
23 """"
29.._1010
30~009
southeasterly (SE) surface winds become southwesterly (SW)
and " 'esterly (W) aloft.
~ ~' 29 • "
26 ) '
Suppo.w we are standing at the position marked P ' in ~ ...1006

Figs. 11. 21 and 1 I. 22. Note that we are over 1200 km (750 mi) 32 )'
ahead ofwhere the warm front is touching the surface. Here, the
surface winds are light and variable. 'llte air is cold and about the
only indication of an approaching wann front i~ the high cirrus
clouds overhead. We know the front is moving slowly toward
us and that \\1thin a day or so it will pass our area. Suppo.wthat,
instead of waiting for the front to pass us, we drive toward it, End
2
S3 1005/
so/: '-,r
p.
47~ ~~~1
45) 'v
54
49)'
1006
'v /
~ 1009
3a' ' '~ti 1010
32 >'
observing the weather as we go. here
Wwm 51 1Q09
Heading toward the warm front, we notice that the cirrus air •Jl " ~~1010
(Ci) clouds gradually thicken into a thin, white veil ofcirrostra-
tus (Cs) who.se icecrystaLs cast a halo around the sun. " Almo.~t 39 ,)'
~1010
imperceptibly, the clouds thicken and lower, becoming altocu- so 'v
mulus (Ac) and alto.stratus (As) through which the sun shows Q ';°P km 40~
•• 101
only as a faint spot against an overcast gray sky. Snowflakes be- o 100 mi 39 '
gin to fall, and we are still over 600 km (370 mi) fromthesurface
• FIGURE 11 .21 Surface \I.leather associated \ Vilh a typical warm front in
front. ' llte snow increases, and the clouds thicken into a sheet- winter. A vertical view along the dashed line p.p• is sho\vn in Fig. 11 .22. (Green~
like covering ofnimbostratus (Ns). The \\fads become brisk and shaded area represents rain; pink~shaded area represents freezing rain and
out ofthe southeast, while the atmo.~pheric pre.ssure slowly falls. sleet \Vhite..shaded area represents sno\v.)
Within 400 km (250 mi) of the front, the cold surface air mass is CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION
lf the warm front in Fig. 11 .21 were
now quite shallo": The surface air temperature moderates and, located in the Southern Hemisphere,
in which general direction would the front probably be moving? How
.,be slope o f 1:300 is a 1nuch more genllc slope Lhan Lhal of mosl "'arm fro nts.. would the wind di rectionchange across the front? On which side of
Typically. 1.he slope of o \\'3rm fron1is on theorJerof 1:150 10 1:2()0. the front Y/Ould you expect to find precipitation?
••1flhe Wilnn air is relativcly unsmble. rip pits orw.:ives-of drrocu1nulusclouds will
appear asa •1nackerel Sl..'f."
as we approach the front, the light snow changes first into sleet.
Jt then becomes freezing rain and finally rain and drizzle as lhe
1c.J~fi#Qi;1~il&PJit.J}I-=:============= air temperature climbs above freezing. Overall, I he precipilat ion
remains light or moderate but covers a broad area. Moving still
closer to the front} \\•arm, moist air mixes \\•ith cold, moist air
producing ragged "1nd-blownstratus(St) and fog. (1lm.~. flying
in the vicinity of a warm front is quite hazardous.)
Finally, after a trip of over 1200 km, we reach the warm
front'.~ surface boundary. A~ we cross the front, the weather
change.s are noticeable, but much less pronounced than tho.se
experienced with the cold front; they show up more as a gradual
transition rather than a sharp change. On the warm side of the
front, the air temperature and dew point rise, the wind shift.s
from southeast to south or southwest, and theairpre.ssurestop.s
falling. The light rain ends and, except for a few stratocumulus
(Sc), the fog and low douds vanish.
To see awarm front actually move across th.e surfac~ go to the This scenario of an approaching warm front repre.sents
Cengage CourseMate website at wv1w.cengage.comand view the average (ifnot idealized) warm-front weather in winter. In some
animation entitled ~Varm Front.
instance.s, the weather can differ from this dramatically. !'or
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I•• -"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FIGURE 11.22 Verticalviewofc.loud.s, prec-ipita-
Wind tion,and winds across the \Varm front in Fig. 11.2 1
- >-
along the lineP-P' .
c c,
4km-
Warm
air ~ s lii?'d
Sc
Okm· t-
Warm fron~ 600km
26,00011
600 km
(b)
example, if lhe overrunning warm air is relatively dry and stable, C'.old northeasterly \\fads ahead of the front usually become
only high and middle clouds will form, and no precipitation will ""rm northeasterly win<ts behind it. Even with these excep-
occur. On lheother hand, if lhe warm air is rek1tivdy moist and tions, kno"1ng lhe normal sequence of wintertime warm-front
conditionally <mstable (as is often lhecase during lhesummer), weather will be useful, e~-pecially if you live where warm fronts
heavy showers can develop as thunderstorms become embed- become well developed. You can look for certain cloud and
ded in lhe cloud mas.s. Some of these th<mderstorms may have weather patterns and make reasonably accurate short-r:mge
bases at a relatively high level above lhe surface, :md lhus are forecasts of your own. • 1'able I 1.3 summarizes typical winter
called ele:l'ated stonHS. warm-front weather. (Before going on to lhe next section, you
Along the West Coast, !he f'acific Ocean significantly modi- may wish to read the Focus section on page 312, which gives
fies the surface air so that warm fronts are difficult to locate on additional information about warm fronts.)
a surface weather m:lp. Also, not all warm fronts move north-
\\•ard or northeast\vard. On rare occasions. a front ,,1u move DRYUNES Drylines are not warm fronts or cold fronts, but
into the eastern seaboard from the Atlantic Ocean as the front represent a narrow boundary where !here is a steep horizontal
spins all lhe way around a deep storm po-sitioned off the coast. change in moisture, so drylinesseparate moist air from dry air.
• TABLE 11.3 Typical Weather Conditions Associated with a Warm Front In Winter In the Northern Hemisphere
WEATHER ELEt.\ENT BEFORE PASSING WHILE PASSING AFTER PASSING
Winds South or southeast Variable South or soath\\lest

Ten1perature (.ool to cold, slo'" '"arn1ing Steady rise \i\'arn1er, then steady
Pres.i;ure Usually falling Lew ling off Slight rise. followed byfaU
Clouds ln this order: Ci, C.i;, ASt Ns. St, and fogi Stratus type Clearing \\Tith .scattered Sc, especial I)•
occasionally 0) in sun1n1er in sunlnlf'r; occa.i;ionaUy Cb in sunlnler
Precipitation Light-to-nlOderate rain, snO\\I, .sleet, or Drizzle or none Usually none; sonletin1es light rain or
drizzle; .sho\\lers in .sun1n1er sho,\ters
Visibility fuor Poor, but in1proving Fair in haze
De'" Point Stead)rrise Steady ftise, then steady
C'1'1'rif* )) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq•O.U . ......................... " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl """"" ......... ....,, """'I•• - ..........h~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w....r..........i....
<1<n11....i., ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c.."'"'..'~"''11..,......., .,~,.,i.. ........... :.11 .........,..... ,.,,.., ,.,... o1,..,""I...,.,. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
The Wavy Warm Front
Up to this point, we've examined idealized Warm air pu shing n orth ward from th e
warm fro nts on a surfaceweather map - Gulf of Mexico rides up an d over th e cold,
like th e on e sh own in Fig. 11.1 5, p. 305. Some dry, surface air. C lou ds an d precipitation o f 4
warm fro nts do look like this example; oth - ten form in this rising warm air. W h en rain
ers, h owever, h ave an en tirely d ifferen t ap- falls into th e sh allow, cold air, it mayeva po--
pearance. For instanc~ look at the warm r ate, chilling th e air even more. Sometimes
fron t in Fig. 4. Notice th at it h as a wavelike t h e rain freezes before reaching th e
shape as it approach es Nor th Carolina from g round, produ cing sleet; oth er times, th e
three d ifferen t d irection s. So w h at cau ses r ain freezes on impact, pr oducin g freezing
th ewarm front to ben d in this manner? r ain, If th e frozen precipitation falls for
Look carefully at Fig. 4 an d n otice th at many h ours, severe ice storms may result,
I
at th e surface cold air is flowing sou thwest- w ith h eavy accum ulation s o f ice cau sin g
ward around a high -pressure area cen tered t reach erou s d riving con d ition s an d -\
over sout hern Canada . As cold, de n~ down ed power lines.
surface air pu sh es sou th into th e sou th ern Th e sha llow la)'er o f cold air usually be-
states, it flows upagainstthe Appalachian comes en tren ch ed in low-lying areas an d
Mountains, which impede its westward t h erefore retreats n orthward ver y slowly. As
progress. Since th e sh allow layer o f cold t hecold air slowly recedes n or th ward,
• FI GURE 4 Surface \..eather map for 11 :00 PM.
air is unable to ride up an d over th e moun- warmer air pu sh es in from differen t direc- (EST), February 13, 2007.
tains, it becomes wedged along t he moun- tion s, an d th e leading edge of th e warm air
tains' eastern foothills. Reca II from an (th e warm fron t;) n o lon ger h as a nice curved
earlier d iscu ssion th at this trappin g of sh ape, bu t begins to take o n a more wavy
cold air is called coldair damming. sh ape, su ch as th e warm fron t in Fig. 4.
Because dew-point temperatures may drop along this bound- congregate along the dryline, Doppler radar may be able to
ary by as much as 9°C (16"F) per km, drylines have been re- locate it. On the radar screen, the echo from insects and birds
ferred to as dew-point fronts.• Although drylines can occur in shows up as a thin line, called aJi ne line.
the United States as for north as the Dakotas, and as far east as Sometimes drylines are associated with mid-latitude
the Texas-Louisiana border, they are most frc·quently observed cyclones, sometimes they are not. Cumulu.~ clouds and
in the western half of1exas, Oklahoma, and Kansas, especially
during spring and early summer. ln these locations, drylines
tend to move east"•ard during the day, then west"•ard toward
~ 7 91
~~\ 68\
evening. Drylines are observed in other regions of the world,
too. 111ey occur, for example, in Central West Africa and in
India before the onset of the summer monsoon.
~
• figure 11 .23 shows a dry line moving across Texas during
May, 2001. Notice that the dryline is represente.d as a line with ~ 88\
brown half circles. Notice also that, to the west of the dryline, 68
warm, dry continental tropical air is moving in from the south- ~
west. Consequently, on thi~side, the weather is usually hot and ~
~
dry "1th gu.~ty southwesterly "1nds. To the east of the dryline, 32
\\•arm. very hurnid maritimetropic.11 air iss,veeping north\\'Urd
~ ~~j
from the Gulf of Mexico. Here we typically find airtemperatures 70 ~aritime .
~J
to be slightly lower and the humidity (as indicated by the higher tropical air
warm, mo•st
~
dew points) considerably higher than on the western side. The
semicircles of the dryline point toward this hwnid air.
£ven though the dryline represent~ a moisture boundary, N
its actual po.~ition on a weather map is plotted according to a
shift in surface winds. When insects and insect-eating birds • F I GURE 11 .23 A dryline represents a narroo.v boundary\vhere there isa
steep horizontal c hange in moist ure as indicated bya rapid c hange in dew 4
· Recall fro1n Chapter•l Lhal the dew· point 1e1npcrature isn me.a.suit' of I.he runounl point temperature. Here,. a dryline m<>1in9 across Texas and Oklaliomasepa 4
ofwntervnpor in the3ir. rates\varrn. moist air from \vcum, dry air during an afternoon in May.
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FI GURE 11 . 24 Cumulus c:loudsand thun ~
derstormsdeveloping along a dcyline in Kansas
during May, 2007.
thunderstorms often form along or to the east of the dryline. sky begins to dear, atmospheric pressure rises, and the air turns
Thi~ doud development i~ caused in part by daytime convection rolder. 'fhe mo.~t violent weal her usually occurs where the cold
and a sloping terrain. The Central l~ains area of North America front is ;usl overtaking the warm front, at the point of occlu-
is higher to the west and lower to 1he east. Convection over the sion, where 1he greatest contras! in temperature occurs. Cold
elevated "'eslern plains carries dry air high above the surface. occlusions are the most pr<'vaknl type of fronl 1ha1 moves into
Westerly wind~ sweep this dry air eastward over the lower plains the Pacific coas1al states and into interior North America. Oc-
where it overrides the slightly cooler but more humid air at the cluded fronts frequently form overt he North f'acific and North
surface. Thissituation sets up a potentially unstable atmosphere Atlantic, as well as in the vicinity of1he Great Lakes.
that finds\Varm. dry airabovt>\\•ar1n. moistair. In regionS\\•here Continent'tl polar air over eastern Washington and Oregon
the air rises, cwnulusdoudsand org:inized band~ ofthw1der- may be much colder than milder maritime polar air moving in-
storms can form (see • Fig. 11.24). We will examine in more land from the Pacific Ocean. • Figure 11 .26 illustratesthissi1ua-
detail the development of these storms in Chapter 14. 1ion. Observe that the air ahead of the warm fronl is colder than
1he air behind the cold front Consequen1ly, when the cold front
OCCLUDED FRONTS lf a cold front catches up 10 and over- catches up to and overtakes the warm fron1, the milder, ligh1er
t,1kes a warm fronl, the fron1al boundary creaied between !he air behind the cold fronl is unable to lift the rolder, heavier air
two air masses is called an occluded front, or, simply, an occlu- off the ground As a result, the rold fron1 rides "piggyback" along
sion (meaning "closed off"). On the surface weather map, ii is 1he sloping warm front 1 his produces a warm-type occluded
represen1ed as a purple line with aliernaling cold-front triangles fron~ or a warm occlusion. The surface weather associated with
and warm-front halfcircles; both symbols poinl in 1he direction a \\'a.rm occlusion issimilar to that of a \\'arm front."
1oward which the fronl is moving. Look backat Fig, 11.15, p. 305, Contrast Fig. 11.25 and Fig. I 1.26. Note tha1 the primary
and no1ice !hat the air behind the occluded fronl is colder than difference between the warm- and cold-type occluded front
the air a head ofi1. 1 his i~ known as a cold-type occluded front, or is 1he location of 1he upper-level front. ln a warm occlusion,
rokl occlusion. l et's see how this front develops. 1he upper-level cold front precedes 1he surface occluded fronl,
The development of a cold occlusion is shown in whereas in a cold occlusion 1he upper warm front follows the
e Fig, 11.25. Along line A-A', thecold front israpidlyapproach- surface occluded fronl.
ing the slower-moving warm front. Along line B-B', the cold ln the world of weather fronts, occluded fron1s are the mav-
front overtakes the \\'arm front. and. ao; \\'e can see in the vertical ericks. In our discussion, we treaied occluded fron1s as forming
view across C-C', underrides and liflS off the ground bo1h 1he when a cold front overtakes a warm froot. Some may form in thi~
warm fronl and the warm air mass. As a cold-occluded front ap- manner, bul others apparently form as new fronts, which develop
proaches, the weather sequence issimilar 10 tha1 ofa warm front, when a surface mid-latiludecydonic storm inien~ifies in a region
with high clouds lowering and thickening into middle and low of cold air after its trailing cold and warm fronts have broken
clouds, with precipilation forming well in advance of the surface away and moved eastward 1 he new occluded front shows upon
front. Since the front represents a trough oflow pressure, south- a surface chart as a I rough oflow pressure separating two rold air
eas1erly "1nd~ and falling atmospheric pressure occur ahead of masses. Because oft his, locating and defining occluded front~ at
it. The frontal passage, however, brings weather similar to that ·oue to Lhe rel.Hively nliJd winter >lir that nloves- into Europe fronl the North
of a cold front: heavy, of1en sho"•ery precipitation with winds Atbntic, manyof thcoccJusions 1.ha1 roove into this region in winier are of thc w1lnn
shifting to west or northwest. After a period of"'et we,tther, 1he ocdusion variety.
(c)
(d)
(b)
E Warm occluded lront E'
(C)
(a)
D o·
• FI GURE 11 .26 The formation d a\varm· type occluded fronL The faster·
moving cold front in (a) otertakes the slo\ver ~moving \Varm front in (b). The
ligh t ~ air behind the cold fron t rises up and over the denser air ahead of the
\varm front. Diagram (c) showsa surface map of the situat ion.
(b)
the surface is often difficult for the meteorologist.• Similarly, you
lnilial occlJslon
too may find it hard to recognize an occlll~ion. Jn spite of this,
- we will assume that the weather associated with occluded fronts

behaw.s in asimilar way to that shown in • Table 11.4.
11H• cold, warm, and occluded frontal systems described
in this chapter are actually part of a much larger storm
system - the middle-latitude cyclone. • figure 11. 27 shows
the cold front, warm front, and occluded front in association
with a mid-latitude cyclonic storm. Notice th:n, as we would
expect, clouds and precipitation form in a rather narrow band
along the cold front, and in a much wider band \\1th the warm
(a) and occluded fronts. In Chapter 12, we "111 look more closely
'In fo ct. in so1ne countries. such \ls\..an1ldl, 1he surface occlusion is:seldonl ana 4
tyzed o n a Sltrfoce weal htr 1nap. lnstead. the location of the ocdudcd front aloft -
• FI GUR E 11 .25 The format ion ofacold·occluded front. Thefaster·moving wbcre I he cold air lifts the wann air a bove I.he surfnee-is 1narkOO bya TRO \'\•i\L
cold front {a) catdi~ up to theslo\ver· moving \Varm fronl (b} and forces it to (which shmds forTROughof l'\"arnH'lir Alofi) . So the posilionoflhe TR0l1~ L o n
rise off the ground (c). {Green--shaded are.a in (d) represents precipitationJ the we<ither lll;lp (a.s ln diau ed bya °'hook") 1narks the location where the cold and
warm fronts intcrsa:t aloft..
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C'1'1'rif• :tl 1~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c .. ....,,
'll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,.
w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
,. TABLE 11 .4 Typical Weather Most Often Associated with Occluded Fronts In Winter in North America
WEATHER ELU.\ENT BEFORE PASSING WHILE PASSING AFTER PASSING
Winds East, southeast. or south Variable \'\'est or nordn'lfest
Ten1perarure
(a) Cold· type occluded Cold orcool Dropping Colder
(b) Warm·typeoccluded Cold Ri..<;ing Milder
Pres.'iure Usually falling Lo\\T point UsuaU)rrising
Clouds Jn this order: Ci1C'i. As-. Ns Ns. son1etinies Tcu-and Cb Ns~ A.." or scattered Cu
Precipitation Light, n1oderate, or hea''>r Light, moderate. or heavy continu- Light-to~nlOderate precipitation
precipitation ous precipitation or sl10\vers followed by general clearing
VL'iibility Poor in precipitation Poor in precipitation ln1proving

De\\t point Steady Usual ly slight drop, especially if Slight drop, although may rise a
cold-occluded bit if \\1arn1-0ccluded
al middle-latitude cyclonic storrn~. examining where, why, and idealized upper-air front. Notice that the front forms when the
ho'" they form. Before "~ move on, ho"~ver, we need to look tropopause-the boundary separating the tropo.~phere from
al front~ that form in the upper troposphere - that may, or may the stratosphere-dipsdown\\md and folds under the polar jet
not, show up at the surface. stream. In the fold, the i~otherms are tightly packed, marking
the position of the upper front. Although the upper front may
UPPER · AlR FRONTS An upper-air front (which is also not connect withasurface front, thepc>~it ion ofthesurfacefront
known as upper fro111, or upper-troposplieric f ront) is a front is shown in the diagram.
that is present aloft. It may or may not extend down to the The small arrows in Fig. 11.28 show air motion associated
surface. • Figure 11.28 shows a north-to-south side view ofan "1th the upper front. On the north side of the front (and the
north side of the jet stream), the air is slowly sinking. Here, in
the folded troposphere, ozone-rich air from the strat0-~pherede
scends into the trop0-~phere. To the south of the front (and south
ofthe jet stream), theair slowly rises. These rising and descend-
ing air motions can aid in the development of middle-latitude
cydonicstorrn~ described in the next chapter.
is ................................._......................
.3() ~ ~
I
' ,,
I
I
"; - - - - - - --50
_., ____ ... ~o
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- - - Tropopouoe
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/ ,
-20 - - - - - t- - - - - -
I
----
Tr¢fXl61)M<e __ - -
-10--- - - - , - -- ..,.""
South
• FIGURE 11 .2 7 A visible satellite image sho\ving a mid·latitude cyclonic
.storm \vi th its \Ye<ttherfrontsover theAtlanticOcean during Marc:h, 2005. • FIGURE 11 .28 An idealizedverticalvie\vofan upper.-airfront showing
Superimposed on the photo is the position o f the surface cold front. \Varm tropopau.se (heavy red line), isotherms in °C (dashed gray lines}, and vertical air
front. and occluded fron t. Precipitation symbols indicate where precipitation is motions. The polar jet stream core(mclJ{imum \Yind.s} is flowing into the page
reaching the surface. (from \Vest to east).
°*"'"''*..
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,bu q10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I•• - "" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,... """"""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll """....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11 ,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
In this chapter, we considered the different types ofair rnasses I. ff an area is described as a "good air mass source re-
and the various weather each brings to a particuLu region. gion," what information c-.tn you give about it?
Continental an: tic air rnasses are respnnsible for the extremely 2. It is surnmer. What type of afternoon \\'l:'ather would
cold (arctic) outbreaks ofwinter, whereascontinent.tl polar air you expect frorn an air mass designated as rnaritirne
rnasses are responsible for cold, dry weather in winter and tropical> Explain.
cool, pleasant weather in surnrner. Maritime polar air, having 3. Why is continental polar air not welcome to the Cen-
tr.tveled over an ocean for a considerable distance, brings cool, tral Plains in v,rillter and yet very \\'elcome in summer?
rnoist weather to an area. 'Jhe hot, dry weather of smnmer is 4. Explain why the central United States is nor a good air
associated \\'ith continental tropic.al air masses. \\•hile v.•arm. mass source region.
hurnid conditions are due to maritime tropical air rnasses. 5. Why do air temperatures tend to be a little higher on
Where air masses with sharply contrasting properties rne.et, the eastern side of the Appalachian Mountains than on
we find weather fronts. the western side, even though the same winter cl' or cA
A front is a boundary between two air mas.ses of differ- air mass dorninares both areas?
ent densities. Stationary fronts have essentially no rnovernenr, 6. Explain how the airflow aloft regulates the movement
with cold air on one side and warm air on the other. WincL~ of air masses.
tend to blow parallel to the front, but in oppo-~ite directions 7. List the temperature and rnoisture characteristics of
on either side of it. Along the leading edge of a cold front, each of the major air mass type~.
v.·h~re colder air replaces v.it\rmer air. shov.•ers are prevalent. 8. What are lake-effect snows and how do they form? On
especially if the warmer air is rnoist and conditionally unsta- which si<le ofa lake do they typically occur?
ble. Along a warm front, warrner air rides up and over cokler 9. Why are maritinw pnlar air masses along the East Coast
surface air, producing widespre.ad cloudiness and light-to- of the United States usually colder than th0-se along the
rnoderate precipitation that can cover thousands ofsquare nation~ West Coast? Why are they aLw less prevalent?
kilometers. When the rising air is conditionally unstable 10. The boundaries between neighboring air rnasses tend
(such as it often is insumrner), showers and thunderstorms to be rnore di~tinct during the winter than during the
rnay forrn ahead of the advancing warrn front. Cold fronts summer. Explain why.
typically rnove faster and are more steeply sloped than warrn I I. What type of air mass would be responsible for the
fronl~. Occluded fronts, which are often difficult to locate and weather conditions listed as follows?
define on a surface weather rnap, may have characteri~tics of (a) heavy snow sho"'l:'rs and low ternpemtures at
both cold and " 'Jrrn fronts. A dryline is atype of front that Buffalo, New York
represents a narrowboundarybetween hot, rnoistairand hot, (b) hot, muggy summer weather in the Midwest and
dry air. Fronts that forrn in the upper troposphere, in the vi- the East
cinity ofthe polar-front jet srrea m, are called upper-air fronts. (c) daily afternoon thunderstorm.~ along the Gulf Coast
(d) heavy snow showers along the western slope of the
Rockies
KEY TERMS (e) refreshing. cool, dry breezes after a long summer
111e IO!lowing terms are listed (with page numbers) in the hot spell on the Central Plains
order they appear in the text. Define each. Doing so will aid (f) heavy summer rainshowers in southern Arizona
you in reviewing the material covered in this chapter. (g) drought with high temperatures over the Great
Plains
air mass:, 294 stationary front, 306 (h) persi~tenr cold, damp \\'l:'ather with drizzle along
source regions (for cold front, 306
the East Coast
air masses), 294 frontolysis, 308 (i) sumrner afternoon thunderstorrns forrning along
continental pnlar frontogenesis, 308 the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada
(air mass), 296 "back door" cold
(j) record low winter temperatures in South Dakota
continental arctic front, 308 I 2. On a surface \\'l:'ather map, what do you know about a
(air rnass), 296 cold air damming, 309 region where the wordfron/Ogenesis is rnarked?
lake-effect snows, 296 \\•arn1 front, 309
13. Exp~tin why barometric pressure usually falls with the
rnaritime polar overrunning. 310 approach of a cold front or occluded front.
(air mass), 299 frontal inversion, 310 14. How does the weather usually change along a dryline?
Pacific air, 299 dryline, 311 I 5. Based on the following "<eat her forecast~. what type of
rnaritirne tropical ocduded front front "11! rnost likely pass the area>
(air rnass), 30 I (occlusion), 313 (a) light rain and cold today, with ternperatures just
continental tropical cold occlusion, 313
above freezing. Southeasterly winds shifting to
(air mass), 304 v.iarm occlusion, 313 " 'esterly tonight. Turning colder with rain becom-
front, 305 upper-air front, 315 ing heavy and p<>-ssibly changing to snow.
.bmcd fl,...., "'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl ••,:!o .. ,..,• ...,:Jj,.,.,,...,.,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
(b) Cool today with rain becoming heavy nt times by 5. When a very cold air mass covers half of the United
this nftcrnoon. Wt1rmer rnmorrow. Winds south· States, a very worm air mnss often cow rs the other hnlf.
easterly becoming westerly by tomorrow morning. Explain how this happen..
(c) lncren;ing cloudiness and warm today, wi1h the 6. Explain why free-Ling rain more commonly occur;, with
possibility of showers by ~vening. Turning much warm front> than with cold front..
colder tonight. Wb1d> southwesterly, becoming 7. In winter, cold-front weather h typicaUy more violent
gu>ty and •hifting to northwesterly by tonigllt. than warm-front weather. Why? Explain why this is
{d) lncrcasing high cloudiness nnd cold 1his morning. not necessarily true in •ummcr.
Clouds increasing and lowering 1his afternoon, 8. Whr does the same cold front typkaUy produce more
with a chance of snow or rain tonight. Prccipita· rain over Kentucky than owr western Kansa>?
tlon ending tomorrow morning. Turning much 9. You are in upstate New York and o~rve the wind shift
warmer. Winds light c;J,Stcrly today, becoming from easterly to soutlk-rly. 1 his ~tuft in wind b accom·
sootlk-nstcrly tonight andsouth\\·e~crly tomorrow. ponied b)· a sudden rise in both th<- :ur temperature
I 6. Sketch side views of a t)'piall cold front. warm front, and and de\v-point temperotutt. Whall)pe offront pG.ISCd?
cold-ocduded front. Include in each diagram cloud 1 O. If Lake Erie freezes over in Janu.iry. i> ii still possible 10
typo and patterns. areas of prcdpit:lion. surface winds, have lake-effect snow• off Lake Erie in Fcbrll.1l'y? Why
and relative temperature on l-..Ch side of the liunt. or "by not?
17. During the spring, on a wam1, sunny day in Boston, 11. Why are ocean-effect snow >tomu (dc.crib<'tl on
Massachusetts, the wmd l>h1fu from southw~1erly to p. 297) fairly common wbm 3 pcrsi~cnt cold north-
northcast<'rly and the \H".Jthcr turns cold, damp, and eastcrly wind blows ovcr Cape Cod, Mns.achuscti., but
O\'etol>L What type of front moved through the
are not common when a cold northea;,trrly ''ind blows
Bos1on area? From what dircc1ion did the front appar· over Long Jsland, New Yor:k?
enlly oppro.icll Boston?
18. How does the tropopau;.c ;ho\\• \\•here an upper-level
front & located? PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES
I. Makt a sketch of North America and •how the upper·
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT air wind-flow pn11crn that would prodllcc:
(a) very cold continental orctic air moving Into tlw for
l. Suppo..;e o muritimc polar oir m(I$.• lll\'lving eastword '''estern s1ate-s in \\•inter
from th~ l'ucific OC<!nn trnvcls aero'-' the United S1atcs. (b) coW polar or arctic ttir over tlw Centro! l' lruns in
Describe all of the modifications that could take place
t\S thi:-. air l'U•lSS l'UOVCS ea~l\\1 ;.l td in \\rinter. In .sumn-.er.
'"inter
(c) warm m'T air over the Midwc.t in winter
2. J::xplnin how <In anticyclone during autumn con bring
(d) warm, moist moritime tropical air over southern
rccord· breoking low temperature> and continl'ntal po· California and ArizOna during the ;,ummcr
lur filr to the southettstern State>, nnd only n day or so 2. You ore presently tnking u weather observution. ' Ihe
Inter wry high temperature> and maritime tropical air
sky is full of wispy cirrus clouds estimated to be about
to the Same resion. 6 km (20,000 ft) ov.rhcad. lf n worm front Is approoch·
3. ln Fig. l l.5 {p. 298), thtre is a temperature inversion. ingfrom the south, about how fur away hit {assuming
J low doe> tbi> inversion differ from the frontal inver-
a slope of 1:200)? Ifit is moving toword you utan aver·
sion illu;trated in Fig. 1l.22b {p. 3 1L)? age warm-front speed of abo11t LO knots, bow long will
4. For Chicago, Ulinob. to experience heavy lake-effect
it take before it passes your orca?
snows, from what direction would th<- \<Ind haw to be
blowing?
CiEOSCIENCE Under t~ Websites and Biogs section of Global Environment Watch: Mclec>-
rolog)'.go tolhcsitc"Arttic Oimau~ogyand Meteorology PRIMER for Newcomers 101~ North" (National Snow and Ice Dara
Crottt). Within the Baiics >«lion of this site, consult the "Arctic Oimate" page. What att t~ factors that can 111Jlucnce local
weather within a particular Arctic :Ur mass1Consult th<- "Optirnland Acoustic Pbenomtrui" page. Why iS 11 trut com-ersatlMs
CllJ1 sornetim<-sbc heard more t ban a mile away within a ronlinmtnl Arctic air mass?
ONLINE RESOURCES
~ Log in to the Coursc.\olatc website at: ww w.cengagebraincom to view the concept animations ru. noted int he text, a.
~ wellasud<lilionnl resource;., induding video exercises, practicequit.zes,an interactivecllook, and more.
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Middle-Latitude Cyclones
CONTENTS
Polar Front Theory
Where Do M id- Latitude Cyclones Tend to
I t never for a moment occurred to me to regard this storm as a
thing to prevent me from getting to New York The Jackson
Avenue station of the New Jersey Central was only five or six blocks
Form? from the house, and I anticipated notthe slightesttrouble in get·
FOCUS ONA SPECIAL TOPIC ti ng there. It was still snow ing and blowing ... and not a print had
Northeasters
been made in the snow about the house. I got out to the gate and
Vertical Structure of Deep Dynamic Lows
into the "street; and was then able to discover the real snow.
Upper-Level Waves and Mid- Latitude
Cyclones It was everywhere. Great piles of it rose up like gigantic arctic
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC graves ... in al I directions. Every way that I turned I was confronted
A Closer Look at Convergence and Divergence with these awful mounds. I took my bearings and steered for the
The Necessary Ingredients for a Developing Jackson Avenue station. Every step I took I went into my knees in
Mid-Latitude Cyclone
snow and every other step I fell over on my face and tried to see
U pper· Air Support
The Role of the Jet Stream how much of the stuff I could swallow. The wind was at my back
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC and its accompanying snowflakes cut the back of my head and ears
Jet Streaks and Storms like a million icy lashes. I ... plowed my way, j umping, falling, and
Conveyor Belt Model of Mid- Latitude craw ling over the drifts, some of w hich were nine or ten feet high . ..
Cyclones and after an hour and ten minutes I gotto the end of my six blocks.
A Developing Mid-Latitude
There were trains there, two of them, but they were stuck.
Cyclone-The March Storm of 1993
Vorticity, Divergence, and Developing Mid · I gave up t he idea of going to New York. My trip back to t he
Latitude Cyclones house was simply awful. The wind was straight in my face and beat
Vorticity on a Spinning Planet so in my eyes that I couldn't see a rod before me. My mustache was
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC frozen stift and over my eyebrows were cakes of frozen snow. I
Vorticity and Lon9waves
stumbled along. falling down at al most every step, burying myself
Vorticity Advection and Shortwaves
in the snow. Then, I began to feel like a crazy man. Every time I fel I
Putting It All Together -A Monstrous
Snowstorm down, I shouted and cursed and beatthe snow with my fists. Then
Polar Lows it got dark, the w ind howled and tore along, hurting the ice flakes in
Summary my face, and the very snow on the ground seemed to rise up and
Key Terms
fling i tself upon me.
Questions for Thought In one of my crazy efforts to force ahead, I caught just a glimpse
Problems and Exercises of the welcome gate posts, and then I laid down on my back and
hollered. Somebody heard my cries, and just as I was going off com·
fortably to sleep my friend came plowing out through the snow,
and he and this man dragged me into the house.
U.S. Department of Commerce, AmericanWeatherStories
Facing page: Satellite image of h w mid-latitude

cyclonic: storms spinning counterdockwise over the
North Atlantic: Ocean during November, 2006. 319
°*"'"''"..
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... .al M:.y ta>thc ...icd >........J ,,.. .l....Wod."' "f>•lrc<><in p.... ll<to i;1 "IJb. "*'"'
llo.nl poo-1)' ,.,,..,. ""1 W "'l••- ..i ..,.,.,h ~dl ... :.1J\ o .0."l'nV I f:1W....rt n1<" '!....
<>.;•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
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e storm described in our opening is now referred to as t ypeofflow sets up a cyclonic "fad shear. You can conceptualize
he "Blizzard of ·ss:· Thi~ legendary storm of March, 1888, the shear more dearly if you place a pen between the palms of
•·as accompanied by high "inds of 60 miles per hour your hands and move your left hand toward your body; the pen
at Atlantic City, New Jersey, a severe cold wave, and unprece- turns counterclockwise,cydonically.
dented snowfall -up to 50 inches over portions ofsoutheastern Under theright conditions (described later in this chapter),
New York and southern New England, with drifts 30 to 40 feet a wavelike kink forms on the front, 'ts sho"n in Fig. 12.1b. 'lb e
high. In New York City, people died in the street, trapped in waveth,11 formsi~kno'"' as a frontal w.weoran i11cipie11t cyclo11e.
snowdrifts up to their hips. What atmospheric conditions are Watching the fonnation of a frontal wave on a weather map i~
needed for such a monstrous storm to develop> like ""atching a water wave from its side as it approaches a beach:
Early weather forecasters were aware that precipita- It first builds, then break.~. and fmall y dissipates, which is why a
tion generally accompanied falling barometers 'md are,1s of mid-latitude cyclonic storm system is known as a wave cyc/011e.
low pressure. However, it was not until the early part of the Figure! 2.lbshowsthenewly IOrmed ""ave \vithacold front P"~h
twentieth century that scientists began to piece together the ingsouthward and a warm front moving north"•ard. 'lbe region
information that yielded theide,tsof modern meteorology and of lowest pressure (called the ce11tml pressure) is at the junction of
storm development. the two fronts. A~ thecold air displaces the '""m air up'"trdalong
Working largely from surface observations, a group of sci- the cold front, and aso vernm 11i11g occurs ahead of the warm front,
entists in Bergen, Norway, developed a model explaining the a narrowband ofprecipitation forms (shaded green are,1).Steered
life cycle of an extratropictd, or middle-/(j{ihuie cyclonic stom1; by the winds aloft, the system typically moves east or northeast-
that is, a storm that forms at middle and high latitudes outside ward and gradually becomes a fully devel<lped ope111Vt1Ve in 12 to
of the tropics. 'Ib is extraordinary group of meteorologi~l~ in- 24 hours (see Fig. 12.lc). The central pressureofthe wavecydone
cluded Vilhdm Bjerknes, his son Jakob, Halvor Solberg, and is now much lower, and several iwbais encircle the wave~ apex.
Tor Bergeron. They published their Nonvegitm cyclone model These more tightly packed isobars create astronger cyclonic flow,
shortly after World War I. It was widely acclaimed and became as the winds S\\1rl counterclockwise and inward toward the low'.~
known as the "palar front theory ofa developing wave cyclone" center. Precipitation forms in a wide band ahead ofthe warm front
or, simply, the polar front theory. What these meteorologists anda/011ga 11arrowbandofthe cold front. The region ofwarm air
gave to the world '"'s a working model of how a mid-latitude between the cold and ""arm fronts is known as the warm sector.
cyclone progresses through the stages of birth, growth, and de- Here, the weather tends to be partly cloudy, although scattered
cay. An important part of the model involved the de.velopment showers may develop if the air is conditionally unstable.
ofweather along the palar front. As new information became Energy for the storm is derived from several sources. A~
available, the original work was modified.so that, today, it serves the air masses try to attain equilibrium, warm air rises and cold
asa convenient way to describe thestructure and weather asso- air sinks, transforming potential energy into kinetic energy-
ciated with a migratory middle-latitude cyclonic storm system. energy of motion. Condensation supplies energy to the system
In the following sections we will first examine, from asur- in the form of latent heat. And, as the surface air converges to-
face perspective, how a mid-latitude cyclone develops along \\•ard the lov/s center. \\•ind spee.(ts may increase, producing an
the palar front. Then we will examine how the win<ts aloft in- increase in kinetic energy.
fluence thedevelopingsurfacestorm. later on, we will obtain a As the open wave moves eastward, its central pressure con-
three-dimensional view of a mid-latitude cyclone by observing tinues to decrease, and the winds blow more vigorously as the
how ribbons of air glide through the storm system. wave quickly develops into a 1Mture cyc/011e. 'lb e faster-moving
cold front constant! y inches chser to the '""m front, squee-Ling
the ""arm sector into a smaller area, as shown in Fig. 12.lb. In
this model, the cold front eventually overtakes the warm front
Polar Front Theory and the system becomesocduded. At this paint, the storm is lk~u
ally most intense, with clouds and precipitation covering a large
The development of a mid-latitude cyclone, according to the area. The area of most intenw weather is normally found to the
Norwegian model, begins along the polar front. Remember northwest of the storm's center. Here, strong "'°d~ and blo"1ng
from the discus.~ion oft he general circulation in Chapter JO that and drifting snow can create bliZ'tard conditions in "1nter.
the polar front is a semicontinuous global boundary separat- The point of occlusion where the cold front, warm front,
ing cold palar air from ""arm subtropical air. Because the mid- and occluded front all come together in Fig. 12. le is referred to
latitude cyclonic storm forms and moves along the polar front as the triple poi11t. Notice that in this region the cold and warm
in a wavelike manner, the developing storm is called a wave fronts appe'tr similar to the open-wave cyclone in Fig. 12. lc. lt
cyclone. The stages of a developing wave cyclone are illustrated is here where a new wave (called a secondary low) will occa-
in the.sequence ofsurface weather map.~ shown in • Fig. 12.1. sionally form. move east\\•ard or northeast\\'ard, and intensify
Figure 12.1ashowsasegment ofthe palarfrontasastation- into a cyclonic storm. The center of the intense storm system
ary front. It represents a trough of lower pressure \\1th higher shown in Fig. 12.1 e gradually dis.~ipates, because cold air now
pres.~ureon both sides. Cold air to the north and warm air to the lies on both sides of the occlud ed front. 'Jhe warm sector i~
south flow parallel to the front, but in oppasite directions. This still present, but is far removed from the center of the storm.
<l<nlonl fl •...., .._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i., .,_,u""""""""~C.,'ll>tJ"l~"''ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,,..,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• ""''"""..,,....,,..,n.
(c) Open wave
(d) Mature (initial occiusion) (e) Ac:Nanc<ld occlusion (f) Cut-ott cyclone
• FIGURE 12 .1 The idealized lifecycleofa mid·latitudec.ydone (a through f} in the Northem Hemisphere based on the polarfronl theory.As the life cycle
?ogresses, the system mows northeasl\vard in a dynamic fashion.Thesmallarro\vnext to each l shcms the direction ofstorm movement
Without the supply of energy provided by the rising warm, after it formed. • Figure 12.3 i~ a visible satellite image of clouds
moist air, the old storm system dies out and gradually disap- and two mid-latitude cyclones in different stages of develop-
pears (see Fig. 12. Jf). Wecan think of the sequence of a devel- ment along the polar front. Superimposed on the image are
oping wave cyclone as a whirling eddy in a stream ofwater that the weather fronts. Look again at Fig. 12.1 and determine what
forms behind an obstacle, moves with the flow, and gradually stages of development the two cyclones are in.
vanishes downstream. "!be entirelifecycleof a wave cydonecan Up to now, we have considered the polar front model of a
last from a few days to over a week. developing wave cyclone, which represents a rather simplified
e.Figure 12.2 sho\vS a series of \\•ave cyclones in various version oft he stages that an extratropical cyclonicstormsystem
stages of development along the polar front in winter. Such a must go through. Jn fact, few (if any)stormsadhereto the model
succession ofstorms is known as a "ft1111ily" ofcydones. Observe exacrfy. Nevertheless, it serves as a good foundation for under-
that to the north of the front are cold anticyclones; to the south standing the structure of storms. So keep the model in mind as
over the Atlantic Ocean is the warm, semipermanent Bermuda you read the following sections.
high. The polar front itself has developed into a series of loops,
and at the apex of each loop i~ a cyclonic storm system. Th e
cyclone over the northern plains (Low I ) is just forming; the
one along the East Coast (Low 2) is an open wave; and the oc- Where Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones
cluded system near Iceland (Low 3) is dying out. If the aver-
age rate of movement of a wave cyclone from birth to decay is
Tend to Form?
25 knoL~. then it is entirely possible for a storm to develop over Any development or strengthening of a mid-latitude cyclone
the central part ofthe United St at es, intensify into a large storm is called cyclogenesis. There are regions of North America
over New l'.ngland,become occluded over the ocean, and reach that show a propensity for cyclogenesis, including the Gulf
the coast of l'.ngland in its dis.~ipating stage fess than a "'eek of Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean east of the Carolinas, and the
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
• FIGURE 12..2 Aseriesofwavecyc:lones
(a•family"ofcyclones} forrning along the polar
front.
a FIGURE 12.3 Visiblesatelliteimageofthe

north Pac.ific \Vi th t \\O mid~lati to de cyc:lones
in different stages ofdevelopment d uring
February,2000.
Based
on your
knowledge of the Polar Front Theory, in
which general direction v10uld you expect
the low (that sits off the west coast of North
America) tomove? If the low moves in the
direction you chose, what type of weather
v1ould you expect for the state of Oregon?
eastern slope of high mountain ranges, such as the Rockies the leewardsideofa mountain a recalled lee-sidelows and their
and the Sierra Nevada. For example, when a westerly flow of development, lee cyclogenesis.
air crosses a north-to-south trending 1nountain range, the air Another region of cydogenesis lies near Cape Hatteras,
on the downwind (lee"'ard) sidetendstocurve cydonically, as North Carolina, where warm Gulf Stre<1m waler can supply
shown in • Fig. 12.4. 1bis curving ofair adds to the developing moisture and warmth to the region south of a stationary front,
or strengthening of a cyclonic storm. Such storms that form on thus increasing the contrast bet\Vee-n air masses to a point \-.·here
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
J<nionlfl •..., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,i., .,_,u~n~C<>f(l'tl"'~"''ll..,......., fl~••"-"''"'"""' "11'""',.'"".,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,.
WEATHER WATCH
A powerful mid-latitude cyclone battered the Great Lakes
with hurricane·force winds and high seas on November 10,
1975. Huge waves and winds estimated at 100 mi/hr
pounded the 729-foot iron-ore freighter Edmund Fitzgerald,
and sent it to the bottom of Lake Superior with its crew of
29sailors.
Some frontal waves form suddenly, grow in size, and de-

velop into huge cydonicstorms. They slowly dissipate with the
entire process taking several days to a "<eek to complete. Other
frontal \\•aves remain small and never grO\\'into a giant \\•eather·
producer. Why is it that some frontal waves develop into huge
cyclonic storms, whereasotherssimply dissipate in a day or so>
This question p0-~s one of the real challenges in weather
IOrecasting. '!be an~\\'er i~ complex. Indeed, there are many sur-
face conditions that do influence the formation ofa mid-latitude
cyclone, including mountain ranges and land-ocean tempera-
ture contrasts. However, the real key to the development of a
wavecydoneisfound in the upper-windj10 1v, in theregionofthe
• FI GURE 12 .4 As\vesterty\vind.s blow over a mountain range, the air Oow high-level westerlies.'Jberefore, before"<ecan arrive at a reason-
is deflected in such a \Olay that a trough form.son thedowmvind {leeward} side able an~wer to our question, we need to see how the winds aloft
of the mountain. Trough.sand developing cyclonic storms that form in this
influence surface pres.~ure syste~.
manner are called Jee.side lows.
storm.~ may suddenly spring up along the front 'lbesecydones,

called northeasters or nor~aster~ normally move northeast-
L Albena
'-.. L Clipper
" "ard along the Atlantic Coast, bringing high winds and heavy
snow or rain to coastal are<1s. Before the age of modem satel-
lite imagery and weather prediction, such coastal storm.~ would
often go undetected during their formative stages, and some-
times an evening weather forecast of"fair and colder" along the
e<1stern seaboard would have to be changed to "heavy snowfall"
Gulf,••;~
~- Colorado
Low L
............
~
;.I'
t 1 t
by morning. Fortunately, with today'.~ weather information-

gathering and forecasting techniques, these storms rarely strike
by surprise. (Additional information on northeasters is given in
the Focus section on p. 324.)
. Figure 12.5 shows the typical paths taken in winter by L
(a) Gutt I.ow
mid-latitude cydone~and anticyclone,~. Notice in Fig. 12.Sa thal
some of the lows are named after the region where they form,
such as theNattems low which develops off the roast near Cape H H
Hane.ms, North Carolina. The Alberta Clipper for~ (or rede-
velops) on the e<1stem side of the Rockies in Albe.r t a, Canada,
then rapidly skirts across the northe.rn tier states. 1ll<Colorado
10 1~ in contrast, forms (or redevelops) on the eastern side of
the Rockies. Notice that the lows generally move eastward or
northe'~~tward, whereas the highs typicillly move southeast-
\\".trd. then east \\•ard.
When mid-latitude cyclones deepen rapidly (in exces.~ of
24 mb in 24 hours), the term explosivecyclogenesis, or "bomb,"
i~ sometimes used to describe them. A~ an example, expl0-~ive
cyclogenesis occurred in a storm that developed over the warm
Atlantic just east of New Jersey on September 10, 1978. As the (b)
central pressure of the storm dropped nearly60 mb (1.8 in.) in • FI GURE 12.5 (a} Typicalpal hsof\vinter mid· latitude cyclones.. The lo\vs
24 hours, hurricane force wind~ battered the ocean liner Queen are named after l he region where they form. (b} Typical paths of\Vinter
Elizabc>t/1 11 and sank the fishing vessel Captain Cosmo. anticyclones.
C'1'1rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,. w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w....r....,.....i...
<1<n11....i fl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Northeasters (commonly called nor~asters) I
are east coast mid-latitude cyclonic storms •
that developer intensify off the eastern /
seaboard of North America d uring the
fa ll, winter, and spring. They usually move .I 1020
northeastward along the coast, often bring-
ing strong northeasterlywind.s to coastal
areas, hencethe name, nor'easter. In addi-
tion to strong winds, these storms can bring
heavy rain, snow, and .sleet. Most often
theydeepen and become most intense off
the coast of New England. Nor'easters are
fueled by the large temperature gradient )
between the warm ocean and the cold ~-_j);;--"'(
continental landmass. They gain additional
energy from the moisture over the ocean,
especially the warm Gulf Stream that flows
northward parallel to the ea.st coast of the - -- - - 1004
United States.
------1008
The ferocious northeaster of December,
1992 (shown in Fig. 1), produced strong
northea.sterlywinds from Maryland to
Massachusetts. Huge waves accompanied .\ 1012
~ hurricane..forcewinds that reached
78 knots (90 mVh ~ in Wildwood, New Jersey,
pounded the shoreline, causing extensive
,,
1020 10J6
.$ - ~
.' ,/
damage to beaches, beachfront homes, .sea
• FI GURE 1 The surface\vt?ather map for 7!l0 AM.(EST} December 11, 1992,
walls, and boardwalks. Heavy snow and rain,
shows an intense lo\v-pressure area {central pressure 988 mb, or 29.tS inJ, which
which lasted for .several days, coupled with is generating strong northea:sterly\vinds and heavy precipitation (are.a shaded
high winds and high tides, put many coastal green) from themid•Atlantic states into New England. This northeasterdevas.
areas and highways under water, including tated a \Viele area of the eastern seaboard, causing damage in the hundreds of
millions of dollars.
parts of the New York City subway.
Studies suggest that some o f the
northeasters, which batter the coastline in example, the northeaster shown in Fig. 1 calmwhen it moved over Atlantic City, New
winter, may actually possess some of the actually developed something like a hurri- Jersey. (We will examine hurricanes and their
characteristics of a tropical hurricane. For cane's "eye" as the winds at its center went characteristics in mo~ detail in Chapter 15.)
(because offriction) do the winds blow inward toward the low'.~

center. As these winds converge (flow together), the air "piles
Vertical Structure of Deep up."'lhis piling up of air, called convergence, causes air density
Dynamic Lows to increase directly above the surfaCl? low. ' Ib is increase in mass
C'1uses surface pressures to rise; gradually, the low ftll~ and the
In Chapter 9, we learned that thermal pressure systems are surface low dissipates. ' lbe same reasoning can be applied to
sh,\llow systems that weaken with increasing height above the surface anticyclones. Wind~ blowout"'ird, away from the center
surface. (Look back at rig. 9.18, p. 241.) On the other hand, de- of a surface high. ff a closed high or ridge lies directly over the
veloping surface middle-latitude cyclones are deep dynamic surfac-e anticydone, divergence (thesp~ading out ofair) at the
lows that usually intensify with height. Hence, they appear on surfac-e "11lremoveairfrom the column directly abovethehigh.
an upper-le.vet chart as either a dosed low or a trough. 'Jbe decrease in mass causes the surface pressure to fall and the
Suppose the upper-level low is directly above the surface surfac-e high-pressure area to weaken. Consequently, it appears
low as illustrated in • Fig. 12.6. Notice that only at the surface that, if upper-le.vet pressure systems were always located directly
<1<n11....ifl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""" ""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
above th-Oseat the surface( such asshown in Fig. 12.6),cydones
and anticyclones would die out soon after they fonn (if they
could fonn at all). Wh,tt, then, is it that allows these systems to
develop and intensify?
. Figure 12.7 is an idealized model of the vertical structure
of a middle-latitude cyclone and 'mticydone in the Northern
Hemisphere. Note that behind the cold front there is cold
air both at the surface and aloft. This cold, dense air is help-
ing to maintain the surface anticyclone. But remember from
Chapter 8, that aloft, in a region of cold air, constant pre.ssure
surfaces are squeezed closer together. This squeezing is due to
the fact that in the cold, deno;e air the atmospheric pressure de- • FI GURE 12. 6 If lows and highsaloft\vereal\vaysdirectty above k>\vsand
cre,tsed rapidly with height, causing cold air aloft to be associ- highs at the surface. the surface systems \Wuld quiddydissipate.
ated with low pressure. Consequently, in the cold air aloft we
find the upper low; and it is located behind, or to the west of the
surfaa> low.
Observealo;o in Fig. 12.7 how the surface low tilts toward
the northwest as we move up from the surface., showing up as 9000m
a dosed system on the 500-mb ch,trt and as a trough on the
300-mb chart. Directly above the surface low, at 300 mb, the
air spreads out and diverges (as indicated by the \\ind flow).
1 his allows the converging surface air to rise and flow out of
the top of the air column just below the tropopau.o;e, which acts
as a constraint to vertical motions. We now have a mecrutnism
for developing mid-latitude cyclonic storms. When upper-level 300mb
Warm
t
divergena is st.ranger fl1a11 surface convergence (tnore tJir is taken
out at the top than is brougl1/ in al I he bottom), surface pressures t
drop, and the low intensifies (deepens). By /lie same token, wl1en
upper-level divergence is less tlum surface convergmce (more llir
. t 5600m
flows in al the bonom than is remove;/ f1/ the top), swface pres-
sures rise, and tire syst,etn •veaken$.
(0 t
We can also use Fig. 12.7 to explain the structure of the
anticyclone. Notice that at the surface and aloft, \\"arm air lies
to the southwest of the surface high. Again, in Chapter 8 we saw Wrum
that \\"arm air aloft cau.o;es the isobaric surfaces to spread far- 500mb
ther apart, which results in wann air aloft being associated with
higher pressure. 1 hi~ situation causes the surface anticyclone to
tilt toward the south west - toward the ""armer air-at higher Om
altitudes. As we move upward from the surface, we observe trull
thed0-o;ed art>a ofhigh pressure at 500 mb becomes a ridge at the
300-mb level. Also notice that directly above the surface high
at 300 mb there is convergenc-e of air (as indicated by the wind
flow lines). Convergena>cau.~es an accumulation ofair above the
surface high, which allo",; the air to sink slowly and replace the
diverging surface air. Hence, wlien upper-level convergmceof llir
exceeds low-level divergence (inflow al top is gret1ler lhan oulfloiv
near the surface), surfacepre.mires rise, and /he anlicyclonebuilds. • F I GURE 12. 7 An idealized vertical structure ofa middle ~latitude c}<lone
On the other hand, when upp<7-level convc..gence ofair is less than and anticydone.
low-level divergence, the anticyclone weakens as surf11ce pressures
Jail (Additional information on the subject of convergenc-e and surfaa> pressure. system~ in the eastern two-thirds oft he United
divergence i~ provided in the Focu.~section on p 327.) States. Jn general, surface storm~ travel across the Unite.d State_s
l ook at the wind direction at the 500-mb le.vel in Fig. 12.7. at about 16 knots in summer and about 27 knots in \\inter. ' the
Winds at thi~ altitude tend to steer surface systems in the same faster "inter velocity reflects the stronger upper-level flow dur-
direction that the winds are moving. Thus, the surface mid- ing this time of year.'
latitude cyclone will move toward the northeast, while the sur- •Asa forecasting rule o f thumb. .surfoce pres.sure syste1ns tend 10 1now in the sanle
face anticyclone will move toward the southeast. As we can di reel ion as the \\ind at the SOO·nlb level. 1bc speed at which lhesurfua syste1ns
see in Fig. 12.5, these paths indicate the average movement of move isabou1 h.1Jf the .speed of I be S00·1nb winds.
<l<nlonl fl •..., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...~,,..~c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
rebtively small amplitude (ornorth-to-south extent)and the flow
is mainly zonal, or \\<est to east. On other occasiom. the \\•aves
exhibit considerable amplitude and the flow has a strong north-
to-south (meridional) component to it
Longwaves are aL~o known as pltmetary wt1ves and as
Rossby waves, after C G. Ro.~sby, a famous meteorologist
who carefully studied their motion. lmbedded in longwaves
are s hortwaves, which are small disturbances, or ripple,~ that
move with the wind flow (see • Fig. 12.9a). Rossby found that
the shorter the wavelength of a particular ""ave, the faster it
•
...-~ moved downstream. Shortwaves tend to move eastward at a
speed propnrtional to the average wind flow near the 700-mb
level, about 3 km abovesealeveL Longwaves,on theotherhand,
often remain stationary, move eastward very slowly at lessth:tn
4• onongitude per day (about 8 knots), or even move \\'eSh<".lrd
(retrogmde).' We can obtain a better idea of thi~ wave move-
ment ifwe think of long,mves as being huge meanders (loops)
in a swiftly flowing stream of water. Water moves through the
To see hew converging and diverging air influence surface pressure loops quickly, while the loops themselves move eastward very
systems, go to theCengageCoursetv1atewebsite at www.cengagebrain. slowly, as the fast-flowing water cuts away at one bank and
com and view the animation entitled Converging andDivergklg Nr. depo.sits material on the other. Suppo.se debris tumbles into the
stream, disturbing the flow. 1 he disturbed flow appears as a
small \\Tinkle that travels downstream through the loops at a
So far, we have seen that deep pres.~ure systems exist at the speed near the average stream flow. This wrinkle in the flow is
surface and aloft throughout much of the tropnsphere. When analogous to a shortwave in the atmo.~phere.
the upper-level trough lies to the \\'eSt of the surface mid-latitude Notice in Fig. 12.9b that, while the longwaves move east-
cydone,the atmosphere i~ able to redistribute its m.1ss. Regions '"1rd very slowly, the shortwaves move fairly quickly around
oflow-level converging air are compensated for by region~ of the long,mves. Notice also that the shortwaves tend to deepen
upper-level diverging air and vice versa. Cyclones and anticy-
clones can intensify and, steered by the winds aloft, move away •Retrograde wave motion 1ne.-ins th.11 the waw is octuaJly rooving in the opposite
direct ion of the \\•ind flow.
from their region of formation.
Since regions of strong upper-level divergence and
convergence typically occur when deep troughs and
ridge$-\\•aves-exist in the flo\\ aloft. the next se.ction ex-
1
amines these waves and their influence on a developing mid-

latitudecydonicstorm
Upper-Level Waves
and Mid-Latitude Cyclones
You may remember from the "dish-pan" experiment (found in
the Focus section on p. 274) that, aloft, waves are a fundamen-
tal kature of an unevenly heated, rotating sphere, such as the
earth. Jf we examine an upper-level chart that shows almo.~t the
entire Northern (or Southern) Hemisphere, such as • Fig, 12.8,
the waves appear as a series of troughs and ridges with signifi-
cint amplitude that encircle the globe. '!lie distance from trough
to trough (or ridge to ridge), is known as the wavelength. When
the wavelength i~ on the order ofmany t hott~ nds ofk ilometers,
the wave is called a longwave, At any onetime there are usually
bet \\'een three and six longwaves looping around the earth. The
!ewer the number of waves, the longer their wavelengths. Since
• F I GURE 12.8 A .SOO·mbmapofthe Northern Hemisphere from apolar
mountain ranges tend to disturb the upper-level wind flow, these perspec_tive shows five long\'Rivesencirding the globe. Note l hat the\vave·
waves are often found to the east ofsuch topographic barriers as length of\vave number 1 isasgreatas the \Yidth of the United States.Solid
the Rockies and Tibetan P!ate'1tl. Sometimes longwavcsexhibita linesarecontours. Dashed linessho\v the position (axis} of long\vave troughs.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~...'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
A Closer Look at Convergence and Divergence
We know that convergence is the p iling up of • FIGURE 2 The formation ofconver-

air above a region, whiledivergence is the gence (CON) and divergence (DIV} d air
I • • \Yith acon.stant \Vind speed {indicated by
spreading out o f air above some region.
flags} in the upper troposphere. Circles
Convergence and divergence of air may result
representair parcels that are moving par·
from c hanges in w ind direction and w ind allel to the contour lines on aconst:ant
speed . For example, convergence occurs pressure diart. Belo.vtheareaof con·
w hen moving air is funneled into an area. verge nee the air is sinking, and \Ye llnd
the surface high (HJ. Belo\vthe area of
much in the way cars converge w hen they
divergencetheair is rising, and we find
enter a crowded freewitf. Divergence occurs
the surface lo\v (U.
w hen moving air spreads apart, much as cars
spread out when a congested two-lane free-
way becomes t hree lanes. On an upper-level
chart, this typeof convergence (also called
confluence) occurs w hen contour lines move
closer together, as a steady w ind flows paral-
• FIGURE 3 As thefaster· flo\Vingair
lel to them (as shown o n the upper-level Ridge Ridge in the ridge moves to\vard the slo\ver-
chart in Fig. 2). On the same chart, this type flowing air in the t rough, the air piles up
of di,.,rgence (a lso called dirtruence) occurs and converge. As the sk)\ver· moving air
w hen the contour lines move apart as a in the trough moves toward the faster-
flowing air in the ridge. the air spreads
steadywind flows parallel to them. Notice in
apart and diverges..
Fig. 2 that below the area of convergence lies
the sur face an ticyclone (H), w hereas below
thearea of divergence lies the surface
middle-latltudecyclonic storm (L).
Convergence and divergence may also
result from changes in w ind speed. Speed Upper·Air Chart
convergence occurs w hen the w ind slows
down as it moves along. w hereas speeddiver- the upper tr oposphere. The upper-air slower-moving air in the trough approaches
genceoccurs. w hen the w ind speeds up. We c hart shows a tr ough a nd two ridges wit h the faster-moving air in th e ridge, th ea ir
can grasp these relationships more clearly if evenly spaced contour lines. Notice that spreads o ut producing divergence in the
we imagine air molecules to be marching in a even t hough the contours. are evenly air flow.
band. When the marchers in front slow down, spaced, the w inds blow faster in t he ridge As you cont inue to read about mid·
the rest of the band members squeeze to- than they do in the trough (a con cept d is- latitude cyclonic storms, remember
gether, causing con vergence; w hen the c ussed in Chapter 8 on p. 217). from Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 that the most likely
marcher s. in front start to run. the band mem-- As th e faster-flowing air moves away location for upper-level converging air is
bers. spread apart,or d i~rge. from the ridge and approaches the slower- to t he left (west} of the upper t ro ugh. The
Figure 3 illustrates how this type o f moving air in th e trough. the air piles up, most likel y location for diverging air is to
convergence and d ivergence can occur in producing con vergence. W here the the right (east) of t he uppertrough.
(!hat is, increase in size) when !hey approach a longwave atmosphere is said to be barocllnic.• Notice in Fig. 12.9b that
trough and weaken (become smaller) when !hey approach the baroclinic region tendo; to be in a narrow zone in the vicinity
a ridge. Moreover, \\•hen a short\\•ave moves into a long"•ave a shortwaves I and 3. "Jl1eshortwaves actually disturb the flow
trough, !he trough tends to deepen. (Look al short,.·ave 3 in and aa:.e ntuate !he region ofbaroclinicity.
Fig. 12.9b.) Jn the region of barodinicity, winds cross the isotherms
Where !he contour lines in Fig. 12.9b are roughly parallel and produce tempc>ralure adveclion. Cold adveclion (or cold air
to !he isother~ (dashed red lines), the atmosphere is said to advection) is the transport of cold air by the "ind from a region
bebarolropic. Since the \\inds at this level more or ko;s parallel oflower (colder) temperatures to a region of higher (warmer)
the contour line,-;, in a barotropic atmosphere !he windo; blow
parallel to the isorherms. fly comparison, where the isother~ •Actu30y. o n a co nshUll pres.sure surfuce, barodinic conditions exist where the air
cross the contour lines, temperature adveclion occurs and the dcnsityvaries. and baro1mpic conditionsexist where the air d ensity d oes nol vary.
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..
....,,
<1<n11....i fl ,....., .._,~..,,._ 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
500mb
(a) DAY 1 (b) DAY 2 (24 hours later)
• FIGUR E12. 9 (a} Upper..airchart sho.vin9 a long\vave \vith three shorl\vaves (heavy dashed lines) embedded in theflo\V. {b}T\venty-four hours later
theshorl\vaves have moved rapidly around the long\vave. Notice that the shorl\vaves labeled land 3 tend to deepen the long\vave trough. \vhile short-
wave 2 ha.s\veak.ened as it moves into a ridge. Notice also that as the longwave deepens in diagram (b), its length actually shortens.. Dashed red tines are
isotherms in °C.Solicl gray linesarecontours. Blue a fTO\VS indicate cold advection and red arrows.. \Wrm advection.
temperatures. ln the region of cold ad vection, the air tempera- this region, disturbing the flow as shown in Fig. 12.10b.1bissets
ture normally decreases. On the other hand, warm adveclion upakindofinstabilityin theflow(as warmer air rises and colder
(or 1vann airndvettion) is the transport of " "arm air by the "ind air sinks) known as barodinic instability.
from a region of higher (warmer) temperatures to a region of
lower (colder) temperatures. In the region of warm advection, UPPER· AIRS UP PORT With the onset ofbaroclinic in~tabilit y,
the air temperature normally increases. For cold advection to horizontal and vertical air motions begin to enhance the forma-
occur, the wind must blow across the isotherms from colder to tion of a cydonicstorm. For example, as the flow aloft becomes
''iarrner regions. '''hereas for '''arm advection. the '''ind must disturbed, it begins to lend support for the intensification ofsur-
blow across the isotherm.~ from warmer to rolder region~. faa> pressure systems, as a region of converging air forms above
In the barodinic region in Fig. 12.9b, observe that strong position l in Fig. 12.!0bandaregionofdiverging airform.~above
"1nds cross the isotherm.~. producing cold advection (blue position 2.' 11ie converging air aloft cm1ses the surface air pres-
arrows) on the trough's west side and warm advection (red sure to rise in the region marked Hin Fig. 12.!0b. Surface wind~
arrows) on its east side. Below the barodinic zone lies the polar begin to blow out away from the region of higher pressure, and
front; above it flows the polar-front jet stream. The disturbed the air aloft gradually sinks to replaa> it. Meanwhile, diverging
flow created by the shortwaves is now capable of aiding in the air a loft causes the surface air pressure to decrease bene'll h posi-
development or intensification ofa surface mid-latitudecydonic t ion 2, in the region marked Lon the surface map. Th is initiates
storm. The theory explaining how this phenomenon occurs is rising air, as the surface winds blow in toward the region oflower
known as the baroclinic 1vave theory of developing cyclones. pressure. As the converging surface air develops cydonic spin,
cold air flows southward and warm air northward. We can see
in Fig. 12.lOb thatthe western half of the stationary front is now
a cold front and the eastern half a warm front. Cold air moves in
The Necessary Ingredients for a behind the cold front, while warm air slides up along the warm
Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclone front. 'fheseregionsofcold and warm ad vection occur all the way
up to the 500-mb level.
1b better understand how a wave cyclone may develop and On the 500 -mbchart in Fig. 12.!0b,cold advectionisoccur-
intensify into a huge mid-latitude cyclonic storm, we need ring at position I (blue arrow) as the wind crosses the isotherm.~.
to examine atmospheric conditions at the surface and aloft. bringing cold air into the trough.1 hecold advection makes the
Suppose that a portion ofa longwavetrough at the 500-mb level air more dense and lo"'ersthe height oft he air column from the
lies directly above a surface stationary front, as i llustrate<l in surfare up to the500-mb kvel. (Recall that, on a 500-mb chart,
oPig. l2.10a. On the 500-mb chart. contour lines (solid gray lower height~ mean the same as lower pressures.) Consequently,
lines) and isotherm.~ (dashed red lines) parallel each other and the pressure in the trough lowers and the trough deepens. '.lbe
are crowded dose together. Colder air is located in the north- deepening of the upper trough causes the contour lines to crowd
ern half of the map, while warmer air is located to the south. closer together and the winds aloft to increase. Meanwhile, at
Winds are blowing at fairly high velocities, which produce a
sharp change in wind speed- a strong wind speed sliear- from "Look b.1ck nl Fig. 11..7. p. 325, tind I.he upper-akch.-irt In Fig.land Fig.Jon p.327.
the surface up to this level. Suppose a shortwave moves through and note I.he regions of conveigingairnnd diverging air on these 1nap$.
°*"'"''*..
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,..... i....
..
Cold L ~ L. ~
- 2Q ........... :
.. ···~20
- IQ. ..••• :'@ !
----...._ _:,::.... ·...... ·
- '"" ...
../ Cold ../ /

~ • ..... .
• •
I ,_..- Warm • ..-- 1..--
N Surf~oe N
(a) (b) (C)
• F I GURE 12. 10 An idealized 3·0 vie\vof the formation of a mid..latitudecydone during baroc:linic instability. {a} A longwave t:tough al SOO mb lies
pa.raUel toand directly above the surface stationaryfronl (b} A shortwave (not shown) disturbs theflCAv a loft, initiating temperature advection (blue
arro\v, cold advection; red arrow, warm advec:tion). The upper trough intensifies and provides the necessaryvertical motions {assho\vn by vertical
<Hro\vs} for the development of the surface \vavecyclone.. Cd As the surface storm moves northeastward, it occludes, and without upper-leveldiverging
air to com pen.sate for surface converging air, thecyclonic storm system diss:ipates..
po.sition 2 (red arrow) warm advection is taking place, which has When the upper low lies directly above Lhe surface low (as in
the effect ofraising the height ofacolwnn ofair; here, the SOO·mb Fig. 12.!0c), the storm system is said to be vertically stacked.
heights increase and a ridge builds (strengthens). Therefore, the u~ually the isotherms around the upper low parallel the con-
ovemll effect ofdifferential temperature advection is lo amplify the tour lines, which indicates Lhat no significant temperature
upper-levd wave. As the trough aloft deepens, its curvature in· advection is occurring. Without the necessary energy tran~for
creases, which in turn increases 1he region of divergence above mation~. the surface system gradually dis.~ipates. As il~ winds
the developing surface storm. At Lhis point, the surface mid· slacken and il~ central pressure gradually rises, the low is said
latitude cyclone rapidly develops as surface pressures fall. to be filling. 11ie upper-level low, however, may remain sta-
Regions of cold and warm advection are associated with tionary for many days. 1f air i~ forced to ascend into Lhis cold
vertical motions. Where Lhere is cold advection, some of the pocket, widespread clouds and precipitation may persist for
cold, heavy air sinks; where there is warm advection, some of some time, even though the surface storm system il~elf has
the warm, light air rises. Hence, due to advection, air must be moved east out of the picture.
sinking in the vicinity of position I and rising in Lhe vicinity of
position 2. THE ROLEOFTHE JETSTREAM A~ we have seen, in onler fOr
The sinking of cold air and the rising of warm air provide en· middle-latitude cyclones to develop and intensify there mll~l be
ergy for a developing cyclone, as potential energy is tran~formed upper-level diverging air above the surface storm. '!he polar jet
into kinetic energy. Further, ifclouds form, condensation in the as- stream can provide such areas of divergence. In Chapter JO, we
cending air releases latent heat, which warms the air.1he warmer learned that the axi~ of the polar-front jet stream pretty much
air lowers the surface pressure, which strengthens the surface low coincides with the position ofthe polar front.11ie region of stron·
even more. So, we now have a full·fledged middle-latitudecyclone gest winds in the jet stream i~ known as a jet stream core, or jet
with all of the necessary ingredienlS fOr il~ development. streak. When the polar jet stream flows in a wavy west-to·east
Eventually, the warm air curls around the north side of the pattern, a jet streak tends to form in the trough of the jet, where
low, and the storm system occludes (see Fig. 12.JOc). •Some pressure gradients are tight. The curving of the jet stream cou·
storms may continue to deepen, but most do not as they rnove pied with the changing wind speeds around the jet streak pro-
out from under the region of upper-level divergence. Addition- duces regions of strong convergence and divergence of air along
ally, at the surface the storm may weaken as the supply of warm the flanks of the jet. (If you are curious as to why these regions of
air is cut off and cold, dry air behind the cold front (called a dry converging and diverging air develop around the jet streak, read
slot) is drawn in toward the surface low. the Focus section on p. 330.)
Sometimes, an upper-level pool of cold air (which has Notice that the region of diverging <tir (marked D in
broken away from the main flow) lies almo.st directly above • Fig. 12. ll a) draws warm surface air upward to the jet, which
the surface low. Occasionally the upper low will break away quickly sweeps the air downstream. Since the air above the mid·
entirely from the main flow, producing a cut·offlow, which latitude cyclone is being removed more quickly than converging
often appears as a single contour line on an upper-level chart. surface winds can supply air to the storm:~ center, the central
pressure of the storm drop.~ rapidly. As surface pressure gradi·
·u'1he occluded frontshouldextend westol'lhe low'sccntcr. it ls so1neti1ucs referred en ts increase, Lhe wind speed increases. Above the high·pressure
toasa bt111ba<k ocd".siou. area, a region of converging air (marked C in Hg. 12.11 a) feed~
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""" ""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Jet Streaks and Storms
Figure 4 sh ows an area of maxim um w inds, p rodu ces strong divergence at polnt 3 an d
a jet streak, o n a 300-mb cha rt. Jet streaks weak con vergen ce at point 4.
have winds o f at least SO knots, and repre- L Jf
T h e con dit ions described so far exist in
..._ E
sen t small segmen ts (ran ging in len gth N-.. --+ -'i- x_.
e--- a str aigh tjet streak th at sh ows n o curva-
-w+e
from a few hundred kilometers to over T- 1 t ure. W h en th e jet stream becomes wavy,
.+ R-
- ~-·r--._
3000 kilometers) within th e mean dering an d th e j et streak exhibits cyclonic curva-
A 41
jet stream flow.
Jet streaks are important in the devel- A'E
......
~
N
..,., t ure (as it does in Fig. 4), th e areas o f weak
d ivergen ce (at point 2) an d weak con ver-
opmen t of surface mid-latitu de cyclon es be- gence (at point 4) all b ut disappear. What
200km
cause areas of convergence and divergence 300mb s '------' we are left w ith is a curving jet streak th at
f ormat specific region s around them. To un- exhibits stron g divergen ce at poin t 3 (in th e
• FIGURE 5 Changingairmotions\Yithina
derstand w hy, consider air moving throu gh a straight jet streak. {shaded area) caus.e strong con- left exit region) an d stron g convergen ce at
straight jet streak (shaded area) in Fig.5.As vergence ofair at point 1 {left ent rance region} and poin t 1 (in t h e left en tran ce region). Notice
th e air en ters th e front o f the streak (known strong divergenceat point 3 {left exit region}. in Fig. 6 t h at below th e area of stro n g d iver-
as the entrance region), it increases in speed; gen ce t h e air rises, cools an d, if su fficiently
as it leaves the rear o f th estreak (known as moist, con den ses into clouds. Moreover,
the exitregion), it decreases in speed. At this pressure g radient force (directed north) and t h e removal o f air in th e region o f stro n g
elevation in th e atmosph ere (about 10,000 m th eCoriolis force(directed sou th). As th eair d ivergen ce cau ses surface p ressures to fall,
or 33,000 ft above the surface), thewind flow en ters th ejet streak, it increases in speed be- w hich results in th e developmen t o f an a rea
is n early in geostrophic balan ce with th e cau se th e con tour lines are closer together, o f surface low pr essure.
cau sing an increase in th e pressuregradien t
force. Th e greater force temporarily exceeds
the Coriolis force, and the air swings ~ig htly
to th e n orth across th e con tour lines, w hich
causes a piling up of air (called a bottleneck
effed) and strongconve19enceat point I.
Weak divergen ce occurs at poin t 2.
Toward the m iddle of the jet streak, the
increase in w ind speed cau ses th e Coriolis
force to increase an d th ewind to become
n earlygeostrophic again. H awever, as th e
300mb N air exits the jet streak, th e pressure gradien t
force is reduced as th e con tour lines spread
e FIGURE 4 A portion of a 300-mb chart (about
far th er apar t. Henc~ th e Coriolis forcetem--
33,000 ft above sea level} th al sho\VS the core oft he • FIGURE 6 An area of strongdivergence (DIV}
jet-the region of ma.ximum\vinds (MAX)-called porarilyexceeds th e pressuregradien t force, can form with a curving jet streak. Belo\v the area of
a jet streak. Dashed lin~areequal lines of \Vind cau sing th e air to cross th e contour lines divergence are rising air, douds, and the developing
speed {isotachs) in knots. and swing slightly to the south, This process mid~latillldecyc:lonic storm.
air downward into the anticyclone. Hence, we find the polarjel months. During the summer when the polar jet shifts north-
streani re111oving air above the surfac.e e,.ydone and supplying air ward, developing mid-latitude storm activity shifts northward
to /he surface anticydone. and occurs principally over the ('.1nadian provinces of Alberta
As the jet stream steers the mid-latitude cyclonic storm and the Northwest Territories.
along-toward the northeast in this case- the surface cy- In general, we now have a fairly good picture as to why
clone occludes, and cold air surrounds the surface low (see some surface lows intensify into huge mid-latitude cyclones
Fig, 12. l lb). Since the surface low has moved out from under the while others do not. For a surface cyclonic storm to intensify,
pocket ofdiverging air aloft, theocdudedstorm gradually fiUsas there must be an upper-level c-0unterpart-a trough of low
surfa<'.l' airflows into thesy~11em. pressure- that lies to the wes/ of the surface low. Asshortwaves
Since the polar jet stream is strongest and moves farther disturb the flow aloft, they cause regions of differential temper-
south in \;,•inter, \;,1e can see \;,•hy mid-latitude cyclonic stor1nl) ature advection to appear, leading to an intensification of the
are better developed and move more quickly during the colder upper-level trough. At the same time, the polar jet forms into
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c..'ll'tl.. 1~..,'ll..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
L
Ceore D
Jet
stream
(a) Day I (b) Day 2
• F IGURE 12.11 (a)As the polar jet stream and its area o f m a.x.imum \Vinds (the jet streak., o r core) s\vingsover a developing mid..l atitude
eye.lone, an area o f d ivergence (O)dra\vs warm surface a ir UP\Vard. and an a re.a of convergence (C) aUo\vscold a ir to sink. The j et s1rea m
rem oves air above the surface storm, \Vhich causes surface pressures to d rop and the st orm to intensify.(b} When the surface storm m oves
northeastward and occludes, it no longer has the upper·l evel support cl diverging air, and the surface storm graduallydi£>Sout
waves and swings slightly south of the developing storm. When where no upper trough or jet stream exists, the necessary verti-
these conditions exist, zones of converging and diverging air, cal and horizontal motions are insufficient to enhance cyclonic
along with rising andsinking air, provide energy conversions for storm development and we say that the surface storm does not
the storm's growth. With this atmo.~pheric situation,storrn~ may have the proper upper-air support. The horizontal and vertical
form even where there are no pre-existing fronts.' Jn regions motions, cloud patterns, and weather that typically occur with
where the upper-level flow is not di~tur bed by shortwaves or a developing open-wave cyclone are summarized in • Fig. 12.12.
•fl is interesting to note that the beginning stage of 3 \\'.We cyclone ahnosi ah w1ys CONVEYOR BELT MODEL OF MID-LATITUDE CYCLONES A
takes pJa« when an area of upper·lewl divergence pnssesoverasurfucc f mnL How-
ever.even lfinlti ally there are no fronts o n the surfoce 1nap. they 1nnybcgin to fonn three-dimen~ional model of a developing mid-latitude cyclone
where air masses h:1Ving conlrasting proper1ies nre brought together in the region is illustrated in • Hg. 12.l 3. The model describes rising andsink-
where thesu11ilce air rises and the surrounding air flo\\'S inward. ing air as traveling along three main "conveyor belts." just as
• FIGURE 12.12 Summaryofc:louds..

L weathet verticalmotion5.;and upper-air
support associated with a developing
Upper mid. . latitude cyclone. Dark g reen a rea
Upper Uough represents precipitation.
ridge
I
I
H I
I
t
I
I
t
-t Sinklng
air t Rising
air
Warmer air ,,
• Cirrus clouds
Clouds
lhlckenlng
( H ~Hallon
Mill<y Clear
skies ./ skies
----RisJng piess"'"
N
I
SUrface
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl<'l~"''ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH
In mid·January, 1888, a ferocious mid- latitude cyclonic
storm swept across the Great Plains from Texas to the
Dakotas and into Wisconsin. Strong winds, extremely low
temperatures, and heavy snow on the storm' s western
side wiped out the Plains free-range livestock and took
237 lives. This infamous storm has come to be known as
the "Children's Blizzard" because of the many dozens of
schoolchildren frozen to death on their way to school.
people ride escalators to higher level~ in a department store, so

air glides along through a constantly evolving mid-1'\titude cy-
clone. Acconling tothecom·eror beh model, a warm air stream
(known as the wam1 conveyor belt -orange arrow in Fig. 12.l 3)
originates at the surface in the warm sector, ahead of the cold
front. As tht-\\•ar1n air stream moves northv,•ard~ it slO\\ily rises
along the sloping warm front, up and over the cold air below.
As the rising air cools, w'lter vapor condenses, and clouds form
well out ahead of the surface low and its surface warm front.
From these clouds, steady precipitation usually fall~ in the tOrm
of rain or snow. Aloft, the warm air flow gradually turns toward
the northeast, parallel to the upper-level winds. • FI GURE 12.14 Visible satellite image cl a mature mid-latitudecyc:lone
Notice in Fig. 12. 13 that directly below the warm conveyor with the three conve)Or belts superimposed on tliestorm. As in Flg. 12.13, tlie
belt, a cold airstream-the cold conveyor belt- moves slowly \varm conveyor belt is in orange, the cold conve)Or belt is in blue, and tliedry
\\'tStv.r.ird. Ai:; the air moves \\'i!'Sl ahead of the \\•arm front. pre- conveyor belt (forming the drys/or} is in yellC\v.
cipitation and surface moisture evaporates into the cold air,
making it moist. As the cold, moist airstream moves into the to thi~ region of the cyclone. 'f he rising airstream usually turns
vicinity of the surface low, ri~ing air gradually forces the cold rounlerdockwise, around the surface low, first beading south,
conveyor belt upward. A~ the cold, moist air sweep.~ north- then northeastward, when ii gets caught in the upper air flow.
west of the surface low, it often brings heavy winter snowfall~ II i~ lhecounterclod:."1se turning of the cold conveyor bell that
produces the comma-shaped doudsimilartothe one shown in
· Fig. 12.14.
1 he last conveyor bell is a dry one that forms in the cold,
very dry region of the upper troposphere. Called the dry con-
veyor belt, and shaded yellow in Fig. 12. 13, this airstream slow! y
descends from the northwest behind the surface cold front,
where it brings generally clear, dry weather and, occasionally,
blustery winds. If a branch of the dry air sweep.~ into Lhe storm,
ii produces a clear area called a dry slot, which appears to pinch
off the comma cloud's head from its tail. This phenomenon
tends to show up on satellite images as the mid-latitude storm
becomes more fully developed (see Pig. U .14).
We are now in a p<>~ition to tie together many oftheconcepts
we have learned about developing mid-latitude cyclones by ex-
amining a monstrousstorm that formed during March, 1993.
A DEVELOPING MID·LATITUDE CYCLONE - THE MARCH

STORM OF 1993 A color-enhanced infrared satellite image of
a developing rnid-latiludecydone on the morning of March 13,
• FI GURE 12 .13 The conveyor belt model of a developing mid~lat itudecy 1993, is shown in • Fig. 12.15. Notice that il~ cloud band is in the
clone. The \\Girm conveyor belt (in orange) rises along the\varm front causing shape of a comrna that covers the entire eastern seaboard. Such
c.loudsand precipitation to cover a vast area. The cold conveyor belt (in blue)
romma clo uds indicate that the storm i~ still developing and in-
slO\vly rises as it carries cold, moist air west\'1ard ahead of the\varm fron t but
under the rising \VCHm air. The cold conve)Or belt lifu rapidty and \Yrapscoun- tensifying. But this storm is not an ordinary wavecydone-thi~
terclock\vise around thecenterof the surface lo\v. The dryconve)CH belt {in stor1n intensified into a superstorm, '''hic.h some forecasters
yello\v) bringsverydry, cokl air do.vnward from the up~ tJOposphere. dubbed "the storm of the c-entury."
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
rold arctic air pours into the Deep South. Ahead of the advanc-
ing front, a band of heavy thunderstorms(along a squall line) is
pounding Florida \\1th heavy rain, high winds, and tornadoe.~.
Warm humid air in the warm sector i~ streaming north ward,
overrunning cold surface air ahead of the warm front, which is
causing precipitation in the form of rain, snow, and sleet to fall
over a vast area extending from Florida to New York.
1 he 500-mb chart for the morning of March 13 (see
• Fig. 12.17) shows that a deep trough extending southward
out of Canada lies to the west of the surface low. Around the
trough where strong winds cross the isotherms, there is tem-
perature advection.
Notice that warm advection (indicated by red barbs) is
occurring on the trough's eastern side, ahead of the surface
'""m front shown in Fig. 12. 16. C'.old advection (indicated by
blue barbs) is occurring on the trough's western side, behind
the position of thesurfacecold front. As temperatureadvection
deepens the trough, rising and sinking air provide energy for the
developing surface storm.
• FI GURE 12 .15 An enhanced infrared satellite image that showsadevel·
oping mid-latitudecyclone at 2AM. (EST} on March 13, 1993. The dark red color Higher in the upper troposphere, a strong jet stream and
represents doudswith the coldest and highest tops. The red doud band mov• jet streak exist over northern Florida (see • Fig. 12.18). On the
ing through Florida represents a tine of severe thunderstormsas.soc:iated with eastern side of the jet streak, diverging air forms over the sur-
a strong cold f ronl Notice that a dry .slot exists behind the front and that the face low, causing surface air to rapidly rise. 1 he rising air is then
cloud pattern is in the shape of a comma.
swept northeastward by the jet stream and the surface low deep-
ens into an intense area of I0\\ pre.ssure. 1
The surface weather map for the morning of March 13 We now have a pretty good idea as towhy this wavecydone
(see • Fig. 12. 16) shows that the center of the open wave is over developed into such a deep low-pre.ssure area. ' lbe storm began
northern Florida. Observe in l'ig. 12.15 that thi~ position is in on March 12,isa frontal waveoffthe1'exasroast (see . Fig. 12.19).
the head of the comma cloud. The central pressure of the storm Jn the upper air, a shortwave, moving rapidly around a long"·ave,
is975 mb(28.79 in.), which indicates an incrediblydeepsystem, disturbed the flow, selling up the necessary ingredient~ for the
considering a typical open wave would have a central pressure surface storm's development. By the morning of March 13, the
closer to 996 mb (29.4 1 in.). A strong cold front stretches from storm had intensified into a deep open-wave cyclone centered
the storm'.~ center through western Florida. Behind the front, over Florida. In the upper air, a region ofdiverging air p<>~itioned
e FI GURE 12.16 Surface\o.eather

24 32 28 mapfor4 A.M. (EST) on March 13, 1993.
lines on the map are isobars. A reading
~24 of 96 is 996 mband a reading of00 is
1000 mb. fro obtain the proper pressure
20
H in millibars, placea9 before those read·
ingsbel\veen80and96,a nd place a to
"--=--24 before those readingsofOOor higher.)
Green shaded areas are receiving pre·
cipltation. Heavy arrO\YS represen t sur·
facewind.s.. The orange arrO\v represents
\....arm, humid air; the light blue arra.v,
cold, moist air; and the dark bluearrO\V,
cold, arctic air.
H
20 24
28
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,..,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
516
@
-
........
{ CIWM)
can o.~
t-2
l<nOl$
14
"- w )..'/
\___ i..1 4 8-12
\l._ lS-20 1a.11
L- 2-t·2S IH2
570 ~ '6..31 23-21
~ 32-37 28-32
570 ~ '38-43 3).3'/
\\.\.\..._ 44-CD 36-42
576 ~ so.~ ~-47

.__....., .....
U- Gt~ 53-61
~ 67~71 5M2
582
-10'············· \ fu.- rz.n Gl~7
56~ · · · · · · · ·_·_·_·:·~·
~ )'8-8J 68-72
~ 11J..n
mb '·,.
....·.,£..
···:·:·::.:
··"'
···,,.
. -'-'_:_::::--,===:::L_ 8'-89
~ I lt.l.23 1Q3.107
• FIGURE 12. 17 The SOO·mbc:hart br 7 AM.. (EST) March l 3, 1993. Solid lines are contourS\vhere 564equals 5640 meters.
Dashed lines are isotherms in~ Wind entries in red shO\V\varm advection. Those in blue sho\vcold advection. Those in black
indicate no appreciable temperatureadvection isoccurring.
above the storm caused the storms surface pressures to drop storm~ central pressure dropped to an incredibly low %0 mb
rapidly. Upper-level southwester! y winds (Fig. 12.1 8) directed (28.35 in.). Although the surface "'"'ts associated with this low
the surface low northeaSl\\".lrd, where it became occluded over pressure were quite strong and gusty, they were not as strong as
Virginia during the afternoon of March 13. At this point, the those in a major hurricane because the isobars around the storm
were spread farther apart than those in a hurricane and because
surface friction slowed the \\1nds. Higher up, away from the in·
fluence of the surface, the \\fads were much stronger, as a wind
of 125 knots(l44 mi/hr) was reported at thetop of1900-meter·
high Mount Washington, New Hampshire.
The upper trough remained to the west of the surface low,
and the storm continued its northeastward movement. In
Fig. 12.19, we can see th'll by the morning ofMarch 14 thestorm
(which was now a deep, bentback occluded system) had weak·
ened slightly and was centered along the coast of Maine. Mov-
ing out from under its area of upper-level divergence, the storm
weakened even more as it continued its northeaSl\\".lrd journey,
out over the North Atlantic. Jn all, the storm was one of the
strongest ever. It blanketeddeepsnow from Alabama to Canada.
l'ierce winds piled the snow into huge drifts that clo.sed roads,
leaving motorists stranded. The storm shut down every major
airport along the East Coast and more than 3 million people lo.~t
Upper air chart electric power at some point during the storm. "The storm of the
century" damaged or destroyed hundreds of homes, produced
• FIGURE 12.18 Air flo\v aloft at an altitude above 10,000 m {33,000 ft) on
March 13, 1993. Noticethata jet streak (orange shade) s\vingsover northern
27 tornadoes.stranded hikers in North ('.arolina and Tennessee,
Florida.. The letters orv represent an area of strong divergence that formed C'1used an estimated $800 million in damage, 'md claimed the
above the surface low. lives of at least 270 people.
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,...., .._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,.,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH
BRIEF REVIEW
The great March storm of 1993 set record low barometric
Up to this poln ~ we have looked at the structure and develop- pressure readings in a dozen states, produced wind gusts
ment of mid-l atitude cyclones. Before going on, here Is a exceed ing 90 knots from New Englan d to Florida , and
summary of a few of the Import ant ideas present ed so f ar: deposited 50 billion tons of snow over the east coast of
the United States. Some record snowfall totals with the
• The polarfront (or Nor wegian) model o fa developing mid- storm include Syracuse, New York, with 43 inches; Beckley,
la tltude cyclonic st orm represents a simplif ied but useful West Virginia, with 30 inches; and 13 inches in Birmingham,
model of how an ideal storm progresses through the stages Alabama.
of birth, maturity, and dissipation.
• For a surface mid-latitude cyclone to develop or intensify
(deepen), the upper-level low must be located t o the west direction, our concern will be "1th the spin ofhorizontally flOl•'-
of (behind) the surface low. ingair about a vertical axis, much like an ice skater spins about an
imaginary vertical axis. Bec.lllse our goal i~ to see how vorticity
• For a surface mid-latitude cyclonic storm to form, there can be used to identify regions of divergence and convergence,
must be an area of upper-level diverging air above the sur- we must give vorticity some quantitative value. When viewed
face low. For the surface storm to int ensify, the region of from above, air that spins cydonically (counterclockwise) has
upper-level diverging air must be greater than surface con- positive vortidty and air that spin~ anticydonically (clockwise)
verging air (t hat is, more air must be removed above the has negative vortidty.
storm than Is brought In at the surface). We can see in • Fig. 12.20 how divergence aloft and the
• When the upper-airflow develops int o waves, winds oft en vorticity of surface air are related. Suppose the air column in
cross the isotherms, producing region s of cold advection Fig. 12.20 representsan area oflowpressurewith weak cyclonic
and warm advectlon, which tend to amplify the wave. At the (p0-~itive) spin. Further, suppose that an invisible barrier sepa-
same time, vertical air motions begin to enhance the forma- rates the column (and the ice skater inside) from the surround-
tion of the surface storm as the rising of warm air and the ing air. Now suppose an area of divergence a loft (al the 300-mb
sinkin g of cold air provide the proper energy conversion for level, about 30,000 ft above the surface) moves directly over
the storm's growth. the air column. Divergence aloft mean~ that "ithin this region
• When the polar-front jet stream develops into a looping more air is leaving than isenlering.111is removal ofair above the
wave, it provides an area of upper-level diverging air for the column lowers the atmospheric pressure at the surface. As the
development of surface mid-l atitude cyclonic storms.
• The curving nature of the polar-front jet stream tends to
direct surface mid-l atitude cyclonic storms northeastward
and surface anticyclones southeastward.
Vorticity, Divergence, and

Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclones
We knOI•' that for asurfocemid-latitudecydone to develop into
a deep low-pressure area there mtt~l be an area ofstrong upper-
level divergence situated above the developing storm. Meteorol-
ogists, then, are interested in locating regions of diver&oenceon
upper-level chart~so that developing storms can be accurately
predicted. We know from a nearlier di~us.~ion that divergence
and convergence of air are due to changes in either wind speed
or wind direction. '!be problem is that it is a dillicult task to mea-
.iil-'--""7 A.M.
sure divergence (or convergence) with any degree of accuracy 3,/12/93
using upper-level wind information. Therefore, meteorologists
must look fi>r something else that can be measured and, at the • FIGURE 12 .19 The development of the ~rodous mid-lati tude cyclonic
same time, can be related to regions of diverging ~nd converg- storm of March, 1993.Asmall \vave in the \Wstern Gulf of Mexico intensifies into
a deepopen..\vavecycloneover Florida. It moves northeast\vard and becomes
ing) air. '!hat something is called vorticity occ luded overVirginia\vhere its central pressure drops t o960 mb{2&3S in.I.
When something spins, it has vorticity. ' Jhe faster it spins, As t he oa:luded storm continues its nort heast\vard movement, it graduallyfil~
the greater its vorticity. In meteorology, "orticity is a measure and dissipat~ The number next to the storm isitscentral pressure in millibars..
' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl .._..., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c ..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
VORTICITY ON A SPINNING PLANET Jlecmsetheearthspins,
it h'ts vorticity. In the Northern Hemisphere,theearth'.~ vortic-
ity (also called planetary vo11icity) is always positive becau.sethe
earth spins counterclockwise about its vertical North f>ole a.xis.
'Jbe amount of earth vorticity imparted 10 any object-even
to tho.se that are not moving relative to the earth'ssurface-
300mb
depends upon the latitude. l n • Fig. 12.2 1, an observer stand-
ing on the equator would not spin about his or her own vertit.al
-• axis; farther north, the observer would spin very slowly, while
},- at the Northf>ole the ob-serverwouldspin al a maximum rate of
one revolution per day. It is now apparent that any objocton the
<: ::> earth has vorticity simply becausetheearlh i~spinning,andthe
1Cl0llmb
amount ofthis earth vorticityincreasesfromzeroat the equator
Cyclonic vorticity Cyck>nic vorticity Increases toa maximum at the poles.•
• FIGURE 12. 20 When upper 1evel divergence moves over an area of\veak
4 Moving air \\1U generally have additional vorticity rel31iveto
C)Clonic circulation, the C)Cloniccirculation inc:reases (that is, it becomes more the e.1r1h'ssurface. Thi~ type of vorticit y,called relalh'e vorticity,
positive}, and airis forced upwa rd. i~ the sum of two effects: the curving of the air flow (curvahire)
and the changing of the wind speed over a horizontal di<tance
surface pressure lowers, the air surrounding the column con- (slie.ur). • Figure 12.22 illustrates vorticity due to curvature. Air
verges on it, pushing inward on its sides. If we as~ume that the moving through a trough tends to spin cyclonically (counter-
total mass ofair in the column does not change, then squeezing clockwise), increasing its relative vorticity. In the ridge, the spin
the column causes it 10 shrink horizontally and stretch vertically, tends 10 be anticyclonic (cloc~·wise) , and the relative vorticity of
forcing1heairinthecolumnupw.1rd. Meanwhile,asthecolumn the air increases, but in a negative direction. Whenever the "1nd
stretches, the ice skater's annsare puUed in dose, and the skater blows fa.'ter on one side ofan air parcel than on I he other, a shear
spins much faster. Hence, the rate at which air flows around the !Orce i' imparted on the parcel and it will spin and gain (orlo.se)
center d the column mlk~I also increase. Consequently, the vor- relative vorticity. • Figure 12.23 illustrates relative vorticity due
ticity of the colmnn increases, becoming more positive. So we to horizontal wind shear.
can see that divergence aloft causes an increase in the cyclonic The sum of the earth's vorticity and the relative vorticity i~
(po.~itive) vorticity ofsurface cyclones, which usuaUy results in caUed the absolute vorticity. To further illustrate this concept,
cydogenesis and upward air motions. suppose you are watching an ice skater spin counterclockwise on
Beforeweeonsider how vorticity on an upper-level chart ties a frozen lake. The ice skaterpossessespo.<ilive relative vorticity.
in with developing mid-latitude cyclones, we need 10 examine If you could suddenly leave the earth and watch the same spin-
two important types of this phenomenon: the earth's vorticity ning skater from space, you would see the ice skater spinning on
and rek1tive vorticity. a rotating platform -the earth. The combination of the skater
spinning about her vertical axis (her relative vorticity) plus the
Maxlmt.rn spin small spin imparted to her from the spinning earth (earth's vor-
ticity) yields the ab-solute vorticity of the skater. We are now in
$ a po.'ition ro see how vorticity aloft ties in with d iver!,>ence and
·lhe e.l1thS vorticitya1any latitudeis equal 10 the product of rwict> 1hc e.-.1thSangu·
br r~te ofspin (2!!) and I he sin of the btitude (cl>):th.11 is. lf!: sin {~ ). This ex.pres·
sion is referred to as the l.ar{o(is pardnlete.r. and ii is usuallyexpre.s.s«t by the letterf.
%
~ Slight spin
J
- -1-
......
t - - --l
r-t-
I
E.qua10< / No spin
Ridge L
Trough
H
Air gains cyclooic---'---, .....
/ 1e1a1ive vorticity ...,
/upper-Air Chart
• FIGURE 12. 21 Due to the rotation of the earth, the rate of spin o f observ• • FIGURE 12. 22 In a region \Vhere the contour linescurve,air moving
ers about theirvertical axes increases from zero at the equator toa maximum through a ridge spins cloc.k\vise and gai11$ anticydonic relative vorticity. In the
al the poles.. trough. the air spinscounterdock\vise and gains cyclonic relative vorticity.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Vorticity and Longwaves
We know th at longwaves develop aloft in

the atmosphere and that lon gwaves ar e
importa nt.. because they transfer heat and
moment um from one latitude to another.
But how do t hese waves form in the first
place? The concept ofvorticitycan help
explain longwave fo rmation. For example,
let's assume that in the atmosphere there
is no d ivergence or convergence of air so
that air colum ns cannot stretch or con-
tract W here t hese conditi ons p revail, the
absolute vor ticity of air w ill be conser ved,
meaning that the numerica l valueofth e
SU m of th e ear th's vorticity and the relative e FI GURE 7 The \vavy path of air aloft due to the conservation ofabsolute vorticity.
vorticitywill n ot c hange w ith time. Thus
Absolute vor ticity =

at an altitude near 5.5 km (about 18,000 ft) rel ati vevorti c i ty i mpli esc~ l oni c curva-
ear th's vorticity + relative vor ticity =
above sea level.* At this level, divergence is ture, the air turns counterclockw ise at
constant.
usually near zero, so our initia l assumption position 2 and heads nor theastwa rd. But
If t~* is the absolute vor ticity, t, t he rel- approaches a real situation. Since there is now the air is moving into a region w here
ative vorticity, and fthe ear th's vorticity, no w ind speed shear, any change in t he the ear th's vor ticity steadily increases. To
then the expr ession becomes relative vor ticity w ill be due to cuivature. offset this in crease, the relative vor ticity
Suppose that th e air flow is d isturbed must decrease. Th e relative vorticity will
t, = r., + f = constant.
by a mountain range such that the air at decrease if th e curvature becomes ant icy-
Hence, any decrease in the ear th's vor- positio n 1 is flowing sout heastwar d. Head- clonic, so at position 3 air turns clockwise
ticity m ust be compensated for by an ining equatorward, the air moves into a re- and heads toward the equator once again.
crease in the relative vorticity and v ice gion of decreasing earth vor ticity. To keep This again brings th e air into a region
versa. the absolute vor ticity of th e air constant w her e the ea rth's vor ticity decreases.
Consider, for example, that air in Fig. 7 there must be a corresponding increase To compensate, the air m ust now turn
is movin g horizontally at a constant speed in the relative vor ticity. Since increasin g cyclonically at posit ion 4, an d so on. In t his
~ esy mbol ( is theGreek.letterzeta. Meteorolo- manner, a series of upper-level longwaves
•vou may recall that theatmospheric pressure at
gistsohen use t to represent vorticity. this level isabout SOO millibars. may develop, encirclin g t he entire ear th.
j
Cyclonic
- - - -(PO$itive)
relative voniclty
~=-Wl-n~• (jet st-reams) ~~

~- - - - - -·
I the development of middle-latitude cyclones. (The concept of
absolute vorticity can explain why the westerly flow aloft tends
to form into waves. This topic is presented in the Focus section
above.)
• Figure 12.24 sho"'S an air parcel - a blob of air in this
c.ase- moving through a ridge and a trough in the upper tro-
MtlCyCloniC • po.~phere. (For simplicity, we will asswne that the parcel has a
---(negative) · ------- constant speed and that there is no shear acting on it.) Notice
relative vorticity
that at every position theparcelhascyclonicspin. 'Jl1issituation
--~
Upper-air chart
occurs because the parttl'.~total, or absolute, vorticity isa combi-
nation of the earth~ vorticity plus its relative vorticity. In middle
and high latitudes, the earth's vorticity is great enough to make
• FIGURE 12. 2 3 Areas o f cyclonic (positive} relative vorticity and anticy-
clonic {negative} relativevorticitycan form in a region of strong horizontal
the parcels spin cyclonic everywhere on the earth.
\Vind-speed shearthatcan occur near a jet stream. Notice that parcels cl air on At position I (in the ridge), the air parcel has only a slight
either side of the jet stream have opposite directionsof spin. cyclonic spin becmise the relative vorticity, due to curvature, is
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ""'bu °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w"'I••- "" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.,_,. . """"""""l'""""""c..
q10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH
A devastating mid- latitude cyclonic storm with winds
of 135 mi/ hr swept across France and Germany during
December, 1999. Dubbed Europe's 'Storm of the Century,•
it a lmost comp letely w iped out the historic gardens of
Versai ll es, France, where it de stroyed a lmost 10, 000 trees,
some of which had stood since the French Revolution.
vorticity decreases with time. Associated "'th this region we find

upper-levddivergence(at 300 mb) and low-levelconvergence(at
the surface), which inters rising air and the possibility of clouds,
precipitation, and cyclonic storm development. It follows that
• FIGURE 12. 24 The vorti city of an air parcel changes as we follo\v il \\•hen a vort ic.ity maximum a loft 1noves tO\\•artl a stationary front.
through aw.we.. From position 1 to position 3, the parcel's absolut evorticity in-
creases\vith time. In this region (shaded blue), we normally experience an area
a wave will form along the front, and a mid-latitude cyclonic
of upper-levelconverging air. As the a ir parcel moves from position 3 to posi- storm will haveagoodchanceofdeveloping. £ven intheabsenre
t ion S, its absolut evort idtydecreases \'Jith time. In this region {shaded green), of fronts, a zone oforganized clouds with precipitation may form
\Ve normallyexperiencean area of upper-leveldiverging air. in conjunction with a vorticity maximum. On the other hand, if
anticyclonic and subtracts from the earth's vorticity. At posi·

ti on 2, the relativevorticitydue to curvature is zero, which allows L
the earth's vorticity to spin the parcel faster. At po.~ition 3, the
parcel spins even faster as the curvature is cyclonic, which add~
to the earth's vorticity. At po.~ilion 4, the parcel spins more slowly
as lhe curvature is once again zero.
We c.an see in Fig. 12.24 that as the parcel move.s from
position I in the ridge to posilion 3 in the trough, its absolute
vorticity increases as it moves along. Within thi~ region is typi-
cally found an area of upper-level convergence. As the parcel
moves from po.~ition 3 in the trough to po.~ition 5 in the ridge,
its absolute vorticity decreases as it moves along. Within this
region is typically found an area of upper-level divergence. We
can nowsummarizetheinlOrmation in Fig. 12.24 by stating that
as a parcel of air moves \\'ith lhe upper-level fiO\\', an increase in
its absolute vorticity with respect to time is rel!lted to upper-level
converging lli1; and a decrease in its absolute vorticity with respect
t-0 time is related to upper-level diverging air.'
On upper-air charts that show absolute vorticity (such as
on a 500-mbchart), we find that even though theclockwi~flow
around a high·pre.ssure area produces negative rehttive vorticity,
becau.~ of the earth~ (positive) vorticity, the absolute vorticity
i') normaHy positiveevery\\'here on themap. l'iO\\•ever. there are
regions on the map (about the size of the state oflowa) where the
absolute vorticity is considerably greater. An area of high abso-
lute vorticity is referred to as a vorticily 111axi11n1111 or vort 1nax.• A
region oflO\'' absolute vorticity is kno\''nas a vortiLity 111i1ri111u111.
• Figure 12.25 iUu.~trates how vorticity, divergence, vertical
air motions, and surface mid-latitude cyclonic storm develop-
ment are linked together. '!lie 500-mb chart (middle chart) in
Fig. 12.25shows a vorticity maximum. lfyou move from the St.rface
max east\\'ard tO\\'ard point 1. notice that. as you move along.
• FIGURE 12. 25 Aregionofhighabsolutevorti c:ity-avorticity
•Viewed ttnolhcr way. in the upper rroposphcrc.3n area o f converging air increases maximum-on itsdo\vnwind (eastern} side has diverging air aloft. converging
1he 101.aJ.spin - theabsolute vorticity-of a ir pan:ds. \\ hcreas an area ofdiveiging
1 surface air, and ascending air motions. On its upwind {\vestem} side, there i s
a irda:ress.e:s lheabsoltHc vorticity of airparcd s.. converging air aloft,. diverging surface air, a nd descending air m otions..
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,,. .....,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11...ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..nt,,.,,,_,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,,..u,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• ..,,,,-.11..,,....,,..,...
,,'
,,.----,---...............
, .. -L-.. '\.
,,, Vorticity
I -. '
'
........ -- TI __ ,' ,
max
...
I
, ............ __ ,,. ___ .,.,,.,
Shortwave SOO mb
• FIGURE 12.27 A SOO-mbchart thatsho\v:sa region d maximum vorticity,

a shorhvavetrough {heavydashed line),andwind flo\v {heavy purplearrows).
The solid gray 6nesarecontour lines.. Dashed green lines are lines ofconstant
• FIGURE 12. 26 This infrared imageof\vat ervaporsh~vs region:sofmax.i·
mum vorticity as cyclonic S\Virls d moisture over the north Pacific Ocean on absolutevortidty.
April 2, 20t 1. (Also look. bac:kat Fig. 1.1 Son p. 19.)
you move toward the vorticity maximum from position 2, we Since lower values of vorticity are moving into position 2, this
find that vorticity increases with time. Here, to the west of the region represents an are.a of 11e.grlti1re vorticity advectio11. On the
vorticity maximum in Fig. 12.25, exisl~ upper-level convergence O!her hand, note that at position I air is moving from a region of
(al 300 mb), low-level divergence (al the surface). slowly sink- highfT vorticity toward a region oflower vorticity. So, position I
ing air, and the generally fair weather we associate with surface represents a region ofpositive vorticityadvection. Overtime., vor-
high-pressure areas. ticity values will decrease at position 2 and increase al position I.
Cloud patterns in visible and infrared satl~lite images can The result ofthese changes in vorticity is the eastward movement
be very helpful in identifying vorticity maxima in regions where i:L the vorticity maximum and its associated shortwave trough.
clouds are present. In cloud-free areas, a type of infrared image Generally, the vorticity maximum and the shortwave move along
called water vapor image measures wavelengths of radiation ;tt about half the speed ofthe "'nd at this level.
emitted by water vapor. The swirling patterns of moisture dearly
identify the position of vorticity a!nters. In • Fig. 12.26 observe PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER - A MONSTROUS SNOW·
thecydonics"'irlofwater vapor associated with regions ofmaxi- STORM We are now in a position to place much of what "~
mum vorticity over the north ['acific Ocean. have learned into a real-life weather situation. • Figure 12.28
illustrates 1he atmospheric conditions th at 1urned an open-wave
VORTICITY ADVECTION AND SHORTWAVES Recall from an cyclone into a ferocious storm. The lo"~r map shows a developing
earlier discussion that shortwave troughs can be an important mid -lat itudecydone off the Nori h Carolina coast on February 11,
component in the development ofmid-latitude cydonicstorm~ 1983. ' lhecounterdockwise circulation around the low is caus-
(seep. 326 and especially Figs. 12.9 and 12.10). Sometimes it ing warm, moist air from subtropical waters (heavy red arrow)
is difficult 10 pinpoint the location of a shortwave trough on a to ride up and over wry coldsurfaa! air that is entrenched over
500-mb chart simply by looking at the contour lines. However, the eastern seaboard.Snow is falling in the cold air in advance of
with the aid ofvorticity, wecanlocateashortwaveon a map and a warm frontthat extends from the low northeastward over the
determine ho'"' it '"'ill move. Atlantic Oa!an.
o Figure 12.27 isa 500-mbcharllhatshowsa vorticity maxi- Above the surface, the 500-mbchart (middlechart, Fig. 12.28)
mum and a shortwave trough. Notia! that the short wave aligns sliO\vS a broad longwave trough with a shortwave (heavy dashed
itself with the region of maximum vorticity. So where"~ fmd line) moving through it. Notice that the short"'ave is to the "~st of
a vorticity maximum on the chart, '"'e also find a short\\'ave the surface IOI•'· Apparently, the shorhvave hasdi~turbed the 110\<',
trough. ''fo understand ho'"' the vorticity maximum moves, v..·e a~ a strong areaofbaroclinicityexists to the "~st ofthe sliortwave.
need to examine the concept of •"Orticity adveclion. Here, i~therm~ (dashed lines) are intersecting contour lines (solid
You may recall from Chapter 2 (p. 38), that advection is the lines), and cold advection is occurring.
horizontal transfer of any atmospheric proper! y by the "ind. Atthe 200-mb level (upper chart, Fig. 12.28), the polar front
Vorticity advection therefore is the transfer of vorticity (the rate jetstream (blue arrow)swings just to the south i:L the surface low.
of horizontal spin of air parcels) by the "ind. Look at Fig. 12.27 The region in orange represent~ thezoneof strongest winds, the
and notice that as the wind crosses position 2airis moving from jet streak. The area ofstrong divergena! (marked by the letters
a region of lo"~r vorticity tO\vard a region of higher vorticity. DJ Von the 200-mb chart) is almost over the surfacdO\<'.
.W..onlfl •..., .._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i., .,_,u~n~C"'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• ""''"""..,,....,,..,n.
and southeastern New York. Meanwhile, huge quantities of
moist ocean air produced copious snowfalls along the Atlantic
coastal states. High above the surface, as cold air from the west
moved over the region, the air became conditionally unstable;
strong convective cells developed, and heavy "downpours" of
snow were accompanied by lightning and thunder, producing
"thundersnow:· At one point in the storm, Allentown, Pennsyl-
vania, reported snow falling at the rate of five inches per hour.
1 he storm left a buried landscape from northern Virginia
to ('.onnec.ticut. \vhere snO\\' drifts in some areas rose to house-
tops. The storm shut down entire cities. It crippled travel on the
ground and in the air; closed businesses, government agencies,
and schools; knocked out power to many thousands of homes;
and caused several deaths. In addition, many cities reported
their greatest 24-hour snowfall ever. Because the heavy snow
was accompanied by high \\inds and low temperatures, the
stormhascometo be known as "the Blizzardof'83." It represents
one of the ten most intense snowstorms to hit the east coast of
the United States during the 20th century.
POLAR LOWS Up to now, we have concentrated on middle-

latitude cyclones, especially those storms that form along the
polar front. There are storms, however, that develop over po-
lar water behind (or poleward of) the main polar front. Such
storms are caUed polar lows. Although polar lows develop in
both hemispheres, our discussion will center on th<>se storms
that form in the Northern Hemisphere in the cold polar air
of the North Pacific, North Sea, and North Atlantic, especiaUy
in the region south oflceland.
• FI GURE 12. 28 Thealmospheric conditions for February 11, 1983, at
7 AJ.A.. EST. The bottom chart is the surface\veather map. The middle chart is
the S00"'"1bchartthat sho.Ys contour lines {solid lines) in meters above sea
leve~ isotherms {dashed lines) in "C.and the position ofa shorhwve trough
(heavy dashed tine}. The upper chart is the 200-mbchart that illustrates con·
tours. \yjnds,and the position o f the polar jet !o1re.am (dark bluearro\v}. The 5400
lettersav representan area cl strong divergence. The region shaded orange 5460
represents the jet stream core-the jet streak.
/
....
(
• Figure 12.29 i~ a500 -mb chart that shows absolute vortic- 5520 ' 10 - - /
ity for the same date and time as Fig. 12.28. Notice th'tt the vor- ,,..-12·-
/ .....
ticity maximum of 14 (which is actually 14 X 10.../sec) is located I
in the same position as the shortwave in Fig. 12.28.' Notice also I 5564
that aloft, to the east of the vorticity maximum, lies the region ,.~
of strong upper-level divergence associated "'th the jet stream. \

Directly below this region i~ the open-wave cyclone. Hence, the ~~ \
00
stage i~ set, and the necessary ingredients are in pk•ce for the
surfaei> low to develop into a major cyclonic storm system. .... ..- 04
The "1nds aloft steered the surface low northeastward, but /
/
the strong blocking high to the north over southern Canada 04
(surface map, Fig. 12.28) slowed the storm's forward pace, allow- SOOmb
ing the region ofupper-level divergence to intei>sify the system.
With the deep low just off the coast and the strong high to the e FI GURE 12. 29 The soo ~mb chart for February 11, 1983, at 7 A.H.,, EST. Solid
north, pressure gradients increased, and strong, howling winds lines are height contours in meters above sea level Dashed lines are lines of
constant absolute vorticity X 10 '!sec.
in excess of30 knots battered New Jersey, eastern Peni>~ylvania,
look at the map ill Fig. 12. 29 care fully.
•\brtidtywiloes-on an upper-level char! 11 1~ derived using 1nalhematic.<ll aiu.11ions In whichdirection will the vorticity
and high·spcedco1nputers.. max move?How were you abJe to come up with your answer?
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "',...,,• .,,in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,,..,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i., ......,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., ..~•.,i.. ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
• FI GUR E 12. 30 An e nhanced infrared satel·
lite image of an intense polar lo\v situated over
the Nonvegian Sea, north of theArcticCirde.
Notice that convective cJoudsS\virl counter·
dock\vise about a dear area,. or eye. Surprising
similaritiesexist bet\1oeen polar ICAvs and tropical
hurricanes described in Chapter 15.
With diameters of 1000 10 500 km (600 10 300 mi) orless, Where these two masses of contrasting air meet, !he boundary
polar lows are generally smaller in size than !heir mid-la1i1ude separating them is called an arctic front.
cousin,!hewavecydone that tend~to form along the polar front. Along the arcric front, rhe warmer (less-dense) air rises,
Some polar low~~ have a comma-shaped doud band. Others have while the much wider (more-dense) air slowly sink~ beneath
a tight spiral of convective clouds that s"irls counterclockwi~e ii. Recall from our discussion ofdeveloping middle-la1i1udecy-
about a clear area, or "eye; which resembles !he eye of a tropi- dones (p. 328) that the rising ofwarm air and !hesinking of cold
cal hurricane (see • Fig. 12.30). In fact, like hurricanes, these air establishes a condition known asbaroclinic instability. As the
smaller intense stormt; normally have a \\'armer ce.ntral core, \\•arm air rises.some of its \\'ater vap<>r condenses, resulting in
strong wind~ (often gale force or higher), and heavy s howery !he formation of cloud~ and !he release of latent heat, which
precipitation that, unlike a hurricane, is in the form ofsnow:• warms the atmosphere. The warmer air has theeffocl oflowering
Polar lows typically form during the "inter, from November !hesurface air pressure. Meanwhile, at the ocean surface there is
through March. During this time, !he sun i~ low on the hori- a transfer ofsen~ibleheat from the relatively warm " 'aler to the
zon and absent for extended period~. ' Ibis situation allows the cold air above. This transfer drives convective updrafts directly
air next to snow-and-ice-covered surfaces to cool rapidly and from the surface. In addition, it tends to destabilize the atmo-
become incredibly cold, forming a continental arctic air mass. sphere, as heat is gained al the surface and lost to space at !he top
As this frigid air sweeps off the winter ice that covers much of i:L the clouds as they radiate infrared energy upward.
the Arctic Ocean. it may come in contact \\•ith \\•armer 1naritilne ' lbestorm's developmen! is enhanced if an upper trough lies
arctic air that i.:; resting above a relatively \varm ocean current. to the west of the surface system and a shortwave dislurbs the
flow aloft. Similarly, the storm m ay intensify if a band of maxi-
"Tropical s-tonnssuch •lS hurricanes are covered in Chapter l.S. Aswe \\ iU see, the 1
mum winds- a jet streak - moves over the surface storm and
input of heat fro m the ocean surface inlo the hurriC.lnc blcreasesas Lhc windspe«I a region ofupper-level divergence draws the surface air upward.
increases, causing ti pos:ilive feOOb:lck. Moreover, in hurricane environ1nen1s. the
oce-.1n nnd air 1c1npcro1uresare ;:ibouf the s.-ime. whereas in the Arctic, the transfer
The developing cyclonic storm may attain a central pres.~ure of
ofs.ensiblc be:i1from thesurface is large because 1be air-sea 1c1npero1Ure di ffcn~ n«' 980 m b (28.94 in.) or lower. Generally, polar lows dissipate rap-
is large idly when they move over land.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U •........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl.._...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~,,..~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,...,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
In 1his chap1cr, "'< dil4:ui....:d where, why, .ind how a mid- 1. On a piece of paper, draw Ille dill'erenl •Ing<:> of a mid
latitudc cyclone form>. We begJn by cxJmi111ng the early latitude cyclonic storm as it goe• through blrlh to
polar front theory propo.cd by Norwegian ;,cornli>I> after decay according to the polar front (Norwegian) model
World War 1. We >.'IW that the wJvt <')'Clone goo through a 2. Why do mid-latitude cydon"" u'ually •die out" after
seril'>of mgn from birth to ma1unty10 fin:illy dcayasan they become occluded?
occluded >torm. 3. List four regions in ~forth Amcricll whcrc mid lahtudc
Wr lool.edat the 1mpottantdfn;t that the uppcrairflow C)dones tend to dn1'1op or r«lc\'Clop.
has on the antcn>ifiallon and mo,emcnt of surface mad- 4. E;cplain this fact: Withom uppcr·IC\·d Ja-.rgencc, 1
latitudc cyclone. We >a" th•t "hen an urrtt·lr-·d trough surf.ice opm ....,.,, would probably pen.a~ (or 1t.. 1han
tirs to the "'l'SI of a surface lo" ptt,..urc ;area and "hen a ada~-.
shnrtwa\'l' dt<turli6 tbr flow aloft, horatorul and \ttllal air 5. Whr do middle btirudc surfice low·pr<",urc .am\ 11h
mo1innsbtgin tocnhanc.-the form.it on of the \Urf.xc >torm. w~ ward "ith increasing height?
Aloft, rrgionsol Ja1crgm.c l'l'll\O\'l' air from abO\·c surface 6. If upper-levd di\~ingair al>M'l' a \Urfacc area ofl""
~iJ-latitudt q-clone" and l'l'gaon> e>f comcrgimcc suppl)· pttSSU.tt aettds con\nging au around tht surfxc
au to surfucc antaqJoror!o. lhc ""'"«of ""'m .ur and t.M low, will t.M surface low-pl'l'SSUre att3 "rum or
sinlting ofcold .ur pro'·idc the prupcr <DCf\l)' convcnions intmsif}'? Explain.
for the storm.. gm.. th."' poctnll•l tncrgy 1> tranil'otml' - a J<I how does it mO\'l'?
streal- as.ocl31cd \\1th th< pt~ar )Cl •ll'l'am provides ad- 8. What are northeaste..-? Why arc theyg1wn that name?
ditional support .. nn area of tbwrgi:nl< rcrOO\'tS air a bow 9. How are loagwaves in the upper-level wc>terlor> ddl'tr
the >urfucc mid·lnutudc <)\:lone, allowang 11 tt> dcwlopinto a eat from shortwa\1'S?
deep low-pre»urc aren. ' the curvingnnturc of the )Cl stream 10. What are the nece.sary ingredient> for a n11d ·lnt1t11dc
tends to direct mid lnt1111dc ')\:lorac> northcnst1Y;1rd .ind .tn- C)donic stonn to develop into n huge >torm >y•tcrn1
ti cydon c> sou th cai.t w.ml. 11. Why do surface >!Orm> tend to di>>ipnte "fill" when the
We looked nt the concept of vortldty nnd how It relate> upper-level low nnd the surface low becumc vcrti,nlly
to developing mid· lntltudc L yduncs. We found that on lhe stacked?
downwind (eastern) >Ide of n vortldty mnxlmum, there is 12. I low does the polar-front jct i.trcnm inllucnLc the f'or·
normally diverslng nlr nloft, c<uwcrijlng nir nt thc •urfncc, mat ion of a mid-latitude cyclone!
nnd cyclonic marm dcvdopmcnt. 11h•1lly. we examined polar 13. Explain why, even though the polnr· front jct •trcnlll
low> - 1hosestorm>lhu1 form ovcrwatt'rln the cold airnfthe coincides with the polar front, some >urfoce regions nrc
pol" rcgio1i,, more favorable for 1he development of mid llltltudc
<>clones lhan others.
14. Using a diagram. explain why a surface high prc"urc
KEY TERMS area over North Dakota will 1ypically move ;oulhea>I
ward while. at the same ume, a deep mid latitude
1be followmg term.arc listed (w dh pasi: numbcn.) an the or· C)clone over the Great Lakl'> will gerorrally mow
dcrtheyappcar UI I~ text l>cfiror each. Doing><> w1U aid )'>U northeastward.
in r<'Viewing the rn:iterial covettd m th1> ch.lptcr.
I 5. What are the sources of energy for a d<'Velop1ng mid ·
polar front thcorv, 320 cold adveruon. 327 latitude qdOM?
wave cydone. 3:!0 ""'Ill atht"Ctton, 328 16. Ho,.- does warm and cold ad\ullon aid an the develop-
frooul wa\'l', 320 banxhnac m>tlba11t)'· 3UI ment oi a surface mid-latitudt qdone?
warm s«tor, 320 cut -e>IT lo..; 329 17. What are t.M roles oi warm, cold. and dr) '"°'")vt
srcondarr lo\. , 320 in \l!'C'.tk, 329 Wlt.s in the dndcpll'll'llt of a m1d-bt1tudc C)dc>nlC
C!dogtnesi<, 321 c<>nwwr bch mucld. 332 ~torm .system?
i.c.side lo..; 322 dry wt. 332 18. E;q>J;rin "by surface Jo.., ttnd to deq>Cn when~ \UI'•
oortheasttt. 323 <otnma duud" 332 licit)· m3xjm1m aloft mO\~S in from the\\ C'\I ,
convagtnce, 32 I \'Ort14'11)·· 335 19. What are polar low>? I-to.. and "hett Jo thq fotm?
What do some of them ha\'l' in common "•h trope•!
0
WV'l'fgl'tlCC, 32·1 l"arth > \UrllClty, .130

longwaw, 326 rclJta\·c \'otbCll)'. 336 hurriCUles?
Rossby waves, 326 ab>Olut< 'ortac•y. 336
shortwave. 326 v1lf11C11y .J1'l'Cllon, 339
baro<roptc (atm~pherc), 3?7 polar low, 3 10
barocfinic (atmosphere). 327 nrt t1< front. 3 11
(b) Put an L on the chart where you might expect to
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT observe a developing mid-latitude eye.lone at the
I. An English friend of )'Ours says that last night'.s r;lin surface.
over northern Great Britain was cau.sed by a storm that (c) Put an Hon the chart where you might expect to
originally formed easl of the Colorado Rockies. Ex- observe a surface anticydone.
plain how this could happen. (d) In which directions would the surface cyclonic
2. Would a mid-latitude cyclone intensify or dissipate if storm and anticydone most likely move>
the upper trough were loc-.ited to the east of the sur- (e) In terms of convergence and divergence, what are
face disturbance? Explain )'Our answer with the aid of the necessary conditions for the intensification of
a diagram. the surface mid-latitude storm? for the building
3. Explain why, al 500 millibars, when cold advection is of the anticyclone?
occurring, the air temperature does not drop as fast as 2. Supp0-se there is a region of maximum absolute vortic-
it should. (Hint: Whal type of vertical air motions are ity at position Mon the chart in fig. 12.31.
also occurring>) (a) How would the absolute vorticity be changing with
4. Over the earth as a " 'hole, would you expect the atmo- lime 'is an air parcel moves downstream (from
sphere to be mainly barotropic or barodinic? Explain. position M) with the flow>
5. Barodinic waves seldom form in the tropics. Why not? (b) Based on absolute vorticity, circle on the map
6. Suppose that the earth stops rotating. How would this where you would expect to fmd upper-level diver-
affect the earth~ vorticity? Whal would happen to the gence, surface convergence, and a developing mid·
absolute vorticity of a moving air parcel? lf the parcel latitude cyclone.
\\•ere initially moving south\vestv.•ard, h0\\ \\'Ould its 1
(c) Draw a dashed line where you would expect to
direction change, if at all? observe a shortwave trough.
7. Why do Pacific storms often redevelop on the eastern
side of the Sierra Nevada?
8. lf you only had isotherms on an upper-level chart, how
would a cut-olf low appear?
9. lf polar lows form in frigid polar 'lir over water. how is
the atmosphere made conditionally unstable so that
towering convective cumulus clouds can form?
JO. The 500-mb level (at about 5600 m above the surface)
is referred to as the "level of non-divergence." Give an
explanation as to what this statement means \\1th refer- N
O 500km
ence to what is taking place above and below this level. w+E L__J
s Scale 300mb
e FIGURE 12.31
I. On the 300-mb chart (Fig. 12.3 1), suppose the winds
are blowing parallel to the contour lines.
(a) On the chart, mark where regions of convergence
and divergence are occurring.
GEOSCIENCE •
I Go to the Global Environment Watch: Meteorology pnrtal and search in the
Academic Journals section for articles that include the term "Lothar." Cin you find a reference that involves a winter storm in
Europe named Lolhar• How strong was Lothar? Can you find two other examples of named winter storms in Europe from the
last few years? What might be the advantages of giving a name to a mid·latitudeextratropical cyclone?
ONLINE RESOURCES
I'!\ Log in to the CourseMate " 'ebsite at: www.cengagebrain.com to view the concept animations as noted in the text, as
'ltii:JI well as additional resources, including video exercises, practice quizzes, an interactive eBook, and more.
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... ..i M:.y ta>thc....,icd >........J ,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;ko• in .,.... floe .., ch<,....., ..... - 11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.h nfl LU;,,.,J\ o «11"1'""' I fl4"•t.-,...,.t.....
.bmcdfl,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl ••,:!o .. •mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
Weather Forecasting
CONTENTS ometimes there is no job security in weather forecasting.
Acquisition of Weather Information
S In fact, a weather forecaster actually lost his job for not
altering his prediction. On April 15, 2001, a function honoring a
Watches, Warnings, and Advisories
well -known conservative radio talk show host was scheduled
Weather Forecasting Tools
outdoors at the Madera, California, fairgrounds. The story goes
The Thickness Chart-A Forecasting Tool that a local forecaster at the radio station that sponsored the
Weather Forecasting Methods event had called for a "chance ofrain" on April 15th. Upset
The Computer and Weather Forecasting:
Numerical Weather Prediction that such a forecast might discourage people from attending
Why NWS Forecasts Go Awry and Steps the function, the station manager told the forecaster to alter his
to Improve Them
forecast and predict a greater possibility of sunshine. The fore·
Other Forecasting Methods
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION :
caster refused, and was promptly fired. Apparently, retribution
TV Weathercasters- How Do They Do 117 reigned supreme-it poured on the even t.
Types of Forecasts
FOCUS ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS
Weather Prediction and the Marketplace
Accuracy and Skill in Forecasting
Predicting the Weather from Local Signs
Weather Forecasting Using Surface Charts
Determining the Movement of Weather
Systems
Forecasting Temperature Advection by
Watch Ing the Clouds
A Forecast for Six Cit ies
A Meteorologist Makes a Prediction
Help from t he SOO· mb Chart
The Computer Provides Assistance
A Valid Forecast
Satellite and Upper· Air Assistances
A Day ofRain and Wind
Summary
Key Terms
Questions for Review Focingpoge:Thesun rising owr\vestem lo\vaduring
Questions for Thought August,2007. p-OOucesa red sky through a blanket of
Problems and Exercises fog. The forecasting prover~ "red sky in morning. sailors
take\vaming,~ need not appty here. as the fog and the red
sky both disappeared shortly after the photo \Vas taken.
345
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an• Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J ,,.. .l....wod,"' "t.•lrc<><in p.... ll<to i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb."*'"' llo.nl poo-1)' •.,,..,. ""1 W "'l••-
..i ..,,,.,h ~dl ... :.1J\ o .0."l'nV I f:1"'-i.rtn1•"'!....
.._,.,..,,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•te_.Jl~""'""~ c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
W
eather forecasts are issued 10 save lives, 10 save prop- buoys provide surface weather information four times a day.•
erty and crops, and 10 tell us what to expect in our at- Most airports observe conditions hourly. Additional infor-
mospheric environment. Jn addition, kno"1ng what mation, especially upper-air data, is supplied by radiosondes,
!he weather will be like in !he future is vital to many human aircraft, and satellites. Radiosonde data are u.sually available
activities. For example, a summer forecast of extended heavy only al 0000 and 1200 UTC, while aircraft 'tnd satellite obser-
rain and cool \\•eather \\'Ould have construction supervisors vations may occur throughout the day. ( Information on the
planning work under protective cover, department store,s ad- radiosonde is provided in Chapter 1 on p. 16.)
vertising umbrellas instead of bathing suits, and ice cream A United Nation~ agency-the World Meteorological Or-
vendors vacationing as their business dedine.s. The forecast ga11iwtio11 (W MO)- consists of over 175 nations. ' lbe W /VI 0
would alert farmers 10 harvest !heir crops before their fields is resp<>nsible for the international exchange of weather data
became 100 soggy to support the heavy machinery needed for and certifies that the observation procedures do not vary
!he job. And !he commuter? Well, the commuter knows !hat among nations, an extremely important task, since !he obser-
prolonged rain could mean dogged gu11ers, flooded high- vations mus! be comparable.
ways, stalled traffic, blocked railway lines, and late dinners. After an obsernl!ion is taken, it is immediately sent to a
On the other side of the coin, a forecast calling for ex- communication substation by electronic means, usually over
tended high tempera!ure,s with low humidity has an entirely dedicated phone line,s or by satellite relay. From there, the
different effect. As ice cream vendors prepare for record sales, data collected al many observation stations are sent 10 World
!he dairy farmer anticipates a decrease in milk and egg pro- Meteorological Centers (located in Melbourne, Australia;
duction. ' lbeforest ranger prepares warnin~ of fire danger in Moscow, Russia; and Washington, D.C.). 'Jben, worldwiM
parched limber and grasslands. ' lbecons!ruction worker is on weather information is !ransmi!!ed electronically 10 the
!he job outside once again, but !he workday begins in the early National Center for Environmental J'rediction (NCE.J>), a
morning and ends by early afternoon to avoid the oppressive branch of !he National Weather Service (NWS), located in
heat. And !he commuter prepares for increased traffic stalls Camp Springs, Maryland, just outside Washington, D.C. Here,
due to overheated car engines. the massive job of analyzing the data, preparing weather m.1ps
Put yourself in !he shoe,s of a weather forecaster: l! is and charts, and predicting the weather on a global and national
your responsibility 10 predict the weather accurately so !hat basis begins." From NCEP, !his information is transmitted 10
thousands (p<>ssibly millions) of people will know whether to public and private agencies worldwide.
carry an umbrella. \\•ear an overcoat. or prepare for a \\•inter The compiled charts, map.~. and forec;1s1s are sent elec-
storm. Since \\•eather forecasting is not an exact science, your tronically 10 Weatlter Forecast Offices (WFO). These stations
predictions will occasionally be incorrect. lfyour erroneous use the data for preparing regional weather fore.casts, as well
forecast misleads many people, you may become the target of as for advisories and warnings of impending severe weather.
jokes, insults, and even anger. 'Jbere are even people who ex- The region serviced by one of these offices is a state or a large
pect you 10 be able to predict the unpredictable. For example, portion of a state.
on Monday you may be 'tsked whether two Mondays from The public hears weather forec;1s1s over radio or televi-
now will be a nice day for a picnic. And, of course, what about sion. Many stations hire private meteorological companies or
next winter? Will ii be bi!!erly cold? professional meteorologist~ to make !heir own forecasts aided
U'nfortunately. accurate ansv.•ers to such questions are by NCEP material ortomodify a WFO forecast. Other stations
beyond meteorology's present technical cipabilities, but "use- hire meteorologically untrained announcers who paraphrase
ful" answers may be possible by applying different techniques or read the forecasts of!he National Weather Service word for
to current forecast methods. Will forecasters ever be able to \\'Ord.
answer such questions confidently? If so, what steps are being Today, !he forecaster h;1saccess to many hundreds ofmaps
taken to improve the forecasting art? How are forec;1s1s made, and charts, as well as vertical profiles (called sou11di11gs) of tem-
and why do they sometimes go awry? 'Jbese are just a few of perature, dew point, and "1nds. Also av-ailable are visible and
!he questions we will address in !his chapter. infrared satellite images, as well as Doppler radar information
that can detect and monitor !he severity of precipitation and
thunderstorms.
When severe or hazardous weather is likely, the National
Acquisition of Weather Information Weather Service issues advisorie,s in !he form of weather
watches and warnings. A watch indicates that atmospheric
Weather forecasting basically entails predicting how !he pres- conditions favor hazardous weather occurring over a particular
ent state oflhe atmosphere will change. Consequently, if we 'Observations~l'e uswby tnken~H0000.0600. 1200.a nd l 800Coo1dinated Univcrs:.11
wish 10 make a weather forecast, present weather conditions Tinw (UTC). which l.salso cnlJOO Grc.:.11h·ich ,\1ea11 Tilne (G,\fTJ- locAI 1i1nc al the
over a large area mu.st be known. To obtain this information.a Greenwich Observ-.uory in England. To convert fro1n UTCto )Our locaJ 1i1nc. sec
net work of observing stations is located throughout the world. Appendix F.
Over 10,000 land-based stations and hundreds of ships <lnd ''By intcn1ntionnl og1eemcn1.<lahl ~l'e ploucd using.sy1nbok Ulustra1ed in AppendixB.
<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~,,..~c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""......, fl~••"-"''"'"""'"11'""',."'".,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
Watches, Warnings, and Advisories
As we have seen, w h ere severe or hazard- e FI GURE 1 Flags indicat -

ous weather is e ither occurring or possible, ing advisories a nd \V<Hn ings in
the National Weather Service issues a fore- maritime areas.
cast in the form of a watch or wa rning. The

public, however, is not always certain as to
w hat this forecast actually means. For ex-
ample, a high wind warning indicates that
there w ill be high w inds - but how high
and for how long? The following describes Small Gale Stoim Hurrican..e
a few of th evariouswatches, warnin gs, and craf1 waming warning warning
advisories issued by t he National Weather
Ser vice and the necessary precaut ions that Flash-flood warning Flash flooding is Blizzard warning Issued w hen falling
should betaken d uring t he event. occurring o r is imminent in the specified or b lowing sn ow and w inds o f at least
Wind advisory Issued whe n sustained area. Move to safe ground immediately. 35 mi/ hr frequent ly restrict visib ility to less
w inds reach 25 to 39 mi/ hr or w ind g usts Urban and small stream advisory Is- than '/, mile for several hours.
are up to 57 m i/hr. sued w hen flooding is occurring in small Dense fog advisory Issued w hen fu9
High wind warning Issued w hen sus- streams, streets, or in low- lying areas, such limits v isibility to less than 1/1o mile, or in some
tained w inds are at least 40 mi/ hr, o r w ind as railroad underpasses and urban stor m parts of the country to less than 1/s m ile.
gusts exceed 57 m i/hr. Caution should be d rains.
taken w hen d riving high-p rofile vehicles, Severe thunderstonn watch T hun- WARNINGS OVER THE WATER
such as trucks, traile rs, and motor homes. derstorms w ith w inds exceed ing 57 mi/hr Small craft advisories Issued to alert
Wind- chill advisory Issued for w ind - and/ or ha ii 1 inch o r more in diameter. mariners that weather or sea conditions
chill temperatures of - 30° to - 35°F o r Severe thunderstonn warning might be hazardous to small boats. Expect
bel ow.* Sever e thunderstorms have been v isually w inds of 18 to 34 knots (21 to 39 m i/hr).
Heat advisory/warning Advisoiy sighted o r ind icated byDopplerradar. Be Figure 1 displays t he posted advisory and
issued w hen the daytime Heat Index is ex- prepared for lightning, heavy rains, strong warning flags.
pected to reach 1osoF for 3 hours o r more w inds, and large hail. (Tornadoes can for m Gale warning W inds w ill range be-
and nighttime lows do not d rop below w ith severe t hunderstor ms.) tween 34 and 47 kn ots (39 to 54 m i/ hr) in
SQoF. Wa rning issued w hen Heat Index Tornado watch Issued to aler t people the for ecast area.
reaches 11 soF or above. that tornadoes may develop w ithin a speci· Storm warning W inds in excess of
Flash-flood watch Heavy r ains may lied a rea during a cer tain t ime period. 47 knots (54 mi/h ~ are to be expected in
result in flash flooding in t he specified area. Tornado warning Issued to aler t peo- the for ecast area.
Be alert and prepared for the possibility of ple that a tornado has been spotted either Hurrkane watch Issued w hen a tropi-
a flood emergency that w ill require imme- v isua llyor by Doppler radar. Take shelter cal storm o r hurricane becomes a threat to
diate action. immediately. a coastal area. Be prepared to take precau-
Snow advisory In nonmountain ous tionary action in case hurricane warnin gs
•it should b e no te d that \Yatches, \ Varning s, o r ad'-
v isories fo rwind chill o r for sno\vfall-rel ated event s areas, expect a snowfall of 2 in. or more in are issued.
le.g .. \Vinter storms, etc.) m ay use different c riteria 12 hours, or 3 in . or more in 24 hours.* Hurrkane warning Issued w hen it
in differenl regions. Fo r exam pk>, mo untainous Winter storm warning (formerly appears that t he storm w ill strike an area
areas t hat experience frequenl heavy sno \v m ay heavy snow warning) In nonmountainous w ithin 24 hours. Expect w ind speeds in
have higher sno\vfall criteria. \ Vhe reasareas\vith
areas, expect a snowfall of 4 in. or more in excess of 64 knots (74 mi/h~.
infrequent snCAv, may have lo\ver snowf all o i teri a..
Similart y, in a reas that experience f requent 12 hoursor 6 in. or more in 24 hours. ~h ere
extrem e cold, \ Vind c hills may have lo\ ver (w ider I heavy snow is infrequent, a snowfall of
a iteria for advisorie s.. several inches may justify a warning.)'l'
region during a specified time period, but the actual location Advi.<ories are issued to inform the public ofless hazardous con-
and timing of the occurrence is uncertain. A ~·arnin g, on ditiom caused by \\•ind, dust. fog. snO\\'. sleet. or freezing rain.
the other hand, indicates th'lt hazardous weather i~ either im- (Additional information on watches, warnin~. and advisories is
minent or actually occurring "1thin the specified forecast area. given in the Focus St.'Ction above.)
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-
C'1'1'rif• :tl • ~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""" ""~ c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i..
"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,..
.....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. .O."l'ni>
,.,.,,,• 1 t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
"<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
allows several weather variables 10 be viewed at one time. ' lb e
meteogram is a char! thal shows how one or more wea!her
Weather Forecasting Tools variable,~ has ch,mged al a station over a given period of time.
To help forecasters handle all the available ch.~rts and maps, A~ an example, !he chart may represenl how air temperatme,
high-speed data modeling system$ using computers are em- dew poinl, and sea-level pressure h'we changed over !he p ast
ployed by the National Weather Service. The communication five days, or ii may illustrate how these same v'3J'iables are pro-
system in use today is known as AW JPS (Advance.d Weather jec1ed to change over !he next frvedays (see . Fig. 13.3).
Interactive Processing System). The AW IPS system is shown in Another aid in weather forecasting is !he use of sowuJ-
• Fig. 13.1. ings-a iwo-dimen~ional vertical profile of 1emperatme, dew
T he AWIPS system has data communications, stor- poinl, and winds (see • Hg. 13.4).' ' lb e analysi~ of a sounding
age, processing. and display C'1pabilities (including graphical can be especially helpful when making a short-range fore-
overlays) to beuer help !he individual forecaster extract and C'1St !hat covers a relatively small area, such as !he mesoscale.
assimilate information from the mass of available data. In ad- 'Jbe forecaster examines !he sounding of !he immedia1e area
dition, AWlPS is able to integrate information received from (or closest proximily ), as well as !he soundings of rho.~ sites
the Doppler radar system (the WSR-880), satellite imagery. ·A.sounding is obtained from a radiosonde or fro1n sa1elli1e d.-.t...L
and the Automated Surface Observing System~ (ASOS) that
are operational at selected airporL~ and other site,~ through-
oul !he Uniled S1a1es. The ASOS sys1em is designed to pro-
vide nearly continuous information about \\•illd, temperature,
pressure, cloud-base heigh1, and runway visibility al variOllS
airporls. • Me1eorologis!S are hopeful that information from all
oflhesesomces will improve the accuracy ofwea1her forecasts
by providing previously unobtainable dala for integration into
numeric'1l models. Moreover, much of the information from
ASOS and Doppler radar i~ processed by software according
to predetermined formulas, or algorithm~ before ii goes to 1he
forecaster. Certain criteria or combinations of measurements
can alerl !he forecaster to an impending wea1her situation.such
as the severe weather illllStrated in • Fig. 13.2.
A software component of AWD'S (c'1lle.d the Interactive
Forecast Preparation System) allows forecasters to look al the
daily predic1ion of weather elements, such as temperature and
dew point, in a grid formal with spacing assmallas2 km( l.2mi).
Presenting the data in this format allows the forecaster to predicl
the wearhfT more precisely over a relatively small are<!.
Wi1hso much information al 1he forecaster'.~ dispo.~al, it is
essential that the data be easily accessible and in a format thal
•Additional infonnation on ASOS isg:iw n in c:h~p 1er 3on p. 8 1.
~
!I
~
ti
;
"'li
~
~
~
jj
~
;;
e FIGURE 13.2 Doppler radar data from Melbourne, Florida.during the
time of a severe hailstorm in the Orlando area. In the table near the top of
'1 the display, the hail algorithm determined that there \Ya.s too percent prob-
~ abaity that the storm \Yas producing hail and severe hail. The algorithm also
" • FIGURE 13.1 TheAWIPScomputer\vorkstation providesvarious\\leather estimated the maximum size of the hailstones to be greater than 3 inches.. A
brecasterc.an project the movement of the storm and adequately\Yarn those
maps and overlays on different screens.. areas in the immediate path of severe \Yt>ather.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11o.n1 poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FI GURE 133 Meteogram illustrating
10 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
predicted weat her a t t hesurfaceand aloft a t
I
8 St. Lo uis, Missouri, from 6 A.Ni.. November 19,
(6-how piecipltatiori) 2007, to noon on Novem ber 21,2007.The
6 forecast is derived from theGlobal Forecast
"'4 TOllll preeipilation 13.7 mm (0.54 In.) System (GFS) mo<lel. (NOAA)
::E 2
O'-.__.__.__.__.__.__.__.__..._..._.._.._.._.._.._,_
570 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
2 560
x 550 (500 mb thicl<ness)
~ 540
~SJ()
520 "-'--'--'--'--~-'--'--'--'--'-.._.._..._..._..._..._..._...__.__.__.__.__.__.__.__._~
20 ..-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
10 (850 mb tomp9fa1ure)
l'
0
- 10 ~~~~~~~~~ .......~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......~~~~~~
20r-::::?""":::::::-~-::::,....._;::::;:;:;:;;::::::-~-:::::::::::::--i1
10 -;:~:1-- -
0
- 10'--.._.............................................................._.__.__.._.._.........................................................
-- -- .__~
1000
(Mean sea level p<osS<Jre)
12 18 00 06 12 18 00 06 12 18 00 06
Nov 19 Nov20 Nov21
upwind, to see how the atmosphere might be changing. C'.om-

puter programs then automatically calculate from the sounding
a number of meteorological indexes that can aid the forecaster
in determining the likelihood ofsmaller-scale "'eather phenom- 650
ena,suchas thunderstorms, tornado es, and hail. Soundings alw
provide information that cm aid in the prediction of fog. air pol- 700
lution alerts, and the down"ind mixing of strong wind~. ,,.,-Air temperature
750
• FIGURE 13.4 Asoundingclairtempe1ature.,dewpoint,andwindsat
Pittsburgh, PA.on January 14, 1999. Notice that the air temperatureand de\v 15 Dew p0<01...-
point are thesamevalue (theair is saturated} up toa pressure near 820 millibars, ,£ 800
about 4000 feet abote t he surface.
1!?

Freezing rai n is presently falling i1!? 850
in Pi ttsburgh. Later in this chapter Cl.
we will see that \Vlnd.s that veer w ith height (change direction in a 900
dockwise sense) indicate warm advection; and w inds that back w ith
height (change direction In a counterclockwise sense) Indicate cold
advection. I n Fig. 13.4 look at the w i nds in, and j ust above, the region 950
of saturated air and notice that they change from a more easterly
1000 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
direction near the surface to a more southwesterly direction hi gher
up. From this observation, VIOUld you forecast the freezing rain ~-2s-20 - 1s -10 -s o s 10 1s 20 25 :io I
presently falling over the Pittsburgh area to (a) continue falling..
(b) change to snow, or (c) change to rain?
Temperature ('Cl _J
""">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.,. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
The Thickness Chart-A Forecasting Tool
The thickness chart can be a valuable • FIGURE 2 Thev<?rt>

forecasting tool for the meteorologist. It ca I separation (thic:knes.s}
bet\l.een the 1000..mb
ca n help identify air masses and locate
pressuresurfaceand the
fronts, and a prognostic thickness chart .SOO·mb pressure surface
ca n help pred ict the daily max and min .P""" 5700m isgreater in \varm air
l
temperature. It can also help predict than in cold a ir.
whether falling precipitation w ill be in
the form of rain or snow. What, then, is a
Thickness
thickness cha rt? 5400 mGl&rS
A thickness chart shows the difference 5200m
in height between two constant pressure
surfaces. Thevertical depth or thickness be- l
tween any two pressure surfaces is related lal:7/??b
Cold Warm
to the average air temperature between the air air
two surfaces. Recall that air pressure de- Clm Cl m
crease s more rapidly with height in cold air
than in warm air. This fact is illustrated in
Fig. 2, which shows a 1000-mb pressure sur- T TABLE 1 A general rule of thumb relating 1000-mb to
face and a 500-mb pressure surface. The 500-mb thickness values for snow levels for mountainous
difference in height between these two areas west of the Rocky Mountains
pressure surfaces is called the 1000-mb to
1000-mb TO SOO·mb
500-mb thickness... Notice that the vertical THICKNESS VALUES !METERS) APPROXIMATE SNOW LEVEL
distance (thickness) between these two
Meters feet
pressure surfaces is greater in warm air than
in cold air. Consequently, warm air pro- 5220 near se.a le\~ I near sea level
duces high thickness, and cold air low thick-
ness. In fact, thickness is directly related to 5280 500 1500
the layer's average temperature. 5340 1000 3300
•Because the 1000-mb pressure surface is o ft en
5400 1500 5000
c.lose to the surface o f the earth, th e 1000-mb to
SOO ·m b th ick n ~ is sometimes referred to as the 5450 2000 6500
surface to 500-mb thir.kness.
In the central United States,a network of wind projilers (see When predicting temperatures, forecasters often look at a chart
Chapter 9, p. 259) is providing forecasters "1th hourly wind called the tliicJmess chart. If you are interested in learning how
speed and wind direction information at 72 different levels in a this chart can be used to predict whether falling precipil:\tion
rolwnn of air 16 km thick. '!he alm<>-~t continuous monitoring "111 he in the form of rain or snow, read the focu.~section above.
of winds is especially beneficial when briefing pilots on areas of Up to this point, we have examined some of the weather
strong headwind~ and on regioi>~ of strong " '°d shear. Wind data and tools a forecaster might use in m aking a ""at her pre-
information from the profilers is also integrate.d into computer diction. With all of this inform:1tion available to the forecaster,
tOreca sting models. including hundreds ofcharts and maps, just lw w does a meteo-
Satellite information is also a valuable tool for the forecaster. rologist make a \\'tat her forecast;
Visible, enhanced infrared, and ""aler vapor images provide a
wealth of information, some of which come.s from inaccessible
regioi>~ that can be plugged into forecast models. 'Ibis added in- Weather Forecasting Methods
tOrmation provides a dearer represent:llion of the atmosphere.•
As late as the mid -1950s, all weather m aps and charts were
•cnform:llion provided by S<'ltellite$ i~ locauxt in w riolli s.octions of Lhis book. R>r plo!led by hand and analyzed by individuals. Meteorologists
exa1uple. sre C'.h31>1cr S. p. l36and Chapter9. p. 2S9. predicted the ""at her using certain rules that related to the
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i..r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11...ifl ,....., .._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""",,..~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
e FIGURE 3 A 1000· mbto500-mb t hickness
chart for a January morning.The linE?$ on the chart
represent theverticaldepth in meters between the
1000-mband 500·mb pr~uresurfaces.. LO\vthick-
ness linesccrrespond tocokl ai~ and high t hickness
lines to warm air. For reference,, the 5400-meter
thickness line represents a \ertical la)erofair
5400 meters thick \Vilh an ate rage temperature
d - 7VC. (19"F}. The 5200 t hickness line is roughty
the boundary for arcticait
When 1000-mbto 500-m b thickness precipitation east of t he Rocky Mountains. If D uring the w inter in mountainous re-
lines are drawn on a char t, they may appear precipitation is falling, c ities w ith a thickness g ions, the elevation w here rain changes to
sim ilar to those shown in Fig. 3. On the char t, g reater than 5400 m should be receiving snow is called the snow level. For locations
regions of low thickness correspond to cold rain, w hereas cities w ith a thickness less than west of the Rockies, Table 1 gives the snow
air, and regions of high t hickness to warm 5400 m should be receiving snow. Look at level based on the 1000-mb to 500-mb
air. There area number of fo recasting rules Fig. 3. St. Lo uis is receiving pr ecip itation. t hickness. T he information in Table 1 works
for predicting air temperature and precipita- Would you expect it to be in the form of rain well w hen the atmosphere is well mixed,
tion using this chart. O ne forecasting rule o r snow?What about Detroit? If you live east b ut not when a cold, stable layer rests near
is that the 5400-meter thickness line often o f the Rockies, find your city on t he chart and t he surface.
represents the dividing line between r ain see whether precipitation would be in the
and snow, especially for c ities r eceiving form of rain o r snow o n this day.
particular weather system in question. For short-range fore- into a high-speed computer, which plots and draws lines on sur-
casts of six hours or le:ss, surface \\"eather systems \vere moved face and upper-air charts. Meteorologists interpret the weather
along at a steady rate. Upper-air charts were used 10 predict panerns and then correct any errors that may be present. The
where surface storms would develop and where pressure sys- fmal char! i~ referred to as an analysis.
tems aloft would intensify or weaken. ' lhe predicted positions The computer not only plots and analyzes data, it also pre-
of these systems were extrnpobted into the future using linear dicts the weather. 'Jl1e routine daily forecasting ofweather by the
graphical techniques and current maps. Experience played a computer u.~ing mathematical equations has come 10 be known
major role in making the forecast. Jn many cases, these fore- as awnericaJ " feather prediction.
caststurnedout robe amazingly accurate. They were good but, Because the many weather variables are con~!an!ly chang-
with the advent of modern computers, along with our present ing, meteorologists have devised atmospheric models !hat
observing techniques, today's forecasts are even bener. describe the present state of the atmosphere. 'll1ese are not
physical models !hat paint a picture ofa developing storm; !hey
THE COMPUTER AND WEATHER FORECASTING: NUMERICAL are, rather, mathematical models consisting of many mathe-
WEATHER PREDICTION Modern electronic computers can matical equations !hat describe how atmospheric temperature,
analyze large quantities of data extremely fast. Each day the pressure, wind~. and moisture will change with time. Actually,
many thousands of observations transmitted to NCEf> are fed the models do not fully represent the real aunn~phere but are
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' ,....1rc.... in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..
....,,
<1<n11....i fl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
(a) WRF/NAM model (b) GFS model
• F I GURE 13. S T\w SOO·mb progs for7 PM. EST, Juty 12. 2006-48 hours into the fu ture. Prog (a) is t heWRFJNAM model, \Vith a resolution (grid
spacing) of 12 km, whereas prog (b} is t heGFS model with a resolution of60 km.Solid lines on each ma pare height contours.. \vhere 570 equals
5700 meters. Notice ho\v t he two progs {models} agree on the atmosphere's largescalecirculation. The main difference bel\wen t he progs is in t he
\Vay t he models handle t he low off the \...est coast of North America.A1odel {a) predict s that t he low will dig deeper along the coast,. \Vhile model
(bJ predicts a more elongated west·to-east (zonal} low. {Thea bbreviat ion WRF/NAM stands for Wea th er Research Forecast/Nori h American Mesoscale
Model, and GFS stands for Global Forecast Systems.J
approximations formulated to retain the most important :t~pects many hundreds of millions of mathematical calculation~. It
of the atmosphere~ behavior. would, therefore, take a group of meteorologists working full
1 he models are programmed into the computer, 'md surface time with h<tnd calculators years to produce a single ch<ut; by the
and upper-air observations of ten1perature.• pressure, moisture. time the forecast was available, the weather for that day would
winds, and air density are fed into the equations. To determine already be ancient history.
how each of these variable,~ will ch'mge, each equation is solved The forecaster uses the progs as a guide to predicting the
for a small increment of future time- say, frve minutes-for a weather. Al present, there are a variety of models (and, hence,
large munber oflocationscaUedgrid point$, each situated a given progs) from which to choose, each producing a slightly differ-
distance apart.• Jn addition, each equation issolved for as many ent interpretation of the weather for the same projected time
as 50 levels in the atmosphere. The results ofthesecomputations and atmo~heric level (see • Hg. 13.5). '!be differences between
are then fed back into the original equations. 'fhecomputer again progs may result from the way the model~ use the equ,~ions, or
solves the equations \\1th the new "data;· th us predicting weather thedistancebetweengrid points, called resolution. Some models
over the follo"ing five minutes. ' Ibis procedure is done repeat- predict some features better th'm others: One model may work
edly until it reaches some desired time in the future, usuaUy6, 12, best in predicting the po~ition of troughs on upper-level charts,
24, 36, and out to 84 hours. 'Jbe computer! hen ana lfL<'S the data whereas another forecasts the position ofsurface lows quite well.
and dra,,.s the pr~ected po~ition~ ofpressure systems with their Some models even forecast the state ofthe atmo~phere 384 hours
isobars or contour lines. The final forecast chart representing (16days) intothefuture. Look at • Fig 13.6 and not ice that model
the atmosphere at a specified future time is called a prognostic
chart, or, simply, a prog. Computer-drawn progs have come to WEATHER WATCH
be known as "machine-made'' forecasts.
1 he computer solves the equations more quickly and effi- When a weather forecast calls for "fair weather," does the
ciently than could be done by hand. For example, just to produce ;"fair'' mean that the weather is better than ,-(poor" but not up
a 24-hour forecast ch,trt for the Northern Hemi~phere require.s to being "goodn? According to the National Weather Service,
the .subjective term ..,.fair" implies a rather plea.s ant weather
.situation where there is no precipitation, no extremes in
•Sonlc 1n odcl> have:a grid spacing as-.s1ualJ asO.S kin. whcre3S 1hc spacing in 01 hers
exce«l.s 100 kin.·fhere are roodels 1Ju11octuaily describe Ihr 31roosphere using ti SCI temperature, good visibility, and les.s than 40 percent of the
of nunhcnl3tiaiJ equations \\ith \\'llVelike chnroc1cristics rather I hln as.ct of discrete sky is covered by opaque clouds .such as stratus.
nunlbcrsas..socia1cd with grid points.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i """>' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' ,.......,.., p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11o.n1 poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<1<n11...ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..nt,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,,..u,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• ..,,,,-.11..,,....,,..,...
li>recast area. YTable 13.1 gives a briefsummary of a few "rules
of thumb" that a forecaster might use when making a prediction
using a prog.
Currently, forecast models predict the weather reasonably
well 4 to6 days into the future. 'fhemodelstend todoabetterjob
al predictingtemper:llure and jet-stream patterns than precipita-
tion. 1-iov\"ever. even \\fith all of the modern ad vane.es: in \\•eather
forecasting provided by ever more powerful computers, Nation:1 I
Weather Service (NWS) forecasts are sometimes wrong.
WHY NWS FORECASTS GO AWRY AND STEPS TO IMPROVE

THEM Why do forecasts sometimes go wrong? There are
a number of reasons for this unfortunate situation. For one,
computer models have inherent flaws that limit the accuracy
of weather forecasts. For example, computer-forecast models
idealize the real atmosphere, meaning that each model makes
certain assumptions about the atmosphere. These assumptions
may be on target for someweathersituationsandbeway off for
others. Consequently, the computer may produce a prog that
on one day comes quite dose to describing the actual state of
the atmosphere, and not so clo.se on another. A forecaster who
• FI GURE 13.6 The 500-mbanalysis for 7 f>.M. EST, Juty 12, 2006.
bases a prediction on an "off day" computer prog may find a
forec.1st of"rain and windy" turning out to be a day of "clear
and colder."
Another forecasting problem arises bec1use the majority
(b) in Pig. 13.Switha resolution of 60 km actually did a better job of models are not global in their coverage, and errors are able
of forecasting the structure of thelo,voff the west coast of North to creep in along the model~ boundaries. For example, a model
America than did model (a) with a resolution of only 12 km. that pre<licts theweatherfor North America may not accurately
A good forecaster knows the idiosyncrasies of each model treat weather systems that move in along its boundary from the
fs uch as model (a) and model (b) in Fig. 13.SI and carefully western Pacific. This kind ofinaccuracyis probably why model
scrutinizes all the progs. The forecaster then makes a prediction (b) in Fig. 13.5-a global model with a lower resolution-
based on the guidance from the computer, a personalized prac- actually did a better job in predicting the low off the west
tical interpretation of the weather situation and any local geo- coast than did model (a), which is a nonglobal model with a
graphic features that influence the weather "ithin the specific higher resolution. Obviously, a global model would lkSually be
,. TABLE 13.1 A Few Forecasting "RulesofThumb"*
FORECAST QUESTION USE OF FORECAST CHART
Cloudy or clear! On the 700~ n1b torecast chart, the 70 percent relati\ie hun1idity Iine usually encloses areas that are
likely to have clouds.
\.\/ill it rain? (a) On the 700·n1b forecast cha.rt, the 90 pen:ent relative hun1idity line often enclose.'i area'i \\!here
precipitation is likely. Jf UP\Vard velocitie.'i are present, the chance of nleasurable precipitation is
enhanced.
(b) Along the \Vest coa...;t of North Anierica, precipitation is n1uch n1ore likel}' north of the 5640·nleter
height contour on the SOQ.. n1b fOrecastchart.
\.Yill it rain or sno'v~ On the 8SO·n1b torecast chart, sno\\t is likely north of the -S°C (23°F) isothern1, ,,•hereas rain is
likely south of this line. On the IOOO ~ n1b to SOO ~ n1b thickne.'is chart, the S400·n1eter thickness line
is \\1idely used (east of the Rockies) as the dividing line bmveen rain and sno\\•.
\\Till the surface lo'"' intensif)•? For the stom1 to intensify (deepen), an area of upper~ level divergence nlust be over the surfitce
q•clonic stornl. On a SOO· nlb fOrecac;t d"lart that sho\\!'S vorticity> look for a vorticity nl<lxin1unl
(vort n1ax) and ren1en1ber fmn1 Chapter 12, p. 340, that to the east of an area of positive vorticity
''~ usuaUy find upper... (evel divergence, UP'"'ard air nlotions, and C}'clonk stom1 development.
1be tOrcaist charts (progs) found in I his tabJe can be obtained fro1n the lnterncL
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:,w...,.r,..,,...,. i....
<1<n11...ifl,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..nt•i..-.u""""""n~C<>'!l'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,,..u,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• ..,,,,-.11..,,....,,..,.,_
preferred. Jlut a global model ofsimilar sophistication with a the future. After a munber of days, these initial imperfection~
high re.solution require.s an incredible number of computations. tend to dominate, and the forecast shows little orno accuracy in
Even though many thousands of weather observ'Otions are predictingthebehavior of the real atm<>~phere. lnessence, what
taken worldwide each day, there are still regions where obser- happens is that the small uncertainty in the initial atm<>~pheric
vations are sparse, particularly over the oceans and at higher conditions eventually leads to a huge uncertainty in the model'.~
latitudes. To help alleviate this problem, the newest GOES satel- forecast. This saturation produces a limit as to how far into the
lite, with advanced atmospheric sounders, i~ providing a more future \\'e will ever be able to accurately forecast the weather.
accurate profile of temperature and humidity for the computer Because of the atm<>~here'.~ chaotic nature, meteorologist.~
models. Windinfonnationnowcomesfrom a variety ofsou re.es, are turning to a technique called ensemble forecasting to im-
such as Doppler radar, commercial aircraft buoys, and satellites prove short- and medium-range forecast.~. ' lbe ensemble ap-
that translate OC<'an surface roughness into surface wind speed proach i~ based on runningseveral forecast models- or different
(see Chapter 9, p. 259). versions (simulations) of a single model- each beginning with
Earlier, we saw that the computer solves the equations that slightly different weather information to reflect the errors inher-
represent the atmosphere at many locations called grid points, ent in the measurements. Suppose, for example, a forecast model
each spaced from I 00 km to as tow as 0.5 km apart. As a con- predicts th estate of the atmosphere 24 hours into the future. For
seque.nce, on computer models with ktrge spacing between the ensemble forecast, the entire model simulation is repeated,
grid point.~ (say 60 km), weather systems, such as extensive but only after the initial conditions are "tweake.d" just a little. ' lbe
mid-latitude cyclones and anticyclones, show up on computer "tweaking; ofcourse, represents the degree of uncertainty in the
progs, whereas much smaller systems, such as thunderstorms, observations. Repeating thisprocessseveral times creates an en-
do not. ' lbecomputer models that forecast fora large area such semble of fi>recasts for a range ofsmall initial changes.
as North America are, therefore, better at predicting the wide- e Figure 13.7 shows an ensemble 500-mb forecast chart for
spread precipitation associated with atargecydonicstormthan July 21, 2005 (48 hours into the future) using the global atmo-
local showers and thunderstorms. In summer, when much of spheric circulation model. The chart is constructed by running
the precipitation falls as local shO\\<ers, a computer prog may the model I 5 different times, each time starting "1th slightly dif-
have indicated fair weather, white outside it is pouring rain. ferent initial conditions. Notice that the red contour line (which
To capture the smaller-scale "<eather features as \\'ell as the represents a height of 5940 meters) circles the southwestern
terrain of the region, the distance bet,wen grid points on some United States, indicating a high degree of confidence in the
models i~ beingreduet'd. For example, the forecast model known model for that region. Here, a large upper-level high pressure
asMMS hasagridspacingas low as 0.5 km. 'lbi~modelpredicts area covers the region, and so a forecast for the southwestern
mesoscate atmospheric conditions over a limited region, such United States would be "very hot and dry."lbe blue scrambled
as a coastal area where terrain might greatly impact the local contour lines (representing a height of5790 meters) off the west
weather. The problem with models that h'we a small grid spacing coastofNorth America indicate a great deal of uncertainty in the
(high resolution) is that, as the horizontal spacing between grid forecast model. Ast he forecast goes further and further into the
points decreases, the number of computations increases. When future, the lines look more and more like scrambled spaghetti,
the distance i~ halved, there are 8 times as many computations which is why an en~emble IOrecast chart such as this one is <lflen
to perform, and the time required to run the model goes up by referred to as a sptighetti plot.
a factor of 16. If, at the end of a specific time, the progs, or model runs,
Another forecasting problem is that many computer models match each other fairly well, as they do over the southwestern
cannot adequately interpret many of the factors that influe.nce United States in Fig. 13.7, the forecast is considered robust. Thi~
surface \\Tat her. such as the interactions of \vater. ice.• surface situation allows the forecaster to issue a prediction with a high
friction, and local terrain on "<eathersystems. Many large-scale degree of confidence. If the progs disagree, as they do off the
models now take mountain regions and oceans into account. west coast of North America in Fig. 13.7, the forecaster with
Some model~ (such as the MM5) take even smaller factors into little faith in the computer model prediction, issues a forecast
account-features that large-scale computers miss due to their \Vith limited confidence. ln es.~enc.e. the less agree1ne11t a1nong
longer grid spacing. Given the effect of local terrain, as well as tire progs, or model n111s, tire less predictable the weather. ('.on-
the impact ofsome of the other problems previously mentioned, sequently, it would not be wise to make outdoor plan~ for
computer model~ that forecast the weather over a vast area do Saturd,1y when on Monday the weekend forecast calls for "sunny
an inadeqt•1te job of predicting local weather conditions, such and warm" with a low degree ofconfidence.
assurfatt temperatures. \\iinds. and precipitation. In summary, imperfect munerical weather predictions may
Even with better observing techniques and near perfect re.suit fromflawsin the computer models, from errorsthatcreep
computer models, there are countless small, unpredictable at- in along the models' boundaries, from the sparseness of data,
m<>~pheric fluctuations called chaos, that limit model accuracy. and/or from inadequate representation of many pertinent pro-
For example, tiny eddies are much smaller th'Ul the grid spac- cesses, interactions, and inherentlychaotic behavior that occurs
ing on the computer model and, therefore, go unaccounted for within the atm<>~phere.
in the model. These small disturbances, as well as small errors Up to this point, we have looked primarily at weather
(uncertaintie-~) in the data, generally amplify with time as the forec;1sts made by high-speed computers using atmospheric
computer tries to project the weather farther and farther into models. There are, however, other forecasting methods, many
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c..
..,.,..,,, 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. <>.;•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
e FIGURE 13 .7 Ense mbk>SOO ~mb forecast
chart for July 21. 2005(48 hours into the fu ture I.
The chart ~ construded by running the model 15
different times, each time beginning \Vith a slightly
different initial condition. The blue lines represent
the 5790·metercontour line; the red lines. the
S940·meter contour line; and the green line, the
.SOO·mb 2S.year average, called climatology.
of which have stood the test of time and are based mainly on method,"" might extrapolate and predict that the front should
the experience of the forec'l~ter. Many of these technique.~ are pass through your area in three hours.
of value, but often they give more of a general overview of The analogue method is yet another form of "<eather fore-
what the weather should be like, rather than a specific forecast. casting. Basically, this method relies on the fact that existing
Some of these forecasting techniques are presente.d in the next features on a weather chart (or a series of charts) may strongly
section. (Before going on, you may wish to read the J'ocus resemble features that produced certain weather conditions
section on p. 356, th:it describe.~ how TV weather forecasters sometime in the past. 'lb the foreetl~ter, lhe weather map "looks
pre.sent weather visuals.) familiar; and for this reason the analogue method is often
referred to as pattern recognition. A forecaster might look at a
OTHER FORECASTING METHODS Probably the easiest
weather forecast to make is a persistence forecast, which is
simply a prediction that future weather '''ill be the same as WEATHER WATCH
present " 'eat her. If it is snowing today, a persistence forecast
would call for snow through tomorrow. Such forecasts are most Nightly news weather presentations have come a lon g
accurate for time periods ofseveral hours and become les.~ and way since the early days of television. New York City's first
les.~ accurate after that. television weathercast appeared October 14, 1941, on the
ex perimental TV station WNBT (later to become WNBC).
Another method offorecasting is the steady-slllte, Or t.rend
The star was Wooly Lamb, an animated creature that re-
forecast.The principle involved here is that surface weather sys- mained on WNBT for seven long years. Wooly introduced
tems tend to move in the same direction and at approximately the weather forecast by first looking skyward with a
the same spee.d as they have been moving, providing no evi- telescope; then, facing the viewers, he sang a little jingle.
dence exists to indicate otherwise. Suppose, for example, that a After Wool y's exi t, a slide gi ving tomorrow' s forecast ap-
cold front is moving eastward at an average speed of30 km per peared on the screen.
hour and it is 90 km \••est of your home. Using the steady-state
TV Weathercasters - How Do They Do It?
As }'JU watch the TVweathercaster, you process of electronically superimposing because such clothing would not be
typically see a person describing and point- weather information in the TV camera picked up by the camera-what you
ing to specific weather information, such as against a blank wall iscalled color- would see on your home screen would
satellite and radar images, and weather separation overlay, or chroma key. bea head and h ands moving about the
maps, as illustrated in Fig. 4. What you The chroma key process works be- weather graphics!
may not know is that in many instances ca use the studio camera is constructed to How, then, does a TV weat hercaster
the weathercaster is actually pointing to pick up all colors except (in this case) blue. know where to point on the blank wall?
a blank board (usually green or blue) on The va rious maps, charts, satellite photos, Positioned on each side of the blue wall
w hich there is nothing (Fig. S).• This and other graphics are electronica lly in - are 1V monitors (look car efully at Fig. 5)
serted from a computer tothis blu e area thatweatherca.sters watch so that they
*In some stations, forecasters poinl to\veather of the color spectrum. The person in the know where to point.
information on a large TV .screen. TV studio should not wea r blue clothes
• FIGURE 4 On your home television, \Yeather forecaster Tom Loffman e FIGURE 5 In the studio, ho\Yever, he is actually .standing in fron t of a
appears to be pointing to weather information directly behind him. blank blue board.
prog 'md say "J've seen !his weather situation before, ;md this I're.sently,stalistkal for ecasts are made routinely <L weather
happened." Prior weather events can then be utilized as a guide elements based on the past perfonn:tnce of computer models.
to the future. 1 he problem here is !hat, even !hough weather Known ;ts Model Output Statistics, or MOS, these predictions,
situations may appear simiku, lhey are never ex.!lctly the same. in effect, ;ue statistically weighted analogue forecast corrections
There are always sufficient differences in the variables 10 make incorporated into !he computer model output. For example, a
applying this method a challenge. li>recast of tomorrow's max.imum temperature for a city might be
The analogue method can be used 10 predict a number of derived from a statistical equation that u.ws anwnerical model'.~
weather elemenl~.such ;ts maximum temperature. Suppose that li>recasl <L relative humidity, cloud cover, wind direction, and air
in New York City !he average maximlun temperature on a par- temperature.
ticular date for !he past 30 years is I O"C (50°F). By statistically re- When !he Weather Service i'lSues a forecast calling for rain,
lating !he max.imum temperatures on this date to other weather ii is usually followed by a probability. For example: "The chance
elements-such as the wind, cloud cover, and humidity-a re- of rain is 60 percent." Does thi~ mean (a) !hat it will rain on
lationship between these variable,~ and maximum temperature 60 percent of !he forecast area or (b) 1ha1 !here is a 60 percent
can be drawn. By comparing these relationships wilh current chance that ii will rain within the forecast area> Neither one! 1 he
weather information, !he forecaster can pre<lict the maximum expression means !hat there is a 60 percentch;tnce th:11 any ran-
temperature for !he day. dom place in !he forecast area, such as your home, "'" receive
<1<n11....i fl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
measurable rainfall.' l ooking at the forecasl in another way, if • TABLE 13.2 Forecast wording used by the National
the forecast for IO days calls for a 60 percenl chance of rain, il Weather Service to describe the percentage probability of
should rain where you live on 6 of those days. The verificalion m easurable precipitation (0.01 Inch or greater) for steady
of theforecasl (as to whether ii aclually rained or nol) is usually precipitation and for convective, showery precipitation
made al the Wea1her$erviceoffice,bu1 remember thal the com- FORECAST FORECAST
puler models forecasl for a given region, not for an individual PERCENT WORDING WORDING
local ion. When the National Weather Service issues a forecasl PROBA.BILITY OF FOR STEADY FOR SHOW ERV
PRECIPITATION PRECIPITATION PRECIPITATION
calling for a "slighl chance of rain; whal is the probabilily (per-
omlage) th'1l il "11! rain? • 'fable 13.2 provides !his informal ion. > Oto 20 percent Slight cha11ce of Widely scattered
An example of a probability forecast using dimalologi- precipitation sho,\lers
cal dala is given in • Fig. 13.8. '!b e m'1p shows the probabil-
ity of a "White Chrislmas" - one inch or more of snow on the 30 to 50 percent Cha11ceoC Scattered sl10\\lers
ground- across 1he United S1a1es. 'Jbe map is based on the aver- precipitation
ageof30 years ofdala and gives the likelihood ofsnow in terms of 60 to 70 percent Precipitation Nunrero"s
a probabilily. For inslance, the chances are greater than 90 percenl like/)' sho'"ers
(9 Christmases oul of LO) thal portions of nor1hern Minneso1a,
Michigan, 'md Maine ""' experience a While Christmas. In ~80 percent Precipitation ,~ Shmvers---
Chicago, il isdo.se 1050 percent; and in Washington, D.C., aboul rain, snotY
20 percent. Many places in the far west and soulh have probabili- 'A for«aSI thatctt0$ foran 80 percent chnnce of rain in theafte1T10011 1uigh1 read
ties less 1han 5 percent, bul nowhere is the probability exactly 0, like this:"'. . . doudy today \\•ilh min th is afternoon. ..." Foran SO percent chance
for there isal\\•Jyssome chance (no matter how small) thal a man- of min sh O\\~IS. the fon?cas.1 1night read "'. . . cloudy today \\·ilh rainshowers this
tle ofwhite"ill cover the ground on Christmas day. For example, afternoon.. .."
look al . Hg. 13.9 and notice thal flrOlvnsville, 1exas, in the very
·The 60 percent chance of rain doti no1apply 10 a .situ~Hi o n thn1 involves rain
s.howers. tn the c<'!seof .showers.. the perct:ntage refers to the ex-pec1ed ares over
which Lhe showcrs,,•iU fnll.
--
Pe(cen1
i::::i <5
S-10
11-25
-
26-40
41-50
51-EQ
61- 75
i;;;;J 76-90
D >90
• F I GURE 13. 8 Probability o f a ·white Chri!.1m a.s"-one inch o r more o f snow o n theground-based o n a30·year average. The probabilities do
not include all o f the mountainous areas in the \1,1t>Slern United States. (NOAA)
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ""'buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,,,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
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southern part of the st:l!e, and C'.orpus Christ~ both experienced
a "White Chri~tmas" during 2004.
Predicting the weather by weather types employs the ana-
logue method. In general, weather patterns are categorized into
s imilar groups or "types; using such criteria as the position of
the subtropical highs, the upper-level flow, and the prevailing
storm track. As an example, when the Pacific high i~ weak or
depressed southward and the flow aloft is zonal (west-to-east),
surface storms tend to travel rapidly eastward across the Pacific
Ocean and into the United States "ithout developing into deep
systems. But when the Pacific high is to the north of its nonnal
position and the upper airflow is meridional (north-south), loop-
ing waves form in the flow with surface lows usually de.veloping
into hugecyclonicstorms. As we saw in Chapter 12, these upper-
level longwaves move slowly, usually remaining almost station-
ary for perhaps a fuw days to a week or more. C'.onsequently, the
particular surface weather at different positions around the wave
is likely to persi~t for some time. • Figure 13.10 pre.sents an ex-
ample ofweather conditions most likely to prevail \\1th a winter
meridional weather type.
A forecast b:1sed on the climate' of a particular region is
known as a climatological forecast. Anyone who has lived in
Los Angeles for a while knows that July and August are prac-
tically rain-free. Jn fact, rainfall data for the summer months
taken over many years reveal that rainfall amounts of more
than a trace occur in Los Angeles about 1 day in every 90, or
only about 1 percent of the time. Therefore, if we predict that
• FIGURE 13.9 Satellitevie\vof SouthTexas along the Gulf Coast on it will not rain on some day next year during July or Augu.~t in
Christmas day, 2004. The\vhite areacovering Cot pus Christi and Bravn.sville LosAngeles, ourchancesare nearly 99 percent that the forecast
is SllOW. The probability of measurablesOO\YOn the ground in either fi these
"111 be correct b:tsed on past records. Since it is unlikely that
two cities on Christmas day is less than one percent {see Fig. 13..8}. Yet. Corpus
Christi received over4 inches of sno\v and Brownsville about 15 inches, mak.·
this pattern will significantly change in the near future, we can
ing it the first sno\vfall in Bro\vnsville in 109 years.Just days later, the tempera· ronfidently make the same forecast for the year 2020.
tu re climbed into the 80s {"F). Up to now we have looked at how weather forecasts are
made and how forecast~ can influenceourdaily lives. For a look
at how weather forecasts can influence the marketplace, read the
Focus section on p. 359.
, \JPPer.<IA TYPES OF FORECASTS Weather forecasts are normally
... %,.. grouped according to how far into thefuture the tOrecast extend~.
H ~· For example, a weather forecast for up to a few hours (lk~ually
Upper ridge %::;- not more th'Ul 6 hours) is called a \'ery short-range forecast, or
110 1vcast. The techniques used in making such a forecast nor-
mally involve subjective interpretations of surface observations,
satelliteimagery, and Doppler radar information. Often weather
Pacific Dry systems are moved along by the steady-state or trend method
hig
c=: -., Chinook of forecasting, with human experience and pattern recognition
H ~ wi>ds coming into play.
Weather forecasts that range from about 12 hours to a few
Santa Warm
Ana Polar (arctic) days (generally 2.5 days or 60 hours) are called short-range fore-
winds Dry outbreaks casts. The forecaster may inrorparate a variety of techniques in
making ashort-range forecast, such as satellite imagery, Doppler
radar, surface \\•eat.her maps. upper-air \\rinds, and pattern rec-
ognition. As the forecast period extends beyond about 12 hours,
• FIGURE 13.10 Winter weathe rtype shO\ving upper·airOow theavyarrO\v),
surface position of Pacific high, and general \Yeather conditions that should 'The d ilnatc o f a region l'e prescnts. lhe total ae<:u1nuhllion o f dnily and seasonal
prevail weather events for a spocitk inteivaJ of thn c. most o ften 30ye.1rs.
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Weather Prediction and The Marketplace
A good for ecast can not o nly make or cold·weather clothing. Long·ter moutlook s outcome, such as a record- hot summer that
break plans for a picnic, b ut it can spell the for El Nilio and La N ilia can pr ovide months boosts demand for air conditioning. Many
difference between profit and loss for an of valuabl e lead time on w here w inter tem- such contracts are based on heating- or
entire business. Weath er pred ictions are a peratures in the United States are likely to cooling-degree days, described in Chapter 3
critical tool for many par ts of the econ- run warmer or cooler than average. on p. 82.
omy. Short-term forecasts ca n he lp an T he most direct p rotection against the Many investor s and speculator s tr y
orange grower deal w ith t he threat of a risk of weather·related financial downturns to make a profit on the twists and turns
hard freeze or tip off a construction com- comes from insurance for hail,. flooding 1 of the atmosphere, often by looking at
pany to the risk of work delays. O n a drough t,. and the like. Weather insurance weather p redictions and by b uying and
broader scale, the prices of stocks a nd typically covers o nly t he most dire meteo- selling futures or weather derivatives.
commodities* can swing up or down rological threats, much like a catastrophic Traders keep a close eye on both seasonal
based on the approach of a major storm 1 health-care plan that covers heart attacks weather p rojections and short-term
the forecasts of its behavior, a nd the dam- but not c hronic illness. forecasts,. such as the track of a hurricane
age left behind. For example, t he price of Sever al other tools can help a com-- that could knock out oil and gas produc-
frozen concentrated o range j uice rose pan y use weath er predictions to smooth tion. For example,. as tropical storm Rita
more than 40 percent in the month after out th e potential ups and downs in profit gathered strength on September 20, 2005,
Hurricane Charley struck many o f Florida's linked to t he atmosphere. Manycommod i- and forecasts called for Rita to approach
citrus g roves in August, 2004. ties ca n be traded throu gh contracts called the Gulf Coast as a major hurricane, t he
For many compa nies, seasonal out- futures (a type o f derivative•). Futures con- price of oil rose by the largest single-
looks are even more important than day- tracts are agreements to buy o r sell a com- day amount o n record-$4.39,. or about
to-day forecasts. A corpor ation that modity at a fixed price at some later date. 7 percent.
makes b read or pasta mig ht pay close For example, a b read-bakin g company
attention to long·term outlooks for tem· m ight buy w h eat futures based on a pro-
per ature and p recipitation across t he jected p recipitation o utlook. Th is fo recast
w heat-growing ar eas o f North America would h elp the company plan w it h more
in order to anticipate potent ial d rops in con fidence, knowing thatthe cost i t w ill
supply. For en ergy companies, even a pay for w heat won't change even i f a
small seasonal shift can p lay a huge role dro ught should strike an d t he price o f
in th e demand fo r summer cooling o r w heat should go up d ramatically.
w inter heating. An unusually m ild w inter It is also possible to trade futures con-
might pr ovide a boost to airlines and tracts based on indices of the weather itself.
trucking compa nies,. w hich would suffer Rather than specifying the future cost of a
fewer delays from snow and ice, b ut commodity, a weather derivative contract
it could also cut into t he sales of puts a price tag on a particular weather
• FIGURE 6 A baking company might arrange
~ommodities represent avastarrayof goods •Derivatives are contract s t hatderive their value to buy thiswheat in advance at a guaranteed price
bought and sold in largequant ities, from oranges from .some other quantity, suc.h as the price of a if long- range v..eather forecasts point toward a
to oil commodity. poorc:rop.
the forecaster tends to weight the forecast heavily on computer- available for up to 16 days into the future, they are not accurate
drawn pror,~ and statistical information, such as Model Output in predicting temperature and precipitation, and at best only
Statistics (MOS). show the broad-scale weather features. Presently, the Oimate
A m ediwn-r ange for ecast is one that extends from about Prediction Center i~sues forecasts, called outlook~ of average
3 to 8.5 days (200 hours) into the future. Medium-range fore- weather conditions for a particular month or a season. These
casts are almost entirely based on computer-derived product~. are not forecasts in the strict sense. but rather an over vie\'' of
such as forecast pm!}~ and statistical forecasts (MOS). A forecast how precipitation and temperature p.1tterns may compare with
that extends beyond 3 days i~ often called an extendedforemst. normalcondition~. • Figure 13. ll gives atypical 90-dayoutlook.
A forecast that extends beyond about 8.5 days (200 hours) Initially, outlooks were based mainly on the relationship
i~ called a long-r ange forecast. Although computer progs are between the projected average upper-air flow and the surface
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
90·day clinate ouUooi< for 90-day climate outlOOI< for
February. Match. April. 2011 February, March. April. 201 t
(a) Preclpltalion (b) Tempe<ature

• F I GURE 13.11 The90· dayoudook for (a) precipitation and (b) temperature for February, March.and Apri~ 20 11 . For predpitation (a}, the darker the
green color the greater the probability of precipitation being above normal, \Vhereas the deeper the bro\vn color thegreaterthe probability o f precipita--
tion being belo\v normal. For temperature {b}, the darker the orange/red colors the greater the probabilityof temperatures being above nor m a~ \vhereas
the da rk~ the blue color, the greater the probability of temperatures being below normal.On both maps. the letter A stands for obovenonno/ and the
letter B for be/01vnormo/. (National Weather Service/NOAA)
figure 13.11 b shows that for February, Mar(I\ and April 1 2011 1 below normal temperatures arc expected
over the Pacifk northwest and above normal temperatures are expected over the desert southwest.
Where on the map (Fig. 13. Jlb) would you expect a persistent upper·level trough of low pressure and an upper·level ridge of high
pressure? Look at the map closely and draw a dark sol id I ine where you would expect the average position of the polar jct stream.
weather conditions that the typeofflow will cre"te. Today, many during the winter of 1997- 1998 was wet and "1ld: Storm after
of the outlooks are based on persi~tence statistics that carry storm pounded the region producing heavy rains, mud slides,
over the general weather p attern from immediatdy preceding road closures, and millions ofdollars in damages.
months, seasons, and years. Jn addition, long-range forecasts In most locations throughout North America, the weather
are made from model~ that link the atmosphere with the ocean i~ fair more often than rainy. Conse.quently, there is a forecast-
surface temperature. As we saw in Chapter I 0, a vast warming ing bias toward fair weathe.r, which means that, if you made a
(El Ni1io) or cooling ( L" Ni1ia) of the tropical Pacific can affect ')recast of "no rain" where you live for each day of the year, your
the weather in different region~ of the world. 1bese interac- IOrecast would be correct more than 50 percent of the time. But
tion-;. "'here a \\'armer tropica.l l"Jcific can influence rainfall in did you show any skill in m aking your correct forecast> What
California, are called telecoonectloos.' constitutes skill, anyway? And how accurate are the forecasts
These types of interactions between widely separ"ted re- issued by the National Weather Service>
gioi>s are identified through statistical correlations. For example,
look back at Fig. 10.25, p. 284, and observe where seasonally ACCURACY ANDSKILLIN FORECASTING lnspiteofthecom-
averaged temperature and precipitation P"tterns over North plexity and ever-changing nature of the atmosphere, forecasts
America tend to depart from normal during £! Nii\o and La made for between 12 and 24 hours are usually quite accurate.
Nii\a events. Using this type of information, the Clim;lte Pre- 'Jbose made for between 2 and 5 days are fairly good. Beyond
diction Center can issue a seasonal outlook of an impending about 7 days, due tot he chaotic nature oft he atmosphere, com-
\\•etter or drier \\rintert month.-; in advance. Foreca.o;ts using tele· puter prog forec.tst accuracy falls off rapidly. Although weather
connections have shown promise. For example, as the tropical predictions made for up to 3 days are by no means perfect, they
equatorial Pacific became much warmer than normal during are far better than simply flipping a coin. But how accurate
the spring and early summer of! 997, forecasterspredicteda wet are they?
rainfall season over central and southern California. Although One problem with determining forecast accuracy is decid-
the heavy rains didn't begin until late November, the weather ing what constitutes a right or wrong forecast. Suppose tomor-
.,f:leoonn«tion$ include not only El Nii\o and la Nhla hut o ther indices. such ro"'s forecast calls for a minimmn temperature of 35°F. lf the
as lhe Pacific Oecad1I Oscillation. the North All1lntic Oscilln1ion. und 1he Ardic official minimwn turns out to be 37•f , is the forecast incorrect>
Oscill:uion. (See {'.hap1er to. p. 286-239.) ls it as incorrect as one JO degrees offi By the same token, what
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about a forecast for snow over a large city, ;md the snow line the last decade, \\1th the average lead lime today being do.se to
cuts the city in halfwith the southern portion receiving heavy 15 minutes.
amounts and the northern portion none? Is the forecast right or Although scientists may never be able to skillfully predict
wrong? Al present, there is no clear-cul answer to the question the weather beyond about 15 days using available observations,
<:i detennining forecast accuracy. the prediction of climatic trends appears to be more promising.
How does forecast accuracy compare with forecast skill? Whereas individual weather systems vary greatly and are diffi-
Suppose you are forecasting the daily summertime weather cult to IOrecas1 very far in advance, global-scale patterns ofwinds
in Los Angeles. lt is not raining today and your forecast for and pre.ssure frequently show a high degree of persistence and
tomorrow calls for "no rain." Suprose that tomorrow it doe,sn't predictable change over periods of a few weeks to a month or
rain. You made an accurate forecast, but did you show any more. With the latest generation ofhigh-speed supercomputers,
skill in so doing? Earlier, we saw that the chance of measurable general circulation models (G CMs) are doing a far better job at
rain in Lo.s Angeles on any summer day is very small indeed; predicting large-scale atmo.spheric behavior than did the earlier
ch;mces are good that day after day it will not rain. For a fore- models. (The GCMsare numerical computer modelsthatsimu-
cast to show skill, it should be better th;m one based solely on late global patterns ofwind, pre.ssure, and temperature, and how
the current weather (persistence) or on the "normal" weather these phenomena change over time.) Jn fact, the new GCMs
(climatology) for a given region. ' lberefore, during the summer are able to simul1te a number of global patterns quite well, such
in Lo.s Angeles, a forecaster will have many accurate forecasts as blocking highs' that can cause precipitation and temperature
calling for "no measurable rain;· but "111 need skill to predict patterns 10 deviate considerably from average conditions. As
correctly on whichsmnmer days it will rain. So, ifon a sunny new knowledge and methods of mode.Jing are fed into the
July day in Lo.s Angeles you forecast rain for tomorrow and it GCMs, it is hoped that they "111 become a reliable tool in the
rains, you not only made an accurate forecast, you also showed forec.1sting of weather and climate. (In Chapter 16, we will
skill in making your forecast because your forecast was better examine in more detail the climatic predictions based on
th;m both persistence and climatology. munerictl models.)
Meteorological forecasts, then, show skill when they are
more accurate than a forecast utilizing only persistence or cli-
matology. Persistence forecasts are usually difficult to improve BRIEF REVIEW
uron for a period of time ofseveral hours or less. Weather fore- Up to thi s point we h ave looked at th e vario us methods of
casts ranging from 12 hours to a few days generally show much weather forecastin g. Before goi ng on, here Is a review of some
more skill than tho.se of persistence. However, as the range of of th e Important Ideas presented so far:
the forecast period increases, becatcse of chao.s the skill drops
quickly. The 6- to 14-day mean outlooks both show some skill • Avail able to t he forecaster are a number of tool s th at can be
(which has been increasing over the last several decades) in pre- used when making a forecast, Including surface and upper-
dicting temperature and precipitation, although the accuracy air maps, computer progs, meteograms, soundings, Doppler
<:i precipitation forecasts is less than th;ll for temperature. Pres- radar, and satellite Information.
ently, 7-day forecasts now show about as much skill as 3-day • The forecastin g of weath er by hi gh -speed computers Is
IOrecasts did a decade ago. Beyond LSdays, specific forecasts are known as numerical weather prediction. Mathematical mod-
only slightly better than climatology. However, skill in making els t hat describe how atmosph eric temperature, pressure,
IOrecasts ofaverage monthly temperature and precipitation has wind s, and moisturewlll change wi t h time are programmed
approximately doubled from 1995 to 2006. in to the computer. The computer then draws surface and
Forecasting large-scale weather events several days in ad- upper-air charts, and produces a variety of forecast charts
vance (such as the bliz-tard of 19% ,tJong the eastern seaboard called progs.
of the United States) is far more accurate than forecasting the • Alter a number of days, flaws In t he computer models -
precise evolution and movement of small-scale, short-lived atmospheric ch aos and small errors in the data-greatly
weather systems, such as tornadoes and severe thunderstorms. limit t he accuracy of weather forecasts.
In fact, 3-day forecasts of the development and movement of a
majorlow-pressure system show more skill today than 36-hour • En semble fo recasting Is a technique based on runnin g
several forecast model.s (or different versions of a sin gle
IOrecasts did LS years ago.
model), each beginning with slightl y different weather
Even though the precise location where a tornado will form
in formation to reflect errors in the measurements.
is presently beyond modern forecasting techniques, the general
area where the storm is likely to form can often be predicted up • A persistence forecast Is a prediction t hat future weather
to 3 days in advance. With improved observing systems, such as will be th e same as t he present weath er, whereas a ctima to -
Doppler radar and advanced satellite imagery, the lead time of tog/ca/ forecast ls based on t he climato logy of a particu lar
watches and warnings for severe storms has increased. In fact, region.
the lead time' for tornadowarnings has more th;m doubled over •BJocking highs an? high-p1essure are>ls th.lt tend to re1n.1in ne.-idy stationary for
·uadrim.e is the in1e1valof ti1ue between 1he i5Sueof thcwarningand3ctual obscr- son1e tlnle, thus ..blocking" the \\'eSl· IO·tasl ll)() Vc1uen t of nlid-la1il udc cyclonic
v.1nc:e of th e event, in this case. the tornOOo. stonns..
i;1 °*"'"''"..
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..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11 ,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• For a forecast to show ski ll, It must be better t han a persis- WEATHER WATCH
tence forecast or a dlmatol oglcal forecast. Groundhog Day (Februar y 2) is the day that is supposed
• Weather forecasts for up to a few hours are called very short- to rep resent the midpoint of winter-ha lfway between
range forecasts; th ose that range from about 6 h ours to a few the winter solstice and the vernal equinox . Years ago, in
days are called short-range forecasts; medium -range fore- an attempt to forecast what the remaining half of winter
casts extend from about 3 to S days into t he future, whereas wou ld be like, people placed t h e burden of weather prog-
long -range forecasts extend beyond, to about 8.5 days. nostication on va rious animals, such as the groundhog,
which is actually a woodchuck. Folklore sa ys that if the
• Seasonal outlooks provi de an overview o f how temperature groun dhog emerges from hi.s burrow and sees (or casts)
and precipitation patterns may compare wit h normal his shadow on the ground and then returns to his b urrow,
condi t ions. there w ill be si x more weeks of w inter weather. One can
only wonder whether it is rea ll y the 9 roundho9 1 s shadow
that drives him back into his burrow or the people stand-
PREDICTING THE WEATHER FROM LOCAL SIGNS Because in g around gawking at him.
the weather affects every aspect of our daily lives, attempts to
predict it accurately have been made for centuries. One of the
earliest al!empts was undertaken by "Jl1eophrastus, a pupil of
Aristotle, who in 300 B.C. compile.d all sorts of weather indica- Knowing ho'" the temperature is changing aloft can help
tors in his Book ofSigns. A dominant influence in the field of you predict the stabiliry of the air (described in Chapter 6), as
weather forecasting for 2000 years, this work consists of ways to well as whether falling snow will change to rain, or vice versa.
IOretell the weather by examining natural signs, such as the color ('Thi~ topic is explored more extensively in the Fowssection on
and shape of clouds, and the intensity at which a fly bites. Some p. 364.)
of these signs have validity and are a part ofour own weather To further help you forecast the weather, the instant weather
folklore- "a h:ilo around the moon portends rain" is one of IOrecastchart (Appendix£, nearthe back of the book) has been
these. Today, l••e realize that the halo is caused by the bending prepared by considering the relationship that the pressure and
of light as it passes through ice crystals and that ice crystal-type "'°d have on various weather systems. While the chart is appli-
douds (cirrostratus) are often the forerunners ofan approaching cable to mudl of the United States and southern Canada, local
storm. (See ofig 13.1 2.) influence$, such as mountain;; and large bodies of \\'at er. can
Weather predictions can be made by observing the sky and affect the local weather to such an extent that the large-scale
using a little weather "1sdom. ffyou ~ep your eyes open and your weather panerns on which the chart is based do not always
senses ~enly tuned to your environment, you should, with a little show up dearly. (The dlart works best during the fall, winter,
practice, be able to make fairly good short-range local we'1lher and spring when the weather systems are active.)
IOrecasts by inte.rpreting the messages written in the weather ele-
ments. Yfable 13.3 is designed to help you "1th this endeavor.
'lbe movement of clouds at different levels can assist vou
in predicting changes in the temperature of the air above you.
Weather Forecasting Using
Surface Charts
'vVe are OO\ \' in a pos:ition to forecast the \\•eat her, utilizing more
sophisticated techniques. Suppose, for example, that we wish to
make a short-range weather prediction and !he only information
available is a surface weather map. Can we make a foreca.~t from
such a chart? Most definirely. And our chances of that forecast
being correct improve markedly ifwehavemaps availablefrom
several days back. We can use these pasrmaj>-S to locate thepre-
viou.s position ofsurface features and predict their movement.
A simplified surface weather map is shown in • Fig. 13. 13,
p. 365. The map portrays early winter weather conditions on
Tuesday morning at 6'00 A.M. A single isobar is drawn around
the pressure centers to show their positions without cluttering
the map. Nore that an open-wave cyclone is developing over the
Central Plains. The weather conforms to the cyclone model (see
Fig. 12.12, p. 331), with showers forming along the cold front and
light rain, snow, and sleet ahead of the warm front. "lbe dashed
• FIGURE 13. 12 A halo aro und t he sun {or moon} means t hat rain is o n t he lines on the map represent the position of the weather systems
\vay, a v.eathe r forec.ast m ade bysimptyobserving t he sky. 6 hours ago. Our first question is: How "111 these systems move?
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<l<nlonl fl •..., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,i., .,_,u~n~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11..,......., fl~••"-.,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b>nj"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,.
,. TABLE 13.3 Forecast at a Glance-Forecasting the Weatherfrom Local Weather Signs. Listed below are a few forecasting
rules that may be applied when making a short-range local weather forecast
OBSERVATION INDICATION LOCAL WEATHER FORECAST
Surface \\Tinds fron1 the Sor fron1 the S\r\/; Possible cool front and thunderstorn1s Possible sho\\rers; possibly turning
clouds building to the west; warm (hot) approaching fmn1 the '''est cooler; \\Tindy
and humid (pressure raUing)
Surface \\Tinds fron1 the£ or fron1 the SE. Possible approach of a \\Tarn1 front 1\>s.;;ibility of precipitation \\Titbin
cool or cold; high cloud< tlikkening and 12-24 hours; '""indy(rain \\ith possible
lowering: halo (ring of light) around tbe thunder.aorn1s during tbe sun1nieri
sun or moon (pressure falling) snO\\T changing to sleet or rain in \\Tinter)
Strong surface \\find'i fron1 the N\'\1 or \IV; A l.O\\T~ pre.;;sure a.re a Ola)' be nlOvingto the Continued clear to partlydoudy, cold
cun1ulus clouds n1oving overhead east, a\\'3}' fron1 you; and an area of high nights in \\'inter; cool nights \\1ith lo\\T
(pres.c;ure rl..'iing) pres.i;ure is nlOving tO\\Tard you fron1 the \\Test hun1idity in sun1nler
\\'inter night
(a) If clear,relath,.ly calm with low (a) Rapid radiation al cooling will occur (a) A very cold night
hun1idit}' Om,•de\\l'.. p-Oint ten1perature)
(b) If clear, relati\~I>• caln1 \\l'ith lo'" (b) Rapid radiational cooling will occur (b) A very cold night \\tith n1inin1un1
hun1idity and SOO\\T CO\•ering the ground teniperatures lo\\ler than in (a)
(c) If cloudy, relati\<ely calm with low (c) Clouds wiU absorb and radiate infrared (c) Minin1un1 ten1perature '""ill not be
hun1idity (IR) eneigy to surface as low as in (a) or (b)
Swun1er night
(a) Clear, hot, humid (high dew points) (a) Strong absorption and emission of IR (a) High n1inin1un1 tenlperatures
enermr to surface b }' \\later vapor
(b) Clear and relatively dry (b) More rapid radiational cooling (b) Lo''1er nlioinlun1 tenl:peratures
Swun1er afternoon
(a) Scattered cun1ulus doud'i that sho'" (a) Atmo.sphere is relatively unstable (a) Possible shO\\lt!rs or thunderstorn\S
e.xtensi\\> vertical gro\\Tth by n1id~moming b}' afternoon ~\Tith gusty \\rinds
(b) A.fiernoon cun1uJuc; clouds"\\Tith (b) Stable layer above clouds (region (b) Continued partly cloudy with no
lin1ited vertical gro\vth and \\ii.th tops at dominated by high pres<ure) precipitation; probably clearing by
just abour the sanle level nightfall
DETERMINING THE MOVEMENT OF WEATHER SYSTEMS When the surface map (Fig. 13.1 3) is examine.d care-
There are several methods we can use in forecasting the move- fully and when rule,~ of thumb I and 2 are applied, it appears
ment of surface pressure systems and fronts. The following area that - based on present trends- the low pressurecentere.d over
li!w ofthese forecasting rules oft humb: the Central Plains should move northeast. Jf pressure te11de11cies•
are plotted on our map, we can draw lines connecting points of
1. For short-time intervals, mid-latitude cyclonic stonns and
equal pressure change. 'Jliese lines, called isallobars, help us to
fronts tend to move in the same direction and at approxi- visualize the regions of falling and rising pressure. The distribu-
mately the s ame speed as they did during the previous tion of pressure change for our map might look like the one in
six hours (providing, of course, there is no evidence to indi-
• Fig. 13.14, p. 365. Drawn at 2-mb inte.rvals, the isallobarsshow
cate othern1se).
a broad region of falling pressure ahead of the warm front, with
2 l ow-pressure areas tend to move in a direction that parallels the largest drop occurring to the northe.~~t of the low-pres-
the isobars in the warm air (the '""m air sector) ahead oft he sure area. 'Jl1is pattern fits \\1th the previous observations and
cold front. strengthens the prediction that the cente.r of the low"'" move
3. l ows tend to move toward the region of greatest pressure toward the northeast. 'Jl1e area of rising pressure immediately
drop, while highs tend to move to,mrd the region ofgreatest behind the cold front suggest~ that the high-pressure area over
rise. Montana \\'ill continue to move southe.ast,\'ard.
4. Surface pressure systems tend to move in the same direction
as the wind at 5500 m (18,000 ft)- the 500 -mb level. The
speed at which surface system.~ move is about halfthe speed of '1he prt!$JUn! te11de11<y is 1he role at which the pressure isch.1nglng during a given
the winds at thi~ level. I inlC, usually the p3st I hree hours..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.. ,....,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1e,w..,,.r,..,,.....i....
<1<n11...ifl,....,.._,~ ..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,... """"""""~ c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,'"""'''"'"·
Forecasting Temperature Advection by Watching the Clouds
We know from Chapter 12 that w h en cold air As an example, suppose we obser ve

is being b rought into a region by t he wind, lower clouds moving from a southerly di- ,.._____L_~
we call this cold advection. When warm air is
brought into a region. we ca ll this VKJrm
odvection.
rection (south w ind) an d higher c louds
moving from a westerly d irection (west
w ind) (see Fig. 7a). The w ind d irection is
(a)
----:.-·-0
soomo , : ,:,
1;" I
A knowledge o f temperatureadvection veering w it h height;war madvection is COid ail warm air
aloft is a valuable tool in fo recasting the occurring between t he cloud layers, and
weather. In summer, when the surface is t he air should be getting war mer. If, o n
warm, cold advection aloft sets up instability a nother day, we see lower clouds moving
and increases the likelihood of towering cu- from a southerlyd irection and higher
mulus clouds and showers. On the other clouds moving from an easterly direction
hand, warm advection aloft usually increases (Fig. 7b), the w ind is backing w ith h eight (b)
the temperature of the air, thus making it a nd th e atmosphere between the cloud
N
more stable. During the w inter, this often layers is probably becoming colder.• w-f-E
leads to smoke and haze accum ulating in the An example o f the relationship be- s
colder air near the surface. tween w inds and advection is seen in the
By watching the movement of clouds, ver tically shifting w inds that accompany
(C)
we get a good indication as toth ewind weather fronts. Look at Fig. 8 and obser ve
direction at cloud level and also the type that Fig. Sb (middle diagram) is a 3-D model • F I GURE 8 Cloud.s, \vind.s,andadvection
of advection. For instance, a cloud moving of a typical open-wave cyclone with its ac- associat ed \Yit h a cold a nd a warm front
from the west indicates a west w ind, a cloud companying warm and cold fro nt. Behind
region of coldest air is to the west of the sur-
from the south a south w ind, and so on. the cold front, swiftly moving cumulus
Clouds at d ifferent levels frequently move in clouds indicate a northwesterly w ind exists face low. The direction of the w ind and also
the cloud movement is shown by arrows.
differentd irections, meaning that the w ind about a kilometer o r so above the surface.
Because of the upper trough's position, the
direction is changing w ith height. Wind that Ahead of the advancing warm front, strati-
w inds aloft arewesterly behind the cold
changes direction in a clockw ise sense fo rm clouds indicate that here southeasterly
(north to northeast to east, etc.) isa veering w inds prevail about a kilometer above the front and southwesterly ahead o f the warm
front. Figure& (bottom diagram) shows
vvind. Wind t hat changes direction in a coun- ground.We know from Chapter 12 that
terclockw ise sense (nor th to nor thwest to warm advection takes placeaheod of how the w ind direction changes from the
surface to the 500-mb level. Behind the cold
west, etc.) is a backing wind. There are two the warm front and cold advection behind
front, the winds back from northwesterly to
gener al rules that w ill help us determine the cold front. In both case~ the advection
westerly as we mOYe upward . Cold advec-
w heth er cold or warmadvection is occur- usually occurs in a la~ r from the surface up
tion is taking place as chilling air moves in
ring in a layer of air above us: to at least the 500-mb level, above 5500 m
from the west. Just ahead of the approach-
or 18,000 ft above sea level.
1. Winds thatbackwith height(changecoun- ing warm front, thew ind veers w ith height
On the upper-air 500-mbchart (Fig. Sa),
terclockwise) indicateco/dadvection from southeasterly at the surface to south-
the position of the upper tro ugh and the
2. Winds that veer w ith height (change westerly aloft as warm air g lides up and
• 1n both d these examples, we are assuming hori-
clockw ise) indicate v.orm advedion over the cool surface air.
zontal air mo tion onty.
We can use this information to improve
upon a weather forecast. For instance, if you
Uppe< ctlud Upper~ happen to be located ahead of an advanc-

ing warm front and the w inds above you
are veering with height, the chances are
that even if precipitation begins as snow it
may change to rain as warm air moves in
Lovrer overhead. Behind a cold frontwherewinds
Cloud
are backing w ith height, the influx of cold
air may lower the temperature sufficiently
(a) Veetlng wind (b) Backing wind
so that rain first becomes m ixed with snow,
• F I GURE 7 (a) The\vind veers wi th height.suggesting \varm a dvection is: occur1ing bel\veen the doud and then changes to snow before the storm
layers.{b} The \\lind is backing \Vith height, and cold advection is occurring behveen t he cloud layers.. moves eastward .
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,....,.._..,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni>' t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,,. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
38 -1of
~I 1034
- 13
-·s.a
-11i"" 12/ 100""""
0
I
-1
.~
H 10
2\\ '
13 ) SIMPLIAED KEY
•••
•••
Coldfronl
Warm front
• • Sta1ionary front
"
••• Ocd.Jded fronl
Light snow
**
•• Ughtrain
~ Sleet
R Thunderstorm
Wnd direotioo
l
22[
¥
/Wind speed
( 10knoCs)
Air temperature
16 Dew point
e FIGURE 13.13 Surface\veather mapfor6.:00AM. Tuesday. Dashed lines indicate positions of \Veatherfeaturessix hoursago.Areasshaded green are
receiving rain. \Yhile areas shaded \Vhiteare receiving snow, and those shaded pink.. free.zing rain or s1eet.
Pressure tendencies not only help predict the movement shows the average tracks of lows and highs during the winter
of highs and lows, they also indicate how the pressure systems months. from thi~ diagram, it appears that thecydonesandan-
are changing with time. 'J11e rapid fall in pressure in advance of ticyclones in Fig. 13.1 3 are following rather typical trajectories.
the low indic'1!es that the storm center i~ deepening as it moves. If aSOO-mb chart isavailable(such as • J'ig. 13. 15). it would
A deepening low me'111S more closely spaced isobars, a greater al~o indicate how the surface pressure systems should move,
pressure gradient, and stronger winds- something to take into since the winds at thi~ level tend to steer these systems along.
acc.ount '"hen '"'e m..1ke our '''Cather forec1st. A drop in pressure.
on theotherhand,inthevicinity ofan anticyclone suggests that it
is weakening. while a rise in pressure means that its O!ntral pres-
sure i~ increasing. Hence, the high-pressure area over Montana i~
strong (1034 mb) and will remain so, whereas the high O!ntered
off the South Carolina coast is either moving eastward or weak-
ening rapidly as indicated by the falling pressure in th'tt area.
Before we complete our prediction about the movement of
the pressure centers in fig. 13.13, we need to look closely at the
high-pressure area off the South Carolina coast. Strong highs,
especially slow-moving ones, often retard the eastward prog-
ress of lows, deflecting them either north or south. from all
indications -falling pressures and past movement-this an-
ticyclone is weakening and drifting slowly eastward. It should,
therefore, pose no immediate problem to the northeastward
movement of the storm center.
• FIGURE 13.14 lsallobars-Unesof equal 3-hour pressurechange-for
Even if we do not have access to pressure tendencies or pre- 6.<lOAM. Tuesday. The·r represents the region ofgreatest pressure fall while
vious: \\•eather maps. \\'t- can make an initial approximiltion of the.R"sho\VS the region of greatest pressure rise.A + 2 indicatesa rise of
how pressuresystemswill move by u.~ingFig, 12.5, p. 323, which 2 millibars..
I
@
-
.....
........
{"""*'>~
•••
O.m
.,
5520
,. ...
\...__ .... ,,_.,
....
..... .•.,
"----
~
$3-17
5580
L_
llY:l .....,,,, ...,,
.... -""'
'"--
\II__
5640
....~· -
L ~
~ \Ill._
..,..,
~
\\\).i._
..._ ....
.... .....
I_
5700
...,
....
5760
~
fu_
1\1._ 7M>
l\li._
~ - -
Q'.11
,..,,
...,,
,,.,,
tl ljl.1 23 lo:J.KJ)'
e FI GURE 13.15 A .SOO·mb c-hart for 6:00 AM Tuesday. shCl\ving \Vind flO\v. The light orange l represents the position of the surface lo\V. The
\vindsaloft tend to steer surface pressure systems along and, therefore,. indicate that the surface lo\vshould move northeastward at about half the
speed cl the \Yind-sat this leve1, or 25 knots. Sortd lines are contours in meters above se.a level.
...,~t•44i!i~ll&fdlt.J~t-=:;;=========== From Fig. 13.15, it appears that, indeed, the surface low should
move northeaSt\\•ard.
A FORECAST FOR SIX CITIES Our objective now is to make

a short-range weather forecast for six cities. To do this, we
'''ill project the surface pressure systems, fronts, and current
l••eather into the future by assuming steady-state conditions
exist. • Figure 13.16 gives the 12- and 24-hour projected posi-
tions of these features.
A word of caution be.fore we make our forecasts. We are
assuming that the pressure systems and fronts are moving at a
constant rate.'lb is may or may not oc.c.ur. Lo'''-pressure areas, for
example, tend to accelerate until they occlude, after which their
rate ofmovement mayslow. Furthermore, the direction ofmov-
ing systems may change due to blocking-highs and -lows that
exist in their path or because ofshifting upper-level wind pat-
tern~. We will assume a constant rate of movement and forecast
aocordingly, always keeping in mind that the longer our forecasts
extend into the future, the more susceptible they are to error.
Jf we movethelow- and high-pre,-;sure ar"'l~eastward, as illus-
trated in Fig. 13.16, we can make a basic weather forecast for vari-
ous cities. For example, the cold front moving into north Texas on
Tuesday morning is projected to pass Dallas by that evening. so a
forecast for the Dallas area would be "warm "ith showers, then
turning colder." But we can do much better than this. Kno"ing the
l••eather condition~ that accompany advancing pressure areas and
Before going on, you may v1ish to refresh your memory about the fronl~, we can make more detailed weather fi>recists that wil Itake
movement and weather associated with both oold and warm fronts into account changes in temperature, pressure, humidity. cloud
by going to the Cengage Cour:seMatewebsite at VMw.ceng.agebrain. cover, precipitation, and winds. Our forecist "ill include the
comand viewing the animationsentitledCo/d Fronrin lM'nterand
Wann Frontin l-Wnrer. 24-hour period from Tuesday morning to Wednesday morning
for the cities of Augusta, Georgia; Washington, D.C.; Chicago,
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,bu q10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I•• - "" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,,_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c.. 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FI GURE 13.16
Projected 12.. and 24-hour
movement of fronLs. pressure
s)Stem\ and precipitation
from ftilO AM. Tuesday until
6.iXIAM.Wednesd31. IThe
dashed tines represent fron·
tal positions6 hoursa.go.)
H Hoor
12
'I
' ' ... \:0onvr
'' fi~ ...
' .... - - - .,I.. .... 0 Augus1a H
H H-
- 12 24
Hour Hour
,. :
o,___400_,._
1 1
__,'f km
o 250 5'.X> ml
Illinois; Memphis, Tennessee; Oalkts, Texas; and Denver, C'.olo- air moving over the cold surface waschilk<l below its dew point,
rado. We will begin with Augusta. resulting in fog, Above the fog \\'ere the low clouds we predicted
'Jbe minimum temperatures remained higher than anticipated
Weather Forecast for Augusta, Georgia On 1uesdaymorning. becatc'le of the release of latent heat during fog formation and the
continental polar airassodated "1th a high-pressure area brought absorption of infrared energy by the fog droplets. Not bad for a
freezing temper;tture.s and fair weather to the Augusta area (see start. Now we will foreca~t the \\'eather IOr Wa~hington, O.C.
Fig. 13.13). Clear skie.s, light winds, and low humidities allowed
rapid nighttime cooling so that, by morning. temperatures were Rain or Snow for Washington, O.C.? look at Fig, 13. 16 and
in the low 30s (•F). Now lookclo.o;ely at fig. 13.16 and ob.o;erve that observe that the low-pressure area over the Central Plains is
the anticyclone is moving slowly eastward, away from Augusta. slowly approaching Washington, O.C., from the west. Hence,
Southerly winds on the western side of this system will bring the clear weather, light southwesterly winds, and low tempera-
warmer and more humid air to the region. Therefore, afternoon ture.s on Tue.s day morning (see Fig. 13.13) will gradually give
temperatures will be warmer than tho.o;e of the day before. As way to increasing cloudiness, winds becoming southeasterly,
the warm front approaches from the west, cloud~ will increase, mxl slightly higher temperatures. By Wednesday morning. the
appearing first as cirrus, then thickening and lowering into the projected band ofprecipitation will be overt he city. Will it be in
normal sequence of warm-front clouds. Barometric pressure the form of rain or snow? Without a vertical profile of tempera-
should fall. Clouds and high humidity should keep minimum ture (a sounding) or a thickne.s.~ chart, this question is difficult
temperature.swell above freezing on Tuesday night. Note that the to answer. We can see in fig. 13.1 3, however, that on 1uesday
projected area of precipitation (green-shaded region) does not morning cities south of Washington, O.C.'s latitude are receiv-
quite reach Augusta. With all of this in mind, ourforecast might ing snow. So a reasonable IOrecast would call for snow, possibly
sound something like this: changing to rain as \\•arm air moves in aloft in advance of the
Clear and cold this o\orning \\•ilh o\oderating ten1perarure.o;; by approaching fronL~. A 24-hour forecast for Washington, O.C.,
afternoc.)n. Jncreasing high cloudo;; \\ii.th skies beco1ni11g O\t>rcasr might sound likethis:
bye,\>ni11g. Cloudy and not nearly a.'I cold tonight and tomorro\'' lncrea.'ling cloudo; today and continued cold. Sno\'' beginning b)'
n1orning. \Vinds \\•ill be Light and out of the south or southeast e.arly \Vedne.sday n1orning, pos.o;;ibly changing to rain. Winds \\•ii l
8aron1etric pressure \\1ill faUslo\''I)'. be out of rhe .southeast. Pressure.o; \\•ii l fall.
Wednesday morning wediscover thatthe weather in Augusta Wednesday morning a friend in Wa~hington, O.C., calls to
is foggy with temperatures in the upper 40s (*F). But fog was not tell us that the sleet began to fall but has since changed to rain.
in the forecast. What went wrong? We forgot tocon.~ider that the Sleet? Another fractured IOrecast! Well, almost. What we forgot
ground \••as still cold from the recent cold snap. 'Jl1e warm moist to account for this time was the intensification of the storm. A~
C'1'1'rif* ) ) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U .......................... "',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r..........i....
<1<n11....i ., ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll-....... .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
tbelow-pre.ssure area moved eastward, it deepened; central pres- would have helped makea more accurate forecast. The \\'eat her
sure lowered, pres.~ure gradients tightened, and southeasterly 500 miles south of Chicago should be much different from this.
wind~ blew stronger th:tn anticipated. As air moved inland off the
warmer Atlantic, it rode up and over the colder surface air. Snow Mixed Bag of Weather for Memphis Observe in Fig. 13.1 6
falling into this ""arm layer at least partially melted; it then refrou that, within 24 hours, both a warm and a cold front should
as it entered the colder air near grotmd level. The advection of move past Memphis, Tennessee. The light rain that began
warmer air from the ocean slowly raised the surface temperatures, '11.tesday morning (Fig. 13.13) should saturate the cool air,
andthesleetsoon became rain. Although \\'edid not see this pos- creating a blanket oflow clouds and IOg by midday. 'llte warm
sibility when ""'made our forecast, a IOrecaster more familiar front, as it moves through sometime11.te,o;day afternoon, should
with local surrotmdings would have. let~ move on to Chicago. cause temperatures to rise slightly as winds shift to the south or
southwest. Al night, dear to partly cloudy skies should allow
Big Snowstorm for Chicago From Figs. 13.13 and 13.16, it the ground and air above to cool, offsetting any tendency for a
appears th'1t Chicago is in for a major snowstorm. Overrun- rapid rise in ternpe.rature. Falling pressures should level off in
ning of \\•arm air has produce.d a \\•ide area of snO\\'• \\•hich. the warm air, then fall once again as the cold front approaches.
from all indications, is heading directly for the Chicago area. According to the projection in Fig. 13.16, the cold front should
Sincecoldairnorth of thelow center will beoverChicago, pre- arrive sometime before midnight on '11.tesday, bringing with it
cipitation reaching the ground should be frozen. On '11.tesday gusty north"<esterly winds, sho"<ers, the possibility ofthunder-
morning (Fig. 13. 13), the leading edge of precipitation is less storms, rising pressures, and colder air. Taking all of this into
than 6 hours away from Chicago. Based on the projected path account, our weather forecast for Memphis will be:
ofthestorm(J'ig. 13.16), lightsnow should begin to fall around CJoud)' and cool \\rith light rain, low clouds, and fog e.arly today,
noon on 11.tesday. beco1ning pardycloud)• and \\•arn1er b)' late lhis afternoon.
By evening, as the storm intensifies,snowfallshould become CJouds increasing \\'ith possible shO\\•ers and thunderstonns
heavy. It should taper off and fmally end around midnight as the later tonight and turning colder. \\linds southeasterly lhL.;;
storm moves on east. Ifit snows for a total of12 hours-6 hours n1orning, becon1ing southerly or south''~sterl)' thL.;; e\1ening and
as light snow (around 1 inch every 3 hours) and6 hours as heavy shifting to north\,•esterl)•toni.ght. Pressures falling lhL.;; niorning,
snow (around I inch per hour)-then the total expected accu- leveling off thL'I aften1oon, then &Hing again, but dsing after
mulation \\ill be bet"<een 6and LO inches. As the center of the low n1idnight
moves east\\"ard, passingsoul h ofChicago, winds on "l\1esday will
gradually shift from southeasterly to easterly, then northeasterly A friend who lives near Memphis calls Wednesday to inform
by evening.Since the storm system is intensifying, it should pro- us that our forecast \••as correct except that the thunderstorms
duce strong win<ts that willswirl the snow into huge drifts, which did not materialize and that Tuesday night dense fog formed in
may bring traffic to a crawl. low-lying valleys, but by Wednesday morning it had di~sipated.
1 he winds will continue to shift as they become northerly Apparently. in the warm sectorofthestorm (the region ahead of
and finally north"<esterly by Wedne.sday morning. By then the the advancing cold front), winds were not strong enough to mix
storm center will probably be far enough east so thatskiesshould the cold, moi~t air that had settled in the valleys with the warm
begin to dear. Cold air advected from the northwest behind the air above. It~ on to Dallas.
storm will cause temperature,~ to drop further. Barometer read-
ings during the storm will fall as the low center approaches and Cold Wave for Dallas From Fig. 13.16, it appears that our
reach a low value sometime Tuesday night, after which they \\ill weather forecast for Dallas should be straightforward, since
begin to rise. A weather forecast for Chicago might be: a cold front is expected to pass the area around noon on
11.tesday. Weather along the front (Fig. 13.13) is showery with a
Cloudy and cold vdth light SllO\\' beginning by noon, beco1ning few thunderstorms developing; behind the front the air is dear
heavy by evening and ending by Vv'ednesda)' n\oming. Total but cold. By Wednesday morning (Fig. 13.16) it looks as if the
accu1nularions \\riU ta11ge bel:\\1een 6 and 10 inches. \\/ind.;; \\1ill cold front will be farto the east and south of Dallas and an area
be strong and gusty oul of d'e east or northeast today becon1ing cl high pressure will be centered over southern Colorado. North
nord1erly tonight and north\\•esterly by Vv'ednesday n1orning. or northwesterly winds on the east side of the high will bring
Baro1netric pressure \\•ill fal1sharp I)' tt)day and rise tOJnorrO\\'. cold arctic air into Texas, dropping temperatures as much as
A call Wednesday morning to a friend in Chicago reveals 4o•F within a 24-hour period. With minimum temperatures
that our forecast was correct except that the total snow accmnu- well below freezing, Dallas will be in the grip ofa cold wave. Our
lation so far is 13 inches. We were off in our forecast because the weather forecast should therefore sound something like this:
storm system slo"<ed as it became occluded. We did not consider lncreasing cloudiness and n1ild this n\orni.ng \\'ilh the possibil·
this because we moved the system by the steady-state forecast it)• ofsho"~l'$ and thu11derstorn1s thi.'1 aftemoo11. Cleari11g and
method. At this time ofyear(early winter), lake Michigan is not rurning 1nuchcolder tonight and 1n1norro"'· Wind~ \\111 be
quite frozen over, 'md the added moisture picked up from the south\,testerly today. becon1ing gll<;t)' north or north"~sterly
lake by the strong easterly and northeasterly winds enhanced this afternoo1) and tonight. Pressures faUi11g thL.;; n\orning, then
the snowfall Again, a knowledge of the local surroundings rising later today.
C'1'1'rif• :tl•~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i M")' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> , e,w..,,.r,..,,.....i....
How did our forecast turn out? A quick call to Dallas on Clear and cold Lhrough ton1orm\\'. Northerly v.'ind.; today
Wednesday morning reveal~ that the weather there is cold but beco111ing light and variable by tonight Lo\\t ten1peratures
not as cold as expected, and the sky is overcast. Cloudy weather? ton1orrO\\' n1orning v.'iU be belO\\' zero. Baron\etric pressure
How can this be? \\ill continue to rise.
The cold front moved through on schedule 'luesday after-
Wednesday morning, we (almost reluctantly) inquire about
noon, bringing showers, g<L~ty wind~. and cold weather with it. the weaLher conditions at Denver. "Clear and very cold" is the
Moving south "'ird, the front gradually slowed and became sta - reply. Asucressful forecast at last! We are told, however, that the
tionary along a line stretching from the GulfofMexico westward minimum temper.tture did not go below zero; in fact, 13•F was
through southern Texas and northern Mexico. (From the surface as cold as it got. A downslope wind coming off the mountain~
map alone we had no wayofknowing this would happen.) Along to the west ofDenver kept the air mixed and the minimum tem-
the stationary front a wave of low pressure formed. This distur- perature higher than expected. Again, a forecaster familiar with
bance caused warm, moist Gulf air to slide northward up and the local topographyofthe Denver area would have IOreseenthe
over thecoldsurfaceair. Clouds formed, minimum temperature.s conditions that lead to such downslope winds and would have
did not go as low as expected, and we are left with a fractured taken this into account when making the forecast.
IOrecast. Lds give Denver a try. A complete picture of the surface weather system~ for
6:00 A.M. Wednesday morning is given in • Fig. 13.17. By com-
Clear but Cold for Denver In Fig. 13. 16, we can see that, based paring this chart with Fig. 13.16, we can summarize why our
on our projections, the cold high-pressure area will be centered forecasts did not turn out exactly as we had predicted. For one
slightly to the south of Denver by Wednesday morning. Sink- thing, the storm center near the Gre'tt Lakes moved slower than
ing air aloft associated with thi~ high-pressure area should keep expected. 'fhisslow movement allowed a southeasterly flow of
the sky relatively free of douds. Weak pressure gradients will mild Atlantic air to overrun cooler surfare air ahead ofthe storm
produce only weak winds and Lhis, coupled with dry air, will while, behind the low, cities remained in the snow area for a lon-
allow for intense radiational cooling. Minimum temperatures ger time. The weak wave that developed along the trailing cold
will probably drop to well below o•F. Our forecast should there- front over south 1has brought cloudiness and precipitation to
IOre read: Texas and prevented the really cold air from penetrating deep
• FIGURE 13.17 Surface\veather mapfor6:00 AM. Wednesday.

l ook closely at the eastern half of the map in Fig. 13.17, especially the middle
Atlantic states. If you were analyzing this map, would you place a warm front in
this region? What evidence is present that suggests a warm front could be drawn? Why do you feel the person who
analyzed the map did not draw a warm front in this region?
the West Coast. Jn fact, the nearest front is a stationary one that
has stalled over the Rockie.~. 'Jltere is, howevrt, a region of low
pressurecentered about 1100 km (700 mi) west of San Francisco,
which (according to previous maps) has been there for several
H
1028
I days. With a central pressure of only about IOU mb (29.88 in.).
the systffi1 i~ fairly weak Could thi~ weak storm system be causing
theincreao;e in high cloudiness and the fallingbarometrt? And will
thi~ patll!rn lead to rain tomorrow? A lookatthe500-mbchart may
help with these questions.
1020
HELP FROM THE 500-MB CHART e Figure 13.19 shows the
500-mb analysis for <1:00 P.M. Sunday afternoon. While ex-
1Lo12
0) • 1016 amining the chart, the meteorologist recognizes certain dues
~~TI f\'""
that will aid in making the IOrecast. For one thing,the 5640-m
height line is over northern California. ' llte forecaster knows
1016 that when this contour line is situated here or farther south,
the statistical probability of receiving me'1surable rainfall over
Surface map 10 16
0 /
1016 1012
I
1008
\
1008'
I
central California increases greatly.
West of San l'rancisco the flow is meridional "'th a cut-off
warm, upper high situated just south of Alasb. To the south
both east and west of the high are troughs. Becausethe shape of
• F I GURE 13.18 Surface\veather map for 4.:00J>M. Sunday, March 25.
this flow around the high resembles the Greek letter omega(!!).
the highand its accompanyingridge is known as an omega high.
into the south. l'arrher west, the high-pressure area originally The forecaster recognizes the omega high as a blocii11g high, one
over Montana moved more souther! y than southeasterly.which that tends to persist in the same geographic location for many
set up a pressure gradient that brought westerly downslope days. 'Jltis blocking pattern also tends to keep the troughs in
winds to eastern Colorado. their respective positions, which has been the case for several
The subjective forecasting techniques discussed so far are days now. But the chart indicates that the cold upper trough
tho_o;e you can use when making a short-range weather predic- located west of San Francisco may be changing somewhat.
tion. 1 he follo"1ng section describes how a meteorologist pre- Observe the spacing ofthe contour line.saround this trough.
dicts the ,.,reathcr in a region \\'here, to the \\'est~ surface ,.,,eather Even "1th a limited munberofactual "ind observations, thecho;e
features are extensively modified by a vast body of water and spacing of the contours to the "'est and northwest of the trough,
only scanty surface and upper-air data are available. Here, and the more widely spaced contours to the east <:i the trough, hint
the forecaster must rely heavily on experience as well as more that stronger "1nds exist to the west oft he trough: llte forecaster
sophisticated tools, which include satellite data, upper-air charts, knows from past experience that this usually means the trough
and computer progs. will deepen. Also note that west of the trough the "fads (blue
A Meteorologist Makes a Prediction

It is late afternoon, and outside the weather forecast office near
San Francisco the meteorologist mulls over what is going on in
the sky. Overhead is a thin covering of cirrostratus; to the west,
draped over the IOothills, is the ever present stratus and fog.The
air is cool andthe winds are westerly. It i~Sunday.March25, and
the IOrecasters task is to predict the weather for theco:~~tal area
of central California.
What will tomorrow'.~ weather be like> Will it be sin1ilar to
today's or will it change marked! y? Aslowly fallingbaromete.r of
10 16 mb (30 in.) and the high clouds moving in from the west
point to an approaching storm system. A forecast of persistence
might be good for the next several hours, but what about tomor- • F I GU RE 13.19 The 500-mbc ha.rt for 4:00 PM. Sunday, Marc:h 25.Arro\YS
indicate wind flo\v. l\?d arrows indicatewarm advection and bluearro\vs.,cold
ro''' morning or tornorrO\\' afternoon?
advection.Solid lines are height contours\vhere 564 equals5640 meter~above
'llte late afternoon surface analysi~ provides little assistance .sea level. Dashed lines are isotherms in "C. Heavy dashed purple line shO\vs
with these questions. The surface map for 4:00 P.M. (PST) Sun- position of shorl\vave trough and the region where\ve \Wuld find a vorticity
day, ef'ig. 13.18, shows there are no l••eather fronts approaching maxim urn
C'1')'rif• ) ) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i

<l<nlonl fl •..., .._,~..,,._
'*"'....... "IJb."*'"'
'°"">' .....buq10.U . ......................... " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, "" "'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
.i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
arrows) are blowing across the isotherms (from colder regions), 12-hour pro~ for model A 'md model C both show several short-
indicating that cold advection is occurring. 1 he heavy dashed ""aves (vorticity maximum.~) moving around the upper trough
purple line on the west side of the trough represent~ the po-~ition \\1th one short\\"ave (labeled I), po-~itioned west of San Francisco
<:i a shortwave trough and a vorticity maximum,' which is mov- by4 A.M.Monday morning. Model B pred icts that thesameshorl-
ing rapidly south\\"ard. "lbe injection ofcold air and the shortwave ""ave will be much farther to the west
into themaintroughshottldcause it lointensify. Totheeastofthe After examining each prog carefully, the forecaster must
main trough, the \\1nds (red arrows) are crossing the isotherms decide which model m<>~l accurately describes the future state
and advecting warmer subtropical air northeast ward. lt is the of the atm<>~phere. Over the years, the forecaster knows that
lifting and conden.~ingofthis moist air that is producing the high model A h:ls performed well in predicting the p<>~itionsof upper
clouds over San Francisco. All of these conditions- high wind troughs that develop off the coast. Likewise, model C, because
speeds, regions of temperature advection, and a shortwave mov- it use~ more closely spaced grid point~ and a greater munber of
ing into a longwave trough- manifest themselves as a deepening data points, h:ts done an admirable job of forecasting the po-
of the long\\"Jve trough. As the upper trough deepens, it should sitions of upper troughs, shorf\\•aves. and vorticity maximum.
be capable of providing the necessary conditions favorable for Model S,on the other hand, tends to move the shortwaves along
the development of the surface low into a major mid-latitude too slowly. Consequently, the forecaster puts more confidence
cyclonic storm. (You may remember from Chapter 12 that the into model A and model C.
generation of this type of dynamic instability is called baroclinic Using experience :md the progs, the meteorologist set~
i 11Slllbi/ity .) out to predict the weather. The 12-hour progsfor model A and
One of the main ingredients necessary for the develop- model C in Fig. 13.20 show a shortwave (labeled l) approach-
ment and intensification of the surface low is divergence of ing the California coast al 4 A.M. on Monday morning. As the
the airflow aloft. The forecaster knows that divergence aloft is shortwave approaches the coastline, clouds "111 increase and
associated with a decrease in surface pressure. This decrease, thicken and the likelihood of rain will increase. Because the
in turn. causes surface air to converge. rise. and condense into main upper-level low is predicted to remain off the coast.south-
widespread cloudiness. But where will regions of divergence, westerly winds aloft will continue to pump moisture into the
convergence, and rising air be found on tomorro"'s map? And region and, as the 36-hourprogs indicate, a series ofshortwaves
how will tomorrow's map be different from today's? This is (vorticity maximums) will move through the region, bringing a
where the computer and the forecaster work together to come good chance of rain at least through 'l\1esday morning. "lbere-
up with a prediction. fore, the precipitation forecast will sound like this:
b1creasiog cloudiness Sunday night \\rith rain beginning Mo11day
THE COMPUTER PROVIDES ASSISTANCE The computer
n1orning. ~riod'i of rain likely through Tue.'ida)' n1orniog.
pro~ predict the future positions of weather systems. Some of
the pro~ aL~o predict where shortwave troughs and vorticity
maximums will be located. lt is important to know where the AVALID FORECAST By early Monday morning, the maps be-
shortwaves and vorticity maximums will be found, because to gin to show the changes that the computer prog.~ predicted. ' lbe
the east of them there is usually upper-level divergence, lower- surface map for 4:00 A.M. (PST) Monday morning (o Fig. 13.21)
level convergence, rising air, clouds, :md precipitation. Hence, shows that thesurface~>win the Pacifichasmovedeastwardand
predicting the position of a shortwave (and a vorticity max) developed into a broad trough west d California. (Compare its
means predicting regions of inclement weather. p<>~ition with Fig. 13.18.)Thetrough has deepened considerably
1 hree models that predict the positions of the shortwaves, as indicated by it~ central pre,•isure of 1004 mb (29.65 in.). 'the
upper-level pressure systems, and flow aloft at the 500-mb level approach of the storm is evidenced in San Francisco by thick
IOr 12, 24, and36 hours into the furureareshownin e Fig. 13.20." middle clouds, southerly wind~. and a faUing barometer, nearly
(Each prediction is made on Sunday afternoon.) Observe that 4 mb lower than 12 hours ago. All these signs suggest that rain
there is good agreement among the model~ in that each model is on the way.
moves the upper trough slowly easl\"trd and keep.~ it off the On the 500-mb chart for 4 A.M. Monday morning
coast for the entire period. However, the actual p<>~itioning of (• Fig. 13.22), we can see that the injection of cold air and the
the trough and the short"·ave.~ (heavy dashed lines) differ for short,.,ave into the main upper trough have caused the trough
each model. For example, model A :md model C move the up- to deepen. Note that the height contours are now displaced far-
per trough east""Jrd more quickly th:tn does model B. Also, the ther south and that the contour in the middle of the trough is
"'The position of the shorl\\'3VC trough pretty 1nuch coincides with the position of
lower than on the previous 500-mb map (Fig. 13.19). Compare
a wnicity 1naxinlunl discussed in Chapter 12. on p.339. For quick rd'erence, look Fig. 13.22 "1th the 12-hour progs in model A and model C in
111 Fig. 1227 on p.339. Fig. 13.20 and notice how closely they match. 1he forecaster
••Explaining the diffcrenCC$ among the three 1nodck is beyond the scope o f this made a \vise choice in shO\\•illg confidence in these tv.•o com-
book. Each 1nodcl 1rcats the a11nosphcrc in a .sligh1ly differem way. So1nc 1nodc1> putermodeL~asthey didagoodjobpredicting thepc>~ition ofthe
h.1w closergrid points. So1ne 1nodels have beucr 1~sol u1ion in 1he low-er pnrt of the upper-level ~>wand shortwaves. Since the shortwaves (vorticity
atn1osphere. whereas others havcbe1ter resolution in the higher regions o f the tro·
posphcre. lbc idea in lhisfor«astingt'Xl'lmplc is 11or 10 iJlus1n11e the ditfc1t:nt 1nod·
maximums) are moving with the flow toward San Francisco, it
els in usie. bu1rather10 show bow a forecaster 1night use 011y nu1nerical co1nputer should rain today. But al what time will the rain begin? Here is
nlOdel as a tb r«asting tool where sateUite and radar information assist the forecaster.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,......._.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..
..,.,..,,, 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. <>.;•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
For<>C<1$1 4:00 A,M. PST Forocast 4:00 A.M. PST Fofeca51 4:00 A.M. PST
~-H-- Minda 1~~~ Monday 26 March Monday 26 March
I~
500mb
l534
12-Hour Prog 12-Hour Prog
-·Mr
FOfecasl 4:00 P.M. PST
@
FOfacasl 4:00 P.M. PST
--~~
H -[
ForecaSI 4:00 P.M. PST
546
~~
-~.
-~
24-Hour Prog 24-Hour Prog
. --~v-\
24-HourPro g - - - - -
-\-~a
....~ ·-~
::=================:::::!
I
Forecast 4:00 A.M. PST Forecasl 4:00 A.M. PST ForecaSI 4:00 A.M. PST
Tuesday 27 March Tuesday 27 March Tuesda March J7
-~
540
-t:
'
/-0546
.
..!..__~~~
-552
,.(____:, : ........ASS
......... ••..-r -064
-· '
3~our Prog
• F I GURE 13. 20 Three computer·dra\vn progs {model A, model B, and model O that sho\V the 12·hour, 24-hour, and 36 ~h our projected SOO ~m b
ch art Solid lines are contours. Dashed lines represent projected positions o f shortwaves w hich also represent position of vorticity maximums. (fhe.se
p redictions \\Ere made on Sunday,Marc:h 2S, at 4:00 PM. PST.}
1024
1020
1016
SUrface map 101( ' \ 1012
• FI GURE 13 .21 Surface\voother map for 4:00 AM. (PSTI Monday, Marc:h 26.
SATELLITE AN 0 UPPER· AIR ASSIS TAN CE The infrared sat-

ellite image taken at 6:45 A.M. Monday (see • Fig. 13.23) shows
that themiddledoudspresently over California willsoon give
way to an organized band of cumuliform clouds in the shape
of a comma. Such comma clouds tell the forecaster that the ~
low-pressure area off the coast is developing into a mature
• F I GURE 13.23 Infrared satellite image taken at 6:45AM. {PST} Monday,
mid-latitudecydone. Observe that this comma-shaped cloud
March 26. The cloud in the shape ofa comma indicat~ that the mid~latitude
band lies slightly to the east of the shortwave approaching the cyclonic storm is deepening. (The heavy dashed linesho\vs the tail of the
coast, shown in Fig. 13.22. Also note that to the west of the commacloudJ
comma cloud, a relatively unorganize.d mass of cumuluscon-
gestus clouds is beginning to form near the second shortwave
in Fig. 13.22. ' Ibe 300-mb chart for 4 A.M. Monday morning
(• Fig. 13.24) shows strong jet stream winds over Northern
California and off the coast, suggesting th:lt southwesterly
winds aloft will carry the large comma-shaped cloud and its
weather directly into California. And an area ofstrong diver-
564 gence aloft associated with the;etstream will aid in deepening
the cyclonic storm.
Byexaminingthemovementofthecloudmassonsuccessive
satellite images, the forecaster can predict its arrival time and,
hence, when rainfall will begin. According to satellite images,
the leading edge of the comma cloud should be just offshore by
Monday afternoon. AL~o, Doppler radar indicates that, ;ust off
the coast, light rain is now falling from the middle cloud htyer.
570 Consequently, rainfall should become more steady in the morn-
ing and heavier in the afternoon as the cmnuliform cloud~ move
in. Because the surface mid-latitude cyclone is slightly to the
east of the upper-level shortwave (and vorlicity maximum), the
surface area of low pressure "111 probably continue to intensify,
SOOmb and pressure gradienL~ around it "111 increase, creating strong
and gusty winds from the south as the storm approaches. An
e FIGURE 13 .2 2 The .SOO·mbanalysis br 4:00AM. (PSTJ f\'°'<>nday, March 26. amended forecast for San Franci~co might read:
Heavy dashed lin~ shO\V position of short\vaves..Solid lines are height contours
\\lhere S64equals5640 metersabote sea level (Compare\vith Fig. 13.20, the Rain beginning this 1notning beco1ning heavy by this afternoon.
1 2~hour progs for model A and modelC.} Strong and gusty southerly '''inds.
1028
1024
1020
1016
936
948
~ 1012
300mb
936
Sutfaoe map 1012 \ L .~
e FIGURE 13.24 The 300-mbchart for400 11..Nt.(PST) Monday, March 26.
• FI GURE 13. 26 Surface \i.eather map for 4:00 PM.{PST) Monday, March 26.
Solid lines are height contours, \Vhere 900 equals 9000 meters above sea level.
Heavy purple arrows shCMI position of the polar jet stream.
. Fig. 13.25), as gusty southerly winds and moderate rain greet
A DAY OF RAIN ANDWIND 'f hefirst raindrop.~ falling from commuters on their '"''-'Y home.
alt<>~tratus clouds dampen city streets near the end of the
The barometer has fallen sharply all day at San Francisco
morning rush hour. Quickly, the rain spreads inland, and by and by 4:00 P. M. the barometer reading is 1004 mb, a drop of
late Monday afternoon, Doppler radar shows that precipita- 7 mb in just 6 hours. We can see the reason for this on the
tion is falling throughout northern and central California (see surface map for 4:00 P.M. Monday afternoon(• Fig. 13.26). The
mid-latitude cyclone has not only moved cl0-ser to the coast, it
has intensified con~ickrably, as indicated by the drop of 11 mb
in central pressure in just 12 hours. Spiraling around the low, a
cold front marks the position of the comma-shaped cloud. At
first. this may seem surpri~ing.since no fronts \\•ere dra\vn on
the previous map. However, remember that this i~ a baroclinic
situation with cold advection behind the low, warm advection
in front of it, and divergence in the llow aloft. At the surface,
air masses with contrasting temperatures are being brought
together in the region of the comma-shaped cloud Since the
cold air is on the western side of thecomma-shaped cloud, the
meteorologist saw fit to draw in a cold front. Notice that, to
the north of the low, a stationary front marks the boundary
between cold maritime polar air to the west and modified cool
maritime polar air to the east.
As the surface low intensifies, it and the spiraling band of
cloud~ move eastward more slowly. The front will, therefore,
move through later than anticipated, sometime late Monday
night or earlyTue.~ay morning. 'Jbe forecaster expects that the
winds will remain strong and precipitation \\111 be heavy as the
front passes.
Early Tue.~ay morning. the front moves onshore, bring-
ing with it heavy rain and winds with gustsexceeding 45 knots.
Billowing cumulu.~ clouds, and in some areas thunderstorms,
drench the entire i>acific Coast \\•ith rain. and \Yith sno\"' at
• FI GUR E 13. 2 S Doppler radar image~ha.ving precipitation falling across
higher elevation~. The storm center, con~tantly being drained
northern and centralcaliforniaat S P.M.(PSTion A1onday, March 26. Areas of air by upper-level divergence associated with a strong polar
in blue and green indicate light to moderate precipitation; )ellow indicates jet stream, has deepened into a furious system with a central
heavier precipitation; orange and red heaviest precipitation. pressure of988 mb (29. 17 in.).
'fhe satellite image for 9:00 A.M. Tuesday morning (see
oFig. 13.27) provide.~ us with a vi~ual interpretation of the
storm. We see superimposed on the image the positions of
the surface low, fronts, and the winds aloft (heavy arrow).
Note that a front with its heavy band of clouds stretches from
Idaho southward into Nevada and southern California, while
the surface low is still positioned off the northern California
coast. Moving through central California is a band of clouds
and showers associated \\1th a shortwave (vorticity maximum)
spinning counterclockwise around the low.
1 he upper flow indicates that the trough aloft i~ still off the
coast just as the 36-hour computer pro gs on Sunday (fig. 13.20)
had predicted. If we follow the flow southward out of Canada,
we see a patch of dear weather just offohore. Here, theair push-
ingsouthwardoffthe land is cold and dry, so clouds do not form.
However, as the air moves farther south, it warms and picks up
moisture from the water below. The rippled cloud pattern in the
image is cumulus clouds, which form in the conditionally un-
stable air. Look closely at the image and notice that an organized
band ofclouds is developing to the southwest ofthedeepsurface
low. If you refer back to Hg. 13.20, p. 372, you will see th'lt the
36-hour prog for model A and model Chad predicted that a
shortwave would be located in this region on Tuesday morning.
ls this cloud band organizing into another onsbught of high
"1nds, heavy precipitation, and thunderstorms? lfso, when will
it arrive> And what about the storm off the coast> Will it deepen
or ftll, move inkmdor remain stationary? It's back to the dra"1ng
board-to the computer progs, the charts, Doppler radar, and
the satellite images. The challenge and anticipation of making
another forecast are at h'md. • FIGURE 13. 27 Visible satellite image for 9:00 AM. {PST} Tuesday, Marc:h 27.
Included in the picture are the positions of surface fronts, the upper-level flo\v
theavyarro\vs},and precipitation patterns.
°*"'"''"..
.,i.."*'"'
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I•• -"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i ., ......,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., ..~• ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
SUMMARY
Forecasting rnmorrow'.~ weather entails a variety oftechniques chaos, 354 weather type
and methods. Persistence,surface maps, satellite imagery, and ensemble forecasting. 358
Doppler radar are all useful when making a very short-range forecasting. 354 dimatological forecast, 358
(0-6 hour) prediction. For short- and medium-range fore- persistence forecast, 355 very short-range forecast,
casts. the current analysis.satellite data. pattern recognition. steady-state (trend) 358
meteorologist intuition, and experience, along with statisti- forecast, 355 shorl-range forecast, 358
cal information and guidance from the many computer progs analogue forecasting medium-range forecasl, 359
supplied by the National Weather Service, all go into making method, 355 long-range forecast, 359
a prediction. For monthly and seasonal long-range forecasts, pattern recognition, 355 teleconnections, 360
meteorologists incorporate changes in sea surface tempera- statislical forecast, 356 isallobars, 363
ture in the l).Jcific and Atlantic Oceans into seasonal outlooks prob<1bility forecast, 357 omega high, 370
of temperature and precipitation in North America.
Different computer progs are based upon different atmo-
spheric models that describe the state of the atmosphere and QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
h0>vit will change with time. '! he atmosphere's chaotic behav-
1. What is the function of the National Center for Envi-
ior, along with tiny errors (uncertainties) in the data, gener-
ronmental Prediction?
ally amplify as the computer tries to project weather further
2. How does a weatlier watcli differ from a weatlier waming?
and further into the future. At present, computer progs that
3. list at least four tools a weather forecaster might use
predic11he weather over a vast region are better at IOrecasting
when making a shorl-range forecast.
the position ofmid-latitude higl•~ and lows and their develop-
4. In what ways has the computer assisted the meteorolo-
ment than at forecasting localshowersand thunderstorms.1b
gist in making weather forec<t~ts?
skillfully forecast smaller features, the grid spacing on some
5. How does a prog differ from an analysis?
models is reduced 10 as low as0.5 kilometers.
6. How are computer-generate<l weather forecast~ pre-
As new information from atmospheric research pro-
pared?
gram.~ is fed into the latest generation ofcompu!L'l'S,it i~hoped
7. What are some of the problems as.sociated \Vith
that the progs will be able to show more skill in predicting
computer-model forecasts?
the weather up 10 10 days in the future. More promising at
8. Make a persistence forecast for your area for thi~ same
thi~ time is the simulation oflarge-scale d imalic I rends by the
time tomorrow. Did you use any skill in m;\king this
most recent general circulation models.
prediction? Explain.
Thelatterpart ofthischapterdoesnot coverall the meth-
9. Describe four method~ of forecasting the wea1her and
ods ofweather prediction, but, rather, conveys an understand-
give an example for each one.
ing of the problems confronting anyone who attempts to
10. How does pa!!ern recognition aid a forecaster in making
predict the behavior of this churning mass of air we call our
a prediction?
atmo~phere.
11. How can ensemble forecasts improve medium- range
Most of the forec.t~ting methods in this chapter apply
weather forecasts?
mainly to skill in predictingeventsassociated with large-scale
12. Explain how teleconnections are use<l in making a
weather systems, such as fronts and mid-latitude cyclones.
long-range seasonal forecast>
The next chapter on severe weather deals \Vith the formation
13. lf today's weather forecast calls for a "chance of snow;·
and forecasting of smaller scale (mesoscale) systems, such as
what is the probability that it win snow today? (Hint:
thunderstorms, squall lines, and tornadoes.
See Table 13.2, p. 357.}
14. Do all accurate forecasts show skill? Explain.
15. Would a forec<t~! calling for a 20 percent chance of rain
KEY TERMS be high enough for you to cancel your plans for a picnic>
The following terms are listed (with page numbers) in the Explain.
orderthey appear in the text Defineeach. Doing so wifi aid 16. Do monthly and seasonal forecasts make specific pre-
you in reviewing the materiakovered in this chapter. diclions of rain or snow> Explain.
17. lf low clouds at an elevation of 3000 ft above you are
weather watch, 346 numerical \\ieather
moving from the southeast, and cloud~ about 8000 ft
\\<eath~r \\•arning, 347 prediction, 351
higher are moving from the southwest, i~ cold or ""rm
AWJPS, 348 atmospheric models, 351
advection taking place betwt-en the cloud layers?
met eogram, 348 prognostic chart
Explain. (Hint: Read the Focus section found on p. 364.)
analysis, 351 (prog), 352
18. List four methods that you could use to predict the
movement of a surface mid-l1titude cyclone.
19. What is an omeg;i high? What influence does it have on I. When a persistent "1nter pattern at 500 mb appears
the movement of surface highs and lows? similar to that shown in • Fig. 13.28, show on the map
20. Suppose that where you live, the middle of January is where you would forecast the following: (a) good
typically several degrees warmer than the rest of the chance of precipitation; (b) above seasonal tempera-
month. If you forecast this "January thaw" for the tures; (c) below seasonal temperatures; and (d) gener-
middle of next )anuarv, what tvpe of a " 'eather forecast ally dry weather. (e) What type of forecasting method
will you have made? ' ' did you use to figure out (a) through (d)?
21. Given a map with isallobars, where "rn high- and low-
pres.~ure systems move?

I. From Fig. 13.8, p. 357, determine the probability of a
"White Christmas" for your area.
2. Suppo.o;e the chance for a "White Christm,1s" ,u your
home is 10 percent. Last Chrisbnas was a white one. ff
for next year you forecast a "nonwhite" Christmas, will
you have shown any skill if your forecast turns out to
be corre.ct? Explain. .'JOOmb
3. Suppo.o;e that it is presently "'"m and raining. A cold
front will pass your area in 3 hours. Behind the front it • FIGURE 13.28 Diagram br Exercise l.
is cold and sno"fog. Make a persistence forecast for
your area 6 hours from now. Would you expect this 2. In Fig. 13.1 3, p. 365, mark the Position of the following
fore.cast to be correct? Explain. Now, make a forecast cities: Ckvefand. Ohio; Albuquerque, New Mexico;
for your area using the steady-state, or trend, method. and New Orleans, Louisiana. Based on the projected
4. Since computer models have difficulty in adequately movement of the surface weather systems in Fig. 13.1 6.
considering the effects of small·scale geographic fea- p. 367, make a short-range 24-hour weather forecast
tures on a \\•eat her map. \\lhy don•t numerical \\ eather 1 for each of these cilies. ln your forecast, include tem-
fore.casts simply reduce the grid spacing to about one perature, pressure, cloud cover, humidity, winds, and
kilometer? precipitation (if any). Compare your forecasts with the
5. Expl1in how the phrase "sensitive Mpendence on initial actual weather at the end of the period in Fig. 13.1 7,
conditions" relates to the final outcome of a computer- p. 369.
based weather forec,1st. 3. Go outside and ob-o;erve the weather. Make a weather
6. You are in Calgary, All, Canada, 100 km (62 mi) east of forecast using the weather signs you observe. Explain
the Rockies in January. The current "ind is from the the rationale for your forecast.
north. Looking at a prog for tomorrow, you see that the
wind will be from the west. Will tomorrow's tempera-
ture be warmer or cooler than today? Explain.
1 GEOSaENCE I Go to the Basic Search field and search for the phrase "weather forecasting."
Hnd three article,~ from academic journals that evaluate a method of weather prediction. What are the phenomena being
studied and the time periods of interest? What would be the practical benefits of improving each type of forecast?
ONLINE RESOURCES
~ Log in to the CourseMate website at: www.ceng;igebrain.com to view the concept animations as noted in the text, as
~ well as additional resources, including video exercises, pmctice quizzes, an interactive eBook, and more.
Ar. 01 'tus p~c 1s d3 Cel'!jagi: 21112.

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Thunderstorms and Tornadoes
CONTENTS ednesday, March 18, 1925, was a day tha t began
Thunderstorms
Ordinary Cell Thunderstorms
W uneventfully, bu t wit hin hours turned into a day that
changed the lives of thousands of people and made meteoro·
Multi cell Thunderstorms
The Gust Front logical history. Shortly after 1:00 P.M. the sky turned a dark
Microbursts
greenish -black and the wind began whipping around t he
Squall-Line Thunderstonns
Mesoscale Convective Complexes small town of Murphysboro, Illinois. Arthur and Ella Flatt lived
Supercel I Thunderstorms on the outskirts o f town with their only son, Art, who would be
Thunderstorms and the Dryline
Thunderstorms and Flooding four years old in two weeks. Arthur was working in the garage
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC when he heard the roar of the wind and saw the threatening
The Terrifying Flash Flood in the
Big Thompson canyon dark clouds whirling overhead .
Distribution of Thunderstorms Instantly concerned for the safety o f his family, he ran to-
Lightning and Thunder
How Far Away Is the Lightning?-Start ward the house as the tornado began its deadly pass over the
Counting area. With debris from the house flying in his path and the deaf·
Electrification ofClouds
eni ng sound of destruction a II around him, Arthur reached the
ELVES In the Atmosphere front door. As he struggled in vain to get to his family, whose
The Lightning Stroke screams he could hear inside, the porch and it s massive support
Lightning Detection and Suppression
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION pillars caved in on him. Inside the house, Ella had scooped up
Don't Sit Under the Apple Tree young Art in her arms and was making a panicked dash down
Tornadoes
the front hallway towards the door when t he walls collapsed,
Tornado Life Cycle
Tornado Occurrence and Distribution knocking herto the floor, wit h Art cradled beneath her. Within
Tornado Winds
seconds, the rest of the house fell down upon them. Both Arthur
Seeking Shelter
The Enhanced Fujita Scale and Ella were killed instantly, but Art was spared, nestled sa fely
Tornado Outbreaks
under his mother's body.
Tornado Formation
Supercell Tornadoes As the dead and survivors were pulled from the devastation
Nonsupercell Tornadoes
that remained, the dea th toll mounted. Few families escaped the
Forecasting Severe Thunderstorms griefof lost loved ones. The infamous tri· sta te tornado killed
and Tornadoes 234 people in Murphysboro and leveled 40 percent o f the town.
Observing Tornadoes and Severe Weather
Waterspouts
Summary
Key Terms
Questions for Review Faring page: A to rnado, \ Villi a vivid rainbow in the
Questions for Thought background, touchesdown over a fie kl in Kansas.
Pro bl ems and Exercises
379
C...,-nfo )1 1 ~ On'"'° 1->an• Allibt!t.tt_... .al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J ,,.. .l....wod,"' " f>•lrc<><in p.... ll<to i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb."*'"' llo.nl poo-1)' •.,,..,.""1 W "'l••-
..i ..,.,.,h ~dl ... :.1J\o .0."l'nV I f:1"'-i.rtn1•" '!....
he devastating tornad. o described in our opening cut a
T mile-wide path for a distance of more than 200 miles

through the states of Missour~ Illinois, and Indiana. The
tornado (which was most likely a series of tornadoes) totally
oblitera!ed4 t<Mns,kiUed an estimated 695 people, and left over
2000 injured. Tornadoes such as the.o;e, as well ,is much smaller
ones, are associated with severe thunderstorms. Consequently,
we will first examine the different types of thunderstorms. Later,
we "ill focus on tornadoes, examining how and where they
form, and why they are so destructive.
.... 1l'C
Thunderstorms
1000nt 22'C
It probably comes as no surprise that a tliunderstonn is merely
a storm containing lightning 'md thunder. Sometimes a thun-
derstorm produces gusty surface winds with heavy rain and 500m 28'C
hail. The storm itself may be a single cumulonimbus cloud, or

several thunderstorms may form into a cluster. Jn some cases. a
line of thunderstorms will form that may extend for hundreds
of kilometers. To re(resh your memory about instability and cumulus cloud
development go to Cengage CourseMate website at wwv1.
1 hunderstorms are co11vecti11e stonns that form \vith rising
cengagebrain.comand view the animationsentitled Unstable
air. So the birth of a thunderstorm often begins when warm, Atmosphere and Cooditiono/lf Unstable Atmosphere.
moist air rises in a conditionally unstable environment.• The
ri~ing air may be a parcel ofair ranging in size from a large bal-
loon to a city block, or an entire layer, or slab of air, may be cause sufficient instability 10 ge.nerate thunderstorms in winter-
lifted. As long as rising air is warmer (less dense) than the air time SOO\\'Storm~ producing tliu11ders110 JVS.
surrounding it, there is an upward-directed buoyantforce acting Most thunderstorin~ that form over North America are
on it. The wanner the rising air is compared to its surroundings, short-lived, produce rain showers,gusry surface winds, thunder
the grea1er the buoyant force and the stronger the convection. and lightning. andsometirnessmall hail. Many have an appear-
The trigger (or "forcing mechanism") needed to start air moving ance similar 10 the mature thunderstorm shown in • l'ig. 14.1.
upward may be The majority of these storm.~ do not reach severe status. Severe
tlwnderstorms are defmed by the National Weather Service as
1. random, turbulent eddies that lift small bubbles of air having at least one ofthe follo"1ng; large hail with a diameter of
2. unequal heating al the surface al least I inch, and/or surface wind gusts of 50 knots (58 mi/hr)
3. the effect of terrain (such as small hills) or the lifting of air or greater. or produces a tornado.
alongsh:tllow boundaries of converging surface winds Scallered thunderstorms (sometimes called "pop-up"
4. large scale uplift along mountain barriers and rising terrain storms) that typically form on warm, humid days are often re-
5. diverging upper-level "1nds, coupled with converging surface ferred to as ordinary cell thunderstor111s• or t'ir-n1ass thuuder-
\\iindo; and rising air stonns because they tend to form in \\"J.rm. hwnid air masses
away from significant weather fronts. Ordinary cell (air mass)
6. warm air rising along a frontal zone thunderstorms can be considered "simple storms" because
Usually, several of these mechanisms work together with they rarely become severe, typically are less than a kilometer
vertic:1l "ind shear lo generate severe thunderstorms. wide, and they go through a rather predict:ible life cycle from
Although we often see thunderstorms forming where the birth 10 maturil y 10 decay that usually takes less than an hour
surface air is quite warm and humid, they may also form when 10 complete. However, under the right atmospheric conditions
the surface air temperature is no more than 10•c (50-F). "Jl1is (described late.r in this chapter), more intense "complex thun-
lauer situation often occurs in winter along the west coast of derstorms" may IOrm,suchasthe mu/tied/ tlumdei~torm and the
North America, when cold air aloft moves over the region. 'Jl1e superc.e/I tlumderstorm - usually a largero!a!ingstorm that can
rold air aloft destabiliU\~ the atmosphere ro the point where air last for hours and produce severe weather such asstrongsurface
parcels, given an initial push upwards, are able 10 continue their winds, large damaging hail, flash floods, and violenr tornadoes.
upward journey because they remain warmer (le.o;s dense) than We "ill examine the development ofordinarycdl (air mass)
the colder air surrounding them. 'Jbe cold air aloft may even thunderstorms first, before we turn our attention 10 the more
complex mulricell and supercell storms.
•A conditio1\.1lly unstableatmosphere ex-isis when cold. dry air aloft overlies- \\'ilnn.
n)()i5t surfact' air. Additional inforro.11ion on nunosphcrk instabiJity is given in "In convection, the cdJ nlay he a .single updraft or a single downdraft. or a
Ch.lpter 6, beginning on p. 149. co1nbina1ion of the1wo.
k.1011 fliSp!jP! isiD °'1!JlijCJll1
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<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,i.,.,_,u~n~Cn'll'tl..1~,_,'11..,......., fl~••"-"''"'"""'"11'""',.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' <>.;•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,.,.
• FI GURE 14.1 An ordinary thunderstorm in its
mature stage. Note l hedistinctiveanvil top.
ORDINARY CELL THUNDERSTORMS Ordinary cell (air shallow zones where surface winds converge. Such zones may
mass) thunderstorms or, simply, ordinary thunderstor1ns, be due to any number ofthings,such as topographic irregulari-
tend to form in a region where there is limited vertical wind ties, sea-breeze fronts, or the cold outflo"' of air from inside a
shear-that is, where the wind speed and wind direction do thunderstorm that reaches the ground and spreads horizontally.
1101 abruptly change with increasing height above the surface.• These converging wind boundaries are normally zone.~ of con-
Many ordinary thunderstorms appear to form as parcels of trasting air temperature and humidity and, hence, air density.
air are lifted from the surface by turbulent overturning in the Extensive studies indicate that ordinary thunderstorms go
pre.o;ence of wind. Moreover, ordinary storms often !Orm along through a cycle ofdevelopment from birth to maturity to de-
cay. '!he first stage is known as the cumulus stage, or growth
•As we wiJI see later in this chnpler. ve11ical wind .shear is different fronl the stage. As a parcel of warm, humid air rises, it cool~ and con-
horizontnJ wind shear (the changing in vcrlic31 ·wind direcLion and speed in the denses into a single cumulus cloud or a duster of clouds (see
horizontal) th.lt pilo~::irc c on c.e rned about. • Fig. 14.2). If you have ever watched a thunderstorm develop,
12~m
O'C - - - - - 32"1' O'C

' ~---- - - - - 32°F
I ) \
J / \
(a) CU111<1tus (b) Ma1u1e (c) Dissipating

• FIGURE 14. 2 Simplified model depicting the life C)<leofan ordinarycell thunderstorm that is nearly stationary as it forms in a region of lowv1ind shear.
(ArrQV-S show vertical air currents. Dashed tine represenl s freezing level,CfCisotherm.}
°*"'"''"..
..
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH Where the cold downdraft reaches the surface, the air
spreads out horizontally in all directions. ' Jbe surface bound,try
On July 13, 1999, in Sattley, California, a stron g downdraft that separates the advancing cooler air from the surrounding
from a mature thunderstorm dropped th e air tempera ture
'"trmer air is called a gust front. Along the gust front, winds
from 97°F a t 4:00 P.M. to a chi lly 57° F one hour later.
rnpidlychangebothdirectionandspeed. Look at Fig. 14.2band
notice that the gust front forces warm, humid air up into the
storm, which enhances the clouds updraft. Jn the region of the
you may have noticed that at first the cumuhc~ cloud grows downdraft, rainfall mayor may not reach the surface, depending
upward only a short distance, then it di~sipates. 111e top of the on therelativehmnidity beneath the storm. Jn the dry air oft he
cloud dis.~ipates because the cloud droplets evaporate as the desert Southwest, forex001ple, a mature thunderstorm may look
drier air surrounding the cloud mixes with it. However, after ominous and contain all of the ingredients of any other storm,
the wate.r drops evaporate, the air is more moist than before. except that the raindrop.~evaparatebeforereaching the ground.
So, the rising air is now able to condense at successively higher However, intensedo,mdrafts from the storm may reach the sur-
levels, 'md the cumulus cloud grows taller, often appearing as face, producing strong, gusty winds and a gust front.
a rising dome or tO\\'t'r. After the storm enters the mature stage, it begins todi~ipate
As the cloud builds, the transform,ttion of water vapar into in about 15 to 30 minutes. The dissipating stage occurs when the
liquid or solid cloud particles releases large quantities of latent updrafts weaken as the glk~l front moves away from the storm
heat, a process that keeps the rising air inside the cloud warmer and no longer enhances the updrafts. At this stage, as illustrated
(less dense) than the air surrounding it. The cloud continues to in Fig. 14.2c, downdrafts tend to dominate throughout much of
grow in the lmstable atm<>-~phere as long as it is constantly fed the cloud. 'Jbe reason the storm does not normally last very long
by rising air from below. Jn this manner, a cumulus cloud may is that thedowndrafts inside the cloud tendtocut off the storm's
show extensive vertical development and grow into a towering fuel supply by destroying the humid updrafts. Deprived of the
cumulll~ cloud ( cumulll~ congestus) in just a few minutes. Dur- rich supply of "'.trm, humid air, cloud droplets no longer form.
ingthecumulusstage, there normally is insufficient time for pre- Light precipitation now falls from the cloud, accompanied by
cipitation to form, and the updrafts keep water droplets and ice only weak downdrafts. As the storm dies, the lowt>r-leveldoud
crystaL~suspended "1thin the cloud. AL~o, there is no lightning particles evaparate rapidly, sometimes leaving only the cirrll~
or thunder during this stage. anvil as the reminder ofthe once mighty presence(see. fig. 14.3).
As the cloud buikts well above the freezing level, the cloud A single ordinary cell thunderstorm may go through its three
particles grow larger and heavier as they collide and join with stages in one hour or less.
one another. ' lbese liquid and solid (ice) particles continue to Not only do thesethunderstonns produce summer rainfall
rise until the size of the growing particle,~ exceeds the ability of li>r a large partion of the United States but they also bring with
the updraft to keep them suspended. While this phenomenon is them momentary cooling after an oppres.~ively hot day. 'Jbe cool-
taking place, drier air from around the cloud is being drawn into ing comes during the mature stage, as the downdraft reaches the
it in a process called entrain111ent. 'lbe entrainment of drier air surfac'I'.' in the fonn of a blast of wt>lcome relie( Sometimes, the
causes some of the raindrops to evaporate, which chills the air. air temperature may lO\\'l'.'r <ts much as to•c (18°F) in jlk~l a few
1 he air, now colder and heavier than the air around it, begins to minutes. Unfortunately, the cooling effect often is short-lived,
descend asa downdraft A~ the air descends, the cold ice particles as the downdraft dinlinishes or the thunderstorm moves on. ln
begin to melt, which chill~ the air and enhances the downdraft. fact, after the stonn has ended, the air temperature LL~ually rises;
1 hedoM1draft m'IY be further enhanced 'ts falling precipitation and as themoisturefrom the rainfall evaporates into the air, the
drags some of theair along with it. humidity increases, sometimes to a level where it actually feel~
1 he appearance of the downdraft marks the beginning of more oppressive after the storm th.in it did before.
the mature stage. The downdraft and updraft within the mature Up to this paint, wl!ve looked at ordinary cell thunder-
thunderstonn now constitute the cell. Jn some storms, thereare storms th.II are short-lived, r<trely become severe, and form in
several ceUs, each of which may last for les.~ than 30 minutes. a region with weak vertical "'°d shear. As these storms de-
During its mature stage, the thunderstorm is m<>-~l intense. velop, the updraft eventually gives way to the downdrnft, and
1 he top ofthe cloud, having reached a stable region of the atmo- the storm ultimately collapses on itsel( However, in a region
sphere (which may be the stratosphere), begins to take on the where strong vertical wind shear exists, thunderstorms often
familiar anvil shape, as upper-level winds spread the clouds ice take on a more complex structure. Strong. vertical wind shear
crystaL~horiwntally (see Hg. J4.2b ).1 he cloud itself may extend can cause the storm to tilt in such a way that it becomes a mul-
upward to an '1ltitude of over 12 km (40,000 ft) and be several ticeU thunderstorm -a thunderstorm with more than one cell.
kilometers in diameter near its base. Updraft.~ and downdrafts
reach their greatest strength in the middle ofthecloud, creating MULTICELL THUNDERSTORMS Thunderstorms that contain
severe turbtdence. Lightning and thunder are aLw present in the a number of cells, each in a different stage of development, are
mature stage. Heavy rain (and occasionally small hail) fa Us from called mullicel l lhunderstorms (see • Fig. 14.4). Such storms
the cloud. And, at the surface, there i~ often adownrlk~h of cold tend to form in a region of moderate-to-strong vertical wind
air with the on~t of precipitation. speed shear. Look at • Fig. 14.5 and notice that on the left side
e FIGURE 14. 3 A dissipating thunderstorm
near Naples, Florida. tv'iost of the cloud part ides in
the lo\-..er half o f the storm have evaporated.
..j
l
Q
of the illustration the wind speed increases rapidly with height, produce beautiful mammatu.~ cloud~. At the surface, below the
producingstrong windspeedshear. 'Jbis type of shearing causes thunderstorm's cold downdraft, the cold, dense air may cause
the cell inside the storm to tilt in such a way that the updraft the surface air pressure to rise- sometimes several millibars.
actually rides up and over the downdraft. Note that the rising 'Jbe relative! y small, shallow area of high pressure i~ called a
updraft is capable of generating new cells that go on to become mesohigh (meaning "meso~ale high").
mature thunderstorms. Notice also that precipitation insiM the
storm does not fall into the updraft (as it does in theordinarycell The Gust Front When the cold downdraft reaches the
thunderstorm), so the storm'.~ fuel supply is not cut off and the earth 's surface, it pu.~hes outward in all directions, produc-
storm complex can survive for a long time. Because the likeli- ing a strong gust front that represents the leading edge of
hood that a thunderstonn will become severe increases with the the cold outflowing air (see e Fig. 14.6). To an observer on the
length oftime the storm exists, long-k1sting mull icellstorms can ground, the passage of the gust front resembles that of a cold
become inten~e and produce severe weather. front. During its passage, the temperature drops sharply and
When convection i~strong and the updraft intense (as it is in the wind shifts and becomes strong and gu.~ty, with speeds
el'ig. 14.5), therisingairmay aCll•tlly intruMwdl into the stable occasionally exceeding 55 knots. 'Jbese high winds behind a
stratosphere, producing an o,·ershooting top. A~ the air spreads strong gust front are called straight-line winds to distinguish
laterally into the anvil, sinking air in this region ofthe storm can them from the rotating winds of a tornado. As we will see later
• FIGURE 14.4 Thismulticell sto rm complexis

composed of a seriesofcells in successive stages
o f gcowth. The thunderstorm in the middle is in its
mature stage, \Vilh awell· defined anvil Heavy rain is
falling fro m its base.To the right of this cell, a thun·
derstorm is in itscumulusstage. To the left.. a well·
developed cumuluscongestus c.loud is about ready
to become a mature thunderstorm. With new cells
con.!.1antlyforming. the multicell storm complex can
exist for hours..
°*"'"''"..
..
<1<n11...i fl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,. ,..<d,,., .._,..."""""",,..~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
-
• FIGURE 14. 5 A simplified model desaibing air motions a nd o t her features associated with an intense mult icellthunderstorm t hat ha-s a
Srable air
Warm moisto;a-.lr_ _
t ilted updrafL The severitydependson the int ensity cl the storm'scirculation pattern.
WEATHER WATCH in this chapter, straight-line winds are capable of inflicting a

great deal of damage, such as blowing down trees and over-
A deadly gust front. On August 13, 2011, as hundreds of
turning mobile homes.
fans waited for the country band Sugarland to perform
at the Indiana State Fair in Indianapolis, strong gu.st Along the leading edge ofthe gust front, the air i~ quite tur-
front winds exceeding 60 miles per hour blew over the bulent. Here, strong wind~ can pick up loose dust and soil and
fairgrounds. The winds were so strong they toppled the lift them into a huge tumbling cloud (see e Fig. 14.7).' Th e cold
stage, sending metal scaffolding, lights, and stage equip- surface air behind the gust front may even linger dose 10 the
ment into the crowd, where five people died and dozens ground for hours, well after thunderstorm activity has ceased.
were seriously injured. As warm, moist air rio;es along the forward edge of the gust
front, a shelf cloud (also called an arcus cloud) may form, such
as the one shown in • Fig. 14.8. Thesedoudsareespeciallyprev-
alent when the atmosphere is very stable ne<1r the base of the
thunderstorm. Look again 'tt Fig. 145 and notice that the shelf
cloud is attached 10 the base of the thunderstorm. Occasionally,
an elongated ominous-looking cloud form~ just behind the gust
front. These clouds, which appear 10 slowly spin about a hori-
zontal axis, are called r oll clouds (see eFig, 14.9).
When1hea1mosphereiscondi1ionally unstable, the leading
edge of the gust front may force the warm, moist air upward,
producing a complex of muhicell storms, each with new gust
fronts. These gust fronts may then merge into a huge gust front
c<1lled an outflo w boundar y. Along the outflow boundary, air
is forced upward, often generating new thunderstorms (see
• Fig, 14.10).
Microbursts Beneath an inten~ethunderstorm,the downdraft

m><y become localized so that ii hits the ground and spreads
horizontally in a radial burst of wind, much like water pour-
ing from a lap and striking the sink bclow. (Look at the down-
Gustlront
draft in fig, 14.6.) Such downdrafts are called d ownbursls . A
downburst with winds extending only 4 km orless is termed
a micr obursl. In spite ofil~ small size, an intense microburst
• FIGURE 14. 6 When a t hunderstorm·s dO\vndraft reaches the ground. the •in dry. dusty a reas or desert regions, t he leading edge o f t he g ust f ronl is the
air spreads out forming a gust front. hJboob described in C hapter 9. p. 250.
k.1011 fliSp!jP! isiD °'1!JlijCJll1
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.,. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FIGUR E 14.7 A S\virling m ass o f dust forrm
along the leading edge o f a gust frontas it moves
across western Nebraska.
j
~
"
• FIGUR E 14. 8 Adramatice>ampleofa shelf
cloud (or arcuscloud)associat ed \Vith an intense
thunderstorm. The photographwclS taken in the
Philippines as th e thund e~'torm approached
from the nortlnvest.
• FI GUR E 14.9 Arollcloudforms\vilhagust

front
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
When an aircraft ilie,s through a microburst al a relatively low
altitude, say 300 m (1000 ft) above the ground, it first encoun-
ters a headwind that generates extra lift. 1 hi~ is position (a) in
oFig. 14.12. At this point, the aircraft tends to climb (it gains lift).
and if the pilot no.ses the aircraft downward there could be grave
consequences, for in a matter ofsecond~ the aircraft encounters
the powerful downdraft (po.sition b). and the headwind is re-
placed by a tail \\1nd (position c). Thi~ situation causes a sudden
loss oflift and a subsequent decrease in the performance <i the
aircraft, which is now acc-elerating toward the ground.
One accident attributed to a microburst occurred north of
Dallas-fort Worth Regional Airport during August, 1985. Just as
an aircraft was making its final approach, it encountered severe
horizontal wind shear beneath a small but inten~ thunderstorm.
1 heaircraft then dropped to the ground and crashed, killing over
100 passengers. To detect the hazardous "1nd shear associated
\Vith microbursts, many major airports use a high resolution
• F I GURE 14.10 Radar im.ige ofan outflow bounclary.Ascool (more-dense}
Doppler radar. The radar uses algorithms thatarecomputer pro-
air from inside the severe thunderstorms {red and orange colors} spreads
grammed to detect microbursts and low-level wind she,tr.
oul\vard,a\vay from the storms, it comes in contact with the surrounding The leading edge of a microburst can contain 'Ul intense
\varm. humid {less-den.se}air. forming a density boundary (blue line) called an horizontally rotating vortex that is often ftlled with dust in a
our/Jowboundaty bet\veen cool air and \Yarm air.Along theoutflo\v boundary. relatively dry region. ln eastern Colorado, many microbursl~
ne\Y thunderstormsoften form.
emanate from virga- rain falling from a cloud but evaporating
before reaching the ground. Apparently, in these "dry" micro-
can induce damaging straight-line winds as high as 146 knots. bursts (l'ig. 14. 11). evaporating rain cools the air. The cooler
(A largerdownburst with winds extend ing more than 4kilome- heavy air then plunges downward through the '"trmer lighter
ters i~ termed a macrobursl.)• Figure 14.J 1 shows the dust clouds air belo'"'· ln humid regions, many microbursts are "\\'i?t" in that
generated from a microburst north ofDenver, Colorado. Since a they are accompanied by blinding rain.
microburst i~ an intense downdraft, its leading edge can evolve Microbursts can be associated \\rith severe thunderstorms,
into a gust front. producing strong, damaging winds. But studies show that they
M icroburslS are capable ofblowing down trees and inflicting can also occur "'th ordinary cell thunderstorrn~and with clouds
heavy damage upon poor! y built structures as well as upon sailing that produce only isolated showers-clouds that may or may
vessels that encounter microburslS over open water. In fact, minot contain thunder and lightning.
croburslS may be responsible for some damage once attributed to Up to this point, you might think that thunderstormdown-
tornadoes. Moreover, microburstsand their accompanying hori- drafts are always cool. Mo.~t are cool, but occasionally they can
zontal wind shear (that is, rapid changes in vertical wind speed be extremely hot. For example, during the evening of May 22,
and direction) appear to be responsible for several airlinecrashes. 1996, in the town ofChicbsha,Oklahoma,a blast ofhot,dryair
e FI GURE 14.11 Dustdoudsrising

in response to the outburs t\vind.sofa
micro burst north of Denver,Cok>rado.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~,,..~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
Cloud Saw
4 2 0
e FIGURE 14.12 Aylng into a microbursLAl po.s.itlon (ilj, tho pllot encounl'ers
a he.xl\vlnd;at position (b},a strong downdraft; and at po.s.itlon (c),a tallwlnd that
r«luces llftand Qluses I.heaira aft to lose attitud~frhil hor-"°ntil \'An<I s:hetu ~
dWfcrent (rom theverticalwind shear that acts to incf'l":aW)lOtm soverltyJ
Moving from right to lelt In the Figure
above, would you exPf'(t the grtattst
,bk of tht aitc.r~lt cr41.shin9 ne~r position (cL if the-•ircrah at position
(ii is taking off, or just boginning its de•cent to land?
from a dissipating thunderstorm rai>ed the surf.tee air ternpera-

IW't from 88'F to I02°f in just 25 minutl'S. Such sudden warm • f IGUR E 14.13 Doppler rod.It dl'IJllY •-rl.,,....d m . ,nap showu
downbW'$1$ are called heat bur$ts. AppMl'lltly. the heat burst p-e-ftontal squal tine ex1erd;ng ft0m ft'Qi Into Oldahan. and Atbnsasdurhg
orlgmales high up in the thunderstorm and warm> by compres- febru~ 201 \.Someo!\Mth.ind«i10Cm~ embedded within the squal ine
siona I heuting as ii plunges toward the surfoc<.'. 1he heat burst tdarkred and aangecd0t) ptOductd high wtnc:b., heavy ralf\ and \at-ge hai.
1hat hit Chickasha was exceptionally strong. Along with the hot
air, ii was accompanied by high winds tho11opplcd trces,ripped
down power lines, ond lifted roofs off homes. initially, convection begins along th~ cold front, then reforms
farther away. MotL'Over, the surging nature of the main cold
Squ311·Llne Thunderstorms Mul1icell 1hunders1orms may front itself, or developing cumulus clouds along the front, may
form 0> a line of thunderstorms, called" squall Unc. 'Ihe line of cause the air aloft 10 devdop into WllWS (coiled gravity waves),
storms may form directly olong a cold front and extend for hun· much like the waves thttl form downwind of a mountain chain
dredsofkilometers, or the storms mayfonn in the w:1rm air l 00 (see . fig. 14. 14). Out uheud of the cold front, the rising motion
10 300km out ahead of the cold front. Th~ pre-fT'Olrtal squall- of the ''"'-e may be the !rigger 1ha1 initiates the development of
l/11t tl111ntltrstorms of the middle latitudes represent the Lugest cumulusdouds and a pre-frontal squall line. In some instances.
and most severe type of squall line, with hu~ 1hundcmorms low-level converging air is better established out ahead of the
c:1.1sing S<.'Vert' \\'l'athero'"" much c{its length (see • Rg. M. 13~ • advancing cold front.
Thcre is still debate as to exactly how pre·fronllll squall Rising air along the frontal boundary (and along the gust
lines form. Models that simulate I.heir formation SU88'-'SI that. front), roupkd with the lilted nature of tho? updraft, promotes
•\\11hln • tq.iiU lint! th•tt m1ybe! muJticdJ thun~onnt. ai wtll '' j:t.q>t'N'.dJ
the developmrnt ofnew cclls as thHtorm mov..>s along. Hroce,
..10111u-'101tn11hunckrs.rorm.s that con1aln a mp~ rapidty rob ling updnt'\.. \\tt asokl cells decay and die out. new ones constantly form, and the
Y11JI ht'lk 1n~~ dftk'ly ..u superaD.s in the nm R'Ction. squall lint can maintain Itself for hours on end. Occasionally, a
e FIGURE 14,14 Pre f1on1alsquall-linethunderstonns

may form ahead of an advancing cold front as the upper-air
- --
flowdevelop1 v.mvesdownwlnd from 1hecold front
_,_-----......
.........
/>Jr llow
..

_ ............,......_ ......... _........ ..... _ • ..,.... ...._.,.,...,t-...,-",..'" ... -.w-..
0..•-- ,......_ ............ _ -- -~ _...
~-·!Rf-I £ ........,...._. ....
e FIGURE 14.15 A model describing air
motions and precipitation associated with a
squall line that has a trailing stratiform cloud
layer.
_r~~ An~ - ~ {/-
R""r inflow
je1 <....:l
\ ~ S1ra1t orrn
clouds
Thunders1orm / ,..;;~~I
I \.. )l I
I I '-..... '-..
Wesl LI rain
y,__ Hea rain
-=--~ ~
Gust fron1
l -- - - - - 300km - - - - ----l
new sqmll line will actually form out ahead oft he front as the called the rear-i11jlow jet, because ii enters the storm from the
gust front pushes forn•ard, beyond the main line ofstorms. west (see Fig. 14.1 4). Sometimes the rear-inflow jet will bring
Sq mil lines that exhibit weaker updrafts and down drafts \\1th ii the strong upper-level winds from 'tloft Should these
tend 10 be more shallow than pre-frontal squall lines, and \\fads reach the surface, they rush outward producing damag-
usually they have shorter life spans. 'Jltese storms are referred ing slmiglil-li11e wi11ds that may exceed 90 knots ( l 04 mi/hr).
to as ordi11ary squall li11es.Severe weather may occur with them, (See . Fig. 14. 16.)
but more typically they fonn as a line of thunderstorms that As the strong winds rush forward along the ground, they
exhibit characteristics of ordinary cell thunderstorms. Ordinary sometimespushthesquall lineoutward so that it appears as a bow
squall lines may fonn along a gust front, with a stationary front, (or a series of bows) on a radar screen. Such a bow-shaped squall
with a weak wave cyclone, or where no large-scale cyclonic lineisctlled a bow echo (see. Fig. 14.17). Sometimes the rush of
storms are pre.sent. Many of the ordinary squall lines that form strong \\fads will produce relatively small bo",; only about 8 to
in the middle latitudes exhibit astructure similar 10 squall lines 15 km long (mini-bows). lf the wind shear ahead of the advaoc-
that form in the tropics. ing squall line is strong, much larger bows (over 150 km long)
ln some squall lines, the leading area ofthtmderstorms and may form, similar 10 the bow echo in Fig. 14. l7. The strongest
heavy precipitation is followed by a region ofexten.sive stratified straight-line \\1ndstend tofOnn nearlhecenterofthebow, where
clouds and light precipitation (see • Fig. l 4.15). ' llte stratiform the sharpest bending occurs.1brnadoescan form, especially near
clouds repre.s ent a region where the anvil cloud trails behind the left (northern) side ofthe bow where cyclonic rotation <lflen
the thunderstorm. Slowly rising air within the region keeps the develops, but they are usually small and short-lived.
air saturated. Beneath the rising air, the air slowly descends in Look at Fig. l 4.17 clo.sely and observe that at the northern
association with the falling rain. end of the bow echo the thunderstorms are organizing into a
Strong downdrafts often form 10 the rear of the squall region of cyclonic rotation. ln this region, the release of large
line, as some of the falling precipitation evaporates and chills quantities of latent heat during cloud formation leads to the
the air. ' llte heavy cooler air then descends, dragging some of development of a small area of low pres.sure that spins coun-
the surrounding air with it lf the cool air rapidly descends, it terclockwise. Because the size of the spinning low (called a
may concentrate into a rather narrow band of fast-flowing air vortex) is relatively small-usually less th'm 250 km ( 155 mi) in
• FI GURE 14.16 Asidevi£'\vofthelowerhalf

of a squall·line thunderstorm \Villi the rear·inflO\v
jet carrying strong \Vind.s from high altitudes d<:Avn
to the surfa.c-e. These strong \Vind.s push for\vard
along the surface, causing damaging straight·line
winds that may reach 100 knots. If the high wind.s
extend horizontalfyfor aconsiderabledistance.. the
\Vind storm is called a derecho.
l'Mk. In an avcntgc year about 20 dcrcchoc> tllcur Int he United
States. During July, 2005, two dcrt'Chocs \\ithin three d.ty> moved
through the St. Louis, Mis.ouri, metro nr.·o. With \\ind> g11>tlng
to over 80 mi/hr, they dow1wd trees and pu,wr Imo 111l ucn1>> thc
region, leaving half a million rc*1cn~ without ixiwcr.
It is common for the damaging cffec:u uf u Jcrc<hu to be
:ttributed to a tornado. The dcgrt'C ur d;1magc from" Jercdto
can be extensive, ;~1 a> wrth J tomodo. • I lowc\ct, "rth a
derecho, debris is blo\\'11111 onr din-.:tron und g•nrr•ll)• ll\'C'f a
wide area, wbCRa.S debris wrth a tom;ido "u>u311y th'°" n rn
many directions.. MOttO\n. tom ado "in<btY}'lcally cul a om1
lar swath througb an atta.
Squall lines arc ooc t)~or con'«tl'<' phmomcnun cdtd
a .\lesosaJ/eCom'C'Clfr<' S)'Slmt (MCS). l>qual lut<l> come undtt
this heading bttau>c thty att drivcn ht con•ml\·c f'R>'C'<~
and becmse th">·= m~• (mrddlc M:ale) rn ~« Mc.malt
e flGURE I• 17 A-rr..i...,..,-.ng_,.,,_tQO••llno•n rom-.ctn·c systrou att orgw.ud t hundcntorm> t h.ot un l.lkc
N,hliplof • tio--ul4d • ltow«flo ... ~ng .-W.ai ll(lca' M.mcunon on a variety of configurahoru. Crom the clongillnl >quail hne,
tho-""tollilfY& :ioot
m'9tf••ptocMo.ng~•klll)hl 1ne-~~,
Thl"-'"""'°"'_,u«1_0t.,.mN
•..c1e..... 0Mwg to the circular nxsoscalt com'C'ClJ\·c •'Ortcx, to !ht- mu..h brgcr
.\fesasaile Corn'C'cti•<' CorrtpladcscnbcJ rn thr next !>«lion.
ftgM.~I il'W Winchlt\illtdrnd fer 1gooddet.C.ll"Ktiblgil)qull lMlS
colltd•dM<ho.
MesoscaleConvectinCompleM.s Where condrtron> arc r.
vorablt br romi?ction. a number of utdrvrJual mulllccll thun
diameter- the 'r11111ing l<>w and ·~ band of cloud> is called dcrstorms may occasiona.Uy grow rn >tt.e and org.nttt Into a
a mcsoscalc conv«llvc vortex. No!Jcc on • Pig. 14.18 that tht-
large circular conw.:tive weather •y>tcm. ll1c;c convc.:11\'ely
vortcx bc<<>mc> more well Jdlne<l ..,veral hour> btcr.
driven system>. called McsoscaJe Con\'CC1 Ive Com11lexcs
When the dam.igc a>M>Clll•'<l whh the 51ralght·line winds of
(MCCs).arequite large-they can bca>rmN.h '" 1000 time>
a bow cdlo cxtaul> iir o wrbrdcrnblc dls1ancc along the squall
larger than an individual ordinaryccll 1hundcr.10rn1. In foci,
line'• path (a> It doc; In Pig. 14. 17). I he windstorm l• cJ1llcd a
they arc often large enough 10 cover nn entire >1111c, 11n arcn In
dcrccho (doy· ruy·>ho). nftcr the Spani>h \•\\r (>i.'i! • l'ig. 14. 19).
ahead." 'lyplrnlly, dcrcchoc; form In the early evening and last
throughout the nl11ht. i\n C>JlCclnlly powerful dcrcchn roared
throuiib New Yurk Slide during the cnrly morning of July 15, 'To re fresh your n1c1noryon 1hc dllfo.1\! nt ~ltft o l'l\ tnl o~1'h1.t 1 le: wind 'YMcnn, kli\k
1995, where It blew down mllllms of tree> In Adirondack State m Fig. 9.2 on p. 23L
• FIGURE 14, 18 Ooppltt 1i>d.11 ln\119t r.llowiniJ

th•r tho b'"¥td'Oln Fig l<.17h.l•dt-ptd11110
a mr.soJGJAr a>1wrcriw ti01tt.rby noon on M1y 8
2009. Scrong Jtr41ight IMwincb .,. \t•loc.c~l1""0
.,..th s.ewr• thl.l"Ot n1orms. •' CM bordl It. I I no\
f'fPO'll!d an unoffitlillwird 9-.at of 106 mVh,
-.u. . . . ,....
l'"+ .111,H•. . '--1 All ..t.. li_..111 M..,1t••l>••*"...I ,,.,..w .. 11..-.-....1 ,. ..;.,.,.,,,.,., a... ... -...._. ..... -lhool,..-y..,_ _ ._.,,,.._. ...."i.~•""'•"~"'11"""°'' I-..••..,,._'-
.....................-.... ,.;,..,. ..................,. ..... ,••• - · --.,. ...r--. "..."'..,__..,._ ,..,..,i. ......-.w.-.t...- · - -· ·;.""'- ••
SUPERCELL THUNDERSTORMS In a region where there is
strong vertical windshear(bothspeed and direction shear). the
thunderstorm may form in such a way that the outflow of cold
air from the downdraft never undercuts the updraft. Jn such a
storm, the wind shear may be so strong as to create horizontal
spin, which, when tilted into the updraft, causes it to rotate. A
large, long-lasting thunderstorm with a single violently rotating
updraft is called a supercell.' As wewillseelaterin this chapter,
it is the rotating aspect of the supercell that can lead to the fi>r-
mation of tornadoes.
• Figure 14.20 shows a supered! "1th a tornado. 'Jbe inter-
nal structure of a supercell is organized in such a way that the
storm may maintain iL~lf as a single entity for hours. Storms of
this type are capable of producing an updraft that may exceed
90 knots, damaging surface "1nds, and lar&>e tornadoes. Violent
updrafts keep haiL~tones suspended in the doud long enough
fi>r them to gro"' to considerable size-sometimes to the size
d grapefruits. Once they are large enough, they may fall out the
bottom of the cloud "1th the downdraft,or the violent spinning
updraft may whirl them out the side of the cloud or even from
the base of the anvil. Aircraft have actually encountered hail in
dear air several kilometers from a storm. In some cases, the top
• F I GURE 14.19 An enhanced inf rared satellite image showing the cold dthestormmayextend to as high as JS km (60,000 ft) above the
c:loud tops (dark red and orange colors) of a f\'1esoscaleConvectilfe Complex
extending from central Kansas ac:ross\vestern Missouri Th is organized mass of
surface, and its "1dth may exceed 40 km (25 mi).
multicell thunderstorms brought hail, hea'JY rain, and flooding to this area. Although no t\\'OSUpercelL~ are exactly alike, for convenience
they are often divided into three types. Oassic (CL) supercells, ror
example, produce heavy rain, large hail, high surface "1nds, and
Within the MCC~. the individual thunderstorms apparently the majority d tornadoes. The classic supered I serves as an excel-
\\'Ork together to generate a long-la.~ting (more than 6 hours) lent model for all supercelL~. and is the one normally shown in
weather system that moves slowly (normally les.~than 20 knots) diagram~. Supercells that produce heavy precipitation and large
and often exists for periods exceeding 12 hours. Thunderstorms hail, which appears to fall in the center d the storm, are called
that comprise MCCssupport the growth ofnew thunderstorms HP supl'rcells, (for High Precipitation). Such storms often produce
as well as a region of widespread precipitation. These systems extrerne downdrafts ( downburst) and flash flooding. If tornadoes
are beneficial, as they provide a significant portion of the grow- are present, it is often difficult to see them, as they tend to form in
ing season rainfall over much of the corn and wheat belts of the the area of heavy precipit31ion. A supered I characterized by little
United States. Mowever, MCCs can also produce a wide variety precipitation,astheoneshownin Fig. \<1.20,iHeferred to a~an LP
ofsevere weather, includ ing hail, high winds, destructive flash supem11 (for Low Precipitation). The,~ storms, which are capable
flood~. and tornadoes. of producing tornadoes and lar&>e h.1il,often have a vertic.al tower
Mesoscale Convective Complexes tend to form during the that, due to the storm~ rotation, re,~bles a corkscrew.
summer in regions where the upper-level wind~ are weak, which A model of a dassic supercell with many of its features i~
i~ often beneath a ridge of high pressure. If a weak cold front given in • Fig. 14.2 1. Jn the diagram, we are viewing the storm
shoul dstall beneath the ridge,surface heating and moisture may from the southeast, and the storm is moving from southwest
be sufficient to generate thunderstorms on the cool side of the to northeast. The rotating air column on the south side of the
front. Often moisture from the south is brought into the sys- storm, usually, 5 to 10 kilometers aero.~. is called a mesocyclone
tem by a low-level jet stream often found within about 1500 m (meaning "mesoscale cydone").1l te rotating updraft associ;~ed
(5000 ft) of the surface. In addition, the low-level jet can provide with the mesocydone i~so strong that precipit31ion cannot fall
shearing so that multicell storms can form. Most MCC~ reach through it. Thi~situ31ion produces a rain-free area (calleda rain-
their maximum intensity in the early morning hours. \\•hich is Jree base) beneath the updraft. Strong southwesterly winds aloft
partly due to the fact that the low-level jet reaches its maximum usually blow the precipitation northeastward. Notice that large
strength late at night or in the early morning. Moreover, at night, hail, having remained in the doud for some time, usually falls
the cloud tops cool rapidly by emitting infrared energy tospace. just north of theupdraft,and the heaviest rain occurs jtc~t north
Gradually, the atm<k~phere destabilizes as a vast amount of of the falling hail, with the lighter rain falling in the northeast
latent heat i~ relea.~d in the lower and middle part of the clouds. quadrant of the storm. If low-level humid air is drawn into the
Within the multicell storm complex new thunderstorms form
asolderonesdi~sip3le. With only weak upper-level winds, most 'S1n:lber lhundcr.stonns lhot occur ,,;1h rotttting updrafts arc referred 10 •l> 1ub1i
MCCs move southeastward very slowly. Sllptr<dJs.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""... '"""'''"'"·
• FI GURE 14 .20 Asupercelhhunderstorm
\vi th a tornado S\Yee:ps over Texas.
updraft.a rotating cloud, called a wall cloud, may descend from observing • Fig 14.23. The illustration represents at mo.spheric
the base of the storm as shown in Fig, 14.21 and e f'ig. 14.22. conditions during the spring over the Central Plains. At the sur-
We can obtain a better picture of how vertical wind shear face, we find an open-wave middle-latitudecydone "1th cold, dry
plays a role in the development of supered! thunderstorms by air moving in behind a cold front, and warm humid air pushing
Wind
"- Virga
/ Updraft
Forward flank
downdraft
-Wall cloud Gust

~ftOOI
Hae Heavy...,
• FI GURE 14. 2 1 Some of the features associated \Vi th a das.sic tornado-breeding supercell thunderstorm as vie\ved from the
southeast. The storm is moving to the northeast
e FIGURE 14.22 Awall
doud photographed
south\o,est of Norman.
Oklahoma.
northward from !he Gulf of Mexico behind a warm front. Above of all supercells. ' lbe increasing wind speed with height up to
the \\'arm surface air, a \Vedge or "tongue" of \•.rarm, moi~t air i~ the 300-mb level, coupled with the changing wind direction
streaming northward. I! is in this region we find a relatively narrow "1th height from more southerly at low levels to more westerly
band ofstrong winds, sometimes exceeding 50 knots, called the at high levels, further inducesstorm rotation.•
low-level jet. Directly above !he moist layer is a wedge of cooler, Ahead of the advancing cold front, we might expect to ob-
driernirmoving in from !hesouthwest. Higher up, at the 500-mb serve many supercells forming as warm, conditionally unstable
level, a troughoflow pressure exists to !he west of!hesurface low. air rises from !he surface. Often, however, numerous supercells
At the 300-mb level, !he polar front jet stream s"1ngs over the do not form as the atmospheric conditions that promote the for-
region, often \\1th an area of maximum wind (ajetstreak) above mation oflarge supered I thunderstorms tend to prevent many
!he surface low. At this level, !he jet stream provides an area of smaller ones from forming. 1b see why, we need to examine the
divergence that enhancessurfoceconvergence and rising air. The vertical profile of temperature and moisture- a sounding- in
stage is now set for the development ofsupercell thunderstorms. the warm air ahead of the advancing cold front.
The light yellow area on the surface map (Fig. 1' 1.23) shows e figure 14.24 shows a typical sounding of temperature
where supercells are likely to form. 111ey tend to form in this and dew point in the warm air before supercells form. From the
region because ( I) the position of cold air above warm air surfaO'.' up to 800 mb,-in a layer ofair perhaps 2000 m (6000 ft)
produces a conditionally unstable atmosphere and because thick-the air is warm, very humid, and conditionally un-
(2) strong vertical wind shear induces rotation. stable. Al 800 mb, a shallow inversion (or simply, a very stable
Rapidly increasing wind speed from the surface up to the layer) acls like a cap (or a lid) on !he moist air below. Above !he
low-level jet provides strong vertical wind speed shear. Within inversion, the air is cold and much drier. This air is also condi-
this region, wind shear catLses the air to spin about a horizontal tionally unstable, as the temperature drops at just about the dry
axis. You can obtain a better idea of !his spinning by placing a adiabatic rate (to•C/1000 m). The cooling of !his upper layer
pen (or pencil) in your left hand, parallel to !he table. Now take is due, mainly, to cold air moving in from the west. Cold, dry,
your right hand and push it over the pen away from you. 'Jl1e unstable air sitting above a warm, humid layer produces a type
pen rotates much like the air rotates. If you tilt !he spinning pen of atmospheric instability called convedive instability, which
into the vertical, the pen rotates counterclockwise from !he per- means that the atmosphere will destabilize even more if a layer
spective of looking down on it. A similar situation occurs with ofairissomehow forced to rise. (S..>e Chapter6, p. 154, for more
!he rotating air. As the spinning air rotates counterclockwise information on this topic.) In addition, !he warm, humid air
about a horizontal axis, an updraft from a developing thun-
derstorm can draw the spinning air into the cloud, causing the · As we will see ls1er in 1hisch.1ptcr. ii i.s this rotation that s.eis the stage tbr tornado
updraft to rotate. It is this rotating updraft that is characteristic develop1ncnL
.,, / that thunderstorms may begin as parcels ofair rise from the sur-
- ..!:.__.---:...
Polar from::=::d
. . . . ".. ._.. . / face, eventually become saturated and its moisture condenses
into clouds. CA P£ is a measure of how rapidly an air parcel
"111 rise inside a cloud (its postive buoyancy) when the parcel
become.swarmer than the air surrounding it. 1 he higher the
value of CA P£, the more likely a supercell will form. For ex-
an1ple,a value of CA PE ranging from O10500 joules•/kg means
that there is only a marginal chance for the development of
strong thunderstorms, where,1s values greater th'm 3500 indi-
18.000 It c'1!e that the environment is ripe for strong convection (strong
updrafts) and the formation of supercell thunderstorms. (We
"111 look al CAPE again later in this chapter when we examine
mb
.:..,.......:,....--
:
___
• _.,.. the forecasting of severe thunderstorms and tornadoe.s.)
L / Most thunderstorm.s move roughly in the direction of the
_.. --;;'l "fads in the middle troposphere. However, mo.~t supercell
---- . Olj_...- 10,00011 storms are right-movers; that is, they move to the right of the
----~-:....-- steering winds aloft. 1 hese right-movers tend to move about
700mb 30 degrees to the right of the mean "fad in the middle tropo-
sphere. The rapidly rising air of the storm's updraft interacts with
L :/ & increasing horizontal winds that change direction with height
/ /"'
Z:,•warm moist air s,ooo n
(frommoresoutherlytomore westerly) in such a wayth,11 verti-
cal pressure gradients are able to generate new updrafts on the
Lovt·level right side of the storm. Hence, as the storm moves along, new
1e1 cells form to the right of the "1nds aloft."
850mb
THUNDERSTORMS AND THE DRYLINE 'Jliunderstorm.s may
H L:.........., form along or just east of a boundary called a dry/i11e. Recall
£'?J?,_ ; _/- ' ~~ Oft
from Chapter 11 that the dryline represents a narrowzone where
there is a sharp horizontal change in moisture. Jn the United
N--s;;;;ace ~ / f ~~mid States. drylines are most frequently observed in theweslern half
Sopercea
thunderstorms
:::::r- ofTexas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. Jn this region, drylinesoccur
most frequentlyduringspringand early summer, where they are
observed about 40 percent of the time.
• FIGURE 14.23 Cond itions ~ding to the formation cl severe thunder·
storms.and especially supercells.. The area in yello\v sho\vswheresevere
·Recall fro1n Chapter 2 Ihat a joule isa unit of energy ·where one joule «JlUls0239
thunderstorm sare likely to form.
01.lorie.s..
···.son:ie thundcrstonns n1ove 10 the left of the stttring winds aloft. This movcnlrnl
1n.1r h.1ppcn \lsn thundcrstonn splits in10 two .stonns. with the northern half of 1he
beneath the capping stable layer represents potential energy for stonn often being a left-mover.and thcsiouthcrn h.1lfn righl· lllOWr.
the thunderstorm.1b is potential energy is converted into kinetic
energy when parcels of air are lifted and form into clouds.
'fhe lifting of warm surface air cm ocrur at the frontal zones,
but the air may also begin to rise anywhere in the region cf warm ''
air when the surface air heats up during the day. However, in the 600
''
morning, the inversion acts as a lid on rising thermals and only
small cumulus clouds form. As the day progresses (and the sur-
''' lnve<slon or
' Dew s1able layer
fuce air heats even more), rising air breaks through the inversion at
isolated places and clouds build rapidly.sometimes explosive! y, as
the moist air is vented upward throughtheopening. 'Ilius, we can
see that the stable inversion prevents many small thunderstorm.s 900
P<linl _
--------' Warm \
'
~
\
from forming. When the surface air is fmally able to puncturethe Ory • ·... Motst moist air \\
inversion, a jet streak associated "1th the upper-levd jet stream ra1e • •• rate \
1 000'---'---'"---'---''---'---''---'---'~-'-.......- - '
(at the 300-mb level) rapidly draws the moist air up into thee.old -25 -20 - ts - 10 -s o s 10 1s 20 2s 30
unstable air, and a large supercell quickly Mvelops to great height. Temperature ('C)
Violent thunderstorm.shave very strong updrafts. A mea-
sure of how much energy is available to produce these updrafts • FIGURE 14. 24 A typical sounding o f air temperatureand dav point tliat
is the Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE). We know frequently precedes the development o f supercell thunderstorms.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''"..
.. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
(cumulus stage), maturity (mature stage), and decay
(dissipating stage) In less than an hour. They rarely produce
severe weather.
L';--.i__ • An ordinary cell thunderstorm dies because its downdraft
/\
fall s Into the updraft which cuts off the storm's fuel supply.
• As wind shear increases (and the winds al oft become
stronger), mul ticell thunderstorms are more likely to form
as the storm's updraft rides up and over the downdraft.
Hot
dry air The tilted nature of the storm allows new cells to form as
Warm ol d ones die out.
moist • Multlcell storms often form asa complex of storms, such as
DryQne
,. air
the squall line (a l ong fine of thunderstorms that form along
or out ahead of a frontal boundary) and the Mesoscale Con-
• FIGURE 14. 2 5 Surface concHtions that can produce a drytine \Vith intense vective Complex (a large circul ar duster of thunderstorms).
thunderstorms..
• The stronger the convection and the longer a mul ti storm
system exists, the greater the chances of the thunderstorm
e Figure 14.25 shows springtime weather conditions that becoming severe.
can lead to the development of a dryline and inten~e thunder-
storms. The map shows a developing mid-latitude cyclone with • Supercell thunderstorms are large, long-fasting violent
a cold front, a warm front, and three distinct air mas.~es. Behind thunderstorms, with a singl e rotating updraft that forms in
the cold front, cold dry continental polar (cf>) air or modilied a region of strong vertical wind shear. A rotating supercell Is
cool dry Pacific air p<L~hes in from the northwest. In the warm more likely to develop when (a) the winds aloft are strong
air, ahead of the cold front, hot dry continental tropical (c'T) and change direction f rom southerly at the surface to more
air moves infrom the south\•o't?'St. Farther ea.o;t. '"'arm but very westerly aloft and (b) a low-level jet exists just above the
humid maritime tropical (mT) air sweeps northward from the earth's surface.
Gulf ofMexico. The dry line is the north-south oriented bound- • Although supercells are likely to produce severe weather,
ary that separates the warm, dry air and the warm, humid air. such as strong surface winds, large hail, heavy rain, and
Along the cold front-where cold, dry air replaces warm, tornadoes, no tall do.
dry air- there is insufficient moisture for thunderstorm devel- • A gust front or outfl ow boundary, represents the leading
opment. Th e moisture bowidary lies along thedryline. Because edge of cool air that originates Inside a thunderstorm,
the Central Plains of North America are elevated to the west, reaches the surface as a downdraft, and moves outward
some of the bot, dry air from the south,,•est is able to ride over away from the thunderstorm.
the slightly cooler, more humid air from the Gulf. This condi- • Strong downdrafts of a thunderstorm, called down bursts
tion sets up a potentially unstable atmo.~phere just east of the (or mlcrobursts if the downdrafts are smaller than 4 km),
dryline. Converging surface winds in the vicinity ofthe dryline, have been responsibl e for several airline crashes, because
coupled with upper-level outflow, may result in rising air and upon striking the surface, these winds produce extreme
the development ofthunderstorms. As thunderstorm~ form, the horizontal wind shear- rapid changes in vertical wind
cold downdraft from inside the storm may produce a blast of speed and wind direction in the horizontal.
cool air that moves along the ground as a gust front and initiates
the uplift necessary for generating new (po~ibly more severe) • A derecho is a strong straight-fine wind produced by strong
thwiderstorms. downbursts from intense thunderstorms that often appear
as a bow (bow echo) on a radar screen.
• Intense thunderstorms often form along a dry fine, a narrow
BRIEF REVIEW zone that separates warm, dry air from warm, humid air.
In the last several sections, we examined different types of

thunderstorms. listed below for your review are Important THUNDERSTORMS AND FLOODING Intense thunderstorms
concepts we considered: can be associated with floods and flash floods-floods that rise
rapidly with little or no advance warning. Such flooding often
• All thunderstorms need three basic Ingredients: (1) moist results when thunderstorms stall or move very slowly, caus-
surface air; (2) a conditionall y unstabl e atmosphere; and ing heavy rainfall over a relatively small are'1. Such flooding
(3) a mechanism "trigger" that forces the air to rise. occurred over partsofNew England and the mid-Atlantic states
• Ordinary cell (air mass) thunderstorms tend to form where during June, 2006, when a stationary front stalled over the re-
warm, humid air rises In a conditionally unstable atmo- gion, and tropical moist air, lifted by the front, produced thun-
sphere and where vertical wind shear is weak. They are derstorms and heavy rainfall that caused extensive flooding and
usuall y short-lived and go through their fife cycle of grow th damage to thousand~ of homes. Flooding may :il~ occur when
thousand s from their homes along rivers and smaller streams
in Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia. One month
later, heavy rain coupled \\1lh melting snow caused the Red
River lo overflow ils banks, inund ating 75 percent oft he city of
Grand Forks, North Dakota. Flooding aLo;o occurs with tropical
storms that deposit torrential rains over an extensive area.
During the summer of J 993, lhunderstonn after thunder-
storm rumbled across the upper Midwest, Calksing the worst
flood ever in lhal p<1rl of lhe United Stales. Whal began as a
wen er than normal \\1nler and spring for most of lhe upper
Midwest !urned inlo "1b e Greal Flood of l993" by the end of
., July. ln mid -June, t hunderstorms began lo fonn almost daily
along a persistenl frontal bound<1ry lhal stretched across the
upper Midwest 'Jbe fronl (which remained nearly slalionary for
• F I GURE 14. 26 The heavyarro\v represents t he.werage position o f t he
upper~leveljet stream from mid~J un e through Juty, 1993. The jet stream helped days on end) was positioned beneath the poltr jet stream that
fuel thunderstorms that devekiped in association \vith a stationary fro nt tha t ""JS situated much farther south than usual for t his time ofye<1r
seem ed to oscillate back and forth over the region as an alternating cold fron t (see • Fig. 14. 26). * 1 he jel stream provided pockets of upper-
and warm front. TheL." m arks thecentero f a frontal\vave that is m oting along level d ivcrgenc-e for thedevelopmenl ofweak surface waves th al
the f ronLManyof the thundersto rms that form ed in conjunction \Y-ith t his
pattern ~re severe.and over a period o f \Veeks produced ·The Great Flood of
rippled along the front, while converging surface air provided
1991• Most of the counties \Vithin the blue -shaded a rea were declared •disaster uplift for lhunderslorm gro"1h.
areaS"due to fl ooding. Fed by warm, humid air from the Gttlf of Mexico, thun-
derstorms almost daily roUed through an area lhal stretched
eash•·ard from Nebraska and South Dakota inlo Minnesota and
thtmderslorms move quickly, bul keep p assing over the same Wisconsin, and south"·ard inlo Jo,,.., Illinois, and Missouri.
area, a phenomenon called training. (Like railroad cars , one after Torrential rains from these slormsquickly saturated the soil and
another, passing over lhe same tracks.) Jn recent years, flooding soon runoffbeg'm lo raise the waler level in creeks and rivers.
and fl,1sh floods in t he United Stales have claimed an average By the end of Jtme, communities in the northern regions of the
of more lh<ln JOO lives a year, and have accounted for untold Mississippi River Valley were experiencing flooding.
properly and crop d<1mage. (An example ofa terrible flash flood Aslhe lhtmderslonnscontinued into July, city aflercilywas
tha!lookthe lives ofmore than 135 peapleis given in the Focus claimedbytherisingwalers(see. Fig. 14.27). Between April and
section on p. 396.) July, m any areas had received twice their nonnal rainfall, and
ln .s ome areas, flooding occurs prim<1rily in the spring when
•As a no1e. 1hc position of lhe jct stre3nl Clus.e<l lhe \\'e<llher to be cooler lha n
heavy rain and melting snO\\' cause rivers to overflO\\' their nornlal in the P3dlic Nonhwcst and wannerth<'ln nonnal in the East. \o\rhilc the
banks. For example, during March, l 997, heavy d ownpours tvlidwcst \ WIS deluged \\ith rain. the southeastern .section of !he United St..11e.s \WIS
over the Ohio River Valley caused extensive flooding lh'll forced otpcrienc ing an extensive dr y period.
e FIGURE 14.27 Flooding during the

summer o f 1993 covered avast area of the
upper Mid\vest. Here, fl oodwaters near do\Yn-
town Des Moines, l ~va, d uring Juty. 1993,
inundate buildingsof the Des Moines \Yate r~
\Wrks facility. Flood~contamin at ed \Wi e r
left 250,000 people w ithout d rinking wat er.
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,......._.,..,i "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11....i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<i<nlonlfl •..., .._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...~,,..~Cn'll'tl 1~..,'11"""......, fl~••"-*''..,...., :o.1.1,.,.,,. •.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
The Terrifying Flash Flood in the Big Thompson Canyon
July31, 1976, was likeanyother summer

day in th e Colorado Rockies, as small
cumulus clouds with flat bases and dome-
shaped tops began to develop over the
eastern slopes near th e Big Thom pson and
Cache La Poudre rivers. At fi rst g lance,
there was nothing unusual about these
clouds, as almost every summer afternoon
they form along the warm mountain
slopes. Normally, strong upper-level winds
push them over the plains, causing ra in -
showers of short duration. But the cumulus
clouds on this day were different. For o ne
thing, they were m uch lower than usual,
indicating that the southeasterly surface • FI GURE 1 Thiscar is one o f more than 400 destroyed byflooch w ters in the
w in ds were bringing in a great deal of Big Tho mpson Canyon on July 31, 1976.
moisture. Also, their tops were somewhat
Rattened, suggesting that an inve rsion
aloft was stunting the ir growth. But these
harm less-looking clouds gave no clue t hat
later thatevening in the Big Thompson
Canyon more than 135 people would lose
their lives in a terrible flash flood.
By late aftern oon, a few of thecum u 4
lus clouds were able to p uncture the inver 4
sion. Fed by moist southeasterlywinds,

these clouds soon developed intog igant ic
m ulticell thunderstorms w ith tops exceed 4
ing 18 km (60,000 f t). By early evening,

these same clouds were p roducing
incredib le downpours in the mountains.
In the narrow canyon of the Big
Thompson River, some places received as
m uch as 30.5 cm (12 in.) of rain in the four
hours between 6:30 P.M.and 10:30 P.M.
local time. This is an incredible amount of • FI GURE 2 Weather conditions that led to the development o f intense mult icell t hundersto rms that
remained nearly stationary oter t he Big Thompson Canyon in t he Colorado Rockies. Thearro\VS\Vithin
precipitation, consid ering that the area nor-
the thunderst orm rep resentair mot ions..
mally receives about 40.5 cm (16 in.) for an
entire year. The heavy downpours turned then broke through. causing a wall of water from below, t he conditionally unstable air
small creeks into raging torrents, and the to rush downstream. eventua Hy punctured the in ~ rsi on and
Big Thompson River was quickly filled to Figure 2 shows the weather condit ions developed into a huge m ulticell thunder-
capacity. W here the canyon narrowed, t he during the evening of July 31, 1976. A cool storm complex that rema in ed nearly sta-
river overAowed its banks and water front moved through earlier in the day and tionary for several hours d ue to t he weak
covered the road. The relentless pounding remained south of Denver. The weak inver 4
southerlywinds aloft. The deluge may have
of water caused the road to give way. sion layer associated w it h the front kept deposited 19 cm (7.5 in.) o f rain on the main
Soon cars, tents, mobile homes, resort the cumulus clouds from building to great fork of the Big Thompson River in about
homes, and campgrounds were being heights ea rlier in the af ternoon. However, one hour. O f the approximately 2000 people
claimed by the ri"'r (see Fig. 1). W here the the strong southeasterly flow behind the in th e canyon that evening, over 135 lost
debris entered a narrow constriction, it cool front pushed unusually moist air their lives, and p roper ty damage exceeded
became a dam. Water backed up behind i~ upslope along the mountain r ange. H eated $35.5 m illion.
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl • ~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,,..,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i., .....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,.,.,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~...'ll-....... .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""... '"""'''"'"·
rivers continued to crest weU abo\1' flood stage through July. By WEATHER WATCH
the lime the water began to recede in August.morethan60 per· The Great Fl ood of 1993 In the Mississipp i and Missouri
omtofthe levees nlong the M i~sissippi River had bccndestroycd, rive r basins had an Impact on the living and the d ead as
and an ar<a larger thnn the state offexas hnd been covered with lht Hatdin Cemetery tn Missouri had more than 700 grave s
water (the blue·shaded atto1 in Fig. 14.26). EMimates are that opened. Some caske t s were sw~t a wa y by raging flood
$6.5 billion in crops was lost ns millions of ncresof valuable form· waters and de posite d many kil ometers downstream, and
~md "'ere inundated by llood waters. ' i11e worst flooding this some were never found.
area had C\1'r seen took <lS human li•-es. damagt>d or destroyt>d
45,000 homes. and forced the evacuatlonof74,000 people.
moi~t air extend~ upwnrd from the surface. Most hail>C<1nes foll·
ing into this layer will melt before reaching the ground.•
DISTRIBUTION OF THUNDERSTORMS It is estimated that Now that we have looked at the dewlopment and dis·
morethanSO,OOOthunderstorrnsoccureachdaythroughout the cribulion of thunderstorms, we are ready 10 exnmine an
world. I lcnce, over 18 million occur nnnuolly. "Ihecombinoiion b1Ccresting, chough yet not fully understood, aspect of all
rL warmth and moisture make equamrial landm:is.wsespecially thunderstom1s-lightning.
conducive to thunderstorm formation. Here, thunderstorms
occur on about one out of every threeday>.1hunderstorm• are LIGHTNING AND THUNDER Lightning ls simply a discharge
nlso prevalent over water along the lntcrtropical convergence of deccricity, a giant spark, which usually occurs In mature
zone, ,,here the low-level convergence of air helps to initiate thunderstorms. Ligbcning may tnke place within a cloud, from
uplift. "lhe beat energy liberated in these storms helps the earth one cloud to anotl!<'r, from a cloud to the surrounding air, or
mainto in its heal balance by distribut ing h('Ol poleward (see from a cloud to the ground (sec • Fig. 1<1.30). (The majority
Chapter LO). Thunderstorms are much less prevalent in dry oflightning strikes occur '~ithin the cloud, while only about
climates, such as the polar regions and the desert areas domi- 20 percenl or so occur between cloud and ground.} 'lhe Ughc-
nated by subtropicul highs. ning stroke can heat the :Ur through which ii travels to an in·
• Figure 14.28 shows the average annual number of days credible 30.000-C (54,000•f ), which is S tim•S hotc<r than the
having thunderstorms in various parts of the Umted States. surface ofthe sun. ' £his extreme heating cwses the air 10 expand
Notice that theyocrur m<>dil frequently in the southeastern states explosively, thus inili3tingashock wave that becomes a boom·
along the Gulf Con.~t with a maitimrnn ~n Florida.~ sec~ndnry ing sound wave- called thundcr - thac trnvels outward m nil
maitimum exist> over the central Rockks.1 he region with the directions from the flash.
fewest thunderstorms is the Pacific c005tal and interior ,,.oeys. A sound occasionally mil.taken for thunder is the sonic
In many areas, thunderstonn> form primarily in. s':""mer boom. Sonic boont~ nre produced when an aircraft exceeds the
during chewarmcst part of the day when the ;urface air IS muse speed of sound at the altitude at which ic Is flying. "I.he aircmft
unstable. There are some exceptions, howC\-er. During the sum· compresses the air, forming a shock wa\1' that trao~ out as a
mer in the vaUcys ofcentral and southern Califonuo. dry. ~nking oone behind the air<-rnft. Along the shock wave, the airptcS>ure
air produces an inversion thac inhibits the development of tower- changes rapidly over a short dist once. The rapid prc;sure chan~c
ing cumulus cloud.~. In these regio1~, thundcr.torms arc '"?sc causes the distinct boom. (Explodingfireworks g.nerate asuru·
frequent in winter and spring, particularly ''~en cold, mo!SI, br shock W3\'I! and a loud bang.)
conditionally un>-iable air aloft moveso1-tt moast, nuld sun:ace
air. ·1he surface air remainsrehrtively warm becuuseof1tsprOX1m· How far Away is the Lightnlng?-Start Counting When
ity 10 the ocean. Over the Central Plains, thundcr>torms tend 10 }'OU see a flash oflir)ltning, how can you tell how far away (or
form more frequently at night. These ~torms may be ca~ by howd06<?} it is? Light travels so fast that you see ligh~ instantly
a low-level souther! y jet streum that forms at night, and not on! y ufternlighcningflash. lfot the sound ofthunder, travel mg ac only
carries humid air northward but also Initiates arcn:.ofconverging about 330 m/sec (1100 ft/sec), takes much l<>nger to reach your
surfuce air, which helps 10 trigger uplift. As the thunderstorms e.ir. lf you start countmg seconds from the mO!Ill!lll you see the
build. their tops cool by radiating infrared energy 10 spa«. 1his lightning until you hear the thunder, you can d<!wrmong how
cooling process tends to cbtabilize the atmo;phcre, mnklng 11 for away chc stroke is. Because ii takes sound abouc 3_seconds
more suitable for nighttime thunder>torm development. 10 travel one kilometer (about 5 seconds for one mile). if you SC<
Al this point, it is interesting co compare Fig. 14.28 and lightning and hear the thund.."f IS seconds later, .the lightning
e Fig. 14.29. Notice that, even though the gre:itest frequency of >Croke (and the thunderstorm) is about 5 km (3 nu) away.
1hrn1derstorms is near the Culf Coa>C, the gren1cs1 frequency of When che lightning scrokc is very dose-on the order
hailstorms is 0\1'£ the western Great Plains. One reason for this nf 100 m (330 fl) or less-thunder sounds like a clap or a
situation is that cuiditions O\'cr the Great Plai11> are more favor- crack followed immediately by a loud bang. When It is farther
able for thedcvelopmlOll of severe thunderscorms and cspt-chlil Y nwav, it ofcen rumbles. Th e rumbling can be due co the sound
supercells that have strong updraft> cnpable rL kreping hailstones cma'naling from diJTerentareas of the stroke (sec • Fig. 14.31).
susprnded "ithtn the cloud for along time sothattheycnn grow ~1oreovcr, the rumbling is accentuated when the ;ound waw
10 an appreciable size before plunging 10 the ground. We :llso
find that, in srnnmer along the Gulf Const, a thick layer of warm, •'Jbt fonn:1ti~tsdderibed in Ch.1ptcr?on p. Ul9.
• FIGURE 14.28 Theavera.ge number
of dayseac_h year on \Vhic:h thunderstorms
are observed throughout the United States..
(Due to the scarc_ity cldata. the number of
thunderstorms is underestimated in the
mountainous farwestJ
• FI GURE 14.29 Theaverage number

of days each year on which hailisob-
served throughout the United States.
reaches an observer afler having bounced off obslructions, lhunder inaudible. Sound travels fasler in warm air lhan in cold
such as hills and buildings. air.' Because lhtmderslorms form in a conditionally unslable
ln some inslances, lightning is seen bul no lhunde.r is :JI mosph<'re, wheret he lemperature normally drops rapid! y wilh
heard. Does lhis mean lhal lhunder was nol produced by heigh!, a sound wave moving outward away from a lightning
the lighlning? Aclually, !here is thunde.r, bul lh<' almosphere •lbc spttd of .sound in cA11n ~iris equal 10 20 Yr. whe1\! T is I he >lir tc1npcrotore
refrac!S (bends) and atlenuaks lh<' sound waves, mal<ing 1he In Kelvins.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• F I GURE 14. 30 The lightning stroke can lravelin a number o f directions.It • F I GURE 14. 31 Thunder travels outward from the lightning stroke in the
can occur\vithin a cloud, from one doud to another doud. from a cloud to the form ofwaves.. If the sound waves from the l"'ver part of the sttoke reach an
air, or from a doud to lheground. Notice that th ecloud~ to-ground lightning observer before the\vaves from the upper part of the stroke, the lhunder ap·
can travelout a\vayfrom the cloud, then tum do,vnward, striking the ground pears to rumble.If the sound waves bend UP\Yard a\'lif'/ from an observer, the
many miles from the thunderstorm. When lightning behaves in this manner, it lightning stroke may be seen, but the thunder wal not be heard.
is often described <lS a 'bo/r from theblue."
stroke will often bend upward, a""'Y from an observer al !he crystal (smaller. cooler particle) positively charged, as the posi-
surface. Consequently, an observer closer than about 5 km liveionsare incorporated into the ice crystal (see • Fig. 14.32).
(3 mi) 10 a lightning stroke will usually hear thunder, whereas 'fhe same effect occurs when colder, supercooled liquid
an ol,~erver about 8 km (5 mi) away will nol. droplets freeze on contact with a "'1rmer hailstone and tiny
Ho'"'eveT. even \\•hen a vie.\ver is as close as several kilo· splinters of posilivelycharged ice break off. These lighter, po~i
meters 10 a lightning flash, thunder may not be heard. For one lively charged particles are !hen carried to the upper par! of the
thing, the complex interaction ri sound waves and air molecules doud by updrafts. The larger hailstones (or graupel), left with a
tends 10 atlenuate !he thunder. In addilion, lurbulenl eddie.s of negative charge, either remain suspended in an updraft or fall
air less than 50 m<.'lers in diameter scatler the sound waves. toward the bottom of !he cloud. By this mechanism, the cold
Beno~. when thunder from a low-energy lightning flash travels upper part of the cloud becomes positively charged, while the
several miles through turbulent air, ii may become inaudible.
Earlier,"~ learned lh'1l lightning occurs with m:llurelhun-
derslorms. Sul lightning may also occur in snowstorms, in dust
storms, in !he gas cloud of an erupting volcano, and on very
rare occasions in nimbostratus clouds. Lightning may also shoot
from the top ofthunderstorms into !he upper atmQ~phere. More
on !his topic is given in !he Focus section on p 400.
What causes lightning? The normal fair "~:11her electric
field of!he atm<>-sphere ischaracterized by a negatively ch,trged
surface and a positively charged upper atmQsphere. For light-
ning lo occur, separate regions containing opposite electrical
ch'trges mtcst exisl within a cumulonimbus cloud. Exactly how
this charge separation comes about is no1101ally comprehended;
ho"-ever.thereare m.any theorie.s to account for it.
Electrification of Clouds One theory proposes that clouds

become electrified when graupel (small ice particles called soft
Ju1il) and hailstones fall through a region of supercooled liq- Updralt
uid droplets and ice crystals. As liquid droplets collide wilh a
hailstone, !hey freeze on contact 'tnd release latent heal. This
process keeps the surface of the hailstone warmer than that of
!hesurrounding icecrystals. When !he warmer hailstone comes
• F I GURE 14. 32 When the tiny colder icecrystalscome in contact \yjth lhe
in contact wilh a colder ice crystal, an imporl,tnl phenomenon much larger and \var mer hailstone (or graupel), lhe icecry;tal becomes posi·
occurs: There isa net transfc'r rl positive ions (charged molecules) tivety charged and the hail!.tone negatively charged. Updrafts carry the tiny
from tlie wan11er object to the colder object. Hence, the hailstone positively charged icecrystalinto the upper reaches of the cloud, \Yhile the
(larger, warmer particle) becomes negatively charged and the it~ heavier hailstone falls lhrough the updraft to\vard the lower region of the cloud.
C'1'1'rif• :tl•~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,. w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....i., ......, .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I"""' "<i•• """'"""... '"""'''"'"·
ELVES in the Atmosphere
For many yea rs airline pilots reported see-

ing str ange bolts of light shooting up-
ward, high above the tops of intense thun-
derstorms. These faint,. mysterious flashes
did not recei'Je much attention, however,
unt il theywere first p hotographed in 1989.
Photographs from sensitive, low-light-
level ca meras on board jet aircraft re-
vealed that the mysterious flashes were
actually a colorful display called redsprftes
and bluejets, w hich seemed to dance
above the clouds.
Sprites are massiv~ but dim, light
flashes that appear directly abCNe an in-
tense thunderstorm system (see Fig. 3).
Usually red, and lasting but a few thou -
sandths of a second, sprites tend to form
almost simultaneously with lightning in
the cloud below and w ith severe thunder- • FI GUR E 3 Various electrical phenomenaobserved in the upper atmosphere.
storms that have positive cloud-t0>-9round
light nin g strokes. (Mostcloud-to-9round that are experiencing vigorous lightning cameras. They occur in the ionized region
light nin g is negative.) Although it is not activity (Fig. 3). Although faint, blue jets of the upper atmosphere. ELVES occur at
entirely clear how they form, the thinking can be seen w ith t he naked eye. They are night and are extremely short-lived. They
now is that sprites form when positive not well understood, but appear to trans- appea r to form when a lightning bolt from
lightnin g disrupts the atmosphere's elec- fer large amounts of electrical energy into an intense thunderstorm gives off a strong
trical field in such a way that c harged pa r- the upper atmosphere. electromagnetic pulse (EMP) that causes
ticles in the upper atmosphere are acceler· ELVES• as illustrated in Fig. 3 appear as electrons in the ionosphere to collide with
ated downwa rd toward the thunderstorm a faint red halo-too faint to be seen molecules that become excited and give
and upward to higher levels in the with the naked eye, only with sensitive off light.
atmosphere. The roles that red sprites, blue jets,
* The acronym ELVES is from Emis.sion.sof Light
Blue jets usually dart upward in a con- and Very lo\vfrequencyfrom lightning· induced and ELVES play in the earth's g lobal electri-
ical shape from the tops of thunderstorms electromagnetic pulsation sources.. cal system haveyetto be determined.
middle of the doud becomes negatively charged The lower part The lightning Stroke Because unlike charges attract one
oft he cloud is generally ofnegative and mixed charge except for another, the negativecharge al the bottom of the cloud causes a
an occasional positive region loc,rte<l in the falling precipitation rt'gion of the ground beneath it to become positively charged. A<
near the melting level (see • Fig. 14.33). the thunderstorm moves along. this region ofpositive charge fol-
Another school of thought propo.~s that during the for- lows the doud like a shadow. '!be positive charge is mo.<t dense on
mation of precipitation, regions ofseparate charge exist \\1thin protruding objects, such as trees, poles, and buildings. 1lw dif-
tiny cloud droplets and larger precipitation particles. In the up- termce in charges couses an electric potential between the cloud
per part of these particles we find negative charge, while in the and ground. Jn dry air, however, a flow of current does not occur
lo"'er part we find po.<ilive charge. When falling precipitation because the air is a good electrica Iin<ufator. Gradually, the electric
collides with smaller particles, the larger precipitation particles potential gradient builds, and when it becomes sufficiently large
become negatively charged and the smaller particle,<, po.<itively (on l he order of one million volts per meter).! he insulating proper-
char&>ed. Updrafts within the cloud then sweep the smaller posi- ties of the air break down, a current flows, and lightning occurs.
tively charged particles into the upper reachesofthedoud, while Cloud-to-ground lightning begins within the cloud when
the larger negatively charged particles either settle toward the the localize.d electric potential gradient exceeds 3 million
lo"'er part of the cloud or updrafts keep them suspended near volts per meter along a path perhap.< 50 m long. This situa-
the middle of the doud. tion causes a discharge of electrons 10 rush toward the cloud
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,bu q10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c ..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH
The folks of Elgin , Manitoba, literally had their "goose
cooked• during April, 1932, when a lightning bolt killed
52 geese that were flying overhead in formation. As the
birds fell to the ground, they were reportedly gathered up
and distributed to the townspeople for dinner. • +
base and then toward the ground in a series of steps (see +

• Pig. 14.34a). Each discharge covers about 50 to JOO m, then +
stops for about 50-millionthsof a second, then occurs again over
another 50 m or so. This stepped leader is very faint and is usu-
+
ally invisible to the human eye. A~ the tip of the stepped leader
approaches the ground, the potential gradient (the voltage per
meter) increases, and a current ofpositive charge starts upward
+
from the ground (usually along elevated object~) to meet it (see +
Fig. 14.34b). After they meet, large numbers of electron~ flow
to the grow1d and a much larger, more luminous return stroke
several centimeters in diameter surges upward to the cloud
along the path followed by the stepped leader (Fig. 14.34c).
Hence, the downward flow of electrons establishes the bright
channel ofupward propagating current. Even though the bright
return stroke travel~ from the grom1d up to thedoud, it happens
so quickly- in one ten-thousandth of a second - that our eyes
cannot resolve the motion, and we see what appears to be a con-
tinuous bright flash oflight (see ofig. 14.35).
Sometimes there is only one lightning stroke, but more of-
ten the leader-and-stroke process is repeated in the same ionized • FI GURE 14. 33 Thegeneralized charge distribution in a mature
channel at intervals of about four-hundredths of a second. The thunderstorm.
• Relum
srrd<e
• F I GURE 14. 34 The development ofa lightning stroke. (al When the negative charge near the bottom of the ck>ud becomes large
enough to overcome the air's resistance.. a flow of electrons-the stepped leader - rushes toward the earth. {b}As the electrons approach
the ground, a region of positive c:harge moves up into the air l hrough any conducting object.such as lrees, buildings.and even humans.. {c)
\!\!hen the def\Vn\vetrd flo\vof electrons meets the UP\Vard surge of positive charge.a strong electric current-a bright return stroke-carries
positive charge upward into thec:loud.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..
..,.,..,,, 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FI GURE 14. 35 nmeexposureofanevening
thunderstorm \'Jith an intense lightning display
near Denver, Colorado. The bright flashes are
return strokes. The lighter forked flashes are prob-
abtystepped leaders that did not make it to the
ground.
subsequent leader, called a dart leader, proceed~ from the cloud like a luminous sphere that appears to float in the air or slowly
along the same channel as the original stepped leader; how- dart about for several seconds. Although many theories have
ever, it proceed~ downward more quickly because the electrical been proposed, the actual cause of ball lightning remains an
resi~tanceof the path is now lower. Astheleaderapproachesthe enigma. Sheet lightning forms when either the lightning lhtsh
ground, normally a !es~ energetic return stroke than the first one occurs inside a cloud or intervening cloud~ obscure the flash,
travels from the ground to the cloud. Typically, a lightning flash such that a portion of the cloud (or cloud~) appears as a lumi-
"'"have three or fourleaders, each followed by a return stroke. nous white sheet. When cloud-to-ground lightning occurs with
A lightning flash consi~ting ofmany strokes (one photographed thunderstorms that do not produce rain, the lightning is often
flash had26strokes) usually lasts less thana second. During this called dry lightning. Such lightning often starts forest fires in
short period oftime,oureyesmay barely be able to perceive the regions of dry timber.
individual strokes, and the lhtsh appears to flicker. Distant lightning from thunderstorms that is seen but not
The lightning described so far (where the base of the heard i~ mmmonly called heat lightning because it frequently
cloud i~ negatively charged and the ground positively charged) occurs on hot summer nights when the overhead sky is dear.
is called negative doud-to-gro1111tJ light11i11g, because the As the light from distant electrical storms i~ refracted through
stroke carries negative charges from the cloud to the ground. the atmo_~phere, air molecules and fine dust scatter the shorter
About 90 percent of all cloud-to-ground lightning is negative. wavelengths of vi~ible light, often causing heat lightning to
However, when the base of the cloud is positively char!,>ed and appear orange to a di~tant observer.
the ground nega1ively charged, a posilive cloud-to-grou11d Iight- As the electric potential near the ground increases, a cur-
11i11g flash may result. Positive lightning. mo.o;t common \•otith Su· rent ofpositive charge moves up pointed objects, such as anten-
percell thunderstorms, has the potential to ca<cse more <lama&"' nas and masts ofships. However, instead of a lightning stroke, a
because it generates a much higher current level and its flash luminous greeni~h or bluish halo may appear above them, as a
lasts for a longer dur:llion than negative lightning, mntinuous supply ofspark~ - a coro1w tiiscllllrb'" -is sent into
Notice in Fig. 14.35 that lightning may take on a variety the air. Thi~ electric discharge, which can causethetopof a ship'.~
of shapes and forms. When a dart leader moving toward the mast to glow, is known as Saini Elmo's Fire, named after the pa-
ground deviates from the original path taken by the stepped tron saint ofsailors (see • Fig. 14.36). St. Elmo's Fire i~ al~seen
leader, the lightning appears cTooked or forked, and it i~ called around power lines and the wings of aircraft. When St. Elmo'~
forked lighh1i11g. An interesting type oflightning i~ ribbo11 ligh1- Fire is visible and a thunderstorm is nearby, a lightning flash
11i11g that forms when the wind moves the ionized channel may occur in the near future, especially iftheelectricfield of the
between each return stroke, causing the lightning to appear as a atmo.~phere i~ increasing.
ribbon hanging from the cloud. If the lightning channel break~ Lightning rods are placed on buildings to protect them from
up, or appears to break up, the lightning (called bead Iighh1i11g) lightning damage. "Jbe rod i~ made of metal and has a pointed
looks iiia, a series of bead~ tied to a string. Ball lightning look~ tip, which extends well above the structure (see • Fig. 14.37).
• FI GURE 14. 37 The lightning rodextendsabovethebuilding,increasing
the likelihood that lightning \Viii strike the rod rather than some o ther part
of the structure.After lightning strikes the metal rod. itfollo\vsan insulated
conducting \Vire harmlessly into the ground.
• FI GURE 14. 36 Saint Elmo's Fire tends to form above objects, such as air·
craft \'lings, ship's masts.. and flagpoles.
The p<>Sitive char!,>e concentration "111 be maximum on the tip

of the rod, thus increasing the probability that the lightning "111
strike the lip and follow the metal rod harmle,">Sly down inlothe
ground, where the other end is deeply buried.
When lightning enters sandy soil, the extremely high tem-
perature of the stroke may fuse sand particles together, produc-
ing a rootlike system of tubes called a fulgurite, after the Latin
wordfor"lightning" (seee Fig, 14.38). When lightning strikes an
object such asa car, il normally leaves the pas.~engers unharmed • FI GURE 14. 38 A fulgurite that formed by lightning fusing sand particles.
because it usually takes the quickest path to the ground along the
outside metal casing ofthe vehicle. The lightning then jumps to
the road through the air, or it enters the roadway through the a contraction f mm their earlier designation,ah..osplierics. A "'"b
tires (see • Fig. 14.39). The same type of protection is provided of these magnetic devices is '1 valuable tool in pinpointing light-
by the metal skin of a jet airliner, as hundreds of aircraft are ning strokes throughout thecontiguous United States, Canada,
struck by lightning each year. If you should be caught in the and Alaska. Lightning detection devices allow scienti~tsloexam
open in a thunderstorm, what should you do> Of course, seek ine in detail the lightning activity inside a storm as il intensifies
shelter immediately, but under a tree> lf you are not sure, please and moves. Such investig.ilions give forecasters a beuer idea
read the Foc<c~section on p. 405. where intense lightning strokes might be expected.• Moreover,
satellites now have the cap.ibility of providing more lightning
lightning Detection and Suppression For many years, light- informal ion than ground-based sensors, because satellites can
ningst mkes were detected pri1mril y by visual observation.1bday, continuously detect all forms of lightning over land and over
cloud-to-ground lightning is located by means of an instrument 'ln foci. with the aid o f these in.strunl ents3ndconlputer models of the at1nosphere.
called a /ighh1i11g directio11-fi11der, which works by detecting the 1he Nation.ii \l\~athcrServicccune n1 ty issucs lightningprobabaity foreC:tsts fort he
radio waves produced by lightning, Such waves are called sferics, western Uni1cdS1ates.
• F I GURE 14.39 Thefourmarksontheroad
surface representareas\vhere lightning,aher
striking a car traveling along south Florida's
Sunshine State Parkway, entered the roachvay
through the tires. Lightning flattened three of
t he car's tires and slightly damaged the radio
antenna.. The driver and a six-year-old passen·
ger\vere taken toa nearby hospital, treated for
shock.and released.
WEATHER WATCH Each year, approximately 10,000 fires are started by lightning
in the United States alone and around $50 million worth of tim-
Florida is ''the Lightning Capital of the United States,'' as
ber is destroyed For this re<tson, tests have been conducted to
it is hit by lightning more than any other state. The most
lightning prone area of Florida is located in Pasco County, see whether the number of cloud -to-ground lightning discharges
just north of Tampa Bay, where more than 14 lightning can be reduced. One technique that bas shown some succes.~ in
strikes per square kilometer occur each year. suppressing lightning involves seeding a cumulonimbus cloud
with hair-thin pieces of aluminum about JO centimeters long,
The idea is that these pieces of metal will produce many tiny
water (se.e • Fig, 14.40). Lightning information correlated with sparks, or coronfl tiisd1arges, and prevent the electrical poten-
satellite images provides a more complete and precise structure tial in the cloud from building to a point where lightning oc-
ofa thunderstorm. curs. While the resultsofthi~ experiment are inconclusive, many
e F I GURE 14.40 Average lightning

flash density per square kilometer per
year from 1997 to 20t0. Notice that in the
United States. Florida is t he mo!ot lightning·
prone!o1ate. {Data from t he North American
Lightning Detect ion Network.Courtesy of
Vaisala.l
°*"'"''"..
niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> , t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i M")' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1
<1<n11....ifl ,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""" ,,..~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.....
o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Don't Sit Under the Apple Tree
Because a single ligh tning stroke may get inside a buil ding. But stay away from
involve a curren t as great as 100,000 am - electrical applian ces and corded ph o n es,
peres, animals and humans can be e lectro- a nd avoid ta king a sh ower. A u tomobiles
cu ted w h en struck by ligh tning. T h e w ith metal frames an d truck s (bu t n ot
average yearly death toll in t h e United golf ca rts) may also p rovide protection.
States attributed to lightning is nearly 100, If n o su ch sh elter exists, be sure to avoid
w ith Fl orida accounting for the most fatali- elevated places and isolated tr ees. I f you
t ies. Man y v ictims are struck in open a re on level gro und, try to keep your
p laces, riding on farm equipment. playing h ead as low as possib le, bu t do n ot lie
golf, attending sports events, or sailing in down. Beca u se ligh t ning ch annels u su ally
a sm all boat. Some live to tell about it, as eman ate o u tward throu gh th e ground at
d id th e retired ch ampion golfer Lee
• FI GURES Ughl ningc:an be both hair-raising
Trevino. Others are less fortunate as about and deadly.This photograph, taken by Mary
10 percen t of people struck by lightning McQuilken,sho\VS her younger brother, Sean {on
are killed. Most die from cardiac arrest. the left}, and older brother,Michael (on t he righ t},
standing beneath a thunderstorm atop Moro Rock
Con sequ en t ly, w h en you see someon e
in California's Sequoia Nat ional Park.Shortly aft er
struck by ligh tning, immediately give
this photo was taken, Sean wclSstruck by lightning
CPR (card iopulmon ary resu scitation), as and seriously injured.and a nearby hiker \Vas killed
lightning normally leaves its v ictims by t he same lightning strike.
unconscious without heartbeat and
w ith ou t respiration. Th ose w h o do survive th e p oint of a ligh tning strike, a surface
often suffer from lon g-term psych ological curre n t may t ravel t hro u gh your body
d isor ders, su ch as person ality ch an ges, an d inj ure or kill you. Th ere fo re, crou ch
depression, an d chronic fatigu e_.
down as I owas possib le an d minim ize
Man y ligh tning fatalities occur in th e th e con tact area you h ave w ith th e
v icinity of relatively isolated trees (see
groun d by tou ching it w ith only your
Fig . 4). As a tragic example, during June, toes or your h eels.
2004, three people were killed n ear
Th ere are some warning signs to alert
Atlan ta, Georg ia, seeking sh elter under a
y ou to a strike. If }'our hair begins to stan d
t ree. Becau se a positive ch arge tends to o n endor your skin begins to tingle an d you
con cen trate in upward projecting objects, h ear clicking sounds, beware - ligh tning
t h e upward return stroke t h at m eets th e maybe about to strike. An d Wyou are
stepped leader is most likely to originate standing uprigh t. you may be acting as a
from such object s. Clea rly1 sitting und er a ligh tning rod (see Fig. 5).
t ree during an electrica l storm is n ot w ise. e FI GURE 4 Ac:loud.to-ground lightning flash
W h at soouldyou do? hitting a6S-foot sycamore t ree. ltshould beappar-
W h en cau gh t ou tside in a t hunder- ent\vhy one should nor seek shelter under a t ree
storm, t h e best p rotection, o f course, is to during a t hunderstorm.
IOrestry specialists point out that nalure itself may use a simik1r
mechanism to prevent excessive lightning damage. The long.
pointed needles of pine trees may act as tiny lightning rod.~, dif-
Tornadoes
fLc~ing theconcentralion of electric char&>esand preventing mas- A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air extending down
sive lightning strokes. from a cumuliform doud that blows arowid a small area of in-
Now that we have looked at thunderstorm~, we are ready tense lo\"' pressure ''"ith a circulation that reaches the ground
to explore a product of a thunderstorm that is one of nature'.~ A tornado'.~ circulation is present on the ground either as a
most awesome phenomena: the tornado, a rapidly spiraling funnel-shaped cloud or as a swirling cloud of dust and debris.
column of air that usually extends down from the base of a Sometimes called twisters or cyclones, tornadoes can assume a
cwnulonimbuscloud an dean strike sporadically and violently. variety of shapes and forms that range from twisting rope-like
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
e FI GURE 14. 41 A large\vedge-shaped violent
tornado moves northwest\vard directlyforWind.sor.
Colorado, on May 22, 2008. The photo (ta ken by
a \Yebc:am} sho\YS hail the size ofgolf ballsfalling
from the thunderstorm and covering the ground
f unneL~. to cylindrical-shaped f unne!s, to massive black wedge- tornadoes is between 100 ,Ul([ 600 m (about 300 to 2000 ft), al-
shaped funnels, to funnels that resemble an elephant'.~ trunk though some are just a few meters wide and others have diam-
hanging from a large cumulonimbus cloud (see • Fig. 14.4 1). A eters exceeding 1600 m (1 mi). In fact, on May 22, 2004, one
funnel cloud is a tornado that is beginning to form but whose of the largest tornadoes on record touched down near Hallam,
circulation has not re,1ched the ground. Perhaps only about Nebraska, with a diameter of about 4 km (2.5 mi). Tornadoes
30 percent of funnel clouds become active tornadoes. When that form ahead of an advancing cold front are often steered
viewed from above, the majority of North American tornadoes by southwesterly winds and, therefore, tend to move from the
rotate counterclocb,1se about their central coreoflow pressure. southwest toward the northe'1SI at speed~ usually between 20 and
Some have been seen rotatingclockwise,but those areinfrequent. 40 knots. However, some have been clocked at spee<ls greater
Th e majority of tornadoes have "fad speeds of le.s.~ than than 70 knots. Most tornadoes hist only a few minutes and have
JOO knots (1 15 mi/hr), although violent tornadoes may have an average path length of about 7 km (4 mi). There are cases
"fad~ exceeding 220 knots (253 mi/hr). The diameter of most where they have reportedly traveled for hundreds of kilometers
and have existed for many hours, such as the one that cut a path
352 km (2 19 mi) long trough portions of M issour~ Illinois, and
lndi,ma on March 18, 1925.'
TORNADO LIFE CYCLE Major tornadoes usually evolve

through a series ofstages. The first stage i~ the dust-whirl stage,
where dust swirling upward from the surface marks the torna-
do's circulation on the ground and a short funnel often extend~
downward from the thunderstorm's base. Damage during this
stage is normally light. 'Jl1e next stage, called the organizing
stage, finds the tornado increasing in intensity with an overall
downward extent of the funnel. During the tornado'.~ mt1t11re
stage, damage normally is most severe as the funnel reaches
its greatest width and is almo~t vertical (see • Fig. 14.42). The
sl11i11king stage i~characterized by an overall decre;~~ in the fun-
nel's width, an increase in the funnel's tilt, ;md a narrowing of
the damage swath at the surface, although the tornado may still
be capable of intense and sometimes violent damage. The final
stage, called the decay stage, usually finds the tornado stretched
into the shape of a rope. Normally, the tornado becomes greatly
contorted before it finally dissipates. Ah hough these are the
•ACluoby. thissitu.ltion nu y h.1vc been several 1orn.1does (:l &unil)'.) lh;;'lt weregencr·
• FI GURE 14.42 A tornado in its mature stage roars overtheGreat Plains.. atcd bya single superceU lhundcrstonn as ii moved <llong.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,..,.._,..."""""",,..~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
typical stages of a major tornado, minor tornadoes may evolve 'lbefrequency oftornadic activity shows a seasonal shift. For
only through the organizing stage. Some even skip the mature example, during the winier, tornadoes are most likely lo form
stage and go directly into the decay stage. However, when a over the southern Gulf stares when the polar-front jet is above
tornado reaches its mature st,1ge, its circulation usually stays this region, and thecontrasr between "'arm and cold air masses is
in contact with the ground until ii dissipate,~. greatest. In spring. humid Gulfair surges northward; contrasting
air masses and the jet stream aL~o move northward and torna-
TORNADO OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION Tornadoes doe,~ become more prevalent from the southern Atlantic stares
occur in many parts oft he world, but no country experiences "-est"'1rd into the southern Great Plains. In smnmer, the contrast
more tornadoes than the United States, which, in recent years, between air masses lessen~. and the ;er stream is normally near
averages more than 1000 annually and experienced a record the Canadian border; hence, tornado activity ten<ts robe con-
1722 tornadoes during2004. Although tornadoes have occurred centrated from the northern plains east\\'ard to New YorkSrare.
in every slate, including Alaska and 1-la"'Ji~ the greatest num- In • Fig. 14.44 we can see that about 70 percent of all torna-
ber occur in the tornado belt, or tornado alley, of the Central does in the United Statesde.velop from March to July. The month
Plains, which stretches from central Texas to Nebraska' (see of May nonnally has the greatest munber of tornadoes (rhe av-
• Fig. 14.43). The belt of tornadoes that occur over Mississippi erage is about 9 per day) while rhe m0-~1 violent tornadoes seem
and Alabam.1 is sometime,~ called Dixie Alley. rooccur in April when vertical windshear tends lo be present as
The Central Plains region is mos! susceptible to tornadoes weU as when horizontal and vertical temperature and moisture
because it often provides the.proper atmo~pheric setting for the contrasts are greatest.• Although tornadoes have occurred ar all
development ofthe severe thunderstorms th al spawn tornadoes. rimes of the day and night, rhey are mo~t frequent in the late
Recall from Fig. 14.23 on p. 393, that over the Central Plains afternoon (between 4:00 P.M . and 6:00 P.M. ), when the surface
(especiaUy in spring) warm, hmnid surface air is overlain by air is m0-~1 unstable; they are least frequent in the early morning
cooler, drier air aloft, producing a conditionaUy unstable atmo- beforesunrise, when rhe atmosphere is mo~t stable.
sphere. When a strong vertical wind shear exist~ (u.~ually pro- Althoughlarge,destructivetornadoesare mo~r common in
vided by a low-level jet and by the polar jetstream) and the sur- rhe Central Plains, they can develop 'mywhereif conditions are
face air is IOrced up"'ard, large supered I thunderstorms capable right. For example, a series of ar least 36 rornadoes, more typi-
ofspawning tornadoes may form. ' lberefore, tornado frequency cal of tho_se rhar form over the plains, marched through North
is highest during the spring and lowest during the winter when and South Carolina on March 28, 198,1, claiming 59 lives and
the warm surface air is normally absent. causing hundreds of millions of dollars in damage. One tornado
'During r-.my. 2003. Sl61ornadocs 1ouched<lown in the Uni1edS1a1es. un averaw of
•r-..t:any of Lhe tornadoes th:u form along the Gulf <'..oast are generated by thundcr- over l6perday. How€vcr.duringApril 20 11,a r«ord748 tornOOoes \\'t'rc reported
stonus cinbedded within lheci1t'.ul11ion olhurrk<lnes. the most in any nlonth ever.
1
0.5
1 ••
ll.1 2
-0.2
Alaska
0
o.o •
0.4
. -...,.. ad;''4J.
. ~
Hawai
'
• F IGURE 14.43 Tomado incidence t¥ state. The upper figureshO\YS the average annual number o f tornadoes observed in each state from 1953 to 2004.
The lo\ver figure is the average annual number o f tornadoes per 10,000square miles in each stateduring the same period. The darker the shading, the
greater the frequency of tornadoes.. (NOAA)
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~ ,,..~c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
caused more th:tn $330 million in damages, injured more than
300 people and took 27 live.~. ' lb ere is a myth th:11 l:trger cities
350,.._.......~~~~~~~~~~-.
such as LA~ Angeles, ('.alifornia, and New York City are some-
3251--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ how protected from tornadoes. But on March 1, 1983, a rare
tornado cut a 5-km S\\•Jth ofdestruction through downtown Los
Angeles, damaging more than LOO home.~ and businesses, and
injuring 33 people. And during thesummerof2010, two torna-
doe.~ touched do\\11 in New York City. One tornado (on July25)
caused only minimal damage but injured seven people.
Even in the central part of the United States, the statistical
chance that a tornado will strike a particular place this year i~
quite small. However, tornadoes can provide m.my exceptions
to statistics. Oklahoma City, for example, has been struck by
tornadoes at least 35 times in the past 100 years. And the little
town of Codell, Kansas, was hit by tornadoes in 3 consecutive
years- 1916, 1917, and 1918-andeach time on the same date:
May 20! Considering the many million~ of tornadoes that must
have formed during tbe geological past, it is likely that at least
one actually moved across the land where your home is located,
especially ifit is in the Central Plains.
TORNADO WINDS ' lbestrong winds of a tornado can destroy

build ings, uproot trees, and hurl all sorts of lethal missiles into
J F M A M J J A S 0 N 0 the air. People, animals, and home appliances all have been
picked up, ca rriedseveral kilometers, t ben dep<>-~ited.1ornadoes
Month
have accompli~hedsomeastonishing li>ats,such as lifting a rail-
road coach with its 117 passengers and dumping ii in a ditch
• FI GUR E 14.44 Average numberoftomadoesduringeach month in the 25 meters away. Showers of toads and frogs have poured out
United Sta tes from 2000 to20 10. lNOAA)
of a doud after tornadic winds sucked them up from a nearby
pond. O ther oddities include chicken~ losing all of their feath-
\\•as enormous. \\•ith a diameter more than t\\I() miles: \vide and ers, pieces ofstraw being driven into metal pipes, and frozen hot
win<ts 1!1:11exceeded 200 knot~. No pl:tce is totally immune 10 a dogs being driven into concrete walls. Miraculous events have
tornado~ destructive force. occurred, 100. l n one instance, a schoolhouse was demolished
On July 31, 1987, a violent tornado "'th winds exceeding and the 85 students inside were carried over IOO yard~ without
180 knots moved through the City of£drnonton, Alberta, Canada. one ofthem being killed.
(See • Fig. 14.45.) ' l11is massive tornado cul a destruction path Our earlier knowledge of the furious winds of a tornado
over 40 km (25 mi) long. It destroyed more than 3000 homes, came mainly from ob.servalions of the damage done and the
• FI GUR E 14 .45 Aviolenttornado moves

through Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.on July 31,
1987.
• FI GURE 14. 46 The total \Vind speed of a tornado is greater on one side • FIGURE 14 .47 A powerful mulli·vortex tornado\\'ith three suction vortices.
than on the other. When fac.ing an onrushing tornadq the strongest \Vinds\vill Suppose the tornado above is moving
be on your left side. CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION
toward the west (instead of toward
the ea.st} as in the illwtration. Further, suppose that the tornadoand
analysis of motion pictures. Today more accurate wind mea- its sl.Ktion vortices are all rotating clockwise, as viewed from above.
Would the extreme winds of this tornado now begreaterthan. less
surements are made with Doppler radar. J3ecau.seof the destruc-
than, or the same as the winds of the tornado in the illustration?
tive nature of the tornado, it was once thought that it packed On which side of the tornado (north or south) Y/Ouldyou expect the
winds greater than 500 knots. However,studiesconducted after strongest winds?
1973 reveal that even the m0-st powerful t"1sters seldom have
winds exceeding 220 knots, and mo_st tornadoes have winds of away. A similar effect occurs when the tornado's intense low-
less than l 2S knots. Nevertheless, being confronted with even a pressure center passes overhead. Because the pressure in the
small tornado can be terrifying. center <:i a tornado may be more than 100 mb (3 in.) lower than
When a tornado is approoching from the southwest, its that ofiLs surroundinl}~. there is a momentary drop in outside
strongest winds are on its southeast side. We can see why in pressure ,.. hen the tornado is above the structure. It \\ as once
1 1
• Fig. 14.46. 1 he tornado is heading northeast at SO knoLs. If thought that opening windows and allowing inside and outside
its rotational speed is 100 knots, then its forn·ard speed "'ll pressures to equalize would minimize the chances of the build-
add SO knoLs to its southeastern side (position D) and subtract ing exploding. However, it is now known that opening windows
SO knots from its northwestern side (position 13). Hence, the during a tornadoactually increases the pressure on theopp0-site
m0-st destructive and extreme winds "'ll be on the tornado's ""all and increases the chances that the building will collapse.
southeastern side. (1 he windows are usual! y shattered by flying debris any " "ay.)
Many violent tornadoes (with winds exceeding 180 knots) So stay a\\"ay from windows. Dam<1ge from tornadoes may also
contain smaller whirls that rotate within them. Such tornadoes be inflicted on people and structures by flying debris. Hence,
are called multi-vortex torn!ldoes and the smaller whirls are the wisest course to take when confronted with an approaching
called suction ,·orlices (see o Hg. 14.47). Suction vortices are tornado i~ to seek shelter immediately.
only about JO m (30 ft) in diameter, but they rotate very fast and At home, take shelter in abasement. Ina large buildingwith-
can do a great deal of damage. <lut a basement, the safest place is usually ina small room,suchas
a bathroom, closet, or interior hallway, preferably on thelowest
Seeking Shelter 1 hehigh windsofthetornado cfil1sethe m0-st floor and near the middle of the edifice. Pull a mattress around
damage as walls ofbuildin&s buckle and collap.se when blasted you as the handles on the side make it easy to hang onto. Wear a
by the extreme wind force and by debris carried by the wind. bike or tOotbaU helmet to protect your head from flying debris. At
Also, as high winds blow over a roof, lower air pres.sure forms school, move to the hallway and lie flat \\1th your head covered.
above the roo( Thegreaterairpressure inside the building then In a mobile home, leave immediately and seek substantial shelter.
lifts the roof just high enough for the strong winds to carry it lf none exists, lie flat on the grotmd in a depression or ravine.
Jn ai 1liJ i:~e Q ID0!1~~e 20t1
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,.., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH .,. TABLE 14. 1 Average Annual Number ofTornadoes and
Tornado Deaths by Decade
Although the United States and Canada rank one and two
in the world in annua l number of tornadoes, Bang ladesh DECADE TORNADOES/YEAR DEATHS/YEAR
has expe ri enced the dead li es ttornadoes. About 1300 peo -
ple died w hen a violent tornado struck no.rth of Dacca on 195-0- 59 480 1411
Ap ril 26, 1989, and on May 13, 1996, over 700 li ves were lost 1960- 69 681 94
when a vio lent tornado touched down in Tangail.
1970- 79 858 100
Don•t try to outrun an oncoming tornado in a car or truck, 1980- 89 81 9 52
as tornadoes often cover erratic paths with spee<ts sometimes
1990- 99 1,22 0 56
exceeding 70 knots (SO mi/ hr). Stop your car and let the tor-
nado go by or turn around on the road'.~ shoulder and drive 2000- 09 1.277' 56
in the opposite direction. And do not take shelter under a
freeway overpass, as the tornado'.~ win<ts are actually funneled *t-.tore tornadoes are being r~ po 11cd as popubtions incre-ise and tonudo-spolting
(strengthened) by the overpass structure. Ifcaught outdoors in t« hnology inlproves.
an open field, look for a ditch, streambed, or ravine, and lie flat
with vour head covered.
\Vhen tornadoes are likely to form during the next few The Enhanced Fujita Scale Jn the 1960s , t h e late
hours, a to rnad o watch is issued by the Storm Prediction Dr. T. Theodore f'ujita, a noted authority on tornadoes at the
Center in Norman, O klahoma, to alert the public that tor- University of Ch ica go, proposed a scale (called the Fujita
nadoes m ay develop within a specific area d uring a certain scale) for classifying tornadoes according to their rotational
time period. Many communities have trained volunteer wind speed. 'TI1e tornado winds are estimated based on the
spotters, who look for tornadoes after the watch is issued. damage caused by the storm. However, classifying a tor-
(If a tornado is spotted in the watch area, keep abreast of its nado based solely on the dam age it causes is r ather subjec-
movement by listening to the NOAA Weather Radio.) O nce ti ve. But the scale became widely used and is presented in
a tornado is spotted -either visually or on a r adar screen -a "'fable 14 .2.
to rnado warning is issued by the local National Weather 111eoriginal Fujita scale, implemented in 1971, was based
Service Office.• In some communities, sirens are sounded to m ainly on tornado dam age incurred by a frame house. Be-
alert people of the approaching storm. Radio and television cause there are m any types of structures susceptible to tor-
stations interrupt regular programming to broadcast the nado damage, a new scale came into effect in February, 2007.
warning. Although not completely effective, this warning Called the Enhanced Fujita Scale, or simply the EF Scale,
system is apparently s aving many lives. Despite the large the new scale attempts to provide a "1de r:inge of criteria in
increase in population in the tornado belt during the past estimating a tornado's winds by using a set of 28 dam age in-
30 vears, until 20 11 tornado-related deaths had actually dicators. 'Jbese indicators include items such as small barn~.
sho~"n a decrease (see .,.'f able 14. l).'" mobile homes, schools, and trees. Each item isthenexamined
for the degree of dam age it su.~tained. '!b e combination of the
·rn Octobcr, 2007. I.he NationaJ \\ieiuherService launched a new. nl01e specific tor-
dam age indicators along with the degree of damage provide.s
n.1do""1rnlng s.ys1e1n called Sronn &1 ~l l·\1ar11ir1g,s. The new syste1n provides more
pr« ise infonnalion on where a tornado is located and where it is: beading. a range of probable wind speeds and an EF rating fort he tor-
•"The year 20 11 1,w1s on exceptionally deadly year for tornadoes. as 1nore than nado. 'Jb e wind estimates for the £ nhanced Fujita Scale are
545 poople perished in these s1onn$. given in .,.Table 14.3.
.,. TABLE 14.2 Original Fujita Scale for Damaging Tornado Winds
SCALE CATEGORY Ml/HR KNOTS EXPECTED DAMAGE
R> Weak 40- 72 35- 62 Light: tree branches broke n, sign boards damaged
Fl 7>- 112 6}-97 Moderate: trees snapped, '"indO\\IS broken

F2 Strong l IJ- 157 98- 136 C.Onsiderable: large trees uprooted, \\teak structures de.'itroyed
F3 158- 206 137- 179 Severe: trees leveled, car5 overturned, ,,•alls ren1oved from buildings
F4 Violent 207- 260 180- 226 Devastating: frarne houses de.'itroyed

FS· 26 1- 318 227- 276 Incredible: structures the size o f auto.'i nlOved over J 00 meters, stee(.. reintOn:ed
structure< highly dam aged
.,be scale continues up toa t.hooreticaJF12.. Very tr n• (ifany) tornadocs ha\e wind ~pe eJs in excess of 318 1ui/hr.
<1<no1....i fl ,...., .._,~..,,*_
°*"'"''*.. "IJb."*'"' olo.nl IW'Y •""'" • ""1 W "'l••-..i ..,.,.,h ~dl ... :.1J>• .0."l'nV I f:1"'*'..rt n1•" '!....
C'1'1'rif* ) l I~ On~ t.cmn~ All l!itJ!af(_....41 M")' ""tbuqoO.U >.....W ,............... " ' "f>•lrc111in p .... ti..: i;1
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...~,,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl..1~..,'ll..,......., fl~••"-.,,..,...., .....,,.,.,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.,. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
,. TABLE 14.3 Enhanced Fujita (EF)ScaleforDamaglng
Tornado Winds
EF SCALE CATEGORY tr.\l/HR" KNOTS
EFO Weak 65-35 56- 74
EFI 86- 110 75-95
EF2 Strong 111- 135 96- 117
EF3 136- 165 118- 143
EF4 Violent 166- 200 144-174
EFS > 200 > 174
1he ,,;nd speed is a 3-.seoond ~<Ust estimated at 1hc pointofd;uroge:. bnsed on ~ • FIGURE 14.48 A house situated on the Great Plains.Ob;erve in Fig. t4.49 hO\v
judgnlent of danl ~C indicators. torn~ofvarying EF intensity can damage this house and its surroundings..
• Figure 14.48 shows a house situated somewhere on the tornado, "1th winds estimated at 180 knots (205 mi/hr) and a
Great Plains of the United States or Canada, and • Fig. 14.49 \\1dth approaching2 miles, completely destroyl'<I over95 percent
shows the damaging effect that tornadoes ranging in intensity of the town. The tornado took ll livesand probably rnorewould
from EFO to EF5 can have on this structure and its surround- have perished had it not been for the tornado warning i~ued by
ings. Notice that an EFO tornado causes only minimal damage, the National Weather Service and the sirens in the town signaling
whereas an EF5 completely demolishes the house and sweeps "take cover" about 20 minutes before the tornado struck.
it off its foundation And on May 22, 20 ll, a violent EF5 multi-vortex tornado
Statistics reveal Lhat the majority of tornadoes are relatively struck Joplin, Missouri, completely demolishing part ofthe city.•
weak, "1th wind speeds les.~ than about I 00 knots ( 115 mi/hr). 'fhetornadoinjured almost JOOO peopleandtook l 591ives-the
Only a few percent each year are classified as violent, with per- greatest death toll from a single tornado in the United States since
haps one or two EP5 tornadoes reported annually (although the Wood ward, Oklahoma tornado in April, 194 7.
severnl years may pass without the United States experiencing
an EF5). However, it is the violent tornadoes that account for the TORNADO OUTBREAKS As we have seen in thepreviou.~situ
majority of tornado-related de;tth.~. ations tornadoes each year take the lives of many people. The
As anexample, a powerful EF5 tornado roared through the ·A photo o( the Joplin tornado is shown in Fig. I 2 1. on p. lS. 1he d es1ruction
town of Greensburg, Kansas, on the evening of May 4, 2007. The crused by lhis 1onudo is shown In Figu1\.' 1.11.
[65-85 mi/hr] [86- 110mi/hrl (111·135mi/hrJ
EF3 (136-165 mVhrJ EF4 [Hi6-200 mi/hr) EF5 [Ove< 200 ml/hr)
• F I GURE 14.49 Damage to the house in Fig. 14.48 and its surroundings caused by tomadoes ofvarying EF intensity.
C'1'1'rif• :tl•~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
yearly average is less than 100, although over JOO may die in a rut through parts of 13 states, killing 307 people, injuring more
single day, as tragically occurred in Joplin, Missouri. In recent than 6CXl0, and causing an estimated $600 million in damage.
years, an alarming statistic is that 45 percent of all fatalities oc- Some of these tornadoes were among the m0-st powerful
curred in mobile homes. ' lbe deadliest tornadoes are those that ever witnessed, as at least 6 tornadoes reached F5 intensity.
occur in families; that is, different tornadoes spawned by the The combined path of au the tornadoes during this super
same thunderstonn. (Some thunderstorms produce a sequence outbreak amounted to 4181 km (2598 mi), well over half
of several tornadoes over 2 or more hours and over distances of the total path for an average year. The greatest 10-o;.s of life
of JOO km or more.) 1ornado familie,s often are the result of a attnbuted to tornadoes occurred during the tri-state outbreak of
single, long-livedsuperceil thunderstorm. When a ktrge number March 18, 1925, when an estimated 695 people died as at least
of tornadoes (typicaUy 6 or more) form over a particular region, 7 tornadoe,s traveled a total of 703 km ( 43 7 mi) acr0-s.s portions
this constitutes what is termed a tornado outbreak. cL Missour~ Illinois, and Indiana.
A particularly devastating outbreak occurred on May 3, A more recent super outbreak occurred in 20 11 on April 25
1999, when 78 tornadoes marched across partsof1exas, Kansas, through April 28, when 336 tornadoes (4 ofwhich reached EF5
and Oklahoma. One tornado, whose width at times reached one intensity) moved acr0-ss portions oft he southern United State,s.
mile and whose wind speed was measured by Doppler radar at 'Jbe tornadoes ck1imed 322 lives, injured thousands of people,
276 knots (3 18 mi/hr), moved through the southwestern section and caused more than $10 billion in damages. One particularly
of Oklahoma City. Within its 40-mile path, it damaged or de- strong EF4 tornado, with winds estim.11ed at 190 mi/hr, moved
stroyed thousands ofhomes, injured nearly 600 people, claimed through the City of TtLscaloosa, Aktbarna, on April 27 (see
38 lives, and catcsed over $1 billion in property damage. • Fig. 14.50). 1he tornadoes which had a damage path width
One of the most violent outbreaks ever recorded occurred of about 1.5 miles, left 43 dead in Tuscaloosa and injured more
on April 3 and 4, 1974. During a 16 -hourperiod, 148 tornadoes than 1000 (see . Fig. 14.51).
e FI GURE 14.50 ThishugeEF4muhi·vortex

tom ado devastated sections of Tusc:a loosa.Ala bama,.
on April 27. 20 1l.{Seealso Fig. 1451J
e FIGUR E 14.51 DamageinTuscaloosa.Alabama,.

after a massive EF4 tomado (sho\vn in Ag. 14.SO} plo,i,ed
through the city on April27, 20 11.
°*"'"''*..
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i fl ,...., .._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH
Tornado Formation It may ti.. a lmost impossible to survive the powerfu l winds
of a violent tornado if you are inside the wrong typ~ of
Although not everything is kni>wn about the formation of a structure, such as a mobile home. During the May 3, 1999,
tornado, we do know that many tornadoes tend to form with tornado outbreak many people who abandoned their
intense thunderstorms nnd that a conditionally unstable atmo- unprotected homes in favor of muddy ditches survlod
sphere is essential for their dcvdopm•ru. Most often they form largely because the ditches were b<!low ground level and
with supercell thundcr.torms in an onvironmcnt with strong out of the path of wind-blown objects. Many who stayed
'-ertical wind shear.' •the rotating nir of the tornado m•)' bein the confines of their inadequate homes perishe d when
gin within a thundcrstom1 and work its way downward, or it tornado winds blew their homes away, leaving only the
may begin at lhesurfare and work it> way upward. First. we will foundations.
examine tornadoes that form with superctlls; then we will
<llmint nonsupcrcell tornadoes. wind direction shear, as the ~urface winds are ~outhcrly and
a kilometer or so above the surf.ice they ntt northerly. ·1here
SUPERCELL TORNADOES Tormdob th.1t form with super- is also '"rtical wind speed Will as the wind speed increases
ed( thunderstorms arc callt'CI i>upercell tomadoes. Earli<r, '"' rapidly "ith height. Thisvetticru wind ~rca~ !heair near
learned that a supcrcell is a thundcrstonn that has a s.ingle ro- the surface to rota le about a horizonutl ;ui;, much like a pencil
tating updraft that can exist for hours. • Figure 14.52 illustrates ro1ates around its long axis. Such horizon1al tubes of spooning
this updraft and the pallcmof pr<eipitationassoc:iatcd with the air are caJkd l'tlrta tubes. (1ht!.e spinning vortex lubes all>O
storm. Notice that as '''ami, humid air i~ dr.l\vn into the su~ form "'hen a southi-rly Jow·l~-d jet exi>b JU>I above southerly
p<'rcdl, itsplDS countcrcloc:kwi~ as it rises. Nearthc top of the •·urface winds.) ff the strong updraft of a ckvcloping thunder-
storm.strong winds push the rising air to the northeast. Heavy storm should tile the rolating Lube upward and drtl\•' it into
precipitation foiling northta>t of till' updraft mixes wit h drier the storm, as ill~rated in Fig. 14.53b, the tilted rornting tube
air. Evaporntivccoolingchill1 thcair. The heavy rain·chillcd air then becomes a rotating air rolwnn in;,idc the ;,iorm. ·1he rls·
then descends as a strong downdraft calk'mall cyclone)
means that the downdrnft is un:ible to foll into the updraft and perhaps 5 to JO kilometer. across. ·1he rotation of the updrnft
suppress it "111is is why the storm is nblo to mainrnin itself a.~ a lowers lhe pressure in the mid-levels of the thunderstorm, which
;Ingle entity IOr hours. acl~ to increase 1he strength of the updrnft.'
Tornadoes arc rapidly rotating columns of air. so wh;lt is As we learned earlier in the chapter, the updrnft i; so
it that shirts the air rotatingr We can see how rotation can de· strong in a s upered) (sometimes 90 knot. or I O~ mi/hr) that
vclop by looking al • ~ig. I'i.53a. Notice that there is vertical
•You can obtain an idea of \\·hat 1nigh1 be t\lk.b1!( pl.'ICc in Liu~ "'l'trc.:tll hy ' 1h·rlngn
• Aunosphcrk: condllion.J l'1won1blt for 1ht 1C.1•1n.11Ion ~.r j1.1pCr(.ell 1hu n der~Lornls i$ cup ofcoffee or re.a with a spoon nnd w.:itdllng the lu\\ prc.uurc lonu In 1hr 1nlddlc
1
prt'Stntt.J bt'ltlnnb1go11 p. )90. oi the beve:r3ge.
• FIGURE 14. 52 A "implifiodviewor~w·

percell thun<kntormwlth a 1UO'lJ updraft and
cbvndrart. forming In a reg.Ion of strong vertbl
wmd speod .....,, Rogoru bt""''~ !ho su-tll
recelvilg predpll.ltion art s~n In CDIO(;iJften
br 1-ght r.lin,. yelow f0t hNvltt aft.Mwl t«l for
W'l'Y hNvy r.W. and hal
-
Wttts alolt
¥
Surface winds
/:
(a) (b)
• FIGURE 14 .S 3 {a}A s.piming vortex tubecreat:ed by~Uc.ailwlnd ihear. iblThestrong upd.raltin lhe deveAo.,.,g thunderst.on'l"I
atfitS 1h• von.e.
tube into the thunderstam pmduc..,g 1 totlting aS-Q)turm that G aientecl ii theve.-tical pline,
precipitation cannot fall through it Southwesterly winds At this point in the stonn's development. the updraft, the
aloft usually blow the precipitation northl'aStward. If the me- counterclockwise swirling precipitation. and the >urrounding
socyclone persists, It can circulate some of the precipitation air m.iy all interact to produCI' the mu-fomk downdraft (to the
couruerclockwisc around the updraft This swirling precipl· south of the updraft), as sho'm in • Rg. !<I.SS. "Lhe strength of
tat ion show> up ou the radar screen,"'™'"'"' the area inside the downdraft isdriwn by the amount ofpt<>cipltation·induced
the meso9-clone (nearly void of precipitation nt lower levels) cooling in the upper levels of the storm. ·1he ttar·Oank down-
does not. ·rhe r~giou inside the superceU where radar is un · draft appears to play an important role in producing tornadoes
able to dewct precipitation is known as the bau11ded weaked1a in classic supercells.
region (BWER). Meanwhile. as the precipitation i' drnwn into When the rear-flank downdraft Strikes the ground as
a cyclonic spiral uround the mesocydone, the rotating prcdp· illustrated in Fig. 14.55, it mny (under favorable shear condi-
itnlion may, on the Doppler radllr screen, unveil itself in the tions) interact "1th the forward· flnnk downdraft beneath the
ohape of n hook, enlied a hook echo, asshown in • Fig. 111.S<I. nw;ocydone to initiate torn adogcnesls- the formation of a
tornado. At the surface of the mm urc >uperccUthe cool, rain-
chilJcd rurof the rear-flank downdraft now wraps around the
updraft at the center of the me.~ocyclonc. 1 hissituation may
initiate additional spin which can be lifted into the mesocy-
clone. At this point, the lower halfofthe updraft begins to rise
more slowly than the updraft aloft .
lhe rising updraft, which we can imagine~ a column ofair,
now Y1rinks horizonlnlly and stretc:hes \"rrlic:llly. lhis vertical
stfl!td1i11g of the spinning column of air cause" the rising, spin-
ning air to spin faster.· Ifthis stretching process continues, the
rapidly rotating air column may >hrink into n narrow column of
rapidly rotating air-a tamrulo l'Or/ex.
Ai. :Ur rushes upward and opb1s around the low-pressure
core of the vortex. the air eicpnnds, coot.. ;uJCI, if sufficiently
moist, condenses into a visible cloud - the f w111el cloud. As the
oit beneath thefunnel cloud is drawn in10 it• core, the air cool~
ropidl y and condenses, and the funnel cloud descends toward
the ourface. Upon reaching the ground, the tornodo's circula-
tion usually picks up dirt and debris, malting it nppear both
e FIGUA E 14 .54 A IOfnado-spiwniig supe1t:eflthurderstonn ovet dark and ominous. While theairalong the out.sideofthefunnel
Oldahoma Qyon M.,. l 1999. lllowlo• hook echo in bra'rlfallp.1.ttem on 1
Dopplrr ,_..., RfMft. ThecobG ~ .Kt orange Rpeseta the heaviest •AJ ~ mu.nng air colmnn .J1R1dus w:n~ly hao a n•nV"' m~mn. its rotaioml
pecipil.adon. ComPi't' thb pce<:ipitlli:Mi pattern wk.h d1e pre-dpil•tion piUtrn jpttdincuutS.. \OUtmf R<llllfmm Clup1tr 10.<lft p. .?':7, 1hl1 thb snuatioo ii.
lkH1r11edlnFlg. l4.S2. ca.ltd tkcon.urYdOm rf mtD9ICIU1tmtm-

.-...i11.--···~-··-~ ...................... _ ..........,... .. ,.
~._(;_ ._~-- .........._...i_,,,..,_ •..,_ ...""'......,... _.__....,._.
e f l GURE 14.55 Adassicmature
tornadic supercell thunderstorm
sho\ving updrafts and do\\ll'ld rafts,
along \Vith surface air flo\ving
counterdock\viseand in to\vard the
Anvil Over$hoaClng top Storm tornado. The flanking line isa line of
rnovemen1
cumulusclouds that form as surface
w.,dS aloh air is lifted into the storm along the
gust front
ilAe'l()C)'clonO
andupdrah
i~spiraling upward, Doppler radar reveals that, within the core Notice in Fig. 14.55 that the tornado extends from within the
of large violent tornadoes, the air is de.o;cending toward the ex- wall cloud tot he earth~surface.Sometimes the airissodry that
treme low pressure at the ground (which may be l 00 mb lower the swirling. rotating \\fad remains invisible until ii reaches the
than that of the surrounding air). As the air de.o;cend~. it warms, ground and begin~ to pick up dust. Unfortunately, people have
causing the doud droplets to evaporate. ·n1is proa?ss leaves the mistaken these "invisible tornadoes" for dust devils, only to find
core free of clouds. Tornadoes usually develop in supercelLs out (often too late) that they were not. Occasionally, the funnel
near the right rear sector of the storm, on the southwestern cannot be seen due to falling rain, clouds of d<c~r. or darkness.
side of a northeast ward-moving storm, as shown in Fig, 14.55. When the tornado i~ not visible because it i~ surrowided by fall-
Not all supercelLs produce tornadoes; in fact, perhaps less ing rain, ii is referred to as being "rain wrapped." Even when not
than 15 percent do. However, recent studies reveal that super- clearly visible, many tornadoes have a distinctive roar that can
cells are more likely to produce tornadoes when they interact be heard as the tornado approaches. This sound, which has been
"1th a pre-existing boundary,such as an old gust front (outflow de,o;cribed as "a roar like a thousand freight trains; appears to be
boundary) that supplies the surface air with horizontalspin that loudest when the tornado i~ touching the surface. However, not
can be tilted and lifted into the storm by its updraft. Latest ob- all tornadoes make this sound and, when these storms strike,
servation~ show that a tornado is more likely to form if the shear they become silent killers.
near the surface is strong and therear-flankdowndraft is nearly Certainly, the likelihood of a thunderstorm producing a
as \\'ann as the inflO\\•ing air. tornado increases when the storm becomes a supercell, but not
Many atmosphericsituations maysuppress tornado forma- allsupercells produce tornadoes. And, aswewillseein the next
tion. For example, if the precipitation in the cloud is swept too section, not all tornadoes come from rotating thunderstonn~.
far away from the updraft, or if too much precipitation wraps (For additional information on predicting severe thunderstorms
around the mesocyclone, the necessary interactions that pro- and tornadoes, read the Focus section on p. 4 16.)
duce the rear-flank downdraft are disrupted, and a tornado is
not likely to form. Moreover, tornadoes are not likely to filrm if NONSUPERCELL TORNADOES Tornadoes that do not oc-
the supera?ll isfod warm, moist air that is elevated above a deep cur in association with a pre-existing wall cloud (or a mid-level
layer of cooler surface air. And tornadoes usually \\ill not form me.socyclone) of asupercell are calkd nonsuperceU tornadoes.
when the rain-chilled air of the rear-flank downdraft is too cold. "Jbese tornadoes may oc.c ur with intense mul!icellstorms as \\'ell
·1be first sign that a supen:ell is about to give birth to a tor- as with ordinary cell thunderstorms, even relatively weak ones.
nado is the sight of rot!lting clouds at the base of the storm.• If Some nonsupercell tornadoes extend from the base of a thun-
the area of rotating clouds lowers, ii becomes the wall cloud. derstorm whereas others may begin on the ground and build
upwards in the absence of a condensation funnel.
•Occasionally, people ,,,iU aiU a sl..'Ydotted with man1nla1usclouds ..'a tornado sl..'Y."
r-..t.un 1n a t~ douds may appear "ith both severe and non.severe 1hundcrstornls as
Nonsupercell tornadoes may form along a g<c~! front where
wdlas with a variety ofo ther doud types (sec \..hnpter S). rvtnn1nl.ltuscloudsare not the cool downdraft of the thunderstorm forces warm, humid air
funnel clouds.do not rota le. and lheir<lppelrotllCt' hasc no rcl ation~hip to l'ornodoes.. upward~. Tornadoes that form along a gu.st front are commonly
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11 ,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Forecasting Severe Thunderstorms and Tornadoes
We know that violent thunderstorms capa- Figure6a is a 12-hour forecast map for in Fig.6bthat a number of severe thunder-
ble of pr oducing severe weather form in a values of CAPE for April 10, 2011. Notice that storms formed in t he region of highest
conditiona lly unstable environment w ith the highest forecast values extend over CAPE value (>2500 J/kg), then moved east·
strong ver tica l wind shear(see Pig. ·14.23, northeastern Iowa into southwestern ward and northeastward across Wisconsin,
p. 393). We also know that, w hen atmo- Wisconsin, and across Illinois into Indiana . possibly pr oducing a family of tonadoes
spheric condit ions are ripe for the develor>"" Figure6b shONs the number of severe along their paths, as Wisconsin reported a
ment of severe t hunderstorms, a severe weather reports (damaging w inds, large total of 19 tornadoes o n t his day.
thunderstorm watch is issued by the Storm hail, and tornadoes) for April 10. It appears In the forecasting of tornadoes, there
Prediction Center. But where exactly in t he areotherfactors that must be taken into
watch ar ea w ill severe thunderstorms form, .,.ocompute the value of CAPE you need a t em~ account. For example, we know that vertical
and w hich of t hosethunderstorms will perature sounding similar to theone sho\vn in wind shear and a rotating updraft (mesocy-
Fig. 14.24 on p.393. On the sounding, you lift a
likely produce a tornado? These questions clone)are critical in the development of
para.> I of air from the surface and compare the ris-
are impossible to answer at t his time. supercell storms. How then do forecasters
ing parcers temperature\vith that of the surround~
However, forecasters using a variety of ing air, similarto\vhat you did in Chapter6 on estimate the chances that a thunderstorm
indices can determine w hich area is most p. 147. The area bet\veen the temperature of the will develop rotation? In an enviro nment
likely to produce severe thunder storms rising para.> I and t hat of the surrounding air is of sufficient vertical w ind shear.a rnesocy-
and tornadoes. then converted to energy, or CAPE. clonefirst appears in the mid-level of a
One useful index for predicting th e in -
Y TABLE 1 Values of CAPE Related to Convection (updrafts), and the likelihood
tensity of thunderstorms and t he likelihood of Thunderstorms and Tornadoes
of tornado development is the Convective
Available Potential Energy o r CAPE, which CAPE VALUE IJ!KGI" CONVECTION (UPDRAFTS I FORECAST
we briefly looked at earlier in this chapter
0- 1000 \~\,ak t~olated (ordinary celVairn\as.~ )
on p. 393. Recall that CAPE represent< the
thunderstorn~ possible
rising air's positive buoyancy, which is a
measure of the amount of energy available 1000- 2500 Moderate lntense tbunderstom1s possible
to c reate updrafts in a t hun derstor m. It is
also p roportional to the rate at w hich the 2500- 3500 Strong Severe thunderstornl.~ pos.sible
air r ises inside t he storm. Thus, CAPE is
>3500 Very strong Severe thunderstorol.~ pos..~ibly
an indication of the storm's intensity or ~\fith tornadoes
strength. Table 1 shows how different
values of CAPE relate to the likelihood of "lht unitso fC APE. Jlkg. repres.t1H the ainountofe nergy in ,ioults(I) in ont kilognun of air where l ; oult (j)
severe t hunderstorm development.* <-'quals0;24 ca.lories.
called gustnadoes (set> • Fig. 14.56). These rebtively weak torna-

doe,~ normally are short-lived and rarely inflict significant dam-
age. Gustnadoesare often seen asa rotating cloud ofdlk~t or debris
rising above the surface.
Occasionally, rather weak, short-lived tornadoes will oc-
cur with rapidly building cumulus congestus clouds. Torna-
doe,~such as these commonly form over east-central C'.olorado.
Because they look similar to waterspouts that form over water,
they are sometimes called landspouts' (see e l'ig. 14.57).
• Figure 14.58 illustrates how a landspout can form. Sup-
pose, for example, that the winds at the surface converge
• Uindspo uu occasionaUy fonn on the backside of 11 squ.111 line wht re .soulht rly
\\' inds a hta d of a col d fro nt a nd northwesterly \\' ind$ behind it create swirling
eddies that m n be drawn into thunderstonns by their strong updrafts.
• FIGURE 14. 56 Agustnadothat formed along a gust from swirtsac.ross

the plaim ofeastern Nebr a.ska..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' " f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i...
<l<nlonl fl .._...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,i., .,_,u~n~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,,..,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,.
thunderstorm(between about 10,000and In regionsoffavorablevertical deep thunderstorm will be. In general. the higher
18,000 ft). Forecasters estimate this region of layer shear, thund erstorms will only de- thevalueof SRH near the surface in a layer
favorable '"'rtical wind shear (called the deep velop rotating updrafts when the surface about 3 km thick, the greater t he possibility
layer shear) by subtracting the surface wind layer wind is at a substantial angle relative for low-level rotation and tornado develop-
direction and speed (the surface wind vector) to the windsaloft. A measure of the degree ment. In order for helicity to be important,
from the w ind vector at the 500-mb le'"'I (at to which the surface wind possesses this however, there must be .some buoyancy.
about 18,000 ft). When the magnitude of this ability to rotate is called the Storm Relative Therefore, forecasters, when predicting
difference is on the order of 35 knots or He/idty(SRl-I), which isa measure of the supercells and tornado development, often
greater, the shear is thought to be favorable low-level w ind shear, and how helical take into account all three factors: CAPE,
for mid-level mesocyclone d~lopment. (corkscrew-like) the updraft in a growing deep layer shear, and helicity.
e FIGURE 6
•
... {a} Twelve-hour brecast for
valuesofCAPEu.s.in9 the
NAM model, valid April 10,
2011; {b} reports of \Vind
damage, large hail and tor-
nadoes in theforec:astarea
for April 10, 20 1t.
MN
..: ' .•
• ,,., ,1\~,
•
•• ••
WI
Ml Ml
IA IA •
•
•
• ••
IL • • IN
•
•
(a) CAPE forecast for April 10, 2011 (b) Storm reports for April 10, 2011
along a boundary, 'IS illustrated in Fig. 14.58a. (The wind may air aloft (associated with an upper-level trough) moves over
converge due to topographic irregularities or any number of a region. Common along the west coast of North America,
other factors, including temperature and moisture variations.) these often short-lived tornadoes are sometimes called cold-r1ir
Notice that along the boundary, the air is rising. condensing. ji11111els (see • Hg. 14. 59).
and forming into a cumulus congestus cloud. Notice also that
along the surface at the boundary there is horizontal rotation
(spin) created by the wind blowing in opposite directions
along the boundary. lf the developing cloud should move over Observing Tornadoes
the region of rotating air (l'ig. 14.SSb). the spinning air may
be drawn up into the cloud by thestorm'.s updraft. As the spin-
and Severe Weather
ning, rising air shrinks in dhuneter, it produces a tornado-like Mo.st of our knowledge about what goes on inside a tornado-
structure, a /and spout, similar to the one shown in Fig. 14.57. generating thtmderstorm has been gathered through the
Landspoutsusually dissipate when rain falls through the cloud use of Doppler radar. Remember from Chapter 7 that a ra-
and destroys the updraft. Tornadoes may form in this man- dar tr:1nsmitter sends out microwave pulses and that, when
ner along many types of converging wind boundaries, includ- this energy strikes an object, a small fraction is reflected
ing sea breezes and gust fronts. Nonsupercell tornadoes and and scattered back to the antenna. Precipitation particles are
funnel clouds may also form with thunderstorms when cold large enough to bounce microwaves back to the antenna.
Jn ai 1liJ i:~e Q ID0!1~~e 20t1
C'1'1'rif* )) ·~On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U . ......................... "',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. "IJb.....,., llo.nl """"" ......... ....,, """'I••-..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<1<n11....i.,,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~,,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll-......, .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.,. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
• FIGURE 14. 59 A funnel cloud-caUed acold·oirlunnel-descends from a
thunders:torm in California's Central Valley near Lodl
Because precipi1a1ion partidesare carried by !he "ind, Doppler

radar can peer into a severe storm and unveil its \\•ind-;.
Doppler radar works on 1he principle Iha!, as precipilalion
• FIGURE 14.57 Awell· developed landspoutmovesovereasternColorado. moves lO\'~·ard or a\\•ay from the antenna. the returning radar
pulse will change in frequency when compared 10 the lransmit-
ted frequency. A similar change occurs when !he high-pitched
Consequenrly, as we saw earlier, !he colorful area on !he radar sound (high frequency) of an approaching noise source, such as
screen in Fig. 14. 54, p. 4 14, represenrs !he amounl of reflecred a siren or !rain whistle, becomes lower in pitch (lower frequency)
microwave energy lranslared int<> precipilation intensiry in- after ii passes by the person hearing it This change in frequency
side a supercell 1hunders1orm. in sound waves or microwaves is called !he Dopplersl1ift and !his,
Doppler radar can do more lhan measure rainfall inlen- r:i course, is where 1he Doppler radar gets its name.
sily; ii can aclually measurer he speed al which precipilalion is To help distinguish the storm's air morions, wind veloci-
moving horizonrally Iowa rd or away from !he radar anlenna. lies can be displayed in color. Winds blowing toward 1he radar
e FIGURE 14.58 (a)Along

the boundary o f converging
winds, the air rises and con ~
denses into a cumulus conger
tuscloud.At the surface the
converging \Yindsalong the
boundary create a region of
counterclockwise spin. (b) As
the cloud moves over the area
/
o f rotation, the updraft dra\vs
~ /
LendspJ
'
the spinning air up into the I
cloud produdng a nonsuper*
cell torn ad~or landspout. ) ~ t
(Modified a fter Wakimoto and ./
Wilson} •
(a) (b)
°*"'"''"..
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..
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• FIGURE 14.61 Doppler radar displayshO\ving precipitation inside a large
supercell that tak.eson the shape ofa hook.. This hookecho is associated with a
violent multi•vortex tornado that is moving through Tuscaloosa.Alabama,. just
south of the UniversityofAlabama.. on April 27, 20 11. The purple area in the
cenler of the hook. is debris that, having been picked up by t he tornad~ is n°'v
swirling counterc.k>ckwisearound iL Debris on a radar screen such as this is
• FIGURE 14.60 Doppler radar display of\Vind.s as.wciated \Vi th the super· referred to as a debris ball{Damage caused by this tornado is shO\vn in
ceU storm that moved through parts of Oklahoma Crtyduring the after·noon of
Fig. 14.S 1on p. 412.)
May 3, 1999. The dose packing of the horimntal\vinds blowing tO\vard
the radar {green and blue shades}, and those blO\Ying a\vayfrom the radar
(yello\v and red shadesl, indicate strong cyclonic rota tion and the presence of
a tornado.
at about 5:10 P.M. CST.• Although thishookechohasa tornado
embedded in it, it should be noted that not all hook echoes are
associated with tornadoes and not all tornadoes sh ow a distinc-
antenna are usually displayed in blue or green; those wind~ tive hook echo on the radar screen.
blowing away from the antenna are ll~ually shown in shades Unfortunately, the resolution of the Doppler radar is
of red. Color contouring the wind field gives a good picture of not high enough to measure actual wind speeds of most
how wind~ are changing within a storm and the possibility of a small tornadoes. However, a new and experimental Doppler
tornado (seee fig. 14.60). system- called Doppler lidar- uses a light beam (instead of
Doppler radar can uncover many ofthe features of asevere microwaves) to measure the change in frequency of falling pre-
thunderstorm l'or example, studies conducted in the I 970s recipitation, cloud particles, and dust. Because it uses a shorter
vealed, for the first time, the existence of the s";rling winds of wavelength of radiation, it has a narrower beam and a higher
the mesocyclone inside a supercell storm. Me_,;ocydones have re.rolution than does Doppler radar.
a distinct image (signature) on the rad.1r display. Tornadoes The network of more !han ISO Doppler radar units
also have a distinct signature on the radar screen, known as deployed at se.lected weather srntions within the continental
the tonu•do vortex signature ('IVS), which shows up as a region UnitedSt,ltesis referred to as NEXRAD (an acronym for NEXt
of rapidly (or abruptly) changing wind directions within the Generation Weather RA Dar). The N£XRAD system consists
me.rocydone, as shown in Fig. 14.60. of the WSR-88D" Doppler radar and a set of computers that
When Doppler radar displays precipitation intensity perform a variety of functions.
(reflectivity) inside asuperceU thunderstorm, a signature of a The computers take in data, display them on a monitor,
me.rocydone (or tornado) m:ry appear on the radar screen as a and run computer programs called algorithms, which, in con-
hook-shaped appendage, or hook echo, as shown in • Fig 14.61. junction with other meteorological data, detect severe weather
The hook become.~ visible as precipitation (and sometimes de- phenomena, such as storm cells, hail, mesocyclones, and
bris) swirls counterclockwise around the mesocyclone (or tor- tornadoes. Algorithm.~ provideagre.itdealofinformation to the
nado}. The doughnut-shaped dark red area at the end of the
hook in Fig. 14.61 represents a massive multi-vortex tornado ·.see Fig. 1450on p.4 12 for photo of this mas.si...: tornado.
that is moving through 1U.~caloo.~.Alabarna,on April27, 201 J, ....The 031llC \>\'SR·88D stands for l-\lealher Survt'illancc ROOar, 1988 Doppler.
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..
••·l~Aiii;i~ilt'tt51c.1~1-=3E=========== bolhahorizonlal and a vertical r<tdarpulse !hat will, among other
1hings, allow forecasters to betler distinguish between very heavy
rain and hail. This information, in !urn, should improve flash
flood walchesand ""arnings.
1nan atlempl to unravdsomeof!he mysteries d !helorn ado,
several studies are underway. Jn one study, called VOKtEX 2
(Verificalion of 1he Origin of Rotational Tornadoes E.xperi-
menl 2), scientists using an armada of observational vehicles
and stale-of-lhe-art e.q uipmenl, including ins! nunents atlached
10 !he lops of cars, lasers, unmanne.d small aircraf1, and mobile
Doppler radar units mounted on !ruck~ (see • fig. 14.62), pur-
sued tornado-generating lhunderslorms over portions of the
Plains during the spring and summer of 2009 and 20 10. To
To see hov1 Doppler radar identifies v1inds moving toward and ""'<IY oblain as much information as possible, some instrumenL~
from its ante no.a, go to the Cengage Courselvlate website at www. were plattd directly in !he palh of an approaching storm, while
cengagebrain.coman<Sview the last section of the animation entitled others surrounded 1heslorm. '!he dalaobtained from !he study
Doppler Radar.
are providing valuable information aboul !he inner working.~ of
supercells and 1ornadoe.s. Al !he same time, laboralory model~
of tornadoes in chambers (called vortex chambers), along wilh
forecasters l ha! allo"•s !hem lo make betkr decisions as lo which
malhematical compuler models, are offering new insighL~ into
lhunderslorms are mos! likely lo produce severe wealher and
!he formation and devdopmenl of these fascinating storm~.
possible flash Oooding. l n addition,lhe algorilhm~ give,1dvanced
and improved warning ofan approaching tornado. More reliable
warning.~. of rourse, will cul down onlhenumberoffalsealarms.
Because !he Doppler radar shows horizonlal air molion
wilhin a slorm, ii can help lo idenlify !he magnitude of other
severe weal her phenomena, such as gusl fronL~. derec.hoe,~. mi-
Waterspouts
crobursls, and horizontal wind shear lhal are dangerous to air- A waters pout is a rotaling column of air !hat is connec1ed
crafl (see Fig. 14.61). Cerlainly, as more and more information 10 a cumuliform cloud over a large body of water. '!be water-
from Doppler radar becomes available, our underslanding of spoul may be a lornado lhal formed over land and then !rav-
l he processes !hat generate severe l hunderslorms and 1ornadoes eled over \\ ater. ln such a case, the \\'aterspout is sometime,s
1
will be enhanced, and hopefully !here will be an even better referred to as a tomadic waterspout. Such !Ornadoes can
tornado and severe storm \\•arning system. resulting in fe\\'er inflict major damage to ocean-going vessels, especially when
dealhs and injuries. !he tornadoes are of 1he supered! variety. Strong waterspouts
The nexl advance in Doppler radar technology is !he that form over \\•ate.r and then move over land can cause
polarimetric radar (or d1rnl-polarizatio11 mdar) !hat transmiL~ considerable damage. For example, on Augusl 30, 2009, an
• FI GURE 14. 62 Researchers from Texas Tech University

set upa mobile Doppler radarunil near a supercell thunder·
storm.
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inten~e waterspout formed over the warm Gulf of Mexico, then
moved onshore into Galveston, Texas, where it caused £F l dam-
age over several blocks and injured three people.
Waterspout~ not associated with superceUs that form over
water, especially above warm, tropical coastal waters (such
as in the vicinity of the Florida Keys, where almost JOO occur
each month during the summe.r), are often referred to as ''fair
'""''tlier" wfllerspouts.• 'lhese '"' terspouts are generally much
smaller than an average tornado, as they have diameters usu-
ally between 3 and 100 meters. Fair weather \\"Jlerspouts are
also les.~ intense, as their rotating winds are typically less than
45 knoL~. In addition, they tend 10 move more slowly than tor-
nadoes and they only last for about JO10 15 minutes, although
some haveexi~ted for up to one hour.
Fair weather waterspouts tend to form in much the same
way that landspouL~ do - when the air is conditionally unsta-
ble and cumulus cloud~ are developing. Some form with small
thunderstorms, but most form with developing cm.nulus ron-
gestusdouds whose tops are frequently no higher than 3600 m
( 12,000 ft) and do not extend 10 the freezing level. Apparently,
the ""rm, humid airnear the ""terhelps tocreateatmospheric
instability, and the updraft beneath the resulting cloud helps
initiate uplift of the surface air. Studies even suggest that gust
fronts and converging sea breezes may play a role in the forma-
tion of some ofthe waterspouts that for mover the Florida Keys.
The waterspout funnel is similar to the tornado fmmel in
that both are cloud~ of condensed ""ler vapor with converging
winds that rise about a central core. Contrary to popular belief,
the ,.,,ate.rspout does not dra''' v.':lter up into its coret ho'''ever. • FIGURE 14.63 Apowerful \Vaterspout moves across Lake Tahoe. California.
S\\1rlingspray may be lifted several meters when the waterspout Compare th is photo ofa waterspout\vith the photo of a landspout in Fig. 14.57
fmmel touches the water. A photograph of a particularly well- onp.4 18.
developed and intense waterspout i~ shown in • l'ig. 14.63.
""'Fairweather" wollcrspouts nuy form over any brge body of "'.lrnl willer. Hence.
theyoccur freque n1ty over the Gre.lt Lakes in suinnlcr.
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SUMMARY
In this chapter, \\'t examined thunderstorms and t he heat burst, 387 hMt lightning, 402
atmospheric conditions t hat produce t hem. Thunderstorms are squall line, 387 Saint Elmo's Fire, 402
convective storms t hat produce lightning and thunder. Light- bow echo, 388 fulgurite, 403
ning isa di~hargeof electricitythatoccurs in mature thunder- me.~oscale convective tornado. 405
storms. "The lightningstroke momentarily heats the air to an in- vortex. 389 funnel cloud, 406
credibly high temperature. The rapidly expanding air produces derecho, 389 tornado alley, 407
asound called thunder. Mesoscale Convective suction vortices. 409
The ingredients for the isolated ordinary cell thunderstorm Complexes (MCCs), 389 tornado \'iatch. 4 LO
are humid surface air, plenty of sunlight to heat the ground, supercell, 390 tornado \'iarning. 4 10
a conditionally unstable atmosphere, a "trigger" to -Start the mesocydone, 390 Fujita scale, 410
air rising, and \Yeak vertical ,.,.ind shear. \+Vhen the-se condi- wall cloud, 39 l F.nhanced Fujita Scale
tions prevail, and the air begins to rise.small cumulus clouds flash flo<xls, 394 (EF Scale),410
may grO\\' into t<)\Yering clouds and thunderstorms \'lithin lightning, 397 tornad(> outbreak, 412
30 n1inutes. thunder, 397 supercell tornadoes, 413
When conditions are ripe for thunderstorm develorment, sonic boom, 397 hc><>k echo, 414
and m<xlerate or strong vertical \\ind shear exi,ts, the updraft in stepped leader, 401 tornadogenesis, 414
the thunderstorm may tilt and ride up and mer the downdraft. As return stroke, 401 nonsupercell tornadoes, 415
the furward edge of the downdraft (the gust fnmt) pushes outward dart leader, 402 gustnadoes, 4 16
along the gr<lll nd, the air i• Iifted and new cells furm, producing a ball lighting, 402 landspout, 416
mu lticell thunderstorm. Some multicellstorrm form as a complex sheet lightning. 402 NEXRAD,4 19
of thtmderstorms, such as the squall line (which forms asa line of dry lightning, 402 \'iaterspout, 420
thunderst<..ms), and the Mesmcale Convective Complex (which
fur111-•asadusterofstorms). When convectkm in the multicell
storm i.<tstron~ it may producesevere ,.,·eather,such asst rongdam ~
aging surfuce wind~. hail, and flooding. I. What is a thunderstorm?
Supercell thunderstorms are intense thunderstorms with 2. What atmospheric conditions are nece.""1ry fur the devel-
asingle rotating updraft. 111< updraft and t he downdraft in a opment of ordinary cell (air mass) thundellitorms?
supercell are nearly in balance, so that t he storm may exist for 3. Describe the stages of development of an ordinary cell
many hours. Supercel ls are c"Pable ofproducing severe weather, (air mas.•) thunderstorm.
including strong damaging tornadoes. 4. How dodowndr.ifts form in ordinary cell thunderstorms?
1·orn-adoes are rapidly rotating coltun ns ofair , . .;th acircu la- 5. Why do , ..d inary cell thunderstorms m<>'t frequently
tiont hat re-•chesthe ground.Tornadoescan klrm wit hsupercell•, form in the afternoon?
as ,..,ell as \'iith less intense thunder~10rn1s. lv1<>st tornadoes are 6. Explain why ordinary cell thunderstorms tend to d issi·
less thana few hundred meterswidewith wind speeds less than pate n1uch sooner than multicetl storms.
100 knots, although violent tornadoes may have wind speed' 7. How does the National Weather Service define a severe
that exceed 250 knots. A violent tornado may actually have thunder.storm?
smaller whirls (suction vortices) rotating within it. With the 8. (;ive t\'iO examples of vertical \\'ind shear.
aid of Doppler radar, scientists are probing tornado-spawning 9. What atmospheric conditions are necessary for a multi-
thunderstorms, hoping to better predict tornadoes and to better cell thunderstorm to form>
understand where, when, and how t hey furm. JO. (a) How do gust fronts form? (h) What type of weather
A normally small and less d estructive cousin of t he does a gust front bring when it passes?
tornado is the "fair ,..,eather" , ..·aterspout that a>mn1only forms 1 I. (a) D escribe h<~v a microburst forms. (h) Whv i' the
above \\'arm bodies of \'iater. term l1orizo11t"I lvitul sl1ea.r often used in conj~mction
\'iith a microburst?
l2. How do derechoes form>
KEY TERMS 13. How does a squall line d iffer from a Mesoscale Convec-
tive Complex (MCC)?
The following terms are listed (with page numbers) in t he
order t hey appe'1rin the text. Define Mch. Doing so will 14. Give a possible e>eplanation for the generation of a pre-
frontal squall-line t hunderstorm.
aid you in revie\'iing the material covered in this chapter.
15. How do supercell t hunderstorms differ from ordinary
ordinary cell (air mass) gust front, 383 cell (air mass) t hunderstorms?
thunderstorms, 381 straight-line winds, 383 16. Describe the atn1<"pheric conditions at the surface and
cunmlus stage, 381 shelf cloud, 384. aloft that are neces.'>ry for the development of most su-
mature stage, 382 roll doud, 384 perceU thunderstorms. ( Include in your an>·wer the role
dissipating stage, 382 <llltll<~v boundary, 384 that the low-level jet plays in t he rotating updraft.)
multicell thunderstorm, 382 down burst, 384. J 7. What is t he difference between an HP supercell and an
overshooting top, 383 microburst, 384 LP supercell?
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18. When thunderstorms are trni11i11g, what are they doing? 3. Explain why squall-line thunderstorms often form ahead
19. ln what region in the United States do dryline thunder- of advancing cold fronts but seldom behind them.
s torms most frequently form? Why there> 4. A forecaster may say that he or she looks for "right-
20. Where does the highe.st frequency of thunderstorms oc· m<>ving" thunderstorn1s \vhen predktingsevere \\'eat her.
cur in the United States? Why there? What doe.• this mean?
21. Why is large hail more common in Kansas than in Florida? 5. Why is the old adage "lightning never s trikes twice in
22. Describe one process by which thunderstorms become the same place" '"'rong?
electrified. 6. If you are confronted in an open field by a large tornado
23. How is thunder produced? and there is no way that you could outrun it, probably
24. Explain how a doud-to·gmund lightning stroke develops. the only thing that you cmJd do would be to run and lie
25. Why is it unwise to seek shelter under an isolated tree dO\'il\ in a depression. If given the choice} \v·ould you run
during a thunderstorm? lf caught out in the open, what toward your right or left as the tornado approaches>
s hould vou do? Explain your reasoning.
26. How d0es negative cloud-to-ground lightning diffur from 7. Tornadoes apparently form in the region of a strong
positive cloud-to-ground lightning? updraft rather than in a downdraft, yet they descend
27. What is the primary diffurence between a tornado and a from the base ofa cloud. Why?
funnel cloud> 8. \.Vhy are left-n1oving superceU thunderstorm~ uncom-
28. Give son1e average statistics about tornado si:re, \otinds. mon in the Northern 1-lemi'i'phere, yet are very common
and direction of n1oven1ent. in the Southern Hemisphere?
29. Why should you not open windows when a tornado is
approaching?
30. Why is the central part of the United Statesmore&csceptible
to tornadoes than any other region of the world? 1. On a map of the United States, place the surface weather
31. Explain both how and why there is a shift in tornado conditions as well as we<rther conditions aloft (jet stream
activity fron1 early spring to n1id~su1nmer. and so on) that are necessary for the formation of most
32. How does a tornado wtttrJ1 diffur from a tornado wtmli11g? s upercell thunderstorms.
33. lf you are in a single-story home (without a basement) 2. A multi· vortex tornado \'lith a rotational ,..-ind speed
during a tornado warning. what should you do? of 125 knots is moving from southwest to northeast at
34. Supercell thunderstorms that produce tornadoes form in a 30 knots. Assume the suction vortic.es \'lithin this tor-
region of strong vertical wind shear. Explain how the wind nado have rotational winds of 100 knots:
change.s in speed and direction to produce this shear. (a) What is the maximum wind speed of this multi·
35. Explain how a nonsuperceU tornado. such as a land- vortex tornado? (b) lf you are facing the approaching
spout, might form. tornado~ on ,.,.hich side (northeast, north,Yest. south-
36. Describe how Doppler radar measures the winds in.side \Yest. or southeast) \vou.ld the strongest \vinds be found?
a severe thunderstorm. the weakest wind'? Ex1'1ain both of your answers.
37. How has Doppler radar helped in the prediction of se- (c) Aclurding to Table 14.3,p. 411 , how would this tornado
vere \'leather? be classified on the Enhanced (EF) Fujita Scale?
38. What atm<"pheric conditions lead to the formation of 3. lf you see lightning and lO seconds later you hear thun·
"fair \'leather" \\'aterspouts? der, how far away is the lightning stroke?
4. Suppose several of your friends went on a storm-chasing
adventure in the central United States. To help guide their
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT chase, you stay behind, with an lnternet-amnected com-
1. Why does the bottom half of a di'<ipating thunderstorm puter and a cellular phone. Which current weather and
usually "disappear" before the top? forecast n1aps \'iOuld you use to guide their storn1 chase?
2. Sinking air warms, yet the downdrafts in a thunder- Explain why you choose those maps.
storm are usually cold. Why?
'- GEOSCIENCE Go to the Natunil Oi~asters portal and search in the Academic Journals section
IOr the report "Climatology of tornadoes associated with Gulf Coast-landfalling hurricanes" ('fl1e Geographic.a/ Review, July
2011). B,•sed on inlOrmation from the introductory and concluding section.~. would you say that a hurricane that strikes Mobile,
Alabama.would be more likely to produce a tornado in New Orleans or in 1allahassee, all else being equal?
ONLINE RESOURCES
/!\ Log in to the CourseMate website ar: www.cengagebrain.com to view the concept animation.~ as noted in the text, as
~ well as additional resources, including video exercises, practice quizzes, an interactive eBook, and more.
«It""""' I f!4u.Wt_.,...,.t.....
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Hurricanes
CONTENTS n September 18, 1926, as a hurricane approached Miami,
Tropical Weather
Anatomy of a Hurricane
O Florida, people braced themselves for the devastating high
winds and storm surge. Just before dawn the hurricane struck
Hurricane Formation and Dissipation
The Right Environment with full force- torrential rains, flooding, and easterly winds that
The Developing Storm gusted to over 100 miles per hour.Then, all of a sudden, it grew
The Storm Dies Out
calm and a beautiful sunrise appeared. People wandered out·
Hurricane Stages of Developmen t
Investigating the Storm side to inspect their property for damage. Some headed for
Hurricane Movement work, and scores of adventurous young people crossed the long
causeway to Miami Beach for the t hrill of swimming in the huge
How Do Hurricanes Compare
with Midd le-Latitude Cyclones? surf. Bu t the lull lasted for less than an hour. From the south,
Eastern Pacific Hurricanes ominous black clouds quickly moved overhead. In what seemed
North Atlantic Hurricanes
like an instant, hurricane force winds from the west were pound ·
Naming Hurricanes and Tropical Storms
Devastating Winds, the Storm Surge, and ing the area and pushing water from Biscayne Bay over the
Flooding causeway. Many astonished bathers, unable to swim against the
great surge of water, were swept to their deaths. Hundreds more
Devastatl ng Tropical Storms
Some Notable Hurricanes drowned as Miami Beach virt ually disappeared under the rising
Camille, 1969 wind -driven tide. It is estimated that if a hurricane of this
Hugo, 1989
Category 4 magnitude were to hit Miami today, it would cause
Andrew, 1992
Ivan, 2004 $87 bill ion in damages.
The Record -Setting Atlantic Hurricane
Seasons of 2004 and 2005
Katrina, 2005
Ot her Devastating Hurricanes
Hurricane Watches, Warnings, and Forecasts
Hurricanes In aWarmer World
Modifying Hurricanes
Summary
Key Terms
Questions for Thought Facing page: A hurricane, w il h its eye just soutll\vesto f
Problems and Exercises Florida,. moves at a steadyw e!.hvard p ace into the Gulf
a Mexico.
425
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..i ..,.,.,h ~dl ... :.1J\o .0."l'nV I f:1"'-i.rtn1•" '!....
orn over '"1rm tropical waters and nurtured by a rich sup·
B ply of water v:ipor, the liurrica11e can indeed grow into a

ferocious storm that generates enormous waves, heavy
rains, and winds that may exceed 150 knots. What exactly are
WEATHER WATCH
The word hurricane derives from the Taino language of
Central America. The literal translation of the Tai no word
hurucan is ''god of evil ;'' The word typhoon comes from
hurricanes? I-low do they form? And why do they strike the east the Chinese word taifung, meaning "'big wind."'
coast of the United States more frequently than the west coast?
1 heseare some ofthe questions we will consider in this chapter.
several hours of relatively steady rainfall. Many of these tropical
squall lines are similar to the middle-latitude ordinary squall
lines described in Chapter 14 on p. 387.
Tropical Weather As it i~ warm all ye:lr long in the tropics, the weather is not
characterized by four seasons which, for the most part, are de-
ln the broad belt around theearthknown as the tropics- the re- termined by temperature variations. Rather, most oft he tropics
gion bet ween 23'1,• north and south of theequator- theweather are marked by seasonal differences in precipitation.111e greatest
is much different from that of the middle latitudes. In thetrop- doudines.~ and precipitation occur during the high-sun period,
ics, the noon sun is always high in the sky, and so diurnal and when the intertropic.alconvergencezone moves into the region.
seasonal changes in temperature are small The daily heating Even during the dry season, precipitation can be irregular, as
of the surface and high humidity favor the development of cu- periods of heavy rain, lasting for several days, may follow an
mulus cloud~ and afternoon thunderstorms. Most of these are extreme dry spell.
individual thunderstorms thatarenotsevere. Sometimes, how- The wind~ in the tropics generally blow from the east,
ever, they group together into loosely organized systems called northeast, or southeast. Because the variation ofsea -level pres-
11011-sq1wll clusters. On other occasions, the thunderstorms will sure is normally quite small, drawing isobars on a weather map
align into a row of vigorous convective cells known as a lropi· provides little u.~eful information. Instead of isobars, stream-
ell/ squflll cluster, or squflll li11e. 'fhe passage of a squall line is lines that depict wind flow are drawn. Streamlines are useful
usually noted by a sudden wind gust foll<Med immediately by because they show where surface air converges and diverges.
a heavy downpour that may produce 3 cm (more than I in.) Occasionally, the streamlines will bedisturbe<l by a weak trough
of rainfall in about 30 minutes. This deluge is then followed by o{ low pres.~ure calk<l a tropical wiwe, or easterly wiwe, bee.au.~
it tends to move from east to west. (see • Fig. 15.1 ).
Axis Tropical waves have wavelengths on the order of2500 km
(1550 mi) and travel from ea.~t to west at speeds between 10 and
Atlanllc 20 knots. Look at Fig. 15.1 and observe that, on the western
Ocean
side of the trough (heavy dashed green line), where easterly and
' , . nort heasterl ysurface wind~ diverge,sinking air produces gener-
•
I v"'
ally fair \•,ieather. On its eastern side,southeasterly surface \•,iiftdo;
converge. 'lbe converging air rises, cools, and often condenses
.v.,..-"' "
I ~ Africa
intosho"'ers and thunderstorm.~. Consequently, the main area
ofshowers forms behind the trough. Occasionally, an easterly
\\•ave \\fill intensify and grov.• into a hurricane.
{)
0 "
~
1CI'
Anatomy of a Hurricane
A hurricane is an inteno;e stor1n of tropical origin. \\•it-h sus-
tained winds exceeding 64 knots (74 mi/hr), which forms over
lower pr81Ssure the warm northern Atlantic and eastern North Pacific oceans.
'fhis same type of storm is given different names in different
• FIGURE 15.1 A tropical wave (alsocalledan eastertywave) moving off
regions of the world. In the western North Pacific, it is called a
the coast ofAfrica otertheAtlantic. The \Vave is shown by the bending of typhoon, in lndia a cyclone and in Australia a tropiwl cyclone.
streamlines - lines that sho\V\vind- flo\v patterns. (The heavy dashed green By international agreement, tropical cyclone is the general term
a
line is the axis the trough.} The wave movessk)\Vty\vest\vard, \Vith fair tOr all hurricane-type storms that originate over tropical waters.
weather on its\vestern side and rainsho\verson itseastem side.
For simplicity, we will refer to all of these storms as hurricanes.
lf the tropical wave in the illustration oFigure 152 is a photo of Hurricane Elena situated
above were located over tropical water
in the Southern Hemisphere, would you expect the wave to be moving over the Gulf of Mexico. 'fhe storm is approximately 500 km
from east to west? If yes, why? If no, why not? Would you expect the (3 10 mi) in diameter, which is about average for hurricanes.
rai nshowers to still be located on the wave's eastern side? The area of broken clouds at the center is il~ eye. Elena:~ eye is
C'1'1'rif• :tl 1~ On~ t.cmn~ AU l!i11i..a_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, """'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> • t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FIGURE 15. 2 HurricaneElenaover theGulf
of Mexico about t 30 km 180 mi) south\'1est o f
Apalac:hicola. Florida.as pho tographed from the
spaceshuttfeOiscovel)'during SeptemOOr, 1985.
Because this storm is situated north of the equator,
surface \Vind.sa re blo\ving counterdockwisea bout
itscenter {e)e). Thecentral pressure o f the storm
is9SS mb, \Vith sustained \Vindsof 105 knots
(121 mVhr} near its eye.
Eyo
I - Eyewall
Spiral rain band/

alm<>-~t 40 km (25 mi) wide. Within theeye, "fads are light and southerly winds. As we move away from the eyewall, the pres-
clouds are mainly broken. '!lie surface air pressure is very low, sure ri.ses, the winds diminish, the heavy rain lets up, and even-
nearly 955 mb (28.20 in.).• Notice that the clouds align !hem- tually the sky begins to dear.
selw.s intospiraling bands (caUe.d spiral rt1i11 bands) thats"1rl in 'l l1is brief. i1naginary venture raise,s many w1anS\\•ered
toward the storm'.~ center, where they wrap themselw.s around questions. Why, for example, is the surface pressure lowest al
the eye. Surface winds increase in speed as they blow coun- the center of the storm> And why is the weather dear aim<>-~!
terclockwise and inward toward this center. (In the Southern immedi:uely outside the storm area> 1b help us answer such
Hemisphere, the winds blow clockwise around the center.) questions, we need 10 look at a vertical view, a profile of the
Adjacent 10 the eye is the eyewall, a ring of intense thunder- hurricane along a slicethat runsthroughitscenter. A model that
storms that whirl around the storm's center and may extend describe.ssuch a profile i~ given in eFig. 15.3.
upward to almost 18 km (59,000 ft) above sea level. Within the 111e model shows that the hurricane i~ composed of an or-
eye wall, we find the heaviest precipitation and the stronge.st ganized mass of thunderstorm.~• that are an integral par! of the
"fads, which, in this storm, are 105 knots ( 121 mi/ hr), with stormS circulation. Near the surface, moi')t tropical air flO\\)S in
peak gusts of 120 knots (138 mi/ hr). toward the hurricane'.~ Ct!nter. Adjacent 10 the ey<; this air ri.se.s
If we were 10 venture from west 10 east (left 10 right) al the and the waler vaporconden~es into huge cumulonimbus clouds
surface through the storm in Fig, 15.2, what might we experi- that produce heavy rainfall, as much as 25 cm (JOin.) per hour.
ence> As we approach the hurricane, the sky becomes overcast Near the top of!hedouds, the rek1tively dry air, having I<>-~! much
"1th cirrostratus clouds; barometric pressure drops s lowly at <Lits moisture, begins 10 flow outward ""'"Yfrom !he center. '! hi~
first, then more rapidly as we move closer 10 the center. Winds diverging air aloft actually produces a dockwi~e (lmticyc/011ic in
blow from the north and northwest "1th ever-increasing speed the Northern Hemisphere) flow of air several hundred kilome-
as we near the eye. 1be high winds, which generate huge waves ters from the eye. As this outflow reaches the storm~ periphery,
over 10 m(3311) high, are accompanied by heavy rain.showers. ii begins to sink and warm, inducing dear skies. Jn thevigorou.s
A~ we move into the eye, the winds slac'ken, rainfall ceases, and convective clouds ofthe eyewall, the air wann.s due Io the release
the sky brightens, as middle and high clouds appear overhead. of large quantities of latent heat. 'ibis produces slightly higher
'!he atm<>-spheric pressure is now at its lowest point (965 mb), pressure,s aloft. "'hich initiate d0\\'ll\\1ard air n1otion \\•ithin the
some 50 mb lower than the pressure measured on the outskirts eye. As the air descends, it warms by compression. 'ibis process
·n,
i:f the storm. e brief respite ends as weenier the eastern region helps 10 accow1! for the warm air and the absence of convective
of the eyewall. Here, we are greeted by heavy rain and strong clouds in !he eye of the storm (see . Fig. 15.4).
'An otl re1ne lo\'' pressure o f 870 1nb (2S.70 in.) was recorded in T yphoon Tip
(while ii was over the tropical Pacific Ck£nn) during October, 1979. .tnd H urricane •lhesie huge convectivecunHiloni1nbus c.louds h.lw suprisingly little lighlning (and.
\l\rihna (while it was over 1he Gulf of Mexico) h::id n pressure reading of 88"2 1ub hence. thunder) assod.atl"d \\ ith thenl. Ewn so. for silnplicity we \\iU refer to these
1
(16.()' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11...i fl ,....., .._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• F I GURE 15. 3 A modelthat shows aver·
tical vi£'\v ofair mot ions and clouds in a typi·
<al hurricane in the Northern Hemisphere.
The diagram is exaggerat ed in the vertical.
• F I GURE 15. 4 Thec:loudmassisHurri·

c.ane Katrina's ey£'\val~ and the dear area is
Katrina's eye photographed inside the eye
on August28, 2005, from a NOAA reoon·
naissa nee {hurricane hunter) aircrafL
As surface air rushes in toward the region of much lower

surface pressure, it should expand and cool, and we might
expect to observe cooler air around the e-.ye. \\1th \\'armer air Hurricane Formation and Dissipation
farther away. But, apparently, so much heat is added to the air We are now left with an important question: Where and how do
from the warm ocean surface rhar !he surface air temperature hurricanes form? While there is no wide~'pread agreement on
remains fairly uniform throughout the hurricane. how hurricanes actually form, it is known !hat certain necessary
• Figure 15.5 is a three-dimensional radar composite of ingredients are required before a weak tropical disturbance will
Hurricane Karrina as it passesoverrhecentral areaofrhe Gulfof develop into a full-fledged hurricane.
Mexico. Compare Katrina~ features "1th those of typical hurri-
canes illustrated in Fig. 15.2 and Fig. 15.3. Notice !hat !hestron- THE RIGHT ENVIRONMENT Hurricanes form over tropical
gest rad,tr echoes (heaviest rain) near !he surfare are located in waters where the winds a relight, the humidity is high in a deep
the eyewall, adjacent to the eye. layer extending up through the troposphere, and the surface
~11nflispil1! iJ.«l °'1!1'1111!!H1
water temperature is warm, typically 26.SOC (80°F) or greater,
<Ner a vast area.• 'Jltese conditions usually prev-a ii over the tropi-
cal and subtropical North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans
during the summer and early fall; hence, the hurricane season
normallyrun~from JunethroughNovember. e Figure 15.6shows
the number of tropical storms and hurricane.s that IOrmed over
the tropical Atkrnticduring the past JOO years. Notice that hurri-
cane activity pick~up in August, pea ks in September, then drops
off rapidly.
For a mass of unorganized thunderstorms to develop into
a hurricane, the surface "fads must converge. Jn the Northern
Hemisphere, converging air spins counterclockwise about 'tn
area of surface low pressure. Because this type of rotation will
not develop on the eqt•1tor where the Coriolis force i~ zero (see
Cffiipter 8), hurricanes form in tropical regions, usually between
s• and 20• latitude. (In fact, about two-thirds of all tropical
cyclones fonn between I (f and 200 of the equator.)
Hurricanes do not form SPontaneously, but require some
kind of"trigger" to start the air converging. We know, for ex-
ample, from Cffiipter LO that surface winds converge along the
intertropical convergence zone (JTCZ). Occasionally, when a
wave forms along the ITCZ, an area of low pressure develops,
convection becomes organized, and the system grows into a
hurricane. Weak convergence also occurs on the eastern side
of a tropical \vave. \vhere hurricane,s so1netime~~ form. Jn fact. • F I GURE 15. 5 A three·dimensional TRMM sat elliteviewof Hurricane
many if not most Atlantic hurricanes can be traced to tropical Katrina passing over the central Gulf o f M e.xicoon August 28,2005. The c ut·
waves that form over Africa. However, only a small fraction of <nvay vie\vshows concentric bands of heavy rain (red areas inside thecJouds}
endrc:ling the eye. No tice that the heaviest rain (largest red area}occur·s in the
all of the tropical disturbances that form overt he course of a year
eyewall. The isolat ed tall cloud tower (in red) in the no rther·n section o f the
ever grow into hurricanes. Studies suggest that major Atlantic eye'\Vall indicatesacloud top o f 16 km {52,000 ftJ above theocean surface.
hurricanes are more numerous when the western part of Africa Such tallc:louds in theeyewall often indicate that the storm i.s intensifying.
is relatively wet. Apparently, during the wet years, tropical waves
are stronger, better organized, and more likely to develop into Convergence of surface winds may also occur along a
strong Atlantic hurricanes. pre-existing atmospheric disturbance, such as a front that has
·11 was once though I that for hurric:ine iOrnli'ltion, the oce>ln OlUS I be .suillcienlJy
moved into the tropics from middle latitudes. Although the
\\'ilrm through adepth ot'about 200 rocteB. lt i$ OO\ \' k1l0\,111hnt hurricnnescan temperature contrast bet ween the air on both sides oft he front
fonn in lhc eastern North Pac ilk when thcw.:irm layer ofocean w::iter isonlyabou1 is gone, converging "1nds may still be pre_simt so that thunder-
20 1n (6Sft)dcep. storms are abletoorganize.
e FIGURE 15.6 Thetoial

number of hurricanes and
110 t ropical sto rms{red shade)
1()0 a nd hurricanes o nty (yello\v
shade} that have formed
90 during the past JOO years in
Hurrica')es
e eo
~
and t he Atlantic Basin - the
~ 1ropii:al SIOlm$ Atlantic Ocean. the
~ 70 Caribbean Sea, and the
Gulfof Mexico. {NOAA)
8.
~
60
.,,..
5 50
40
! Hunicaies
30
20
10
0
May 10 J..,. 1 June 20 July 10 Aug I Aug 20 $epl10 Oct 1 Oct 20 Nov 10 Dec I Dec 20
0.10
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''"..
.. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""" ""~ c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
£ven when all of the surface conditions appear near per- ""'m' the air aloft, calk,ing the temperature near the cluster of
li?ct for the formation of a hurricane (for example, warm waler, thunderstorms to be much higher than the air temperature at the
humid air, converging "fads, 'md so forth), the storm m ay not same level farther a"·ay. 'Jltis warming of the air aloft causes a
develop if the weather conditions aloft are not just right. For region of higher pressure to form in the upper tropo-sphere (see
instance, in the region of the trade \\fad~, and especially near oFig. 15.7). This situation causes a horizontal pressure gradient
latitude 20•, the air is often sinking in association with the sub- aloft that induces the air aloft to move outward, away from the
tropical high-pressure area. Th e sinking air warms and creates region of higher pre.s sure in the anvils of the cumulonimbus
an inversion above the surface, knov"n as the trade wind inver- cloud~. 1 his diverging air aloft, coupled with warming of the
sion. When the inversion is strong, it can inhibit the formation vertical air column, causes the surface pressure to d rop and a
of intense thunderstorms and hurricanes. Also, hurricanes do smaJJ area of surface low pressure to form. ' llte air now begins to
not form where the upper-level winds arestrong, creatingstrong spin counterclockwise (Northern Hemisphere) and in toward the
vertical wind shear. Strong \\ind shear tends to disrupt the region ofsurface low pressure. As the air moves inward, itsspeed
organized pattern of convection and disperses heat and mois- increases,jlk~t as ice skaters spin faster as their arms are brought
ture, which are necessary for the growth of the storm. in dose to their bodies (the conservation of angular momentum).
The situation of strong winds aloft typically occurs over As the air move,~ over the warm water,smallswirlingeddies
the tropical Athmtic during a m ajor£! Nii\o event, a condition tr<msfer heat energy from the ocean surface into the overlying
\\•he-re extensive ocean \\'arming occurs over the eastern tropical air. 'lhe warmer the waler and the greater the wind speed, the
l' Jcifoc. As a consequence, d uring £! Nii\o there are usually fewer greater the transfer of sensible and k1tent heat intothe air above.
Atlantic hurricanes than normal. H-O\\'tver. the \\•armer \vat er of A• the air sweeps in toward the center of lower pressure, the
£1 Nii\o in the northern tropical Pacific favors thede.velopment rate of heat transfer increases becalkse the wind speed increases.
of hurricanes in that region. During the cold water episode in Simiktrly, the higher wind speed causes greater evaporation
the eastern tropical Pacific (known as La Nina), \\1nds aloft over rates, 'md the overlying air becomes nearly saturated. ' llte tur-
the tropical Atlantic usually weaken and become easterly-a bulent eddies then transfer the warm, moist air upward, where
condition that favors hurricane development.• the water vapor condenses to fuel new thunderstorms. As the
surface air pressure lo\\'f"rs. \vind ~"pet"-ds increase. more evapo-
THE DEVELOPING STORM 111e energy for a hurricane comes ration occurs at the ocean surface, 'md thunderstorms become
from the direct transfer of sensible heat and latent heat from more organized. At the top of the thunderstorms, heat is lost by
the \\•arm ocean surface. For a hurric.ane to form. a cluster of the clouds radiating infrared energy to space.
thunderstorms must become organized around a central area The driving force behind a hurricane is similar to that of a
ofsurface low pressure. But it is not totally clear how thi~ pro- beat engine. ln a heat engine, heat is taken in at a high tempera-
cess oa:urs. One theory proposed that a hurricane !Orm~ in the ture, converted into work, then ejected at a low temperature. In
IO!lowing m anner: Suppose, for example, that the tradewind in- a hurrirnne-. heat is taken in near the \\•arm ocean surface, con-
version is weak and that thunderstorms st art to organize along verted to kinetic energy (energy of motion or wind),and lost at
the !TCZ, or along a tropical wave. l n the deep, moist condi- its top through radiational cooling.
tionally unstable environment, a huge amount oflatent heat is Jn a heat engine, the amount ofwcxk done is proportional to
released inside the clouds during conden~ation. The proce.o;.~ thedifferencein temperature between its input and output region.
'Jlte maximum strength a hurricane can achieve is proportional
· El N ino .-.nd UI N iil.l are covered in Chapter IOh eginning on p. 282. to the difference in air temperature between the tropopause and
• FI GURE 15.7 The topdiaqram shO\\ISan intensify-

ing tropical cyclone.As latent heat is released inside the
douds, the \Yarming d the air aloft creates an area o f high
pressure,. \Yhich inducesairto moveout\var4 a\vay from
the high. The\varming of the air lo\vers the air density,
\Yhich in turn J~ver s thesurfaceair pressure. As surface
\vinds rush in toward the surface I"'"·
they extract sensible
heat. latent heat. and moisture from the \Yarm ocean. J
As the\varm, moist airflo\vs in tO\vard the centero f the
storm, it is swept UP\Wrd into the clouds o f th ee~\vall.
As \Varming continues, surface pressure IO\vers even more,
the storm intensities, and the \Yinds blo\lteven fa stet
This situation increases the transferof heat and moisture
fro m the ocean surface. The middle diagram illustrates
surface air pressure
how theair prenuredrops rapidty as you approach the
eye of the sto rm. The lower diagram shows hO\vsurface
If
\vinds no rmalty reach maximum strength in the region of
lheeyewall.
Surface wind speed

<1<n11....i fl ,._..., .._,~..,,._ _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,............
..,.,..,,,
"'I••-""
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;,°*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
c..'ll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
the surface, and to the potential fi>r evap<>ration from theseasur- currents that bring to the surface cooler water from below. lfthe
fuce. As a consequence, the warmer the ocean surface, the lower storm is moving slowly, it is more likely to 10-se intensity, as the
the minimum pressure of the storm, and the higher its winds. eyewall "111 remain over the cooler water for a longer period.
Because there is a limit to how intense the storm can become, Hurricanes also dissipate rapid! y when they move over a
peak wind gustsseldom exceed 200 knots(230 mi/hr). large landmass. Here, they not only 10-se their energy source but
After a hurricane forms, it may go through an internal cycle friction with the land surface cau.ses surface winds to decrease
<:i intensification. Jn strong hurricanes, for ex.~mple, the eyewall and blow more directly into the storm, an effect that cau.ses the
may become encircled by a second eyewall, as another band of hurricane~ central pressure to rise. And a hurricane, or 'lllY trop-
strong thunderstorms fonns perhaps5 to 24 km (3to 15 mi) out ical system for that matter, will rapidly dissipate should it move
from the original eyewall. The growing outereyewall cuts off the into a region ofstrong vertical "fad shear.
moisture supply to the original eye"•.tll, causing it to dissipate. Our understanding of hurricane behavior is far from com-
'fhedissipation ofthe original eyewall and the formation ofa new plete. However, with the aid of computer model simulations
one farther out from the eye is called eyewall replacement. As and re.search projects such as RAJNEX' (Rainband and lnten-
the replacement of theeyewall is t akingploce, the centra IpreS-Sure sity Change Experiment). scientists are gaining new insight into
<:i the storm may rise, and its maximum winds may lessen. Even- how tropical cyclones form, intensify, and ultim,~e!y die.
tually, however, the newly fonned eyewall will usually contract
toward the center of the storm as the hurricane re-intensifies. HURRICANE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Hurricanes go
through a set of stages from birth to death. lnitially, a tropir:Il/
THE STORM DIES OUT lfthe hurricane remains over warm disturbance shows up as a mass of thunderstorms with only
\\'3.ler. it may survive for a long lime. For example, J·lurricane slight wind circulation. The tropical disturbance becomes a
Tina (1992) traveled for thousands of kilometers over deep, lropical depression when the winds incre-Jse to between 20 and
\\'3.rm, tropical \\•aters and maintained hurricane force ,-..ind'\ 34 knots and several cl0-sed isobars appear about its center on a
fi>r 24 d,1ys, making it one of the longest-lasting North Pacific surface weather map. When the isobars are packed together and
hurric.anes on record. J-J.o,., ever, 1nost hurricanes last for less:
1
the winds are between 35 and 64 knots, the tropical depression
than a \\ eek.
1 bocomes a lropicalslorm (At this point, the storm gets a name.)
Hurricanes weaken rapidly when they travel over colder 111etropicalstormisdassified asahurricaneonly when its winds
water and lose their heat source. Studies show that if the water exceed 64 knots (74 miles per hour).
beneath theeyewall ofthestonn (the region of thunderstorms oFigure 15.Sshows four tropical systems in various stages
adjacent to the eye) cools by 2.s•c (4.s•J' ). the storm~ energy of development. Moving from east to west, we see a weak tropi-
source is cut off, and the storm will dissipate. Even a small drop cal disturbance (a tropical wave) cro_~sing over Panama. Farther
in water temperature beneath the eyewall will noticeably weaken west, a tropical depres~ion is organizing around a developing
the storm. A hurricane can also weaken ifthe layer ofwarm water
'The RAliVEX projcc1cons.is1ed of r« onnaissnnce aircruft Oying into several hur·
beneath the storm is shallow. In this situation, the strong winds rk:anesdurlng thehurricane St'.lson of2005. EqulppOO with sophistic::tled sden1i6c
of the storm generate p<>werful wave.s that produce turbulence instru1ncnts. includingad\tlnce<l Doppler iadar. thc mission obt3in00 high resolu-
in the ocean water under the storm. Such turbulence creates tion data on eoch stonnS stnxhu·e .cloudconligu1'lltion. and winds.
e FI GURE 15. 8 Visible satellite image sh"'ving

four I ropical systems. each in a different stage of
its life C)Cle.
C'1'1'rif• :tl 1~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
J<nionlfl •..., .._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i., .,_,u~n~C"'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• ""''"""..,,....,,..,n.
center with winds less than 25 knots. In a few days, this sys-
tem will develop into a hurricane. Farther west i~ a full-fledged
hurricane with peak winds in excess of I LO knots. The swirling
band of cloud~ to the northwest is Emilia; once a hurricane (but
now with "fads les.~ than 40 knot~), it is rapidly weakening over
colder water.
INVESTIGATING THE STORM 'J11ere are a variety of ways to

obtain information about a developing hurricane and it~ envi-
ronment. Visible, infrared, and enhanced infrared satellite im-
ages all provide a bird's eye view dthe storm, while sophistic<1ted
on board radar instruments can actually peer into the storm and
unveil its clouds as a three-dimensional image(see • Fig. 15.9
and also Fig. 15.5 on p. 429). 'lbere are even satellites equipped
with onboard instruments capable of obtaining surface wind
information in and around the storm (see e Fig 15.10). A visible
satellite image can be important in determining whether a de-
veloping hurricane will continue tostrengthen. For example, the
huge thunderstorms in the eyewall of the storm often produce
a dense cirrus doudshie.ld that extends outward away from the
eye, as illustrated in Fig. 15.3 on p. 428. If the storm in a visible
satellite image has a well-defined eye and a dense cirrus cloud
shield when it reaches hurricane strength, the storm will most
likely continue to strengthen, as there appears to be insufficient
wind shear to tear it apart.
Detailed information about a hurricane can also come 20 40 60 80
Wind speed (kno!s)
from aircraft that fly directly into the storm. These so-called
hurricane hunters carry instruments directly on the aircraft • F I GURE 15.10 Arro\vsshavsurface winds spinning count erdock wise
as well as instruments, such as thedropsonde, that are dropped around Hurricane Dora situated over the eastern tropical Pacific during
from the aircraft into the storm. On its way down to the ocean August, 1999. Colors indicate surface wind speeds. Notice that \vindsof
80 knots (92 mi/hr) areenc:ircling the eye (thedarkdot in the center). Wind
surface, the dropsonde measures air temperature, humidity,
speed and direction obtained from QuikSCAT satellite. (NASA/JPLJ
mxl atmospheric pressure, which are trm1smilled back to the

aircraft. Becausethedropsondeisequipped with a Global Posi-
tioning System ( GPS) that constantly monitors its changing
position, it has the capability of providing wind information
'1S well. Another temperature-measuring device dropped from
the aircraft is the batl1ytliemwgrt1pl1, which falls into the ocean
where it measures water temperature as it slowly descends be-
neath the surface. Other probes dropped into the sea measure
the speed of ocean currents and the salinity (saltiness) of the
\\'Uter, an imp<>rtant factor in determining \\'ater density.
BRIEF REVIEW
Before reading the next several sections, here Is a review of
some of the Important points abo ut hurri canes.
• Hurricanes are tropical cyclones, comprl.sed of an organized
mass of thunderstorms.
• Hurrican es have peakwlndsabouta central core(eye) that
exceed 64 knots (74 ml/hr).
• FI GURE 15.9 Three-dimensional sat ellite image of Hurricane Karl over the
Bayof Campecheon September t6. 20 10, with precipitation intensity from the
• The strongest winds and the heaviest rainfall normally occur in
satellite CloudSat. Karl m.ldelandfall asa major hurricane along the coas t of the eyewall - a ring of Intense thunderstorms that surround
A'\exico, northeast ofVeracruz. the eye.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<l<nlonlfl •...., .._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i., .,_,u""""""""~C.,'ll>tJ"l~"''ll"""....., "~•'$"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,,..,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• ""''"""..,,....,,..,n.
• Hurrlcanesformoverwarm tropical waters, where light surface Up to this point, it is probably apparent that tropical cy-
winds converge, the humidity is high In a deep layer. and the clones called hurricanes are similar to middle-latitude cydonic
winds aloft are weak. storm.~ in that, at the surface, both h'we central cores ofl-Ow pres-
• Fora mass of thunderstormsto organizeintoa hurricane there sure and winds that spiral counterclocb.1se (in the Northern
must be some mechanism that triggers the formation, such Hemisphere) about their respective centers. However, there are
asconverging surface winds along the ITCZ, a pr~xistl ng many differences between the twosystems, which are described
atmospheric disturbance, such asa weakfrontfromthe middle in the Focus section on p. 434.
latitudes, ora tropical wave.
• Hurricanes derive their energy from the warm, tropical oceans HURRICANE MOVEMENT • Figure 15.11 shows where most
and 11)' evaporating water from the ocean's surface. Heat energy hurricanes are born and the general direction in which they
lsconverted to wind energy when the water vapor condenses move, whereas • Fig. 15. U shows the actual paths taken by all
and latent heatlsreleased Inside deepconvectlveclouds. hurricanes from 1985 to 2005. Notice that hurricanes that fOrm
over the warm, tropical North Pacific and North Atlantic are
• When hurricanes lose their source of warm water (either 11)'
steered by easterly winds and move " 'est or northwestward at
moving over colder water or over a large landmass), they
about JO knots fOr a week or so. Gradually, they swing poleward
dissipate rapidly.
around the subtropical high, and when they move far enough
• The three primary stages in a developing hurricane are: north, they become caught in the westerly flow, which curves
tropical depression, tropical storm, and hurricane (tropical them to the north or northeast. ln the middle latitudes, the hur-
cyclone). ricane's fon"ard speed normally increases, sometimes to more
e FI GURE 15 .11 Regions where tropical

storms form (orange shading}. the names given
to storms. and the typical paths they take (red
arrows}.
30
30 30
60'9
~~~~~~~~
0 ,~
eo~~~~~~~go
--~~~~~~~
0~~~~~~~ 60
Long;l\ldo
e FIGURE 15 .12 Pathstak.en by tropical

cyclones \VOrld\vide from 1985 to 2005.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<l<nlonlfl •...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~,,..~c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
How Do Hurricanes Compare with Middle-Latitude Cyclones?
By now, it should be apparent that a hurri-

can e is m u ch d ifferen t from th e m id-latitu de
h eavy precipitation, high
surf, a nd strong w inds} may . .,
cyclone thatw.. d iscussed in Chapter 12. A
hurrican e derives its en ergy from th e warm
actually possess some o f th e
ch aracteristics of a hurrican e
• ..
water and the latent heat o f condensation, (see Chapter 12, p. 324). For
w h ereas th e m id-latitu de storm derives its example, a par ticularly pow-
en ergy from h orizon tal temperature con - erful n or th easter during
trasts. Th e vertical structure o f a hurrican e is January, 1989, was obser ved 1016
such th at its cen tral colum n o f air is war m to h ave a c loud-free eye, w ith
from th e surface upward; con sequ ently; surface w inds in excess o f
hurrican es are called vvorm-core lows. A 85 knots (98 mi/ hr) spinning
hurrican e weaken s w ith h eigh t. and th e area about a warm inner core.
of low pressure at the surface may actually Moreover, some polar
become an area o f high pressure above lows - lows that develop
12 km (40,000 ft). Mid-latitude cyclones, o n CNer polar water s during
the other hand, are co/d-rore lows that usu- w inter - may exhibit many
ally inten sify w ith increasing h eigh t, w ith a of th e observed ch aracteris- 1008
cold upper-level low or tro u gh often exist- tics o f a hurrican e, su ch as a
ing above, o r to th e west o f th e surface IOllV. symmetric band o f thunder-
A hurrican e u su ally con tains an eye storms spiraling inward
w h ere th e air is sinking, w hile mid-latitu de around a cloud-free eye, a • FI GURE 1 Surface \veather m ap for the morning o f September 23,
cyclon es are ch aracterized by centers o f warm-core area o f low p res- 2005,sho \ving Hurricane Rita over the Gulf o f Mexico a nd a middle-
rising air. Hurrican e w inds are stro n gest sure, and stro n g w inds n ear latitudecyclonic storm system north o f Ne\v England_
n ear th e surface, w h ereas the stro n gest th e storm's cen ter. In fact,
w inds o f th e mid-latitu decyclon eare w h en surface w inds w ithin th ese polar may draw in air w ith con trasting p roper ties.
found aloft in t h ejet str eam. storms reach 58 knots (67 mVhrl they are If th e hurrican e links w ith an upper-level
Furth er con trasts can be seen o n a sometimes referred to as Arctichurricanes. tro u gh, it may actu ally become a m id-
surface weath er map. Figure 1 sh ows (Observe the satellite image of the polar latitu decyclon e. Swept eastward byupper-
Hurrican e Rita CNer th e Gulf o f Mexico an d low in Fig. 12.30 on p. 341.) level w inds, th e remn an ts o f an Atlantic
a mid -latitu de cyclon ic storm n orth of New Even th ou gh hurrican es weaken rap- hurrican e can become an inten se m id -
England. Around th e hurrican e, th e isobars idly a.s th ey move inland, th eir circ ulation latitude au tu m n storm in Europe.
are more circ ular, th e pressure gradien t is
much steeper, and t h e w inds are
• TABLE 1 Comparison of Hurric.a nes with Mid-Latitude Cyclonic Storms
stro n ger. Th e hurrican e h as n o
fronts and is smaller (although TYPE OF STORP..\
Rita is a large Category 5
Conditions Hurricane Mid-latitude Cyclone
hurrican e). T h ere are sim ilarities
between th e two systems: Wind Flow Counterdock~•ise (NH) CounterdockwL<e (NH)
Both are areas o f surface IOllV Clockwise (SH) C lock~•ise (SH)
p ressure, w ith w inds moving
counterclockw ise abou t th eir Strongest Winds N ear surface; around eye A loft, near jet strean1
respective centers. Table 1
Surface Pres.'iu.re Lc>\\~St at center Lo\\lest at center
summarizes th e similarities
and differences between Vertie.al Structure Weaken witb height; high pressure Srren~tbens \\llth beight, l o'"
th e two systems. aloft; \\larn1· core lo'" pressure al oft; cold -core lo\\!
It is interesting to n ote that
Air in Center Sinking Rising
some n ortheasters (winter
storms t h at move n ortheastward \Veather Fronts No Yes
alon g th e coastline o f Nor th
Energy Source ''\'arrn \\later; release of latent hear Horizontal tenlperature contrasts
America, b ringing w ith th em
C'1'1'rif• :tl • ~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,....,.._..,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl.. 1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
• FIGURE 15 .13 Some erratic paths taken by hurricanes.
than SO knots. The actual path of a hurricane (which appears Look at Fig. 15.11 and notice there that it appears as if
to be determined by the structure of the storm and the storm's hurricanes do not form over the South Atlantic and the eastern
interaction withtheenvironment) may vary considerably. Some South Pacific-directly east and west of South America.
take erratic paths and make odd turns that occasionally catch Cooler water, vertical wind shear, and the unfavorable po.~ilion
weather lilrecastersbysurprio;e (see e Fig. 15. l3).111erehavebeen oft he ITCZdiscourages hurricanes from developing in the,o;e
many instances where a storm heading directly for land sud- regions. Then, guess what? For the first time since satellites
denly veered a""Y and spared the region from abnost certain began observing the south Atlantic, a tropical cyclone formed
disaster. As a case in point, 1-lurricane Elena, with peak winds off the coast of Brazil during March, 2004. 'fi1e path of the
of 90 knots, moved northwestward into the Gulf of Mexico on storm shows up in Fig, 15. 12 as a single line off the east coast
August 29, 1985. ll then veered eastward toward the west coast of Brazil. • Figure 15.14 is a satellite image of the storm. So
of Florida. After stalling offahore, ii headed northwest. After rare are tropical cyclones in thi~ region that no government
\\•eakening, it then moved onshore near Biloxi, Missis.~ippi. on agency has an effective warning system for them,which is why
the morning of September 2. the tropical cyclone was not given a name.
• FI GURE 15.14 An extremely rare tropical

C)Clone {wil h no name) near 28'S latitude spins
dockwise O/'er the south Atlantic off the coast of
Brazil during Marcil, 2004. Due to cool water and
vertical \Vind shear, stonns rarety form in this re·
gion of the Atlantic Ocean. In fact. this is the onty
tropical storm ever officially reported there.
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
Eastern Pacific Hurricanes As we saw in an earlier section, did so in October, 1858, when a hurricane slammed into the
many hurric.1nes form off the coast of Mexico over the North extreme southern part of California near San Diego.
Pacific. In fact, this area usually spawns about nine hurricanes The Hawaiian Islands, which are situated in the central
each year, which is slightly more than the yearly average of six North Pacific bet\\'een about 20• and 23•N, appear to be in
storms born over the tropical North Atlantic. We can see in the direct path of many eastern Pacific hurricanes and tropi-
Fig, 15.11 that eastern North Pacific hurricanes normally move cal storms. By the time most of these storms reach the islands,
\\'eStward, away from the coast, andsolittleis heard about them. ho"<ever, they have "<eakenedconsiderably, and pass harmlessly
When one does move north \\'eStward, it normaUy weakens rap- to the south or northeast. 1 he exceptions were Hurricane 1wa
idly over thecool waterofthe North Pacific. Occasionally, how- during November, 1982, and Hurricane lniki during Septem-
ever~ one \\•ill curve north \\•ardor even northeast\\•ardand slam ber, 1992. lwa lashed part of Hawaii with 100-knot "fads and
into Mexico, causing destructive flooding. Hurricane 1ico left huge surf, causing an estimated $3 12 million in dam ages. lniki,
25,000 people homeless and catL~ed an estimated $66 million the worst hurricane to hit Hawaii in the twentieth century, bat-
in property damage after passing over Mazatlan, Mexico, in tered the island of Kami with torrential rain, S<LStained winds of
October, 1983. "lberemains ofTico even produced record rains 114 knots that g<L~ted to 140 knots, and 20-foot waves that
and flooding in Texas and Okl1homa. Even less frequently, a a ashed over coastal highways. Major damage ""JS sustained by
hurricane will stray far enough north to bring summer rain~ mo~t of the hotels and about 50 percent of the homes on the
to southern California and Arizona, as did the remains of island. lniki (the costliest hurricane in Hawaiian history with
Hurricane Nora duringSeptember, 1997. (Nora'.~path isshown damage estimates of$ 1.8 billion) flattened sugarcane fields,
in Fig. 15.13.) The only hurricane on record to reach the west Mstroyed the macadamia nut crop, injured about JOO people,
coast of the United States withs<Lstainedhurricane-forcewinds and caused at least 7 deaths.
North Atlantic Hurricanes Hurricanes that form over the

tropical North Atlantic also move westward or north\\'eStward
on a collision course with Central or North America. M0-st hur-
ricanes. hO\\•ever, s"•ing a\\•ay from land and move northv~·ar<l.
parallel to the coastline of the United States.• A few storms,
perhaps three per year, move inland, bringing with them high
winds, huge waves, and torrential rain that may last for days.
Afrlea
• Figure 15.15 shows the regionswhere Atlantic Basin hur-
ricanes tend to form and the typical paths they take during the
active hurricane months of Aug<Lst, September, and October.
Observe that, during August, hurricanes are most likely to form
over the western tropical Atlantic, where they then either track
we.st ward into the Gulf of Mexico toward 1exas, or they move
north\\'eStward into Florid a, or they follow a path parallel to the
coast of the United States. In September, notice that the region
where hurricanes are m<>st likelv to form stretches westward
into the Gulf of Mexico and northward along the Atlantic sea-
board. Typical hurricane paths take them into the central Gulf
of Mexico or northeastward out over the Atlantic. Should an
Atlantic hurricane track clo_o;e to the coastline, it could m ake
landfall anywhere from rlorida to the mid-Atlantic states.
In October, hurricanes are m<>st likely to form in the western
Caribbean and adjacent to the coast of North America, where
they tend to take a more northerly trajectory.
A hurricane moving northward over the Atlantic will nor-
Hurricane mally survive as a hurricane for a much longer time than will
paths its counterpart at the same latitude over the eastern Pacific. The
likely reason for this situation is that an Atlantic hurricane moving
• MorehKely north\\•ard \vill usually stay over \\•armer \\•ater. \\•here:as an
• Most likely eastern Pacific hurricane he<1ding north will quickly move over
- Main tracks much cooler water and, with its energy source cut off, will
r apidly "<eaken.
• FI GUR E 15.15 Regions \Vhere Atlantic Basin hurricanes tend to form.
and the paths they are most liketyto takeduring the months o f {a) August.. 'So1ne1in:ie-s hurric.lne-s th.11 n~ 1n ain over wi1tt'r and po.s.e no lhre ll to land ~ re called
(bJ September, and (c)October.(Data from NOAA} "Ii.sh hurricanes" because thcirgrea1es1inlp.1c1is on the fish in 1h e open oa.-in.
J<nionl fl •...,.._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i., .,_,u~n~C"'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• ""''"""..,,....,,..,n.
101 he radio code words associated wil h each !etter of the a lph<1-
be1.) Th is mer hod also seemed cumbersome so, beginning in
Naming Hurricanes 1953, rhe National Weather Service began using female names
and Tropical Storms 10 idenrify hurricanes. The list of names for each year was in
alphaberical order, so thar rhe names of rhe season's firs! srorm
In an earlier section. \\•e learned that hurricanes are given a began with rhe leuer A,the second wirh fl, and so on.
name when rhey reach rropical srorm strengrh. Before hurri- From 1953 10 1977, only female names were used. How-
canes and rropical srorms '"ere '~~signed mun es, !hey were iden- ever, beginning in 1978, tropical s!orms in rhe easrern Pacific
tified according 10 !heir latirude and longirude. This mer hod were al!ernatdy assigned female and male names, bur not jusr
\\•as c.onfu.o;ing. especially \\•hen f\\'O or more storms \\<ere pres- English names, as Spanish and French ones were used 100. 1 his
enl over rhe same ocean. To reduce rhe confu.~ion, hurricanes practice began for North Atlantic hurricanes in 1979. Jf a srorm
wereidenrified by lellers of the alphaber. During World War 11, causes grear damage and ii becomes infamous asa Caregory 3 or
names like Able and Baker were llSed. (1bese munescorrespood higher,irsnameis retired fora! least ten years. .,,1able 15.1 gives
.,, TABLE 15.1 Names of Hurricanes and Tropical Storms
Alberto Andrea Arthur Ana Aletta Alvin Anunda Andres
Beryl Barry Bertha Bill Bud Barbara Boris Blanca

Chris Chantal Cristobal O audette Carlotta Cosn1e Cristina Carlos
Debby Dorian Dolly Danny Daniel Dalila Doughls Dolore.1;
Ernesto Erin Edouard Erika En1ilia Erick Elida Enrique

Florence Fem and Fay Fred Fabio Flossie Fausro Felicia
Gordon GabrieUe Go02alo Grace Gilma Gil C':renevieve GuHlernlO

Helene Humberto Hanna Henri Hector Henriette Hernan Hilda
Isaac Ingrid Isaias Ida Ileana Jvo Jselle Ignacio
)O)'Ce Jerry Josephine Joaquin John Juliette Julio Jinlfna
Kirk Karen Kyle Kate Kristy Kiko Karina Kevin
Leslie Lorenzo Laura Larry Lane Lorena Lo""" Linda

Michael Meli.s-sa ~v(arco i'vlindy Mirian1 Manuel Marie Marty
Nadine Nestor Nana Nicholas Nonnan Narda Norbert Nora
Oscar Olga Omar Odette Olivia Octave Odile Olaf
Patty Pablo Paulette Peter Paul Priscili<l Polo Patricia
Ra fuel Rebekah Rene Rose Rosa Raymond Rad1el Rick
Sandy Sebastien Sally Sam Sergio Sonia SinlOn Sandra
Tony Tanya Teddy Teresa Tara Ti co Trudy Terry
Valerie Van Vk~-y Victqr Vicente Velma Vance 'livian
William Wendy Wilfred Wanda Will<! Walll< \"/innie Waldo
Xavier Xina Xavier Xina
Yoi<lnda York Yolanda York
a ke a Ida ake a Ida
C'1'1'rif• :tl 1~ On~ t.cmn~ AU l!i11i..a_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, """'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> • t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~,,.,~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,...,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
rhe proposed lis! of names for borh Norlh A!lanrk an<l easlern WEATHER WATCH
Pacific hurrie<Ul<'S. "the Us! of munes for each year i• recycled
every six year>. so rhdi>I for 20 13 will be used again in 20 19. The most powerful tropical cyclone on record was super
typhoon Tip that formed in the western Pacific on
lf rhe number of named storm> in ttny year should exceed !he October S, 1979. At its peak it had a clrculatlon that
names on the lisl, n:. occurred in 2005, rhcn 1ropical sronns arc extended for 13.SO miles, the distance from Key West,
assigned names from !he Greek nlphaber, such as Alpha, Been, Florida , to Amarillo, Texas. Its central prMsure fell to
and Gamma. ln fac1, 1he las! of1hc 27 named 1ropkal sysrems 870 mb (25.69 in.), the lowest ever measured In any
in 2005 was Zela, which ac1ually formed during )anmry, 2006. rropical system, and i·t swind,s reached 200 miles pe r hour.
Fortunately, it never made landfall.
Devastating Winds, the Storm Surge, ew as thr srorrn mo,~s onshore. If !he hurricane in Fig. IS. 16
and Flooding should suddenly diange direction andmo\'e toward the west. ib
sirongest winds, highest storm surgr, and greatest potential for
When a hurricane as approaching from thr wuth, its highest damage would now be just north of the C)~.
"'inds =usually on ils eastern (righr) side. 1hc n..-ason for !his Even !hough !he hurricane in Fig. 15.16 is moving norlh-
phenommon is tha! lhc winds tha! push thr srorm along add ward, I.here is a net transport cl water direc!N eastward roward
rothe winds on !he east Side and subiract from !he winds on the coast. To widerstand this behavior, recall from Otapter 10
the west (lcli) side. 1he hurricane 11lustra1ed m • Fig. 15.16 is !bar as 1be "~d blows owr open water, thr water benea!lt i> ><1
moving norlhward along lhcea.>1coa;,1 ofthr United SI ales with in motion. If we imagine !he rop b)".'1' of water to be broken into
"~nds of 100 kno1s.·wirung counterdockwase about ilscenter. a series ofla}~rs. then we fuxl each layer moving to !he ngl11 of
Because !he storm Is moving norihwurd al ubour 25 kno1s, !he layer above (Northern licmisphcre). This type of movement
sustained winds on ilseastcrn side are about 125 knOls, while on (bending) of water with deplh (called !he Ek111a11 Spiro/) CUU><'S
ils '''e.stcm side. winds arc only 75 l<nors. a net iransport of water (kno"n as .llkrnan transport) to the
1be stronger "inds on the otorm's ea;,tern ;,ide will likcly righl of !he surface wind in the Northern licmi>pherc. I lcncc,
cause the highest storms11rb'C and most damage ju;,1 cast of the !he north wind on the hurricane's left (western) >idc cnusc.~ a net
transport of waler tow·.ird !he shore. Here, !he waler piles up and
rapidly inunda!es the region.
1b e high "inds of a burric<1nc also gcncralc large wave.~.
somerimes JO to I 5 m (331049 ft) bigh. 'these waves move our-
ward, " '"IYfrom !he storm, in the form of Slvl11s that corry !he
.storm's energy 1odis1an1 beaches. Consequen!ly, the cffccrsof rite
.storm may be fell days before !he hurric<1ne arrives.
Allhough !he hurricane~ high winds inflicl a grenr deal
of drunnge. it is !he huge waves. high sens. ru1djlocxli11g thnr
normally cause mos! of !he desiruction. "lhc flooding Is nho
responsible for the loss of many lives. ln foci, the majoriry of
2S knOIS
hurricane-related deaths during !he past cenrury has been due
t 10 flooding. The flooding is due, in part, to "inds pushing waler
0010 !he shore and 10 !he heavy rains, which may exceed 63 cm
(25 in.) in 24 hours.· Aooding is also aided by !he low pressure
cl !he storm The region oflow pressure allows !he ocean level
to rise (perhaps half a meta-). mudi like a soft drink rises up a
straw as air is withdrawn. (A drop ofone millibar in air pressure
produces a rise in ocean ie-..,ts ofone cellllmcter.) "!he combined
effect of high water (which is usually well above the higlt·tide
le\~l),high winds,andlhe net Elanant.ran.>port towardthrcoast .
produce.still' s10nn surg.-an abnormal rise ofsC\"rnl meters
in !heocean lC\"1-which inundates low-lying=as and turn>
heachfron! bomes into piles of splinters (see • Fig. 15.17). "lhc
sronn surge is particularly damaging "iten ii coincide> w~h
normal high tides. Extreme flooding can occur with strong
hurricanes or wilh rebtivt.'ly weak storms. such as l lurricnnc
e FIGURE 15.16 A hutric-.anf'moving ntN1~d wilhaw higher MJ~1Moed •Hurricanes may somaimes ha~ a benC'fX'iaJ 3S-pc'\'.:L In 1hc JotnJif 1.h.s 1hcycan
winds on ibeastem ~ id• tNn on iu ~stem s.ldt. The bcatd I.IN ~esents provide- much needed rainfall in droughl·.ltricktn at<'~
theregbool !ifmgtstw'fm:b.
"11111 ..ll 131Jpl islD Cel!Jlll• JJ 12.
... ...
- ,_,
• F I GURE 15.17 When a storm surge moves in at high tide, it can inundate and destroya\videS\vath of c<»stal l~vlands..
Irene, a large Category I hurricane that madelandfall along the

coast of North Carolina on August 26, 2011. Irene produced
heavy rain and record flooding from North C:u-olina to Vermont
(see . Fig. 15.18). Hooding, however, is not just 'l~sociated with
hurricanes, as destructive floods can occur with tropical storms
that do not reach hurricane strength. More on this topic is pre-
sented in the Focus section on p. 442.
In an effort to estimate the JJOSSible damage a hurricane~
sustained "1nds and storm surge could do to a coastal area, the
Saffir-Simpson scale wasdevelope.d (see "' 'fable J 5.2).111escale
numbers (which range from I to 5) are base.cl on actual condi-
tions at some tinle during the life of the storm. As the hurricane
intensifie.~ or weakens, the category, or scale number, is reas-
se.~daccordingly. Major hurricanes are classified as Category 3
and above. In the western Pacific, a typhoon "1th sustained
winds of at least 130 knots( JSO mi/hr)- at the upper end of the
wind speed range in Category 4 on theSaffir-Simpson scale- is
called a super typhoon.
The St!lfih~impson Hu1Tica11e Scale shown in 'fable 152 was
modified by the National Weather Service in early 20 10. 'Jlte IJll) Atlantte
Ocoan
scale, now calle.d theSajjir-Simpson Hurricane WimJ Scale (see
T 1able 15.3), no longerusescentral pressure as ameasureofthe
storm's "ind strength.' Also removed from the old scale is the
storm surge. Although a storm's size and strength do contrib-
ute to the storm surge, local landscape features along the coast,
1
N
as well as underwater top<)graphy, play a key role in determin-
ing how high the storm surge "ill be, and how far it "111 extend
inland. Nevertheless, • Fig. 15.19 illustrates how the storm surge
could change along the coast as hurricanes "1th increasing inten-
sity move onshore. Because storm surge numbers are not given in
the ne"' scale, the National Hurricane Center is presently IOcus-
·~u~~~··u~MMW•~~-
- ---------
Ptecipitaliai
• F I GURE 15.18 Hurricane Irene's path (darkarro\VS) andestimated rainfall

....
totals over the eastern United States from August26 through August 29, 2011.
Irene. the only hurricane to make landfall in the United States in 2011, \va.s
-
ing on improving storm surge prctlictions in coastal areas. a massive but relativelyweak.storm that produced heavy rainfall and record
flooding over sections of the Northe.ast. (NWS, River Forecast Center)
•eentraJ pre5i>urc \\'$ iniliaUy used asa ~uge for nleasuring Lhe stornl's nl.'txhnum
winds. lhcsc: winds today are 1nore tte<:uratcly tletcnnincd \\'ilh roodern obser ving
1ochniques.
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl ,...., .._,~..,,*_ ..
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.,. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
,. TABLE 1S.2 Original Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Damage-Potenti al Scal e
SCALE
NUMBER CENTRAL PRESSURE WINOS STORM SURGE
I CATEGORY! mb in. mi/hr knots h m DAMAGE
2980' 2W.94 74- 95 64-82 4- 5 - 1.s Danlage nl<lin I>• to trees. shrubbery~ and
unanchored mobile honles
2 %5- 979 28.50- W.91 96- 110 83- 95 6- 8 - 2.0 - 2.s Sonle trees blo\\'n do\\fn; nlajor danlage to
exposed nl.obi.le honl.es; son1e danlilge to roofs
ofba ildings
3 945-964 27.91- W.47 111- 130 % - 113 9- 12 - 2.5-4.0 Foliage ren1oved fron1 trees; large trees blo"'"
do,\Tn; n1obile hon1e...; de...;troyed; son1e
structural damage to small buildings
4 920- 944 27.17- 27.88 131- 155 114-135 13- 18 -4.0- 5.5 All signs bJo,,rn do,,rn; extensi\ie damage to
roof~ \\Tindo,,rs, and doors; con1plete des true·
tion of nlobile homes; flooding inland as fir
as l O kn1 (6 n1i); n1ajor dan1age to Lo\\fer fJoors
ofstructures near shore
5 <920 < 27.17 >155 > 135 > 18 > 5.5 Severe danlage to \\TindO\\IS and doors; exten·
sive dan13ge to mo& of honies and indu'itriaJ
buildings; smaU buildings overturned and
blo\\rn 3\\'3)'; nlajor dan1age to lo\ver floors of
aUstructures less than 4.5 m (15 ft) above sea
level \Vithin 500 n1 of shore
•sy1nbol > nlCttns "grClltcr Lbon": < nleans "'less thttn": Oi:" means 4.ft]Wl toorgrea1er than"': -.. nle.lns 4.approxinu'llely ft]Wl to."'
• Figure 15.20 shows the number of hurricanes that have Although the high winds of a hurricane can devastate a
made landfall' along the coastline of the United States from region, considerable <lama&'<' may also occur from hurricane-
190 1through20 11. Out ofa total of1 89 hurricanes striking the spawned tornadoes. About one-fourth of the hurricanes that
American coastline, 69 (36 percent) were major hurricanes- strike the United States produce tornadoes. Jn fact, in 2004
Category 3 or higher. Hence, along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts, six tropical systems produced just over 300 tornadoes in the
on the average, about five hurricanes make landfall every three southern and eastern United Srntes. 'TI1e exact mechanism
ye.a.rs, t\\'O of'"'hi ch are major hurricanes '"1th "'inds in excess of by which these tornadoes form is not totally dear; however,
95 knots (11 0 mi/hr) and astormsurge exceeding 2.5 m (8 ft). studies suggest that surface topography may play a role by
initiating the convergence (and hence, rising) of surface air.
•t.andfuH ls the position along thecoost where the cen1er ofa hurricane pas;sesf 10 1n
oce-tn to lond. Moreover, tornadoes tend to form in the right front quadrant
JI~
UD I
No<mal high lido Category 1 (4-fool rise) Category 3 l 124oot rise} Category 5 [20-fool rise}
• FIGURE 15 .19 The changjng of tlie ocean level as different category hurricanes make landfall along the coast.Ah hough the rise in water level
can vary,vith eac.h hurricane category, the\vater typically riS6 about 4 feet \Vith a Category 1 hurricane, but may rise to 20 feet tor more},vith a
Category S storm.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11o.n1 poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c.,'ll'tl..1~..,'ll..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
,. TABLE 1S.3 Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale
BO
SCALE WINDS SUft\MARY·
CATEGORY (ONE tAINUTE SUSTAINED)
70
mi/hf knoLs
74- 95 64-82 Very dangerous 60

'"ii
'"inds I
produce sonle
damage
..~
.g
so
5 40
I
2 96- 110 83- 95 Extreme I)' 0 53
dan~rous
\\Tinds \\>ill cause
,,
<;; 30
E
extensive dan13ge z" 20
3 111 - 130 96- 113 Devastating
danl:lge \Ifill occur 10
13 3
4 131 - 155 114- 135 Catastrophic 0
damage will occur 2 3 4 5
Category
5 >155 >135 Catastrophic
danl:lge \Ifill occur
• FI GURE 15. 20 The number of hurricanes {byeac.h category) t hat made
landfallalong the coastline c{ the United Stat~ from 1901 t hrough20 11. All
"The scale pmvidesextensive inforn\.1tion for each caiegory on the po1cn1ial h3rm
of the hurricanes struck theGulf or Adan ti ccoa.sts.Categories 3, 4, and Sare
10 people and pets and potcntinl d :unage to s trocturessuch as nlobilc ho1n es.
considered majo1 hurricanE$.
hooses.ap.ll11n ents. shopping centeis and 50 on.
of an advancing hurricane, in the northeast quadrant of the time. But the hurricane death toll in the United States rose
hurricane shown in Fig. 15.16, on p. 438, where vertical wind dramatically in 2005 when J-lurric'1lle Katrina slammed into
speed shear is greatest. Studies also suggest that swath like areas Mississippi and Louisiana.
of extreme damage once attributed to tornadoes may actually As Hurricane Katrina moved tO\\':.trcl the coast. evacua·
be due to strong downdrafts (microbursts) associated with the lion orders were given to residents living in low-lying areas,
large, intense thunderstorm~ around the eyewall. including the city of New Orleans. Many thousands of people
ln ex,unining the extensive damage wrought by 1-lurricane moved to higher ground but, unfortunately, many people
AndrewduringAugust, 1992, researchers theorized that the areas either refused to leave their homes or had no means ofleaving,
cf m<>~tseveredamagemight have been catcsed by small whirling and were forced to ride out the storm. Tragically, more than
eddies perhaps 30 to I 00 meters in diameter that occur in narrow 1500 people died either from Katrina's huge storm surge and
band~. Many scienti~ts today believe those rapidly rotating eddies high winds that demolished c-0untless buildings, or from the
were, in fact, small tornadoes. Lasting for about 10 seconds, the flooding in New Orleans, when several levees broke and parts
vortices appeared to have formed ina region cfstrong wind speed of the city were inundated with water over 20 fret deep. As
shear in the hurricane's eyewall, where the air was rapidly rising. the population density continues to increa.se in vulnerable
A~ intense updrafts stretched the vortices vertically, they shrank coastal areas, the potential for another hurricane-caused
horizontally, which induced them to spin faster, perhaps as fast disaster increases also.
as 70 knots. When the rotational winds ofa vortice are adde.d to
the hurricane's steady "1nd,thetotal wind speed over a relatively
small area may increa.se substantially. In the case of Hurricane WEATHER WATCH
Andrew, isolated wind speeds may have reached l 74 knots Are storm surges and tsunamis the same? Although there
(200 mi/hr) overnarrow stretches of south Florida. are similarities between the two, they are actually quite
Up until2005, the annual death toll from hurricanes in the different. A storm surge is an onshore surge of ocean
United States, over a span of about 30 years, averaged less than water caused primarily by the winds of a storm (most
SO persons.' Most of these fatalities were due to flooding. 111is often a tropical cyclone) pushing sea water onto the
relatively low total was due in part to the advanced warning coast. Tsunamis are waves generated by disturbances on
provided by the National Weather Service and the fact that the ocean floor caused most commonly by earthquakes.
As the tsunami wave (or series of waves} moves into
only a few really intense storms had made landfall during this
sha ll ow water, it bui lds in height and rushes onto the land
•[n other countries, the annual death toll was considerably higher. E.stiln31esare that (sometimes unexpected l y), swooping up everything in its
more 1h nn 3000 people died in H.iitl fro1n flood ing a nd nludslides when Hurrknne path, including cars, buildings, and peop le.
Jc.1nnc 1n oved Lh1nugh 1he \...aribbeln duringSep1e1nbcr. 2004.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...~,,..~c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
Devastating Tropical Storms
Tropical storms that never become Louisiana. Heavy rain continued to pound
hurrican es can produce devastating floods. Louisiana, creating o n e of th e worst floods
Tropical storm Agatha.- the first named on record- a station in southern Louisian a
storm in the Eastern Pacific in 2010 - reported a rainfall total o f 30 inch es. O n
brought torrential rains and flooding to June 11, a zon e of maxim umwind.s aloft
Cen tral America during May, 2010. Flooding (a jet streak) associated w ~h th e subtropical
an d m u dslides resulted in S1.6 b illion in jet .stream enhan ced th e ou tflow above th e
damage, and more t han 200 deaths, w ith surface storm, an d th e remains of tropical
152 death s in Gu atemala alon e. During storm Allison actu ally began to intensify
Au gu st. 2008, tropical storm Fay moved <:Ner lan d. As th e storm en tered Mississippi,
slowly over Florida w h ere it dumped more its central pressure loWEred, w ind gu sts
th an 25 inch es o f rain over portion s of east- reach ed 52 knots (60 mi/hr), an d th e center
cent r al Florida, w hich r esulted in deadly of c irculation developed a weak-looking
flooding an d significan t damage. Bu t prob- • FI GUR E 2 Vtsible .sat ellite ima.g es h ~ving the eye (see Fig. 3). As th e system trekked
rem ains o f t ropical sto rm Allison cent ered over
ably t he most infamous tropical storm in re- eastward, it weaken ed an d lost its eye, bu t
Texas o n the mo rning o f June 6, 200t. Heavy rain
cent years is Alli.son, w hich to date is the is falling fro m the thick c louds o ver Louisiana and continued to d ump h eavy rain <:Ner th e
only tropical storm to have its name retired. eastern Texas. sou th ern Gulf State• Even tu ally, o n June 14,
In late May, 2001, Allison began as a th e .storm reach ed th e Carolina coast.
tropical wave that moved westward across th e c ity. In six days th e Port of H ou ston Unfortunately, th e storm slowed, th en
the Atlantic. Th ewave con tinued its west- received a staggering 37 inch es of rain. turned n orthward over Nor th Carolina.
ward journey, and by th e first o f June it h ad Th e center o f circulation drifted .south - Floo<ling became a major problem-
moved across Central America and out over ward, moving off th e Texas coast an d ou t Doppler radar estimated th at up to
the Pacific Ocean. Here, it organized into a <:Ner th e Gulf of Mexico on th e evening of 21 inch es o f rain h ad fallen over par ts of th e
ban d of thunderstorms an d a tropical June 9. Th e flow aloft th en guided th e storm state. Severe weath er broke ou t in Georgia
depression. U pper~evel w inds guided th e n orth eastward, w h ere the storm made lan d- and in th e Caro linas, w h ere some areas re-
depression n orthward over th e Gulf o f fall again, bu t this time in south eastern ported h ail an d down ed trees d u e to g u sty
Mexico, w h ere th ewar mwaterfueled th e w ind.s. T h e storm moved n orth eastward,
circulation. an d j ust east of Galveston, Texas, parallel to th e coast. A cold fro n t moving in
the depression became tropical storm from th e west e\O?ntually h ooked up w ith
Allison. Packing w inds o f 53 knots (61 mi/h ~, th e moisture from Allison. This situation
Allison made landfall over th e east en d of cau sed h eavy rain to fall over th emid -
Galveston Islan d on June 5. ltdrifted inland Atlan tic states an d sou th ern New En glan d.
an d weaken ed (see Fig. 2). Th e storm fin ally accelerated to th e n orth -
On th e eastern side of th e storm, h eavy east, away from th e coast on June 18.
rain fell over parts o f Texas an d Lo uisian a. Allison, w hich n ever developed hurri-
Some areas o f sou th east Texas received as can e stren gth w inds, claimed th e lives o f
mu ch as 10 inch es of rain in less th an five 43 people, w h ose deaths wer e mainly d u e
hours. Homes, streets, an d high ways to flooding. T h e total damage from th e
flooded as h eavy rain continued to pound storm totaled in th e b illion s o f dollars,
th e area. Bu t th e worst was yet to come. w ith th e Hou ston area alon e su staining
On June 7, as th e upper- level w inds over $2 billion in damage. If all th e rain
began to ch an ge, th e remn an ts o f Allison that fell from Allison could be placed in
drifted sou th westward toward Hou ston. Texas, it would cover two-thirds of th e
Heavy rain fell over sou t h east Texas an d • FI GUR E 3 Doppler radar disp lay o n June 11, state w ith water a foot deep.
2001, sho\ving bands o f heavy rain s\virHng coun-
Louisian a, wh ere several tornadoes
terclock\ vise into the center o f o nce tro pical storm
tou ch ed down. Over th e H ouston area, Allison.Thecentero f the storm, \vhich is oter
more th an 20 inch es of rain fell w ithin a Mississippi. hasactual ty d eepened and formed
·12-h our period, submer ging a vast par t of .somewhat o f a n eye..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..nt,,.,.._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. <>.;•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
The afrermath ofan inlense hurricane can be devastaring, The WEATHER WATCH
supply of fresh drinking waler may beconraminated and tOod may
be<:ome scan:e, as grocery stores and markeLs are forced lo dose, Even when a hurricane does not ma ke landfall 1 it can be
dead ly. For examp le, duri ng August, 2009, as Hu rricane
and sray dosed !Or days or even weeks. Roads may be blocla!d by
Bill moved northea st more than 150 mil es off the coast
ftllen !rees and d(>!Jris, or by sand l hal was deposiled during !he
of Maine, thousands of people f locked to Maine' s rocky
storm surge. £lecrrical and relephone service may be disrupted or sho reli ne to observe the huge waves generated by Bill.
completely lo.st And 1mny people may be displaced from !heir Tragica ll y, an unusu all y large wave washed several
damaged or desrroyoo homes. Even !he dean up efforrs can prove peop le f rom a rocky cli ff into the churning ocean below,
Madly, as, in certain areas, Poisonotcs snakes often find !heir way including a 7-yea r·old girl who drowned in the sur f.
inlo varirus nooks and crannies ofrhe debris.
off the coast of Africa, southeast of the Cape Verde Islands.

The storm grew in intensity, tracked '"est ward for several days,
Some Notable Hurricanes !hen turned north,vestward, striking the island of St. Croix
with sustained '"inds of 125 knots (144 mi/ hr). After pass-
CAMILLE, 1%9 Hurricane Camille (1969)slands out as one of ing over the e<1stern tip of P uerto Rico, this large, Powerful
!he mosr inlense hurricanes lo reach rhe coasrline of !he Unired hurricane took aim at !he coastline of South Carolina. With
Sraresduringrhelwenlielh cenrury(see •"fable 15A). Wirha cen- maximum winds estimated at about 120 knots (138 mi/hr),
lral pressure of 909 mb, rempestuous winds reaching 160 knots and a central pressure near 934 mb, Hugo made landfall
(184 mi/ hr) and a storm surge more than 7 m (23 ft) above the as a Category 4 hurricane near Charleston, South Carolina,
normal high-! ide level, Camille, as a Caregory 5 srorm, unleashed about midnight on September 21 (see • Fig. 15.21). The high
irsfuryonMississipp~desrroyingrhousandsofbuildings. During winds and storm surge, which ranged between 2.5 and 6 m
irs rampage, ilcatcsed an esrimared $1.5 billion in propertydam- (8 and 20 ft), hurled a thundering wall of water againsl the
ageand rook morerhan 200 live.s. shore. This knocked out power, flooded streets, and caused
widespread destruction to coastal communities. 'lbetotal dam-
HUGO, 1989 During September, 1989, Hurricane H ugo, born age in the United States attributed to Hugo was over $7 billion,
as a duster of thunderslorms, became a tropical depression with a dearh toll of21 in the United Sr ates and 49 overall.
T TABLE 1S.4 The Thirteen Most Intense Hurricanes (atlandfall) to Strike the United States from 1900 through 2011
HURRICANE CENTRAL PRESSURE

RANK (MADE LANDFALL! YEAR tMILUBARSllNCHESI CATEGORY DEATH TOLL
Florida (Keys) 1935 892/26.35 5 408
2 CamiUe (Mississippi) 1969 909/ 26.85 5 256
3 Andrew (South Florida) 1992 922/27.23 5 53
4 Katrina (Loui.~iana) 2005 920/27.17 3• > 1500
5 Florida (Keys)/South Texas 1919 927f27.37 4 > 600'
6 Florida (Lake Okeechobee) 1928 929/ 27.43 4 > 2000
7 Donna (Long Island, New York) 1960 930/27.46 4 50
8 Texas (Galveston) 1900 931/ 27.49 4 > 8000
9 LouL1iana (Grandlsle) 1909 931/ 27.49 4 350
JO Louisiana (Ne\\' Orleans) 1915 931/27.49 4 275
II Carla (South Texas) 1961 931/ 27.49 4 46
12 Hugo (South C.arolina) 1989 934/ 27.58 4 49
I3 Florida (Miami) 1926 935/27.61 4 243
·All.bough the central pres.sure in K:n1rhlaS eye. \\\lsquile low, Kalrin:l$ n'li'lximunl sustained winds of 110 l..1lo1S at landfall made it a {7a1egory 3stornl.
1flitore than 500oflhis total wert' lost at sea o n ships. (The> symbol nleruls °'g:rea1cr than:')
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c..
..,.,..,,, 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FIGURE 15.21 Satellite imageofHurricaneHugoapproachingCharleston,
South Carolina on September 21, 1989.
ANDREW, 1992 Another devastating hurricane during the

twentieth centurywas Hurricane Andrew. On August 21, 1992,
as tropical storm Andrew churne.d westward across the Atlantic
it began to weaken, promptingsomeforec'l~terstosurmise that • FI GURE 15.22 Color radar image of HurricaneAndravasit moveson·
shore over south Florida on the morning of August 24, 1992. The dark red and
this tropicalstorm would never grow to hurricane strength. But purple show where the heaviest rain is falling. Miami Beach is just to the north
Andrew moved into a region favorable for hurricane develop· of the eye and the National Hurricane Center(NHC) is about 20 miles to the
ment. Even though ii wasoutsidethetropics nearlatitude25°N, oortheast of lhe eye.
warm surface wate.r and weak winds aloft allowe.d Andrew to in·
tensify rapidly. And in just two days Andrew's winds increased on the morning of August 24 (see . Fig. 15.22). 'Jl1e eye of
from 45 knots to 122 knots, turning an average tropical storm the storm moved over Homestead, Florida. Andrew's fierce
into one of the most intense hurricanes 10 strike Florida in the "fads completely devastate.cl the area (see • Fig. 15.23), as
past 111 years (see 'fable 15.4). 50,000 homes were destroyed, trees were leveled, and steel-
With winds of at least 130 knots (155 mi/hr) and a pow· reinforce.d tie be'uns weighing tons were torn free oftownhouses
erful storm surge, Andrew made landfall south of Miami and hurled as far a.~several blocks. Swaths of severe damage led
• FI GURE 15.23 Acommunity in

Homestead. Florida. devastated by
HurricaneAndravduring August, 1992.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i """>' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<l<nlonlfl •...,.._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i.,.,_,u""""""n~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,,..,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,n.
scientists to Postulate that peak win<ts may have approached
174 knots (200 mi/ hr). Such win<ts may have occurred with
small tornadoes, which added substantially to the stonn~ \\ind
speed. Jn 'tn instant, a wind gust of 142 knots (164 mi/hr) blew
do\\11 a radar dome and inactivatedseveralsatellite dishes on the
roof of the National Hurricane Center in (.oral Gables, Florida.
Observations reveal that some of Andrew's destruction may
have been caused by microbursts in the intense thunderstonns
<i the evewall. 'lbe hurricane roared westward across southern
Florida: weakened slightly, then regainedstrength over the warm
Gulf ofMexico.Surging northwestward, Andrew slammed into
Louisiana as a Category 3 with 120-knot \\fads on the evening
<i August 25.
All told, Hurricane Andrew was one of the costliest natural
di~asters ever to hit the United States. It destroyed or damaged
over200,(Xl0 homes and businesses, left more than 160,000 people
homeless, caused over $30 billion in damages, and took 53 lives,
including 41 in Horida.
IVAN, 2004 Hurricane Iv-an was an interestingbutcostly hur-

ricane. It moved onshore just west of Gulf Shores, Aktbama,
on September 15, 2004 (see e Fig. 15.24) as a strong Category 3 "
hurricane with winds 105 knots (121 mi/ hr) and a storm surge !ii!
of about 5 meters (16 feet). 1ne strongest win<ts and great- • FIGURE 15.24 Visible satellite imageof Hurricane Ivan as it makes landfall
est damage occurred over an area near the border between near Gulf Shores.,Alabama,on September I S, 2004. Ivan ~a major hurricane with
Alabama and Florida (see • Fig. 15.25). As Ivan moved inland, winds of 105 knots fl 21 milhr} and a surface air pressureof945 mb {27.9t in.}.
it weakened and eventually linked up with a mid-latitude low.
Therernains of Ivan then split from thelow and drifted south- and caused an estimated $14 billion in damages. (Ivan was one
ward, eventually ending up in the Gulf of Mexico, where it oflive hurricane.s to make landfall in the United States during
regainedtropicalstormstrengt h. Jt made ktndfall for the second 2004. Out of the five hurricanes that hit the United States, four
time along the Gulf Coast, but this time '1s a tropical depres- impacted the state ofFlorida. More information on the recor<l-
sion. All told, Ivan took 26 lives in the United States, produced setling Atlantic hurricane seasons of2004 and 2005 is given in
a record 117 tornadoes over the southern and eastern states, the Focus section on p. 446.)
(8)
- ~)
• FI GURE 15. 2 S Beach homes along theGulf Coast at Orange Beach. Alabama {a) before, and {b)after Hurricane tvan made landfall during
September, 2004. (Red arr~vs are for referenceJ
The Record-Setting Atlantic Hurricane Seasons of 2004 and 2005
Both 2004 and 2005 were active years for a FIGURE 4

hurricane development over the tropica I The paths ofe ight hurricanes
that impacted Florida d uring
North Atlantic. During 2004, nin e storms
2004a nd 2005. Notice that in
became full-fledged hurricanes. Out of the 2004, hurricanes Frances and
five hurricanes that made landfall in the Jeanne made land fall at just
United States, three (Charley, Frances, and about the same spot along
Jeanne) plow..d t hrough Florida, and one Florida's $0Utheast coasL The
date under the hurricane's
(Ivan) came onshore j ust west of the
name indicates thedate the
Florida panhandle (see Fig. 4), makin g hurricane made landfall
this the first time since record-keeping
began in 1861 that four hurricanes have
impacted the state of Florida in one year.
Total damage in the United States from
the frve hurricanes exceeded $40 billion. Wiima
10/24/05
/ Dennis
Then, in 2005, a record twenty-seven 7/10/05 Jeanne
9125/04
named storms developed (the most in a t / Ivan Charley
8/13,\)4
single season), of which fifteen (another N 9/15J04
record) reached hurricane strength. The
2005 Atlantic hurricane season also had giving Florida the dubious distinction of shear provided favorable conditions for
four hurricanes (Emily, Katrina, Rita, and being the only state on record to experi - hurrica ne development. In previous years,
Wilma) reach Category 5 intensity for the ence eight hurricanes during the span of winds associated w ith a persistent upper-
first time since reliable record-keeping sixteen months (Fig. 4). To illustrate how level trough over the eastern United States
began . And hurricane W ilma had the low- unusual this event was, only one major steered many tropical systems away from
est central pressure ever measured in an hurricane made landfall in the entire the coast before they could make landfall.
Atlantic hurrican e- 882 mb (26.04 in J. United States from 2005 through 2011. However, in 2004 and in 2005, an area of
Out of five hurricanes that made landfall in Total damage in the United States from high pressure replaced the trough, and
the United States, three (Dennis, Katrina, the five hurricanes t hat made landfall winds tended to steer tropical cyclones on
and Wilma) made landfall in hurrican e- exceeded $100 billion. a more westerly track, toward the coast-
wary Florida and o ne (Ophelia) skirted Apparent ly, in 2004 and in 2005, ver y line of North America.
northward along Florida's east coast, warm ocean water and weak vertical wind
KATRINA, 2005 Hurricane Katrin a was the most c<m ly

hurricane to ever hit the United States. Fonning over " "arm
tropical water south of Nassau in the Bahamas, Katrina became
a tropical storm on August 24, 2005, and a Categor y I hurri-
cane just before making landfall in south Florida on Aug<L~t 25.
(Katrina's path is given in Fig. 4, above.) It moved southwest-
ward acr<>-~s Florida and out over theeastern Gulf of Mexico. As
Katrina moved westward, it passed over a deep band of warm
water called the Loop current that allowed Katrina to rapidly
intensify. Within 12 hours, the hurricane increased from a
Category 3 to a Category 5 storm with windsof l 52 knots
(175 mi/hr) and a central pre.ssure of 902 mb (see efig. 15.26).
Over the Gulf of Mexico, Katrina gradually turned north-
ward toward Mississippi and Louisiana. As the powerful
Category 5 hurricane moved slowly toward the coast, its
rainbands near the center of the stor m began to converge to-
• FIGURE 1S.26 Visible satellite image o f Hurricane Katrina overtheGulfo f
ward the storm's eye. This process cut off moisture to the M exico. Wth sustained \Vinds o f 175 milhr and a central pressure near 902 mb
eyewall. As the old eyewall dis.~ipated, a new one fonn ed far- {26.64 in.), this large and po\verfulCategory S hurricane takes aim on Lo uisiana
ther away in a phenomenon called eyewall repla«ement. The and Missis.sippi.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
replacement of the eye"·all weakened the storm such that
Katrina made landfall near Buras, Louisiana, on August 29 (see
• Fig 15.27) as a strong Category 3 hurricane with S<L~tained
winds of l IO knots (127 mi/hr), a central pressure of 920 mb,
and a storm surge between 6 m and 9 m (20 and 30 ft).
Katrina'.s strong winds and high storm surge on its
eastern side devastated southern Mississippi, with Biloxi,
Gulfport, 'md Pass Christian being particularly hard hit
(see • fig. 15.28). The wind~ demolished all but the strongest
structures, and the huge storm surge scoured areas up to 6 km
(10 mi) inland.
New Orleans and the surrounding parishe.s actually es-
caped the brunt of Katrinas winds, as the eye passed just to
the east of the city (fig. 15.27). However, the combination of
high winds, large waves, and a huge storm surge caused disas-
trous breeches in the levee system that protects New Orleans
from the Mississippi River, the Gulf of Mexico, and Lake Pont- • F I GURE 1 5.27 Hurricane Katrina just after making landfallalong the
chartrain. When the levees gave way, '"tter up to 20 feet deep Mississippifl.ouisiana coast on the morning ofAugust 29, 2005.Shown here.
invaded a large part of the city, tragically before thousands of the storm is moving north \Vith its eye dueeastof New Orleans. marked Xon
the image.At landfal~ Katrina had sustained \Vind.s of 110 knots (1 27 mVhr}, a
people could escape (see o Fig. 15.29). Less th'm a month later, central pressure of 920 mb (27.17 in.), and a storm surge over 20feeL
powerful Hurricane Rita with sustained winds of 152 knots
(175 mi/hr) moved over the Gulf of Mexico, south of ln the satellite image above, observe
NewOrlean.~. Strong. tropicalstorm-forceeasterly "fads, along where New Orleans and the eye of
Hurricane IUtrina are Jocated. Based on this observation, from what
with another stonn surge, caused some of the repaired levees
direction wouldthewindbe blowing over New Orleans? Would this
to break again, flooding parts of the city that just days earlier wind direction produce an Ekman transport toward the east or v1est?
had been pumped dry.111edeath toll due to Hurricane Katrina What effect if any, might this transport of water have on the leve-e
climbed to more than 1500, and the devastation wrought by system around New Orleans?
the storm totaled more th'm $75 billion. Although Katrina may
well be the most expensive hurricane on record, tragically it is slammed into Galveston, Texas, with a huge storm surge
not the deadliest. 5 feet high. (Look back at Table 15.4, p. 443.) Most of the deaths
occurred in the low-lying coastal regions as flood waters
OTHER DEVASTATING HURRICANES Before the era of sat- p\L~hed inland. In October, 1893, nearly l 800 people perished
ellites and radar, catastrophic losses of life had occurred. ln on the Gulf Coast of Louisiana as a giant storm surge swept
1900, more than 800 0 people lost their live.s when a hurricane that region. Spectacular losses are not confined to the Gulf
• FI GURE 15.28 High\\lindsandhugewaves

crash against a boat \Vashed onto High\v<ty90 in
Gulfport. Mississipp~ as Hurricane Katrina makes
landfall on the morning of August 29, 2005.
r
C'1')'rif• )) ·~On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U . ......................... " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••-..........h~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r....,..... i....
<1<n11....i., ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll"""......, .,~,.,i.. ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
e FI GURE 15.29 Flood\'..etersinundateNe\Y
Orleans. Louisi.lna. during August. 2005, after the
\vindsand storm surge from Hurricane Katrina
caused several levee breaks..
Coast as nearly 1000 prop le lost their lives in Charleston, South In May, 2008, Tropical Cyclone Nargis took aim on
Carolina, during August of the same year. In 1938, a power- Bangladesh, but instead moved east striking Myanmar (Burma)
ful September hurricane slammed into the S<lllth shore of Long (see • Fig lS.30). Although the cydone was accompanied by
Island as a strong C.1tegory 3 storm with a central pressure of strong wind~. it was the 16-foot storm surge and huge waves
946 mb (27.94 in.) and a storm surge exceeding JS feet. After that caused much of the damage. Nargi~ pushed flood waters
blasting Long Island, the hurricane moved northward, making inland for at least SO km (3 1 mi). In this region, millions of
a second landfall in Connecticut. The hurricane damaged or people live in flood-prone homes less than 10 feet above sea
destroyed more than 2S,OOO homes and took over 600 lives. level. The cyclone killed at least 140,000 people as flooding
The stati~ticsso far are relatively small when compared to washed away entire villages, in some places without leaving a
the more than 300,000 lives taken as a killer tropical cydone single structure.
and storm surge ravaged the coast of Bangladesh with flood On February 3, 20 1 l, Tropical Cyclone Yasi slammed
waters in 1970. Again in April, 1991, a similar cyclone devas- into northern All~tralia "'th sustained winds of over JOO km
tated the area with reported wind~ of 127 knots ( 146 mi/hr) ( ll S mi/hr) and gusts over I SO knots ( 172 mi/hr). One of
and a storm surge of 7 m (23 ft). In all, the storm Mstroyed the strongest storms to hit this region in IOO years, Tropical
l.4 million houses and killed 140,000 people and l million Cyclone Yasi caused massive flooding (as some areas received
cattle. And again in November, 2007, Tropical Cyclone Sidr, a over 16 inches of rainfall), severe crop los~. and structural dam-
Category 4 storm with winds of l 3S knots ( l5S mi/hr) moved age to buildin~. Estimates of total damage due to this tropical
into the region, killing thousands of people, damaging or cydone exceeded $3 billion.
destroying over one million houses, and flooding more than In the tropical western Pacific, super Typhoon Nalgae
two million acres. Estimates are Sidr adversely affected more made landfall in the Philippines on October l, 201 l, with "fad~
than 8.5 million people. Unfortunately, the potential for a approaching I 30 knol~ (I SO mi/hr). This major storm adversely
repeat of this type of disaster remains high in Bangladesh, as affected almost 3 million people, catL~d hundreds ofmillion~ of
many people live along the relatively low, wide flood plain that dollars in damage, and killed at least 58 people. And during De-
slopes outward to the bay, and, historically, this region is in a cember, 20l l ,1ropical Storm Washi made landfall on the South-
path frequently taken by tropical cyclones. ern Philippine island of Mindanao. Although only a moderate
tropical storm, Washi had a catastrophic impact on the island
WEATHER WATCH where it dumped heavy rain (some areas received over 16 inches
in 24 hours) which triggered flash floods and mudslides that
The ,...Great Hurricane of 1780" is the dead liest Atlantic
swept away entire villages. Washi claimed more than ]()()() lives.
hurricane in hi.story. During October, 17801 it wreaked
havoc on many Caribbean is lands and completely dev- 1 he deadliest hurricane to strike the Western Hemisphere
astated a large fleet of British ships. The storm took the since the Great Hurricaneofl 780, which claimed approximately
lives of more than 27,000 sai lors and island residents. 27,000 lives in the eastern Caribbean, was Hurricane Mitch
in October, 1998. Mitch's high winds, huge waves (estimated
<1<n11....ifl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,.., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FIGURE 15.30 Visible satellite imageofTropic::alCyc:lone
Nargison May 2, 2008,asit begins to moveea!oh....ard over
the Bay o f Bengal tO\vard Myanmar {Burma}, \Vhere its storm
surge and floochvaters killed more than 140,000 people.
(The red dashed linessho\vthe path of Nargis..) Also, on the
image is the palh of TropicalCyc.lone Sidr {yello\v arro\vs}
that caused \vide· spread destruction in Bangladesh during
November, 2007.
maximwn height 44 ft). and torrential rains destroyed vast Because hurricane-force win(ls can extend a considerable
regions of coastal Central America (for Mitch's path, see distance on either side of where the storm is expected to make
Pig. 15.13, p. 435). ln the mountainous regions ofHonduras and landfall, a hurricane warning is i~sued for a rather large coastal
Nicaragua, rainfall totals from the storm may have reached area, usually about 500 km (3 10 mi) in length. Since the aver-
190 cm (75 in.). The heavy rains produced floods and deep age swath of hurricane damage i~ normally about one-third
mudslides that swept away entire villages, including the inthis length, much of the area is ''over-warned." As a conse-
habitants. Nlitc.h caused over $5 billion in damages, destroyed quence, many people in a warning area feel that they are need-
hundreds oft housands of homes, and killed over 11 ,000 people. lessly forced to evacuate. The evacuation order is given by local
More than 3 million people were left homeless or were otherwise authorities" and typically only for those low-lying coastal areas
severely aff~ted by thi~ Madly storm. directly affected by the storm surge. People at higher elevations
Are major hurricanes on the increase worldwide? Will or farther from the coast are not usually requested 10 leave, in
the inten~ity of hurricanes increase as the world "'arms? These part because of the added traffic problems this would create.
questions are addressed in the Focus section on p. 450. This issue has engendered some controversy in the wake of
liurricane Andre\''. -s ince its \\•inds \\rere so devastating over
inland south Florida during August, 1992. The time it takes to
complete an evacuation puts a special emphasis on the timing
Hurricane Watches, Warnings, and accuracy of the warning.
and Forecasts As Hurricane Katrina (.seen in Fig. 15.31) approaches land,
\\ill it intensify, maintain its strength, or weaken? Also, will it
With the aid ofship reports, satellites, radar, buoys, and recon- continue to move in the same direction and al the same speed?
nai~sance airt:raft, the location and intensity of hurricanes are Such questions have challenged forecasters for some time.
pinpointed and their movements c.arefully monitored. When a To forecast the intensity and movement of a hurricane,
hurricane poses a direct threat to an area, a hurricane watch is meteorologists use numerical weather prediction models,
issued, typically 24 1048 hours before the storm arrives, by the which are computer models that represent the hurricane and its
National Hurricane Center in Miami, Florida, or by the Pacific environment in a greatly simplified manner.
Hurricane Center in Honolulu, Hawaii. When it appears that Information from satellites, buoys, and reconnaissance air-
the storm will strike an area, a hurricane warning isissued(see craft (that deploy dropsondes" into the eye of the storm) are
ofig. 15.31). Along the east coast of North America, the warn-
ing is accompanied by a probability. The probability gives the "In the statt' o f New fersey. the Boord of c::ulnos and the Governor mu.st be
consuJtcd bt:fo rc an evacuation can be ordcra t
percent chance of the hurricane:~ center passing within 105 km
• 'Oropsondesart' inst runlent.s (radiosondes) that are dropped fron1 reconnaissanct'
(65 mi) of a particular community.11ie "'arning is designed to aircrolft into 3 s1onn. As the ins-trunll'nt descends. ii 1ne.lsU1\'.s and rdays dJhl o n
give residents ample time to secure property and, if n~essary, te1npern1urt'. pressure. and hu1nidi1y b.1ck to the aircraft. Alsooblllinedarc dota
to evacuate the area. conct'rning wind spel'd and wind dira:tion.
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,. ,..<d,,., .._,...~,,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl..1~..,'ll"""......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,...,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Hurricanes in a Warmer World
In the Focus section o n p. 446, we saw that e FIGURE 5

2005 was a record year for Atlan tic hurri- Sea-surface
tem perat ure
canes, with 27 named storms,. 15 hurricanes,
departures fro m
an d 5 storms reaching Category 5 statu s on the l\vel ve·
the Saffir-Simpson scale. Was the record hur- year average
rican e year 2005 related to g lobal warming? (1985-1997)on
We know th at hurrican es are fueled by May 30, 200S.
No tice that the
warm tropical water - the warmer the water,
darker the red,
the more fuel availabletodr ive th e storm. A the \varrn ~ Lhe
mere O.&C (lOF) increase in sea-surface tem- surface\vater.
peraturewill increase the ma.xi m um w inds of (NOAA)
a hurrican e by abou t 5 knots, ever ything else
being equ al.
During May, 2005, j u st before th e hurri-
can e season got under way, th e surface water
temperature over th e tropical North Atlantic
s •c
was considerablywarmer than normal (see
Fig. 5) . Moreover, stu dies conducted by th e
...-6 0
Ttrnl*OllUfe dwirltion 9 •F
National Cen ter for Atmosph eric Research

(NCAR) in Boulder, Colorado, found th at be- JO
tween June an d October, 2005, sea-surface

temperatures in th e tropical Atlantic were 25
about 0.9• C (l.6'F) warmer th an th e lon g-time
~•
(1901- 1970) average for th at region. Th e study 20
concluded th at abou t h alf o f th e warming
0 IS
(about 0.4°0 was du e to global warming
cau sed by increasing concen trations of
greenhouse gases in the atmosph ere. % 10
~
Th ese fin dings su ggest th at global warm-
ing (described more completely in Ch apter 16)
may h ave had an effect on th e inten sity o f
some storms an d o n th e number o f tropical
storms th at formed, since th e ocean surface
remained warmer th an n ormal well past
October. Interestingly, during th e hurrican e • FIGURE 6 The total number o f ttopical storrnsand hurricanes{red bars), hurrican esonl y~l lowbarsiand
season o f 2007, o nly one weak hurrican e Cat egory 3 hurricane.sorgreater {green bars) in the Atlantic Basin for the period 1851 t hrough 2011. INOAA)
(Humberto) made landfall in th e United
States, but two storms (Hurrican es Dean an d As sea -surface temperatures rise, w ill only been available since th e 1970s, w h en
Felix) reach ed Category 5 statu s over th e hurrica n es become more frequ en t? Pres- obser vation s from satellites became more
warm Caribbean Sea before weakening an d ently, th ere is n o c lear an swer to this q u es- exten sive. Sophisticated instrumen ts today
making lan dfall sou th of th e United State. tion as someclimate models pr edict mor e allow scien tists to peer into hurrican es an d
Climate mo<lels predict th at. as th e world hurrica n es, w h ereas oth ers p redict fewer examine t h eir structure an d w inds w ith
warms, sea-surface temperatures in th e trop- storms. Since th e earth 's surface isgr adu- mu ch greater clarity th an in th e past. Any
ics w ill rise by abou t 20( (3.6'F) by th e en d of allywa rming, are today's hurrican es mor e tren d in hurrican e frequ ency or inten sity
this century. Should th ese projections prove inten se th an th ose o f th e past? Several w ill likely become clearer w h en more reli-
correct, a hurrican e form ing in today's atmo- stu dies su ggest th at th e frequ ency o f able infor mation o n past tropical cyclon e
sph ere with maximum sustained w inds o f majo r hurrican es (Categor y 3 an d above) activity becomes available, especially from
130 knots (a stro n g Category 4 storm) could, in h as been increasing (see Fig. 6). th e o n going investigation o f sea sedimen t
the warmer world, h ave maximum sustained Th e probl em w ith th ese stu dies is th at cores, which h old clues to past tr opica l
w inds above 140 knots (a Category5storm). reliable records o f tropical cyclon es have cyclon e occurren ces.
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl<'l~'"''ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.....
o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
forecasting of hurricane intensity has shown little improve-
ment since the early 1990s.
To help predict hurricane intensity, forecasters have been
using statistical models that compare the behavior of the
pre.s ent storm with that of similar tropical storms in the past.
The results using these models have not been encouraging.
Another more recent model uses the depth of warm ocean
'"Iler in front of the storm's path to predict the storm's inten-
sity. Recall from an earlier discussion (p. 43 1) that if the res-
ervoir of warm water ahead of the storm is relatively shallow,
ocean waves generated by the hurricane's wind "'ll turbulently
bring deeper, cooler water to the surface. The cooler water
"'U cut off the storm's energy source, and the hurricane will
weaken. On the other hand, should a deep layer ofwarm water
exi~t ahead of the hurricane, cooler water will not be brought
to the surface, and the storm "111 either maintain its strength
or intensify, as long as other factors remain the same. So,
Hurricane
Katrina
• F I GURE 1S. 31 Hurricane Katrina over theGulf d A"exico\vilh su~tained

\vind.sof 126 knots (145 mVhr) on August 28, 2005,at I AM.CDT. The current
movement oft he storm is west ~northwest at 8 mi/hr. The dashed orange line
sho.vs the hurricane's projected path; the solid purple line. the hurricane's
actual path. Areas under a hurricane \'laming are in red. Those areas under a
hurricane watch are in pink. while those areas under a tropical storm \Yarning
a rein blue.
fed into the models. The models then forecast the intensity and
movement of the storm. There are a variety of forecast models,
each one treating some aspect of the atmosphere (such as evapo-
ration of water from the ocean~ surface) in a slightly different Humcane fo1~
moo.ls
manner. Often, the models do not agree on where the storm
will move and on how strong it will be. However, the models Projected
pall> Model
in use today are showing improvement in their forecasting of
hurricane movement (seee Hg. 15.32). EGRI
1 he problem ofdifferent models forecasting different paths NGPI
for the same hurricane has been addressed by using the method GF!JI
of ensembleforemsting. You may recall from Chapter 13, p. 354, GR>ll
that an ensemble forecast i~ based on running several forecast lCON
model~ (or different simulations of the same model), each be-
-
HWA
ginning with slightly different weather infonnation. lf the fore-
Irene's
cast model~ (or different versions of the same model) all agree ac<ual
palh
that a hurricane will move in a particular direct ion (astheydoin
Fig. 15.32) the forecaster will have confidence in making a fore-
cast of the storm's movement. If, on the other hand, the models
do not agree, then the forecaster will have to decide which model
(or model~) is m0-~t likely correct in forecasting the hurricane's
track.
1 he use of ensemble forecasting along \\1th bener forecast
models has helped raise the level of skill in forecasting hurri- Irene
cane paths. For example, in the 1970s, the projected position of
a hurric,tne three days into the future was off by an average of • FI GURE 15. 32 The projected path cl Hurricane Irene made by six. numeri~
708 km ( 440 mi). Today, the average error for the same forecast cal forecas t models on August 24, 2011. The models are in close agreement as
period has dropped to 278 km ( l 73 mi). Unfortunately, the to how l1enev1ill move along the coast of North America.
knowing the depth of warm surface water' ahead of the storm shortly after Hurricane Beulah was seeded with silver iodide,
is important in predicting whether a hurricane will intensify surfac-e pressure in theeye began to riseand theregion of maxi-
or \veaken. mum winds moved away from the storm's center. Even more
As new hurricane-prediction model~ with greater resolu- encouraging results \\'ere obtained from the multiple seeding
tion are implemented, and as our understanding of the nature of cL Hurricane Debbie in 1969. After one day of seeding, Debbie
hurricanes increases. forecasting hurricane intensification and showed a 30 percent reduction in maximum win<ts. But many
movement should improve. hurricanes that are not seeded show this type of behavior. So,
the question remains: Would the winds have lowered naturally
had the storm not been seeded? Several studies even cast doubt
uron the theoretical basis for thi~ kind of hurricane modifica-
Modifying Hurricanes tion because hurricanes appear to contain too little supercooled
'"'ter and too much natural ice. C'.onsequently, there are many
Because of the potential destruction and loss oflives that hurri- lmcert aintie,~ about the effectiveness of seeding hurricanes in
canes can inflict, attempt~ have been made to reduce their winds an attempt to reduce their winds, and all endeavors to modify
by seeding them "1th silver iodide. The idea is to seed the clouds hurricanes have been di~ontinued since the 1970s.
just outside the eyewall with just enough artificial ice nuclei so Other ideas have been proposed to weaken the winds of
that the latent heat given off will stimulate cloud growth in Lhis a hurricane. One idea is to place some form of oil (monomo-
area of Lhe storm. Thesedouds, which grow at the expense of the lecular film) on the water to retard the rate of evaporation and
eyewall thunderstorms,actually form a new eyewall farther away hence cut down on the release of latent heat insiM the cloud~.
from the hurricane'.~ center. (11ie process ofeyewall replacement Some sailors, even in ancient times, would dmnpoil into the sea
is described on p. 431.) As the storm center widen~. il~ pressure during stormy weather, claiming it reduced the winds around
gradientshould weaken, which may cause its spiraling winds to the ship. At this point, it'.~ interesting to note that a recent math-
decrease in speed. ematical study suggests that ocean spray has an effect on the
During project STORM FURY. a joint effort ofLhe National \\fads ofa hurricane. Apparently, the tiny spray reduces the fric-
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the tion bet\\<een the wind and the sea surface. C'.onsequently, \\1th
U.S. Navy, several hurricanes were seeded by aircraft. In 1963, the same pressure gradient, the more ocean spray, the higher
the winds. lfthis idea proves correct, limiting ocean spray from
•Sophistica1ed su1elli1e instru1ncntscarefuUy 1ne.l.sure oce:in height \\ hkh is trans· 1
entering the air above may reduce the storm's win<ls. Perhaps the
lated into ocean te1npcraturc beneath lhe sea surfoce. This infonnntion is 1hcn fed ancient sailors knew what they were doing after all.
into the tOrocast 1nodcls.
SUMMARY
Hurric<1nes are rropical cyclones wirh winds 1ha1 exceed srreamlines, 426 lropical depression, 43 1
64 knors (74 mi/ hr) and blow counrerdockwise abour rheir rropical wave (easrerly lropical srorm, 431
cenrers in rhe Norlhern Hemisphere. A hurricane consisrs wave), 426 hurricane hunler, 432
of a mass of organized 1hunders1orm~ 1ha1 spiral in roward hurricane, 426 Ekman rransporl, 438
!he exrreme low pre.~ureof rhe srormseye. '!be mosr inrense ryphoon, 426 srorm surge, 438
lhundersrorms, !he heavies! rain, and rhe highesr winds lropical cyclone, 426 Saffir-Simpson scale, 439
occur ourside !he eye, in !he region known as !he eyewall. ln eye (ofhurricane),426 super typhoon, 439
!he eye ilself, rhe air is warm, wind.~ are lighl, and skies may eyewall, 427 hurricane warch, 449
be broken or overcasr. trade vvind inversion. 430 hurricane warning, 449
Hurric<1nes (and all rropical cyclones) are born over eyewall replacemenr, 43 1
\\'Utm tropical \\•aters \\•here the air is humid. surfac.e\\•ind~
converge, and 1hunders1orms become organized in a
region of weak upper-level winds, weak vertical wind shear.
Surface convergence may occur along rhe ITCZ,on rhe easr-
ern side of a rropical wave, or along a fronr Iha! has moved I. Whal is a rropical (easrerly) wave? How do rhes e waves
inro rhe lropics from higher laliludes. If rhe disrurbance generally move in rhe Norlhern Hemi~phere? Are
becomes more organized, ii become.~ a lropical depre.~ion. showers found on rhe easrern or wesrern side of !he
If cenrral pressures drop and surface winds increase, !he \vave?
depression becomes a lropical srorm. Al !his poinr, I he 2. Why are srreamlines, ralher lhan isobars, used on sur-
srorm is given a name. Some 1ropicals1ormscon1inue 10 in- face " 'ealher maps in rhe rropics?
rensify inlo full-fledged hurricanes, as long as !hey remain 3. Whal is !he name given 10 a hurricane-like srorm Iha!
over warm waler and are nor disrupred by eilher srrong forms over rhe rropical western Norlh Pacific Ocean?
verlical wind shear or by a largelandmass.
4. Des cribe !he horizonral and verrical s1ruc1ure of a
The energy source 1ha1 drives rhe hurricane comes pri-
hurricane.
marily from rhe warm rropical oceans and from !he release
ofla1en1 heat A hurricane is like a hear engine in 1ha1 energy 5. Why are skies ofren dear or partly cloudy in a hurri-
for rhe srorm'.~ growrh is raken in al !he surface in !he form c•me:~ eye?
ofsensible and la1en1 hear, converred 10 kinericenergy in rhe 6. Whal condirions al !he surface and alofr are necessary
form ofwind~, lhen losr al rhedoud 10~ lhroughradiarional for hurricane development?
cooling. 7. Lisi lhree "rriggers" Iha! help in !he inilial srage of hur-
The easrerly winds in rhe rropics usually Siter hurri- ricane developmenl.
canes wesrward. l n !he Norrhern Hemisphere, m0-~1 srorm~ 8. (a) Hurricanes are sometimes described as a heal en-
!hen gradually swing norlhwesrward around !he sub1ropic<1l gine. Whal is rhe "fuel" Iha! drives !he hurricane>
high. If !he srorm moves inro middle la1i1udes, 1he prevail- (b) Whal derermines rhe maitimum slrengrh (!he
ing \vesterlies steer it northeast\\•ard. Because hurricanes highesl winds) Iha! !he slorm can achieve?
derive rheir energy from !he warm surface waler and from
9. Would ii be possible for a hurricane 10 form over land?
!he la1en1 hear of condensarion, !hey rend 10 dissipare rapidly
Explain.
when !hey move over cold waler or over a large mass of land,
where surface friclion causes !heir winds rodecrease and flow 10. If a hurricane is moving we~l\\'<trd al 10 knors, will rhe
inro !heir cenrers. s1ronges1 winds be on its norlhern or soulhern side?
Allhough rhe high winds of a hurric<1ne can inllicr a Explain. lf rhe same hurricane !urn.~ norrhward, will
grear deal of damage, ii is usually !he huge waves and rhe rhe slrongest winds be on its eastern or weslern side?
floodingassociared wirh rhe s1ormsurge1ha1cause 1hem0-~1 11. Whal facrors rend 10 weaken hurricanes?
desrruction and loss of life. The Sallir-Simpson hurricane 12. Disringuish among a rropical depression, a lropical
wind scale was developed 10 es1ima1e rhe po1en1ial desrruc- srorrn, and a hurricane.
tion that a hurricane can cause. 13. ln whar ""Ys is a hurricane differenl from a mid-
lalilude cyclone? In whal ""Ys are rhese lwo syslems
s imilar?
KEY TERMS 14. Why do m0-~1 hurricanes move wesrward over lropical
' lbe following rermsare lisred (wilh page numbers) in !he \vaters?
orderrhey appear in rhe rext Defineeach. Doing so wifi aid 15. If !he high wind.~ of a hurricane are nor responsible for
you in reviewing !he maleriakovered in rhis chaprer. inllicring !he mos! dmnage, whal is>
16. M0-~1 hurricane-related deaths are due to what? 7. You are in Darwin, Australia (on the north shore.), and
17. Explain how a storm surge forms. How does it inflict a hurricane approaches from the north. Where would
damage in hurricane-prone areas? the highest storm surge be, to the east or \\'l?St? Explain.
18. .t-lurricanes are given names \\•hen the storm is in v~·hat 8. Occasionally when a hurricane moves inland, it will
stage of development> encounter a mountain range. Describe what will hap-
19. When Hurricane Andrew moved over south Florida pen when this occurs. What will happen to the hurri-
during August, 1992, what was it that caused the rela- cane's int en sit y? What will cause the mO-St damage
tively small areas of extreme damage? (wind~. storm surge, flooding)? Why?
20. As Hurricane Katrina moved toward the Louisiana 9. Give several reasons how a hurricane that once began
COM!, it underwent eyewatl replacement. What actu- to weaken can strengthen.
ally happened to the e.yewall during this process? 10. Supp0-se a tropical storm in the Gulf of Mexico moves
westward across Central America and out over the
21. How do meteorologists foreca~t the intensity and path.s
of hurricanes? Pacific. lf the storm maintains tropical storm strength
the entire time, do you feet it should be given a new
22. How doe~ a hurricane watch differ from a hurricane
name over the Pacific? Explain your reasoning.
\Varning?
23. Why have hurricanes been seeded with silver iodide>
24. Give two reasons why hurricanes are more likely to PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES
strike New Jersey than Oregon.
I. A hurricane just off the coast of northern Florida is
moving northeastward, parallel to the eastern sea-
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT board. Supp<>se that you live in North Carolina along
the coast:
1. Why are North Atlantic hurricanes more apt to form in (a) I-low " ;ill the surface winds in your area change
October than in May? direction as the hurricane's center passes due etut
2. Would it be possible for a hurricane to form in of you? Jltustrate your answer by making a s ketch
the tropical North Atlantic or North Pacific during of the hurricane~ movement and the wind flow
December> Explain. around it.
3. Would the winds of a hurricane decreMe more quickly (b) If the hurricane passes east of you, the strongest
as the storm moves over cooler \'i'ater or O\r'er \\•armer \\1nds would most likely be blowing from which
land> Explain. dire.ction? fa:plain your an.~wer. (A~sume that the
4. Explain why the ocean surface water temperature is storm does not weaken as it move~ northeastward.)
usually cooler after the passage of a hurricane. (Hint: (c) The lowest sea-level pressure would most likely
1 he answer is not because the hurricane exw1cts heat occur with which wind direction? Explain.
from the water.) 2. (a) Use theSaffir-Simpson Murricane Wind Sc.ale (see
5. Supp0-se, in the North At~antic, an eastward-moving 'fable 15.3, p. 44 1) to determine the category of
ocean vessel is directly in the path of a westward- Hurricane Elena (Fig. 15.2, p. 427).
moving hurricane. What would be the ship's wisest (b) Would Hurricane Elena be classified as a major
course-to veer to the north of the storm or to the hurricane?
south of the storm? Explain.
(c) lf Elena w<ts over the western Pacific, would it be
6. Suppose this year five tropical storm~ develop into full- classified as a super typhoon>
fledged hurricanes over the North Atlantic Ocean.
Would the name of the third hurricane begin with the
letter 0. Explain.
GEOSCIENCE • rt Go to the Statistics section of the Global Environment Watch: Meteorology
portal and examine the charts "Cyclone Nargis: Total Affected Population by Township" and "Cyclone Nargis: Percent
Affected Population by Township." Whal are the main differences bet ween the 1wo chart~? How might you go about combin-
ing information from these two charts to assess which of the four districts were most and least affected?
ONLINE RESOURCES
'if:tl well as additional resources, including vid~ exercises, practice quizzes, an interactive eBook, and more.
?'''!
Earth's Changing Climate

CONTENTS
Reconstructing Past Climates
Clim ate Throughout the Ages
A change in our climate how ever is t aking place very
sensibly. Both heat s and colds are becoming much
more moderat e w ithin the memory even of the middle·
Temperature Trends During the Past 1OOO Years
Temperature Trends During the Past l OO·Plus Years aged. Snows are less frequent and less deep. They do not
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC o ften lie, below the mount ains, more than one, two, or
The Ocean~ Influence on Rapid Climate Change
Climate Change Caused by Natural Events three days, and very rarel y a week. They are remembered
Climat e Change: Feedback Mechanisms t o have been formerly frequent, deep, and of long contin·
Climate Change: Pl ate Tectonics
and Mountain Building uance. The elderly inform me the ea rth used t o be cov·
Climat eChange:Variations in Earth's Orbit ered wit h snow about three months in every year. The
Climate Change: Variations in Solar Output
Climate Change: Atmospheric Particles rivers, w hich then seldom failed t o freeze ov er in the
Climat e Change Caused by Human (Anthropogenic) course of the winter, scarcely ever do now. This change
Activities
Climate Change: Aerosols Inj ected int o the Lower has produced an unfortunat e fluctua tion between hea t
At mosphere and cold, in the spring of the year, w hich is very fat al t o
Climate Change: Increasing Levels of Greenhouse
Gases fruit s. In an interval oftwenty· eigh t years, there w as no
Climate Change: Land Use Changes inst ance of fruit killed by the frost in the neighborhood of
FOCUS ON AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE: Monticello. The accumulated snow s of the w in ter remain ·
Nuclear Winter , Cold Summers, and Dead Dinosaurs
Clima te Change: Global Warming ing t o be dissolved all t ogether in the spring, produced
Recent Global Warming: Perspective those overflowings of our rivers, so frequen t then, and so
rare now.
The Sahel-An Example of CU matlcVarlabllity and
Human Existence
Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Wrginia, 1781
Future Climate Change: Projections
The Extremes of 2011: Did CUmate Change Play a Role?
Climate Models-A Quick Glance
Consequences of Climate Change: The Possibilities
Ozone and the Ozone Hole: Their Influence on Climate
Change
Clim ate Change: Efforts to Curb
Clim ate Change: A Final Note
Summary
Key Terms
Questions for Review Foc:ingpoge:A pine tree appears to stand vigil ow ra mass
Questions for Thought of granite once covered \vith hundreds of meters
of sl~vty moving ice and sno\v.
457
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J ,,.. .l....wod,"' "f>Jko•in ...... fl<o: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb."*'"' llo.nl poo-1)' •.,,..,. ""1 W "'l••-..i ......,h ~dl ... :.1J\o .0."l'nV I f:1W....rt..,1•" '!....
.._,.,..,,....,"'\'f11»<'1"''"... ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~""'""~c~'llct~...'tl""'......, fl~•<t!"- .,,..,....,:.11,....,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. o<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
he climate is alwuys changlng. Evidence shows that cti-
T mate has changed in the past, and nothing >11ggcsts that

it will not continue to change. As the urban environment
grows, its dimutt' diffors from thnt of the region around it.
Reconstructing Past Climates
Not only is earth's climate always changing, but o mere
Sometime> the difference is >triking, as when city nights are 18,000 years ago the earth was in the grip of a cold spell, with
warmer than the nights of the outlying rural ureas. Other times, alpi11e glacier> extending their icy finger> down river val lcys
the difference is subtle, ns when a layer of smoke and haze and huge ice sheets (co11ti11e11tal gladers) covering vast areas of
rovers thecilyorwhen thectim.ueofarelativelysmall area- the North America and Europe (see• Fig. 16.2). The ice al that time
microclimate- beconll'S modified by the light and warmth of measured several kilometers thick and extended as far south
a city street lan1p (see • Fig. 16. l ). Climate ch., nge, in the form us New York and the Ohio River Valley. Pcrhap; the gbciers
ofa per>ist•nt drought or a deb)' in the annual monsoon rains, advanced 10 times during the Inst 2.5 million years, only to
can adversely affect the lives of millions. £ven small changes retreat. In the warmer periods. betw1.-en glacier advances, aver-
can ha\1' an adverse effect when averaged owr many )""'J"S. age global temperatures were slightly higher than at present
as when grasslands once U>L'<I for grazing gradually become Hence, some scientists feel that we are still in an ice age, but in
uninhabited deser~. the comparatively warmer part ofil
Climate change 6 talting place right now as the world is Presently, glaciers cowr less than 10 percent of the earth's
warming at an alanning rate. Consequently, in the Northern bnd surface. The total \'Olume of ice o\'Cr the fucc of the ea.rtb
Hemisphere, polar >ea ice does not extend as fur south as it amounts to about 25 million cubic kilometers. Most of thls ice
once did, Gremland ice is mclting rapidly. and sea level is rising is in the Greenland and Antarctic ice shects, and itsaccumula·
world,,~de. lbe main cause of this type of climate chanll" ap· lion over time has allowed scientists to m..-usure past dlmll ic
pears to be human (anthropogenic) 3A:1 ivitics. We \\ill, therefore, changes. If global temperatures wt.'re to rise enough so that all
first lookat the evidence for climate diangc in the past; then, we of this ice melted. the levcl of the OCt111l would rise about 65 m
will inve>tigatc thecaui.esofclimatechangedUI.' to both na.tural (213ft) (see e fig. 16.3). lmagine thccatastrophic results: Many
variations and human lntervention. major cities (such as New York, Tok-yo. and London) wollkl be
inundated. Even a rise in global temperature of several degrees
Celsius might be enough Lo raise sea level by a meter or more,
flooding coastal lowlands.
1bestudy of the i,oeologic.il evidence left behind byodvanc-
ing and retreating glaciers is one factor suggesting that glob:i.l
climate has undergone slow but continuous changes. 'lb rccon·
strucl past climates, scientists must examine and then carefully
piece together all the available evidence. Unfortunately, the evi-
dence only gives a gener;tl understanding of what past climates
were like. For exarnple, IOssil pollen ofa tundra plant collected in
a layer ofsediment in New England and dated to be L2.000 years
old suggests that the climate ofthat region was much colder than
it is today.
Other evidence of glob:i.l climatic change comes from
core samples taken from ocean Ooor sediments and ice from
Greenland and Antarctica. A multiuniversity n'Search projl'Ct
known as C UMAP (Oimate: long-range investigation map·
ping and prediction) studied the past million )'Cats of global
climate. lhousands of meters of ocean sediment obtnined with
a hollow-centered drill wereanal)'Zed. This sc.'tlimeot cootninl'd
the remains of calcium carbonate shells of org:inisms that once
(i,..,.( near the surface. Because certain organisms can only liw
within a narrowrangeof tempctnturt, the distribution and type
of organisms within the sediment indicate the temperature of
the surface water.
In addition, the OJ<ygen-isotope• ratio of these shells pro-
vided information about the sequence of glacier advances. For
example. most of the oxygen in sea wattt is composed of 8 pro·
• F IGURf 16.1 Akering the miCtOCtirNtt. Hotlca tn thepecu.ue that the tons and 8 neutrons in its nucleus. giving it an atomic woght
leavei arestllootheUMONI lhewtt'llQht. Applrmtl~ thh.sodil.m vacxx
lamp emit! enoo~ wwmth •rd llghl duri"9 lhe night to t ride the ieavesinto "hotop.rs ar.r atoms. "--bow nudd hlll\·.r 1hr S3111C numbti of protons bu1dlfftmu
behaving .n dii \W:Je Sepiembes 11the. th.a.n 1hemldcUe ol November. numbers of neutrons..
(a) (b)
• F I GURE 16. 2 Extent o f glaciation about 18,000 yearsago over (a) North Am erica and over (b) \vestern Europe.
of 16. However, about one out of every thousand oxygen atoms was able to recon.~truct the earth~surfaceocean temperature for
contains an extra 2 neutrons, giving it an atomic weight of 18. various times during the past (see• Fig. 16.4).
When ocean w:Jler evaporates, the heavy oxygen 18 tends to be Vertical ice cores extracted from ice sheets in Antarctica and
left behind. Consequently, during periods of glacier adv:mce, Greenland provide additional information on past temperature
the ocean.~. which contain less water, have a higher concen- patterns. Glaciers form over land where temperatures are suffi-
tration of oxygen 18. Since the shells of marine organisms are ciently low so that, during the course of a year, more snow falls
constructed from the oxygen atoms existing in ocean water, de- than "111 melt. Successive snow accumulations over many years
termining the ratio of oxygen 18 to oxygen 16 within these shells compact the snow, which slowly recrystallizes into ire. Since ice
yield~ information about how the climate may have varied in the is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, examining the oxygen-
past. A higher ratio ofoxygen 18 to oxygen 16 in the sediment isotoperatio in ancient cores provides a past record of temperature
record suggests a colder climate, whereas a lower ratio suggests trend~. Generally, the colder the air when the snow fell, the richer
a warrnerdimate. Usingdatasuch as these, the CU MAP project the concentration of oxygen 16 in the core. Moreover, bubbles
• FI GURE 16.3 lfall theicelocked up in

gladersand ice sheets \o.ere to melt.. estimat es
are that this coastal area o f south Fl orida\vould
be under65 m (213 ft} of\Yater. Even a relat ively
sm allone ~m eter ri se in sea level \'JOuld threaten
half o f the world's population \Vith ri sing seas.
In fact, lat est research suggests sea level \oAll rise
one m eter o rmo reby theend of thiscentury
d ue to the rapi d melting o f ice in Greenland and
A ntarctica.
CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION What do
you feel
would be the main factors determining
how far ocean water moves i nland in this
region of south Flori da if sea level were to
rise about half a meter?
• FIGURE 16.4
fa} Sea surface isotherms
(9Qduring August
18.000 years ago and
(b)during August today.
During the Ice Age {diagram
a} the Gulf Stream (heavy
red arro\v} shifted toa more
easterly dj rect ion, de priv·
ing northern Europe o( its
\Varmth and producing
a strong north.,to-south
ocean surface temperature
gradienl
(a) 18.000 years ago (b) Today
<i ancient air trapped in the ice can beanaly,ed to determine the reconstruct past temperatures of the Great Lake.~ region. As
past composition of the atmosphere (see • l'ig. 16.1 5, p. 470). the otoliths grow, they extract oxygen from the lake water. 'Jl1e
Ice cores a Lo;o record the causes of di mate changes. One such oxygen-isotope ratio then provides scientists with information
cause is deduced from layers of sulfuric acid in the ice. The sul- on changes in water temperature over the life ofthe fish, whether
furic acid originally came from large volcanic explosions that in- it died last week or 10,000 years ago.
jected huge quantities of sulfur into the stratosphere. 1he result- Still other evidence of climatic change comes from the
ingsulfate aerosols eventually tell to the earth in polar regions as study of annual growth rings of trees, caUed dendrochronol-
acid snow, which was preserved in the ice sheets. 'Jhe Greenland ogy. As a tree grows, it produce.~ a layer of wood cell~ under its
ice cores aLo;o provide a continuous record ofsulfur from human bark. Each year's growth appears as a ring. The changes in thick-
sources. Moreover. ice cores at both poles are being analyzed for ness of the rings indicate climatic changes that may have taken
many chemicals that provide records of biological and physical place from one year to the ne.xt (see • Fig. 16.5). 'lbe density of
changes in the climate system, such asa beryUium isotope( '0 Be) late growth tree ring~ is an even better indication of changes
that indicates solar activity. Various types of dust collected in the in climate. The presence of frost rings during particularly cold
cores indicate whether the climate was arid or wet. period~ and the chemistry ofthe wood itselfprovide additional
Scientists are even using the calcium carbonate material information about a changing climate. Tree rings are only use-
that forms into tiny stones (ot.olit!rs) in the inner ears of fish to ful in regions that experience an annual cycle and in trees that
are stressed by temperature or moisture during their growing
season. 'Jhe growth of tree rings has been correlated with pre-
cipitation and temperature patterns for hundreds of years into
the past in various regions of the world.
Other data have been used to reconstruct past climates,
such as:
I. records of natural lake-bottom sediment and soil deposits
2. the study of pollen in deep ice caves, soil deposit~. and sea
sediments
3. certain geologic evidence (ancient coal beds, sand dunes,
and fossils), and the change in the water level of closed
basin lakes
4. documents concerning droughts, floods, crop yields, rain,
snow, and dates of lakes freezing
5. the study of oxygen-isotope ratios of corals
6. dating calcimn carbonate layers of stalactites in caves
7. borehole temperature profiles, which can be inverted to give
records of past temperature change at the surface
8. deuterium (heavy hydrogen) ratios in ice cores, which indi-
• FI GURE 16. 5 Thewidthof tree rings repr~ ntth eamoun l of time each cate temperature changes
year thal conditions \'.ere favorable for treegre7\vth. The\vidth of tree rings
a nd the ratio o f the light earty\vood to the darker later \Vood is controlled by
£ven "1th all of this knowledge, our picture of past climates
a numberof factors. In dry regions.. the dominant factor may be precipitation, isstill incomplete. Withthisshortcominginmind, we will exam-
\vhereas at high latitudes or high elevations, it may be temperature. ine what the information gained about past climates does reveal.
C'1')'rif• ) ) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' ..... buq10.U . ......................... " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, "" "'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i., ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll"""......, .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
---- --------- WEATHER WATCH
Climate Throughout the Ages The first sophistlc•lfd human dvlllutions, such •s lhose
in China, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, dev•toped during the
lhroughout much of thtearth's history, the global dunatewas djmate period known as the mid-Holocene mulmum
probably much w•rmer than it is tod.iy. Dunng rno;t of this (about 6000 years ago), most likely bocouse the relative
timt, the pobr rtg10n> wttt frtt of ice. 1htSt comparatl\orly warmth of this era allowed for tht systtmodc cultlvalion
warm con di lions, hO\\'<\'tr, wttt interrupted by ICV<!ral ptriods of crops and the- crt1tlon of towns and clti•s..
cf gbciallon. Gtologictvdtncesu~tsthat mtglacal ~od
occurttd •bout 700 million )·eanago (m.y.a.)and anoth<!r about
JOO m.).a. 1~ most rtecnt onc-tM Pki11"'"" tpoch or. sim- the Younger Dryas•) ended abruptly and 1empera1ures rose
ply, tM ltt Agt -btgan about 2.5 m.y.a. Ltts swnmariu' 1111.' rapidly in many areas. Beginning about 8000 y.a. the mean
dimauccondillms that led up toth. Pl.-1>tocenr lempaature dropped by as much h 2'C O\tr central Europe.
About 65 m.y.a., the earth was wJrm<r than 11 "' now; During this cold period. which \\':IS not e>peneoced world"idt,
polar ice cap> dJd not txist. Begmning about 55 m.y..i., thc earth the Europe;in alpine timbcrbne fell about 200 m (600 ft).1he
entered a long cooling trend. After milhons of yo.-ars, polar ice cold period ended, tempernturcs began lO rU4', and by about
appeared. A> a\Trnge temperatures continued to lower, the 6000 v.a. the continentnl ice shecb O\Tr North America "'ttt
ice grtw th1d<er, and by about 10 m.p. • derp blanket of ict gone.'This worm speO dunng the curren1 in1ergladal period,
awered the Antarctic.Mtanwhilt,snow anti 1ctbeg;in to 3CCu- or Holocene epoch. is sometimes called the mid -Holocene
mulate in high mountain '"'Ueys of the Northern l ltm»plk're. maximum, and bec:ausethi;worm period favor.Othedt\orlop-
and alplnr glaocrs >Oon appeared. mentofplan!S, it isaboknown astM d11naticop11'"um. About
About 25 m.y.a.. continentll glaciers •ppcartd 1n th. 5000 y.a.a cooling trend set in, duralg \\h1Ch extcnsh-r alpine
N«them Hem~phere,m:riJng thebeginnutgoftht Jllastocme glaciers tt1umtd, but nOI conuncnulgl.icirrs.
epoch. 'TM Pbtocene. "°""'·er, was nOl a pmod of ronllnuous It is inlercsting to note that ice c0tt J;iu from Greenland
glaoaum but a tme "itcn gbciers alternately od'l':lnced and~ reveal that rapid shift> in clmate (from 1.:t •ge condiuons to
tn.,.ed (mdted b.1<k) owr huge porlloM of North America and a much warmer state) took plJ« 1n ru. bttle a> thrtt years O\'l'f
l:urope. Between the gbci:il advanres ""'r.-.-Jrm<T periods cili..d central Greenland •round the end of the roungrr Oryas. ·1he
interglacial periods, which lasted for 10,000 )'l'af> or more. data also reveal that similar rapld shifts in dirn.1te occurred sev·
It wa. once thought that interglacial periods repre>ented er al limes toward the end of the Ice Age. What coukl cause such
t\ more •tnble type of climate. w1Jikc the lnrge dimntc varin· ropicl changes in temperature? One po>.,ible explanation h given
tion• cxpcriencccl during the coklcr pnrt of the Ice Age. llut in the Focu..section on p. 463.
nnn lysls of Grccnlnncl ice cores suggc1ts that the wnrm &111i1111
i1in.,.g/11cl11/ pct'IOJI (which lnstcd 19,000 years from 133,000 to TEMPERATURE TRENDS DURIN G THE PAST1000 YEARS
I 14,000 yeM• ng()) may h~we includt'<l l\\•O major cold ;,pcUs, • Figure 16.7 shows how the aver%"' •urfocc air tempera·
lasting 2000 ycnr. and 6000 year>. Some >dentists >peculate. lure changed in the Northern I lcmi>phere during the ia •t
however, that the coolu1g may repre>ent a .>hifl in the location of
Crccnbnd'i. moisture •llJ'ply (which would change the oxygen-
ii.otope ratio) rather than actual coohng>. astheStcold ~ls do
nol show up 1n the Antm:tic ace cott ttconl.
1hc most ttcent North AmtriOUl glaorn n>•chcd lhca'
nwumwn thicknrs. :and a lent abOUI IS.000-22.000 )T'1n ago
()'.3.). At that time, O\·rrage lt'mpcratures m Crttnland wer...
about JO'C (IS•f) lower than at pr=nt and tropic.ii "'"rai!C
ttmprratures were about 4•C (7"1-1 lowtr than the") are 1oday.
Bcciuse a gre•t deal of w;tcr was Ill tht form of ice over land.
St3 k.-vel was perhap> 120 m (395 ft) lower than 11 I> now "!he
lower i.ca lr\orl t.xpostd vas1 areas of land, i.uch as 1hc Btrmg
/11111/ bolgt (a strip ofland that connl'Cled Sd,.,ria to Ala>ka as
shown In Fig. 16.20). which allo"ro hwnnn and unimal migrn· ~ ~ I' 12 10 8' I ' 0
lion from Asin to North A.mtricu. T""'-'da ol ~ IQO
·1M itt 111.'g"" lo rttrca1 about 11,000 y.a. as surface tern·
per.iturei. i.lowly rose. producing • w•m1 spell called the • FIGURE 16.6 Relltiw•ttetnpetn.ttevat ..torn, r..,"*Mtd<oc:Nf P9"
Bollmg-AUcrod period c- • Fig. 16.6). 'Then, about 12,700 y.a.. nocb I during the past 11#)() )W ""The W dlt4 M\ilCh flP"t JS'lt ti' mpsMu,.
recllfdscompiled from •v.tttyol tollat'" ~ 9ftM Mt ~on ol tlm
the a>rrag<' temptralure wddenly dropped anti northe<lstern
--dwngedom•"'9'0'>oilho_ ld..,._edocoolN,1ondot'*
Nunh Amrric. •nd northttn Europe rn-erted 00.Cli. to gl.icial ft!9I01S •wanning dwt elhe-tpt««Md Of MOl)t'd a.tund dw tllnpttJCU,.
condiuons About 1000 )Tars la1er. the <old i.ptll (known as ~shown ... thedllgqm
•
Ct'll'l\l¥~lJt· ..,,,a.-,.-.a-.•••-~~-•IM_.......- ......................,,.,_.,_.,.__..,....._....,_. _ _ _ ..,..._ _,.• ._..,..,..i.lllll...,,•1..._,.._._
...,,.., ....., ...,......... _,..,.,.,._......_.... _,.........,. ..,.._.c..., •.'--.-••••t.•-...i-..i-•..., -•..,-.--.. -·-~-..-•
19th centuries. This cooling wao •ignificant enough In ccrtuin
' T ...-T ureas to allow alpine glaciers to increase in >ize nnd ndv,111cc
NORIHERN HEMISPHERE do'''" river canyons. In many nrea.\ in Europe, \Ylnt.:r& \\'et!!
0.5 long and severe; summer>. short and wet. Ihe vineyard; In
E England vanished, and farming became hnpouiblc in the
more northern latitudes. Cut off from the rc~t of the world
~ 00 by an advancing ice P"d<. the Viking colony U1 Greenland per·
~ ished. • There is no e\'idence that tlu> cold ~pell tx.t>tcd world
•
~ ..;de. How.-.n, O\"er Europe. t1us cold penod has cornc IO be
l-(l5 knownast~ Littlc lcc Age.
,_ TEMPERATURE TRENDS DUR ING THE PAST t OO· PLUS

-10
YEARS lnthteady 1900s,thta\wa~glob;ihurfacctnnpcra
tuttb~ lO rise (Stt • Fig. 16.8). NOIJcc that. from .ibout 1900
IOCO 1200 llOO llOO 2000 to 1945, tht averagc tmipttatutt n>5C nnrli· OSC. l'ollow1ng
y- tht wannerpcriod. thtca.rth began to cool >light I)' owr thc nut
25 )ttrs or so. la thc late 1960sand 19i0s. t~ cooling trcnd
• FIGURE 16.7 Tho-•-u••--lhthon'- mdtdO\'er mostoftht :-lorthttn Hl'mlSf'hcn'. In thc m1d·l9i'O-.
Hemdphe.,.b 1tww11coo,.... ,...._.,0N 1M1 I01990M4,.lJ9o a wanning trend srt in that continucd into thc t""nl)'·flr>t
lnel. Y..ty ltmf*MU.. dah flO'ft llW 9'"9\. cOfltt,,. M» CCl9", tnd MtOACll
century. In fact, O\ntht Northern HcmUphcn'. thrdt.:a«of
r«On:b•flflhown in b'Hl. YtM1 "'mJ*.. Uf9 d.tCI ffOfn Nrrnomm" M
in ted..l'hebl.a.lner.-Mnl.l• tm00lh1noof tN d.ca ClM9flY' \iwdft9 thc 1990s was tht wannest of thr lOth ccnlur)'. "1th 1998 and
repreenu11iWtlM.<All9S~c.,..lconfwiknat ranve W\ 1M..-nutl • .,.,._,.,,,., 2005 being the warmest )'e:lrS 111 O\'Cr 1000 )'Cars It appral')
...... w1Monn.ttll.1999J ISc>I""' Adopetdhom0.,,.11°""'90 2001 that the increase in a\nagr tcmpcraturc txpt'rl<tlcc<l over the
The Scienur.c Bati~ 200 I. by JT -9ht on " 11 Cowrigl>t ~ 200 I C. ..., rid9e Northern Hemisphere during thr 20th century a> hkcly to h3vc
UniVl'fS.CyP~ Af$>fi"llt'd Wflh .,..m.won of..,. tn1••0Ch•nMW111IPIMI O'I
bem the largest increase in troipcraturc of any ccnturyJunng
Ci""''*~
the past 1000 yea.s.
111c average wanning experienced overt he globe, however,
1000~'l'ar..'1 h ednia needed wrccon•tru<t the temperature ha.<not b een uniform. The greatc>t warming ha> ocrnrrcd In the
profile in Pig. 16.7 come> from n vurlcty of .ourcc!>, including an:tic and over the mid · L1titudccontinen1> in winter mad oprinllo
tree rings, coral>. k:e cores, hi>tork:nl record>, and thermom- \\•herea.~ a fe\\! areas have not \\ nr1nc<l in recent dcc:odc). ~ulh
1
eters. Notice thnt nbout 1000 y. n., the Nort hern 1lcmisphcre as areas of the oce-.t11s in the Southern I lcml;phcre und p:1rts
was slightly cooler thnn uverngc (where nvcrngc represents the of Antarctica. 1bc United Sll\tes has experienced less wurnllng
average tcmpemture from 1961 to 1990). I lowcwr, ccrtllin re· than the re$t of the world. Mort'Ovcr, mo>t of th~ \\'lltmh1K hus
gions in the Northern I lcmi>phcrc were wnrmcr thnn others. occurred at night -asituntion that h.'\Slcngtlicnc,lthdruot ·frL'C
For cxnmple, during thh time vincynrcb flouri>hed nnd wine seasons in many mid- and high-latitude region>. although, In
was produced in Ungl.ind, indJc,1tlng wnrm. dry summers recent decades, the warming ha> bt-cn cqunlly di>tributcd bL~
and the absence of cold oprlng>. 'I hh rcL1tively worm, tran- t \Wen day and nighL
quil period of sewrnl hundr<'tl years owr Weotem Europe is The changes in air temperature shown in Ftg. 16.8 •arc de
oometimes referred to in that n'l!lon a; t~ Mtd1evul Climatic rived from three main sources: air temperature• owr Lind , 1ur
Optimum. It was du ting t~ early part of tht nullennium that temperatures over ocean, and sea ~urfacc tcmpcroturc!>. 'Ihere
Viking> coloruud led.ind ond Grttnbnd and traveled to are, how"'"'• uncertainties in l~ tl!nlf>CrotUtt record 1'0< tx·
North Ameril:ot. ample, during lhis timr period ttet>tding ~;,taon) hJ\'e mO\'Cd.
Nob« in Hg. 16.7 th•t the tempt1'.ltutt curw <hows• and ttthniques for measuring temp<!ratutt ha'" \'iltled. Al;o.
rdalh~ w:irm pcnod duru-.i th• I Ith to the I-Ith ccncuncs- marintohs.!ningstationsan scarcc. In adwllon. urbi11uatt0n
rdati''dv w:irm, bu! >till cooler than the 20lh untur)' Dunng (espttidy in de-.-dopro nalioos) knd> to aru6cfall) ,...,., a\tt•
this timt. the ttl.11.1\·dy m~d cbmae of \\'e<tern f.urope began all" tanpaatures as cities gro" (thc urban heat &bnd dfm),
to sh°" latgll' \':lrlaUon;.. fur ....~I hundttd )nt'S the di=te
grew stormy. Boch gr.at Rood. ;and grnt drouliltL> O<curml. 'A"""'bdimur dw>gir pia...i • nNr '" . . d<- .. lh< \'"'lnf <olo19 •n
Extmnd)• cold wmt.cn Wm.' fuliu..ed b) ttbtl\'c:ly warm ones. rw::utban Gttmlud. it••
do tbHr _...,"' IO A4&.pc IO 1b.: '-la.iuw ••d tu~ .1rn
During Lht cold $pl'lb. the l:.ngluh ''"t') ud. and the Vilung lmmega..d bmw>g..a....qUH&om lh<E..k.mo> dwl W lo llKv .i.- ,. ..
settlemtnts suffcnd. Eu~ o.~nmced ~·tt'.ll faml'les dur-
ing tht IJOOS. WEATHER WATCH
Again look at Hg. 16.7 and ol»er'" that t~ !llorthcm
Winters were so cold over North Amtrka during the
Hmtisphl'tt experienced a .light cooling during t~ ISlh to 1700s that soldiers in the Revolutionary War were oble to
-Tiw N•tiOn.al Academy d S..im..t pubhJrd a tr'f'>l1 01>1nJ'lnn1 ihr \il:orl in drag cannons across the frozen Upper New York Bay from
Rg.16.7to 1Nny01hr1 tfa.J1-..if\lclin.h ,. titlf1'1C:l&ll.l<t.Cll.1111g lhC' J'll•l IOOO)'UN.. Staten Island to Manhattan.
.id foond th111hty all (&ol't bliJcaUy 1ht tanw l'l"ll.llh.
The Ocean's Influence on Rapid Climate Change
During the last glacia l period, th eclima te

around Greenland (and p robably other
areas of the world, such as n orthern
Europe) undeiwent shifts, from ice-age
temperatures to m uch warmer conditions
in a matter of year s. W hat could bring
about such large fluctuations in tempera-
ture over such a short period of time?
It now appears that a vast circulation of
ocean water, known as th e conveyor belt,
plays a major role in the c limate system.
Figure 1 illustrates the mOYement of
the ocean con veyor belt. or thermohaline
circulation.* The conveyor-like c irculation
begins in th e n orth Atlantic near Greenland
and Iceland, w here salty surface water is • F I GURE 1 The ocean conveyor bell. In the No rth Atlantic, cold, sally wat er sinks. d ra\ving
\Yarm \Yater north \Yard from lo\ver latitudes.. The \Yarm \Valer provides\varrnth and mo isture for
cooled through contact w ith cold Arctic air
theair above. w hich i s t hen S\Vept into northern Europe by\Yesterly\Yinds that keep t he c limate o f
masses. The cold, dense water sinks and that region milder than o ne\voukl no rmallye.xpect. When the conveyor belt stops. wintersa ppar-
flows south ward through the deep A tlantic entl y turn much colder over northern Europe.
Ocean, a round Africa, and into th e In dian
and Pacific Oceans. that the g iant con veyor belt has switched the St. Lawrence River and into the North
In the North Atlantic, the sinking o f cold on and off during the last glacial period. Atlant ic. This massive inflow of freshwater
water draws warm water northward from Such events haveapparentlycoincided may have reduced the salinity (and, hen ce,
lower latitudes. As this water flows north- w ith rapid c hanges in c limate. For example, density) of the surface water to the point
ward, evaporation increases thewater's w hen the con veyor belt is strong, winters that it stopped sinking . Th e con veyor may
salinity (dissolved salt content) and density. in nor thern Europe tend to be wet and rel - have shut down for about 1000 year sd ur-
When this salty, dense water reaches the far atively mild. However, when the conveyor in gwhich t ime severe cold eng ulfed mu ch
regions of the North Atlantic, it gradually belt is weak o r stops altogether. w inters in of nor thern Eu rope. The con veyor belt
sinks to g reat depths. T his warm part of the northern Europe appear to turn much possibly sta rted up again w hen fresh water
conveyor delivers an incredible amount of colder. This switching from a period of began to drain down the M ississippi rather
tropical heat to the northern Atlantic. Dur- milder w inters to one of severe cold shows than into t he Nor th Atlantic. It was during
ing thewinter, this heat is transferred to up many times in the climate record. this t ime t hat mild er conditions returned
the OYerlying atmosphere, and evaporation O ne such event - the Younger Dr yas- to nor thern Europe.
moistens the air. Strong westerly w inds then illustrates howquicklyclimatecan change Will increasing levels of (01 have an
carry this warmth and moisture into northern and howwestern and nor thern Europe's effect on the con veyor belt? Some climate
and western Europe, where it causes w inters climate can cool w ithin a matter of dec- models pr edict that asC0 1 levels increase,
to be much warmer and wetter than one ades, then quickly return back to milder more precipitation w ill fall over the North
would normally expect for this latitude. conditions. Atlantic. T his situation reduces the density
Ocean sed iment records along with Appar ently, o ne mechanism that can of the sea water and slows down the con-
ice""<:ore r ecords from Greenland suggest switch the con veyor belt off is a massive "'yor belt. In fac~ if CO, levels double (from
influ x of freshwater. For example, about its currentva lue), computer models predict
.,. her mo hali ne circulations are ocea n c ircu lat ions
11 ,000 years ago during the Younger thatthe con veyor belt w ill slow and that
produced byd ifferencesin temperatureand/or
salinity. Changes in ocean \vat er temperature or Dryas event, freshwater from a huge Europe w ill not warm as much as the rest
salinity c reate c hanges in water dens ity. glacial lake may have started to flow down of the world.
although nighttime warming effec!S have been removed from rontinued, bul h'l~ increased lo aboul 2.0-C (3.6°F) per century.
the dala in Fig. 16.8. 'faking all oflhis information inloaccounl, Look at Fig. J 6. 8 and observe l hal although lhe global le.mpera-
along with improved sea-surfac.e lemperatures, the warming lure trend was relatively flal during l he dec<1de from 2000 lo
duringlhe 20th centurymeasure-~ about 0.6•C (aboul i• F). Over 2009, l hal dec<1de w'l~ warmer than lhe decade of the 1990s,
the past several decades lhis global warming trend has not only whic.h in lurn was warmer than the dec<1de of the 1980s.
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• F I GURE 16.8 The orange and blue bars rep·
resent the annual average tempera ture variations
overtheglobe (land and sea) from 1880 through 0 .6
20t 1. Temperaturechangesarecompared to the
.. Annual average change
average surface tempera ture from 195 1- t980. 5-year average change
The dark solid line sh"'vs the fi ve-year averag e
-0 0.4
temperature change. (NA SA} '!..
~ 0.2
lij
.<=
" 0
&
B
~ -0.2
,9! -0.4
-0.6
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Year
A global increase in temperature ofO. 6"C may seem small, 22,000 years ago and disappeared completely from North
but global temperatures probably have not varied by more than America by about 6000 years ago.
2"C during the past 10,000 years. Consequently, an increase of • The Younger Dryas event represents a time about
0.6"C becomes significant when compare d with temperature 12,000 years ago when northeastern North Ameri ca and
changes over thousands of years. northern Europe reverted back to glacier conditions.
Up to thi~ point we have examined the temperature record
• Du ring the 20th century, the earth's su rface temperature
of the earth's surface 'md observed that the earth has been in a in creased by about 0.6°C. This global warmin g trend has
warming trend for more than JOO years.1 he main question re· not onl y continu ed, but over the last several decades has
g;rrdingthisglolx•l wt1m1i11gis whether the warming trend is due
to natural variations in the climate system, or whether it i~ due to in creased.
human activities. Or is it due to a combination of the two? A~ we
"'"see later in this chapter, climate scientisL~ believe that most
of the recent warming i~ due to an enhanced greenhouse effect
caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases, such as CO,.• Climate Change Caused
lfhuman activities are at least p;rrtly responsible for this global by Natural Events
warming. why has the earth undergone warming trend~ in the
past, before humanity walked on the surface of this planet? Why does the earth sclimatechange>' tbere are three "external"
causes of climate change. ' Ibey are:
I. changes in incoming solar radiation
BRIEF REVIEW
2 changes in the composition of the atmosphere
Before going on to the next section, here Is a bri ef review of 3. changes in the earth'.~surface
some of the facts and co ncepts we covered so far:
Natural phenomena can cause climate to chan&oe by all three
• The earth's climate Is constantly undergoing change. Evi- mechanisms, whereas human activities can change climate by
dence suggests that throughout much of the earth's histo ry, both the second and third mechanisms. Jn addition to these
the earth's climate was much warmer than It ls today. external causes, there are "internal" causes of climate change,
• The most recent glacial period (o r Ice Age) began about such as changes in the circulation patterns of the ocean and at-
2.5 million years ago. Ourlng this time, glacial advances mosphere, which redi~tribute energy within the climate system.
were Interrupted by warmer periods call ed interglacial !•art of the complexity of the climate system is the intricate
periods. In North America, continental glaciers reached interrelationship of theelements involved. For example, iftem-
their maximum thickness and extent about 18,000 to perature changes, many other elements may be altered as well.
'!be interactions among the atmosphere, theocea1>~, and the ice
1he e~r lh's a 1roo spheric greenhoUSt' e«« t is due 1nainly to 1he absorption -and
e1nlssion ofinfr-ared radial ic>n by gases. such as water vapor. CO,. nlE'thane. nitrous
are extremely complex and the number of possible interactions
oxide. und chlorolluorocarbons. Refer b.lck to Chapter2 for oddi1ionaJinfonnat ion among these systems is enormous. No climatic element within
on 1his topic. thesystemisisolated from the others, which is whythecomplete
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11o.n1 poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- '"' ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i...
..
<1<n11....ifl ,...., .._,~..,,._ "'"""'' _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
pic1 urc of the carLh'schanging dima1e is no11ornlly undcrs1ood. temperatures might allow for a greater snow cover in middle and
Wi1h1his in mind, \\'I? will first investigate ho'" fccdbacksy>tcms high latiludes, which would increase the albedo of the surface
work: then \\'I? will consider some of the currcnl 1hcories as to so that much ofIN incoming sunlight would be reflected back
\\i1y !he earth'> dimale changes naturally. to space. Lower tempera tu res m igh I fu rthcr increase the snow
cover, causing the air temperature 10 lower e•-en more. Ifleft
CLIMATE CHANGE: FEEDBACK MECHANISMS lnChaptcr2. unchecked, the snow·olbcdo po>ilive feedback would produce
we learned that the earth-atmosphere sys1em is in a delicate a runa ..wy fee age, which is highly unlikcly on earth because
balance bet ween incoming and outgoingcnergy. If th1Sbalance oilier feedback mechanisms in the atmospheric system would
••upset, even slightly, global dimatr can undergo• series of be working to moderate the magnitude of the cooling.
complicated changes. To coontcract the positive feedback mechanisms there are
Let's assume that the earLh-atmospherc system ha> been negath 'e feedback mechanisms - those that tend to weaken
dhturbcdto thepoint thattheearthhasenteroda slow warming the inleractions am(lng the variables rather than reinforce them
trend. Over the years the temperature slowly rises, and w.1tcr R>r example, a warming planet emits more infrared radiation• lf
from the oceans rapidly evaporates inlo the w.irmcr air. ' I he the eanh climale system were in n ru naw;iy greenhouse effect the
increased quantity of water vaPor absorbs more of 1hc eur1h's increase in radi,u11energy from thesurfore wookl greatly slow the
infrared energy, thus strengthening 1he atmospheric green- rise in temperature and help 10 •tobilize the climate. The incrc.ase
house effect. in radiant energy fromthesurfucc aslheplanet "'.mns isthestron·
·1his strengthening of the grccnhou.~e efkc1 raises the rur {,>e.<t negative fet.odback in I he di mate >yStem, and greatly l<>wers
Cc1nperllture even more, , ..·hich, h1 tum, aUo\'. S more \\'ate-r 1 thepossilXliiy of• runaway grcenhou.e effect Consequently, there
vapor 10 evaporate into the atmosphere. The grccnhou."C ctl'CI is no evidence that n runaway gt'<'Cnhou.se dfect ~'l?r occurred
becomcsevcnstrongei;and the airtcmperat\Jte rises even more. on <'Orth. and it is not very likely that it will occur in the future.
'I his situation IS knO\•n as the waler "1por-grecnJ1ouse feed- Another negative feedback in the eanns dimate sy>1em is
back. It rcpresclll> a positivefeedbadc mtchanisrn bc.'Cause the the chemical wcathtring.CO, feedback. Chemical w~ring
inilinl increase in temperature is reinforced by the other pr<>- is a process by which carbon dioxide is reroD\'l'd from theatmo·
cesses. lfthis feedback were left unchedu.>d, the canhs tempera- sphere as silicate minerals in rock> decompose in the presence
ture would increase until the oceans evapor:11ed away. Such a c:l moisture. lo this feedback. n.chemietl weatherincrease.s, the
chain reaction is called a nmmvaygrre11house effw. amount ofCO,in the atmosphere decreases. ' £he reason for this
Another positi•'I? feedback mechanism is the snow· wbcdo situation is that chemknl weathering (and the removal of CO,
feedback.• in which an increase in global surface air temperature from the atmosphere) will generally take place more rapidly on
might enuse snow and ice to melt in polar latitudes. ' l his melting a v.•armer plan~t. ns che1nical reactions speed up and greater
would reduce the alhcdo (reflectivity) of 1he surfo cc, nil owing evaporation from the occa1\< leads to more precipitalion over
more solar energy to reach the surface, which would further the continents. A< CO, lcnvc• lhe atmosphere more quickly,
rai.'e 1hc temperature (see • Fig. 16.9).
All feed back mechanisms work simul1ancously nnd in •Rtcall fro1n Oap1cr 2, p.40, 1h<l1lht01.11golng Infrared radiation rmm thesu1·foce
increaSf:sat a r.a1c propnnion;al 10 1he fouJ 1h l'.IO"''C'1of thC' .surfaces absolute tein~
bo1h dir~-clions. Consequently, the snow-ulbcdo feedback pcralutt. This rda1iani.hip k c.alltd 1he S1C".fan·Boltx.u~n bw. ln dftct. doti>Jing
produces a positive feedback on a cooling plane! as well Sup- the: abso1w ltmpaaun of'th< anh\ •url""'C'""Ould ir:•ut1tn16timumore mcrgy
pose. forcxampt.,the earth wereinaslowcooling trend lower an•1ed.
• High Mace albedo ib) • Lower surface albedo (c) • Very low suriace albedo
• Low obaorptlon oC ariiglll • Hop aboorp1lon of st.nlight • Muell hip abso<ptlon of stnlight
• Gradilal utace warmi>g • ~ WMring increases • SUrface Wattnng Erilanced
• FIGURE 16. 9 On• ..,.mng planet,. thesnow-.abedo po\111"9 fM.dbad. WW>Uld enhance thewanring. (a) In pokrrtg()nlsnow rfltecb rruch 0 ( the son\ m--
"'JY blct to s;pKe. (b) t the a tempeature "Nfte ID grackwii)y incfUM. SOl'TMP of die snow 'M>Uld melt. Jes.s s.:unight woutl be reftecttd.1rd mwesunlight v-ould
teKh Ihf. 9t0uod. w.trrring l more qulltt~ tel The wa nn surl1te woutl t:nh.nce the VK1W mel which. in tun\ wcQd ICUfre 'It t the , e.e in temperatw e.
An-~ bFoi.;ir.atCCm;.qllltJ
,..,.... )11,J{.,~.._..,tAl'°'llna-....i '°""''*''ion..-'--- .,.i......,"""'•"'t.-11r•,...t-l!l.W.,__,.__...,,..., ..,._...., • .,ft"'..... ..,•1!114M!l- ....Not.ll.....•ll.......,t•-•

.-...i11·-···~-··-~.... ................... _ .. ........, ...~._(;_.. , • ._~-- .........._...i_,,,..,_ •..,_ ...""'.... ..,... _._ _....,._.
CO, levels drop and earth~ climate begins to cool and stabilize. earth, thus cru1nging the distribution of continents and ocean
As temperatures dip, less water evaporates from the oceans, basins, as illustrated in e Fig. 16.1 0. Some scientists feel that,
chemical weathering decreases, :md the removal of CO, from when landmasses are concentrated in middle and high latitudes
the atmosphere diminishes. (;1s they are today), ice sheets are more likely to form. During
ln summary, the earth-atmosphere system has a num- these times, there is a greater likclihood that more sunlight "111
ber of checks and balances called feedback mechanisms that be reflected back into space from the snow that falls over the
help it counteract tendencies of climate change. Although we continent in winter. Less sunlight absorbed by the surface lowers
do not worry about a runaway greenhouse effect or an ice- the air temperature, \\•hich allO\\•sfor a greater SOO\v rover, and,
rovered earth anytime in the future, there is concern that large over thousands of years, the formation of continental glaciers.
positive feedback mech:misms may be working in the climate The arnplifed cooling trul! takes pl1ce over the snow-covered
system to produce accelerated melting of ice in polar regions, land is the snow-albedo feedback mentioned earlier.
especially in Greenland. The various arranglments of the continents may also influ-
ence the path ofocean currents, which, in turn, could not only alter
CLIMATE CHANGE: PLATE TECTONICS AND MOUNTAIN the transport of heat from low to high latitude.s but could also
BUILDING Earlier, we saw that one of the external causes of change both the global wind system and the climate in middle
climate change is a change in the surface of the earth. During and high latitudes. As an example,suppo.se that pbte movement
the geologic past, the earth's surface has undergone extensive "pinches off" a rather large body ofhigh-btitude ocean ""ater
modifications. One involves the slow shifting <i the continents such th,11 the transport of warm water into the region is cut off.
and the ocean floors. This motion is explained in the widely Jn \Vint er, the surface \vater \\•ould eventually freeze over \\•ith
accepted theory ofplate tectonics. According to this theory, the ice. This freezing would, in turn, reduce the amount of sensible
earth 's outer shell is composed of huge plates that fit together and latent heat given up to the atmosphere. Furthermore, the ice
like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. The plates, which slide over a par- allowssnow to accumulate on top of it, thereby setting up concli-
tially molten zone below them, move in rebtion to one another. tions that could lead to even lower temperatures.
Continentsareembedded in the plates and move along like lug- There are other mechanisms by which tectonic processes•
gage riding piggyback on a conveyor belt. The rate <i motion is may influence climate. Jn • Fig. l6.11, notice that the formation
extremely slow, only a ltw centimeters per year. of oceanic plates (plates that lie beneath the ocean) begins at a
Besides provicling insights into many geological processes, ridge, where dense, molten material from inside theearth wells
pbte tectonics also hclps to explain past climates. For example, up to the surface, forming new sea floor material as it hardens.
we fmd glacial features near sea level in Africa today, suggest- Spreading (on the order of several centimeters a year) takes
ing that the area underwent a period of glaciation hundreds of place at the ridge center, where Mo oceanic plates move away
millions ofyears ago. Were temperatures at low elevations near from one another. When an oceanic plate encounters a lighter
the equator ever cold enough to produce ice sheets? Probably continental plate, it responds by cliving under it, in a process
not. The ice sheets formed when this landmass was located at called subduction. Heat and pressure then melt a portion of the
a much higher latitude. Over the many millions ofyears since subducting rock, which usually consists of volcanic rock and
then, the bnd h:1sslowly moved to its present position. Along cakium-rich ocean sediment. The molten rock may then gradu-
the same line, wecan see how the fossil remainsoftropical vege- ally work its way to the surface, producing vokanic eruptions
tation can be found under layers of ice in polar regions today. that Sp?\\' \\ ater vapor. carbon dioxide-, and minor amount.<;
1
According to plate tectonics, the now existing continents of other gases into the atmo.sphere. 1 he release of these gases
were at one time joined together in a single huge continent,
which broke apart. Its pieces slowly moved acro.s.sthe face ofthe •Teaonk processes are Jarge-scrue pro c.:sscs tl'tltdeform the e.1rthScrust.
(a) (b)
• F I GURE 16.10 Geogaphical distribulion of (al landmasses about 150 million yearsago, and (b) today. Arro\vssho\Vthe relative
direction of continental movement.
°*"'"''*..
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq•O.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,...,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i f! ,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~,..'ll..,......, ff~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,...,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.,. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• F I GURE 16.11 The earth is composed ofa series of moving plates. The rate at \\lhich plates move {spread) may influenceglobalclimate.
During times of rapid spreading, increased volcanic activity may promote global \varming by enriching theC0 content of theatmosphere.
7
(caUed degassing) u.~ually takes place al other locations as well continents and the associated restructuring oflandmasses. We
(for instance, at ridges where new crustal rock is forming). ""ll now turn our attention to variations in the earth's orbit that
Some scienti~tsspeCldate that climatic change, taking place may account for dimatic fluctuations that take place on a time
over millions of years, might be related to the rate at which the scale of tens of thousand~ of years.
plates move and, hence, related to the amount of CO, in the air.
For example, during times ofrapid spreading, an increase in vol- CLIMATE CHANGE: VARIATIONS IN EARTH 'S ORBIT An-
canicactivit y vents large quantities of CO, into the atmosphere, other external cause of climate change involves a change in
which enhances the alm<k~pheric greenhouse effect, causing the amount of solar ra<li.~tion that reaches the earth. A theory
global temperatures to rise. ascribing climatic changes to variations in the earth'.~ orbit is
Millions of years later, when spreading r31es decrease, less the Milankovilch theory, named for the astronomer Milutin
volcanic activity means less CO, is spewed into the atmosphere. Milankovitch, who first proposed the idea in the 1930s. The
If the rate at which the oceans remove CO, from theatm<k~phere basic premi~eofthis theory i~ that, as the earth travel~ through
does not change, C0 2 levels in the atm<k~phere should drop. A space, three separate cyclic movements combine to produce
reduction in CO, levels weakens the greenhouse effect, which, variations in the amount of solar energy that falls on the earth.
in turn, cruses global temperatures to decrease. The cooler earth "Jbe first cycle <lea Is with changes in the shape (eccentricity)
promotes the accumulation of ice and snow over portion~ of oft he earth~ orbit as the earth revolws about the sun. Notice in
the continents which promotes additional cooling by reflecting • Fig. 16.12 that the earth~ orbit changes from being elliptical
more sunlight back to space. (dashed line) to being nearly circular (solid line). To go from
A chain of volcanic mountains forming perpendicular to circular to elliptical and back again takes about 100,000 years.
the mean "ind flow, may di~rupt the airflow over them. By the The greater the eccentricity ofthe orbit (that is, themoreellipti-
same token, mountain building that occurs when two conti- cal the orbit), the greater the variation in solar energy received
nental plates collide (like that which presumably formed the by thee-arth between its closest and farthest approach tot he sun.
1-limalayan mountains and Tibetan highland~) can have a Presently, \\'e are in a period of IO\\' eccentricity, \\•hich
marked influence on global circulation pattern~ and, hence, on me-ans that our annual orbit around the sun is more cirndar.
the climate of an entire hemisphere. It has also been theorized Moreover, the earth is d0-~r to the sun in January and farther
that the uplift of the Himalayas and Tibetan plateau helped away in Jldy (see Chapter 3, p. 60). 111e difference in distance
to increase chemical weathering, thus pulling more carbon (which only amounts to about 3 percent) is responsible for a
dioxiMout ofthe air and loweringglobal temperature-perhaps nearly 7 percent increase in the solar energy received at the top
enough to help trigger the onset of the lee Age. of the atm0-,phere from July to January. When the difference in
Up to nO\\\ \\•e have examined hO\\' climatic variations distance is 9 percent (a highly elliptical orbit), the difference in
can take place over millions of years due to the movement of solar energy received between July and January will be on the
cL course, that if everything else remains the same, 11,000 years
from now seasonal variations in the Northern Hemisphere
should be greater th'm at present. 'Jlte opposite would be true
IOr the Southern Hemisphere.
The third cycle takes about 4 l ,000 years to complete and
relates to the changes in tilt (obliqulty) with respect to the
earth~ orbit. Presently, the earth's orbital tilt i~ 23Y, , but during
0
the 41,000-year cycle the tilt varies from about 22° to 24Y,0 (see
• Fig 16.14). ' lltesmallerthe tilt,thelessseasonal v-ariation there
is between summer and "inter in middle and high latitudes;
thlk~. \\inters tend to be milder and summers cooler.
Jee sheets over high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere
are more likely to form when less solar radiation reaches the
surfac-e in summer. Less sunlight promotes lo"-er summer tem-
peratures. During the cooler summer, snow from the previous
\\inter may not totally melt. The summer cooling predominates
even though there is an increase in winter in.~olation because
• FIGURE 16.12 For thee.arth'sorbitto stretch from nearlyadrcular {solid
very little sunlight reaches the far north in winter. 1 he accu-
line} to an elliptic.al orbit (dashed line} and back again takes nearly 100,000years.. mulation of snow over many years increases the albedo of the
(Dia.gram is highly exaggerated and is not to scale.) surface. Less sunlight reaches the surface, summer temperatures
continue to fall. more sno\v acc.umul:.ttes. and continental ice
order of20 percent. Jn addition, the more eccentric orbit "111 sheets gradually form. At this point, it is interesting to note that
ch'mge the length of seasons in each hemisphere by ch'mging when all of the Milankovich cycles are taken into accotmt, the
the length of time between the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. present trend should be toward cooler summers over high lati-
Although rather large percentage ch,mges in solar energy can tudes of the Northern Hemi~phere.
occur between summer and \\inter, the globally and annuaUy Jn stunmary, the Milankovitch cycles th'H combine to
averaged change in solar energy received by the earth (due to produce variations in solar radiation received at the earth's
orbital ch:mges) h'trdly varie,~ at all. Jt is the distribution of in- surface include:
coming solar energy that ch:tnges, not the totals.
The second cycle takes into account the fact that, as th.earth I. changes in the shape (eccentricity) of the earth's orbit about
rotates on its axi~. it wobbles like a spinning top. 'Jltis wobble, the sun
known as the precession of the earth's axis, occurs in a cycle of 2. precession of theearth's axis of rotation, or wobbling
about 23,000 years. Presently, the earth is closer to the sun in 3. changes in the tilt (obliquity) ofthe earth'saxi~
January and farther away in July. Due to precession, the reverse
\\111 be true in about l l ,000 years (see • l'ig. 16.13). In about In the 1970s, scientists of the CLIMAI' project (described
23,000 years we wiU be back to where we are today. This means, earlier on p.458) foundstrongevidencein deep-oceansedirnenl~
• FIGURE 16.13 (a} like a spinning top, the

earth's axis of rotation slo\vly moves and traces
out the path cl a cone in space.(b} Presently the
earth iscloserto the sun in January, \Vhen the
Northern Hemisphereexperienc-es \\linter. {c} In
about t 1,000 years.due to precession, the earth
\viii be do-.ser to the sun in Juty, when the Nor them
Hemisphereex.periences summer.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,..,.._,... """"""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll ..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
effect of amplifying the cooling initiated by the orbital ch;mge.~.
Likewise, increasing CO, levels at the end of the glacial period
may have accom11ed for the rapid melting of the ice sheets.'
'llte latest research shows that temperature ch<mges thou-
sands of years ago actually preceded the CO, changes. This ob-
servation indicates th<ll CO, is a positive feedback in the climate
system, wherehigher temperatures kad tohigherC0 2 leveL~and
lower temperatures to IO\\'er CO, levels. C'.onsequently, CO, i~ an
internal, natural part of the earth's climate system.
J u.~t why atmo.~pheric CO, levels have varied as glaciers ex-
panded and contracted is not Clear, but it may be due to changes
in biological activity taking place in the oceans. Moreover, as
oceans cool, they remove more CO, from the atmo.~phere.
Perhaps, also, ch<tnging levels of CO, indicate a shift in ocean
circulation patterns. Such shifts, brought on by changes in pre-
cipitation ;md evaporation rates, may alter the distribution of
heat energy around the world. Alteration wrought in this m.m-
ner could, in turn, affect the global circulation of winds, which
may explain why alpine glaciers in the Southern Hemisphere
expanded and contracted in tune with Northern Hemi~phere
glaciers during the last ice age, even though the Southern
Hemisphere (according to the Milankovitch cycles) was not in
an orbital po.~ition for gktciation.
Still other factors may work in conjunction "1th the earth's
Orbital Crutnges tO explain the temperature variations bet\\'een
glacial and intergktcial periods. Some of these are:
I. the amount of dust and other aero.~fs in the atmo.~phere
2. the reflectivity of the ice sheets
3. the concentration of other greenhouse gases
4. the changing characteri~tics of douds
5. the rebounding of land, having been depressed by ice
Hence, the Milankovitch cydes, in association with other
• FI GUR E 16 .14 The earth currently revolves a round the sun \Vhile tilted on
natural factors, may explain the advance and retreat of ice over
its.u.is byan angle of 23v1• . During a period of 41,000 years, this angle cl tilt
periods of 10,000 to 100,000 years. But wh;ll caused the Jee Age
ranges from about 22° to 24!h0 •
to begin in the first place? And why have periods of glaciation
that variations in climate during the past several hundred been so infrequent during geologic time? The Milankovitch
thousand years \\'ere closely associated with the Milanknvitch theory doe,~ not attempt to ans,,<er these questions.
cycles. More recent studies have strengthened this premise. For
exampk,studiesconclude that during the past 800,000 years, ice CLI MATE CHANGE: VARIATIONS IN SOLAR OUTPUT
sheets have peaked about every 100,0()() years. Thi~ conclusion Solar energy measurements made by sophistic'11ed instrument~
corresponds naturally to variations in the earth~ eccentricity. aboard satellites suggest that the sun'.~ energy output (called
Superimposed on this situation are smaller ice advances that brightness) may v'Ory slightly-by a fraction of one percent-
show up at intervals ofabout41,000 years and 23,000 years, so it "1th Slmspot activity.
appears that the Milankovitchcyclesplay a role in the frequency Sunspots are huge magnetic storms on the sun that show
i:i glaciation and the severity of dim;~ic variation. up as cooler (darker) regions on the sun's surface. They oa:ur in
But orbital changes alone are probably not totally respon- cycles, \\1th the number and size reaching a maximum approxi-
sible for ice buildup and retreat. Evidence (from trapped air mately every 11 years. During periods of maximum sunspots,
bubbles in the ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica repre- the sun emits more energy (about 0.1 percent more) than dur-
senting thousands of years of snow accumulation) reveals that ing periods of sunspot minimums (see e l'ig. 16.16). Evident! y,
CO, level~ were about 30 percent lower during colder glacial the greater number <ibright areas (ftlcufae) around the Slmspot~
periods than during warmer interglacial periods. Analysis ofair radiate more energy, which offsets the effect of the dark spots.
bubbles in Antarctic ice cores reveals that methane follows a "It is Interesting to note lh:ll during peak CO, levels. its concentration \\'.'IS lcss-
pattern similar to that ofCO, (see • Fig. 16.15). This knowledb"' 1han 300 ppnl. which is lower than its concent~~tion of about 395 ppm in today's
suggests that lower atmospheric CO, levels may have had the at1nosphcrc.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
• FI GURE 16.15 VariationsofcarbondiaxJde
400~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
rtop, ppm), methane (middle, ppb),and tempera--
tures{bottom, °C}during the past 650,000 years.
360 Carboo dlOXlde
Concentration.sof gasesarederived from
air bubbles trapped \<Athin the ice sheetsof
'K 320
Antarctica and extracted from ice cores. Temperr
.s 280
turesare derived from the analysis ofox)l9en
isotopes. The shaded orange band indicates g" ~-i,.~::.;,;;--~~j""°~-'W'l~;~-"'l'''°'~~VV~'-";,.._V~J -...:~~:llll,J~~1
160-'-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--'
current and mo.st recent interglacial \Yarm periods..
(Note: ppm represents parts pe1 million by volume. Melhaoo Cur1ent ...
and ppbrepresents parts per billion byvolume.l value
(Adapted from theTedinical Summary bythe
Working Group l contribution to the Fourth
Assessment Report to the IPCC. 2007.l
600 SOD 400 300 200 100 0

nme (thousands of years before presenl)
It appears 1ha1 the I I-year sunspo1 cycle has not always Huctuations in solar oulput may account for small climalic
prevailed. Apparently, between 1645 and 1715, during 1he pe- dk~ngesover rime scales of decades and centuries. Many 1heories
riod knO\.,•n as the Maunder minimum.• there \\•ere fe\.. if any. 1•
have been propooed linkingsolar variations to dimare change, but
sunspots. It is interesring to note tha1 the minimum occurred none has been proven. However, instruments aboardsarellitesand
during the Lillie lee Age (recall that this was a cool spell in the solar tele.o;oopes on the earth are monitoring the sun to observe
remperalure record experienced mainly over Europe). Some sci- how its energy oulputmay vary.1bdate,1 hese measurements show
en1isLssugges1 that a reduction in the sun~ energy oulput was, in thal solar oulput has only changed a fraction of one percent ~er
part.responsible !Or !his cold spell. several decades. Becau.se many years ofdata are needed, ii may be
some time before we fully unders1and the relarionship be1ween
1his period is nnmcd 3fter E. \>\r. r-..t3under, lhc British solnr astmno1ner who first solar aclivity and dimarechangeon earlh.
discow:r«t Ihe low sunspot period so1nctinle in the b1c 18805..
CLIMATE CHANGE: ATMOSPHERIC PARTICLES Micr!kscopic
liquid and solid parlides (aerosols) !hat enter the almosphere
1367 180 from both nalural and human-induced sources can have an
I.a 1366
160
140 "s.
effec1 on dimare. The effect these parlides have on the climate
i' exceedingly complex and depends upon a number of factors,
such as the partide'.,size,shape, color, chemical comPosition,
lil 1$5
'6
e 1364
!"' ......
120
100 0
..~ and vertical distribulion above the surface. ln this section, we
will examine th!kse parlicles Iha! en1er the almosphere lhrough
:a0
/ \,.....-s..nspols 80 ~ natural means.
"""'
E
I \,.'-,
1363
60
z" Particles Near the Surface Particles can enter 1he a1mo-
~" 1362 40
sphere in a variety of nalural ways. For example, wildfires can
1361 ./
i......__.~_,_~_._~_._~,__._J;:::....Jo
20 produce copious amounls of tiny smoke part ides, and dust
s1ormssweep tons of fine particles into the alm!k,phere. Smol-
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2006 2010
dering volcanoes can rele<tse significanl quantities ofsulfur-rich
Year aerosols into 1he lower almosphere. And even the oceans are a
major source of natural sulfur aer!ksols, as tiny drifling aquatic
• FI G URE 16. 16 Changes in solar energy output (red line) in \vat ts per
plants-phytoplankton-produce a form of sulfur (dimethyl-
square meter measured by NASA's SOHO satellite.Gray line represents the sulphide, OMS) that slowly diffusesinto the atmosphere, where
)eariy average number of sunspots.. it combines wilh oxygen 10 form sulfur dioxide, which in turn
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<l<nlonlfl.._...,.._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,n.
• FI GURE 16.17 Largevolcaniceruptionsrich
in sulfur can affect dimate.Assulfurgasesin the
stratosphere transform into tiny reflective sulfuric
acid particles. they prevent a portion d the sun's
energy from reaching the surface. Here. the
Philippine volcano Mounl Pinatubo erupts
during June, 199t.
converts to sulfate aerosols. Although the effect these particles worked its way around the globe. For major eruptions such as
have on the climate system is complex, the overall effect they this one, mathematical model~ predict that average hemispheric
have is to cool the surface by preventing sunlight from reaching temperatures can drop by about 0.'t' to 0.5°C or more for one
the surface. to three years after the eruption. Model predictions agreed
v.ith temperature changes brought on by the Pinatubo erup-
Volcanic Eruptions Volcanic eruptions can have a definitive tion, as in early I 992 the mean global surface temperature had
impact on climate. During volcanic eruptions, fine particles of decreased by about o.s•c (see oFig. 16.18). The cooling might
ash and dust (as well as gases) can be ejected into the atmosphere even have been greater had the eruption not coincided "1th a
(see o Fig 16.17). Scienti~tsagreethat the volcaniceruptionshav- major El Niiio event in 1991-1992 (see Chapter IO, p. 282, for
ing the greatest impact on climate are those rich insulfurgases. more information on El Niiio). In spite of the El Niiio, the
These gases, when ejected into the stratosphere,• combine with eruption of Moun! Pinatubo produced the two coolest years of
water vapor in the presence ofsunlight to produce tiny, reflec- the 1990s-199 1 and 1992.
tive sulfuric acid particles that grow in size, forming a dense But climate change i~ not just about temperature. In fact,
layer of h:Y<e.111ehazemay reside in the stratosphere for several precipitation may be the most important weather element in
years, absorbing and reflecting back to space a portion of the terms of the impact on humans. 'lbe Pinatubo eruption of 1991
sun's incoming energy. 111e reflection of incoming sunlight by
the haze tends to cool the air at the earths surface, especially in
the hemisphere where the eruption occurs. +0.4 ~-----------------~
Two of the largest volcanic eruptions of the 20th century, ?' +0.3
in terms of their sulfur-rich veil, were that of El Chich6n -; +0.2
in Mexico during April, 1982, and Mount Pinatubo in the "'~ +O. l
Philippines during June, 1991. 1beeruption ofMount Pinatubo ii 0
in 1991 was many times greater than that of Mount St. Helens a!! -o.1
in the Pacific Northwest in 1980. In fact, the largest eruption ~ -0.2
of Mount St. Helens was a lateral exph~ion that pulverized a
~ -0.3
portion of the volcano'.s north slope. The ensuing dust and ash
"' -0.4
(and very liule sulfur) had virtually no effect on global climate -0. S '-------'-~-~--'-------'
as the volcanic material was confined mostly to the lower atmo- 1990 1991 1992
sphere and fell out quite rapidly over a large area of the north- Year
western United States.
Mount Pinatubo ejected an estimated 20 million tons ofsul- e FI G URE 16.18 Changes in average global air temperature from 1990 to
fur dioxide(more than twice that ofEl Chich6n) that graduaUy 1992 After the eruption o f Mount Pinatubo in June. 199 1, the average global
temperature by July, 1992. decreased by almost O.S"C (0.9 ~F} from the 1981
•)bu 1nay r«all fro1n \ ..hnplcr I lh:ll thc .stratosphere i.su stnble layero f oir above to 1990 average (dashed line}. {Data «>urte~yof John Christy, Universityof
the troposphcrc.1yplcallyabou1 111050 kin (7 10 31 mi) a b ovc 1 he e~r1hS.surf.'lCe.. Alabama. Huntsville. and R. Spencer, NASA Marshall Space Flight Center.}
C'1')'rif• ) ) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i

<1<n11....i ., ,....., .._.~ ...,·- ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl..
'*"'....... "IJb.""'"'
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1~...'ll"""....., .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., , .....
t:.w.....r..........i....
o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""... ,....,,,.,...
WEATHER WATCH
The yea r w i thout a summer (1816) even had i ts effect on BRIEF REVIEW
li teratu re. In spired (or perhap s dismayed) by the col d, Up to thi s point we h ave exami ned a number of ways t he
gloomy, sum mer weather a long the shores of Lake Geneva, earth 's climate can chan ge by natural means. Before going on
Mar y Shell ey wrote the novel Frankenstein.
to t he next section, which covers climate change brought on
by human activiti es, here Is a brief revi ew of some of t he facts
had a large impact on the world'.~ hydrologic cycle, and even and concepts we covered so far:
caused drought over certain areas. • The external cau ses of cli mate change Include: (1) changes
As we have just seen, volcanic eruptions rich in sulfur tend In Incoming sol ar radiation; (2) changes In th e composition
to cool the earth'ssurface. An infamouscoldspell often linkM to of t he atmosph ere; (3) changes In t he sur face of th e earth.
volcanic activityoocurred during the year 181 6, which has come
• The shifting of co ntinents, al ong wi th volcanic activity an d
to be known as "the year without a swnmer~ In Europe that
mountain building, are possible causes of natural cli mate
year, bad weather contributed to a poor wheat crop, and famine
change.
spread across the land. l nNorth America, unusual blasts ofcold
polar air moved through Canada and the northeastern United • The Mll ankovltch th eory (In association with oth er natural
State.s between May and September. The cold spell brought forces) proposes t hat alternating gl acial and Intergl acial
heavy snow in June and killing frosts in July an d August. l n the episodes during th e past 2.S mllll on years are t he resu lt of
warmer days that followed each cold snap, farmers replanted, small vari ations In t he tl lt of t he earth's axis an d In t he
only to have another cold outbreak damage the planting, The geometry of the eart h's orbi t around t he sun .
unusually cold summer was followed by a bitterly cold "inter. • Trapped air bubbl es In th e ice sheets of Greenland and
Apparently, a rather stable longwave pattern in the atmo- Antarctica reveal that C0 2 level.s and methane level s were
sphere produced unseasonably cold summer weather over lower during col der glad al periods and higher during
eastern North America and western Europe. The cold weather warmer Interg lacial periods. But even when t he level.s were
followed the massive eruption in 181 5 of Mount Tambora in higher, t hey st Ill were much l ower th an t hey are today.
Indonesia. ~1 addition, a smaller volcanic eruption occurred in • Fl uctuations i n solar output (brightness) may account for
1809, from which the climate system may not have fully recov- periods of cli matic ch ange.
ered when Tambora erupted in 181 5.
• Volcanic erupti ons, rich In su lfur, may be responsibl e for
In an attempt to correlate sulfur-rich volcanic eruptions cooler periods In t he geologi c past.
with long-term trends in global climate, scientists are measur-
ing the acidity ofannual ice layers in Greenland and Antarctica.
Generally, the greater the concentration of sulfuric acid par-
ticles in the atmosphere, the greater the acidity of the ice layer.
Relatively acidic ice has been uncovered from about A.D. 1350
to about I 700, a time that correspands to the Little Jc.e Age. Such Climate Change Caused by Human
finding,quggest that sulfur- rich volcanic eruptions may have (Anthropogenic) Activities
played an impartant role in triggering thi~ comparatively cool
period and, perhaps, other cool periods during the geologic Earlier in this chapter we saw how increasing levels of carbon
past. Moreover, recent core samples taken from the northern dioxide may have contributed to changes in global climate
Pacific Ocean reveal that volcanic eruptions in the northern spanning thottsands and even millions of years. Today, we are
Pacific were at least 10 times larger 2.5 million years ago (a time modifying the chemistry and characteristics of the atmo.sphere
when Northern Hemisphere glaciation began) than previotts by injecting vast quantitie.s of particle.s and greenhouse gases
volcanic events recorded elsewhere in the sediment. int<> the air without fully understanding the long-term conse-
Although volcanic eruption~ rich in sulfur tend to cool the quence.s. Therefore, in this section, we will first look at how par-
surface, they also have the effect of warming the lower strato- ticle.s injected into the lower atmosphere by human activities
sphere by absorbing radiant energy from thesun <m<l earth. The may be affecting climate. '!lien we will e.x amine how CO , and
absorption of this energy can cause the tropical stratosphere to other trace gases appear to be enhancing thee3rth'.s greenhoLLse
become much warmer than the polar strato.sphere. This situa- effect, producing global warming,
tion produces a strong horizontal pressure gradient and strong
west-to-east (zonal)strato.spheric winds. These winds work their CLIMATE CHANGE : AEROSOLS INJECTED INTO THE
way down into the upper tropasphere, where they direct milder LOWER ATMOSPHERE l n a previous section we learned
maritime surface air from off the ocean onto the continents. that tiny solid and liquid particles (aerosols) can enter the
1b e milder ocean air produces \\•armer \vinters over Northern atmo.sphere from both human-induced and natural sources.
Hemisphere continents during the first or second "1nter after The human-induced sources include emissions from facto-
the eruption occurs. rie-s:, autos, trucks, aircraft, pO\\•er plants, home furnaces and
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ w
..
<1<n11....i., ......, .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. ........... ....,, "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
o1,..,""I"""' "<i•• """'"""... '"""'''"'"·
:.11 ............... ,.,,..,,.....
fireplaces, to name a few. Many aerosols are not injected CU MATE CHANGE: INCREASING LEVELS OF GREENHOUSE
directly into the atmosphere, but form when gases convert to GASES We learned in Chapter 2, p. 44, that carbon dioxide
particles. Some particles, such as sulfates and nitrates, mainly is a greenhouse gas that strongly absorbs infrared radiation
reflect incoming sunlight, whereas others.such 'ts soot, readily and plays a major role in the warming of the lower atmO-~phere.
absorb sunlight. Many of the particle.~ that reduce the amount Everything else being equal, the more CO, in the atmosphere,
ofsunlight reaching theearth'ssurface tend to causea 11et cool- the warmer the surface air. We also know that C02 has been
i11gof the surface air during the day. increasing steadily in the atmo~phere, primarily due to human
Jn recent years, the effect ofhighly reflective sulfate aerosols activities, such as the burning offossil fuels like coal and oil (see
on climate has been extensivelv researched. Earlier we learned that Fig, 1.5, p. 8). However, detOrestation i~ also adding to this in-
sulfate aerosol~ can come fro~ natural sources, such as the oceans. crease. Through the process of photosynthesis, theleavesoftrees
However, the majority of these sulfate particles in the lower remove CO, from the atm0-~here. Th e C02 is then stored in
atmo~phere are directly related to hum.m activities and come leaves, branches, and roots. When the trees are cut and burned,
primarily from thecombustion <"isulfur-containing fossil fuek or left to rot, the CO , goes back into the atm0-~phere.
Sulfur pollution, which has more than doubled glob- Presently, the annual average of CO, is about 395 ppm,
ally since preindustrial times, enters the atmosphere mainly and the concentration is increasing by about 2 ppm per year.
as sulfur dioxide gas. There, it transforms into tiny sul- Depending on how much CO, is emitted by human activity in
fate droplets or particles. Since these aerosols usually re- the coming decades, and on how natural processes interact with
main in the lower atmosphere for only a few days, they do the increase in CO ,, the atm0-~heric concentration by the end
not have time to spread around the globe. Hence, they are not of this century couid be anywhere from 540 to 970 ppm.
well mixed and their effect is felt mostly over the Northern To complicate the picture, increasing concentrations of
Hemi~phere, e~-pecially over polluted regions. other greenhotc~e gases-such as methane (CH), nitrous ox-
Sulfate aer0-~0L~ not only reflect incoming sunlight back ide (N, 0), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)-all rea<lily absorb
to space, but they also serve as cloud condensation nuclei, tiny infrared radiation.• Collectively, these gases enhance the atmo-
particles on which cloud droplets form. Consequently, they spheric greenhouse effect by a substantial amount-about half
have the potential for altering the physical characteristics of of the effect now produced by CO,. How "111 increasing levels
clouds. For example, if the number of sulfate aero_sols and, of greenhouse gases influence climate in the future> Before we
hence, condensation nuclei inside a cloud should increase, the add res.~ this question, we "111 look at how humans may be af-
cloud would havetoshare its available moi~ture with the added ltcting climate by changing the land~ape.
nuclei, a situation that should produce many more (but smaller)
cloud droplets. The greater number of droplets would reflect CU MATE CHANGE: LAND USE CHANGES All climate models
more sunlight and have the effect of brighte11i11g the cloud and predict that, as humanity continues to spew greenhouse gases
reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches the surface. into the air, the climate will change and the earth'.~surface will
Jn summary, sulfate aerosol~ reflect incoming sunlight, warm.But are human~ changing the climate by other activities
which tendstolower the earthhurface temperature during the as well> Modific.1tion of the earth'.~ surface taking place right
day. Sulfate aero_sols may also modify clomts by increasing their now could potentially be influencing the immediate climate
reflectivity. Because sulfate pollution has increased signific.mtly of certain regions. For example, studies show that about half
over industrialized areas of eastern Europe, northeastern North the rainfall in the Amazon River Basin is returned to the at-
America, and China, the cooling effect brought on by these par- mo~phere through evaporation and through transpiration from
ticles may explain: the leaves of trees. Consequently, clearing large areas of tropi-
1. why the indtc~trial regions of the Northern Hemi~phere h<we
cal rain forests in South America to create open areas for farms
warmed !es.~ th'tn the Southern Hemisphere during the past and cattle ranges will most likely cause a decrease in evaporative
cooling, This decre<tse, in turn, could lead to a warming in that
several decade.~
area of at leastseveral degrees Celsius. In turn, thereflectivityof
2. why the United States has experienced less warming than the the deforested are<t will change. Similar changes in albedo result
rest of the world from the overgmzing and excessive cultivation of grasslands in
3. why up until the last ltw dec.1desmost oft he global warming semi-arid regions, causing an increase in desert conditions (a
has occurred at night and not during the day, especially over process known as desertification).
polluted areas Current! y, bill ions ofacres oft he world~ range and cropland,
The overall effect that aerosols in the lower atm0-~phere haw along with the welfare of millions of people, are affected by de-
on the climate system is not yet totally understood and re- sertifteation. Annually, million~ of acres are reduced to a state of
search is still being done. (If you are interested in a theory near or complete useles.~ness. The main catLse is overgrazing, al-
as to how vast quantities of particles injected into the atmo- though overcultivation, poor irrigation practices, and deforesta-
sphere millions of years ago may have altered climate, and how tion also play a role. The effect this \\1U have on dimate,assurface
humanity could alter climate during nuclear war, read the •Refer back toChopter l und 10 TabJe I.I on p. S foradditionaJ infonnation on the
Focussection on p. 474.) conc('nlration of these grttnhous.e &'l'!ses.
J<nionl fl •..., .._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i., .,_,u~n~C"'ll'tl"'~"''ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,..,,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• ""''"""..,,....,,..,n.
Nuclear Winter, Cold Summers, and Dead Dinosaurs
A number o f studies indicate that a nuclear fo rmed by the initial cooling, would meteorite measurin g some 10 km (6 mi)
war brought on bf either human careless- p roduce c limatic changethatwould in diameter slammed into the ea rth at
ness or negligence would drastically modify remain fo r more than a decade. abou t 44,000 mi/ hr (see Fig . 2). Th e
the earth's climate, instigating climate Virtually all research on nuclear winter, impact (possib ly located n ear the
change unprecedented in recorded including models and analog studies, con- Yucatan Peninsula) sen t billio ns of tons
human history. firms this g loomy scenar io. Obser vations of of d ustan d debris into the upper atmo-
Researchers assume thata nuclear fo rest fires show lower temperatures under sphere, w here such par ticles ci rcled the
war would raise an enormous pall of thick. the smoke, confir ming part o f the theory. globe for mont hs and grea tly reduced
sooty smoke from massive fires that would The implications of nuclear winter are the sunligh t reaching th e ear th's surface.
burn for days, even weeks, following an clear: A nuclear war would drastically alter Redu ced sunlight d isrupted ph otosyn-
attack. The smoke would d rift higher into global climateand would devastate o ur thesis in pl ants w hich, in turn, led to a
the atmosphere, where it would be caught living environment. breakdown in th e pl anet's food chain.
in the upper-level westerlies and c ircle Even w ith improved global super- Lack of food, a.swell as cooler con ditio ns
the middle latitudes of the Northern power r elations, and the end of the Cold brou ght o n by the d ust, m ust h ave had
Hemisphere. Unlike soil d ust, w hich mainly War, the danger o f nuclear w inter remains an adver se effect o n I ife, especially large
scatters and reflects incoming solar radia- a possibility. Presently, the current global plant-eating d inosa urs.
tion, soot particles readily absorb sunlight . nuclear arsenal is more than t hat needed Evidence for this ca ta.strophic colli-
Hence., months, or perhaps years, after the to produce the effects of a nuclear winter. sion comes from the geologic record,
war, sunlig ht would v irtually be unable to As other nations develop nuclear capabil- w hich shows a t hin layer of sediment
penetrate the smoke layer, b ringing dark- ity, the potential for nuclear winter remains deposited worldwide, about the time the
ness or, at best twilight at m idday. w ith us. It w ill not disappear until the dinosaurs d is.appeared. The sed iment con-
Such red uction in solar energy would global nuclear weapons arsenal numbers tains iridium, a rare element on earth, but
cause surface air temperatures over land- in the hundreds, not in the thousands. common in cer tain types of meteorites.
masses to drop below freezing, even Could atmospheric par ticles an d a nu- Was w hat caused this disaster an
during th e summer, resulting in extensive clear w inter- type event have contrib uted isolated phenomenon or did other events,
damage to plants and crops and t he death to the demise o f living creatures o n ear th, such as huge volcanic eruptions, p lay an
of millions (or possibly b illions) of people. such as the d inosaurs? About 65 m illion additional role in altering the climate?
The dark, cold, and g loomyconditions years ago, the d inosaurs, a long w ith about Have such meteorite collisions been mor e
that would be brought on by nuclear war half of all plant and animal species o n common in the geologic past than wa.s
are often referred to as nuclear winter. earth, died in a mass extinction. What once thought? And w hat is the likelihood
As the lower troposphere cools, the could cause such a catastrophe? of such an event occurring in the near
solar energy absorbed by the smoke parti- O n e popular theor y pr oposes th at future? Questions like these are cer tainly
cles in the upper troposphere would cause about 65 million years ago a g ian t interesting to ponder.
this region to warm . The end result would
be a stro ng, stable temperature inversion
extending from the surface up into the
higher atmosphere. A strong inversion
would lead toa number o f adverseeffects,
such as suppressing convection, altering
precipitation processes, and causing major
changes in the general w ind patterns.
The heating of t he upper par t of the
smoke cloud would cause it to rise upwa rd
into the stratosphere, where it would
then d rift around the world. Thus, about
one-third of the smoke would remain in
the atmosphere for up to a decade. The
other two-thirds would be washed out in a
month o r so by precipitation. This smoke • FI GURE 2 Artist's interpretation of a g iant meteorite striking the earth'ssurface6Smillion
lofting, combined w ith persistin g sea ice y ears ago. aeating a nuclear \\linter•type evenl
C'1')'rif• )) ·~On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U .......................... " ' ,........in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••-..........h~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r..........i....
<l<nlonlfl•...,.._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,i.,.,_,u""""""""~C<>f(l'tl"'~"''ll"""....., fl~•'tlf. .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,n.
albedo> incrcu"' and more dusl •~ swcpl inlo 1he olr, l' unccrrnin. WEATHER WATCH
(l'or u look ,u how modified land surfaces cnn Influence 1hc in·
habitonl> uf n region in Africa. read the l'ocus section on p. '176.) During the summer ol 2010, dtv•statlng flooding Inun ·
dated almost a third of Paklstln , ind• disastrous hut
It b mter<•ting to note that some \Cienh>ts fed that humaM
wave and drought hit Ruula. Art tho,. tltrtmt weathff
may haw been altering clunatc wny before modern avdiLltions events simply notural climate v11lablllty, or art they a
amt along For example, rttired p!Qf&or Will13m Ruddiman consequence of global warmi ng!
of the Um'""'" yo( \rug1nia suggem that human< have bttn
inOutncing cbmJte change for the I"'" 8000 )'<'.tn. Although
somrdmalt >< 1tnti>t.s •'Chemmt ly oppo>e lus ideas. Rudd man climate changepby a rolt in 1htsc n'<'ntsnht Focu> S«tion on
spccubit. tha1 wllhout pre-1ndustn1I farming. wluch products p. 478 looks at this qucsllon and the extremt "'tathcro(201 I.
mtthane and .omc carbon dioxide, we ...uuld have mered
a naturaD)· occurnng ice all". I le ewn suggtst> th.lt the Little RECENT GLOBAL WARMING: PERSPECTIVE Is this warm·
Ice Age of the 15th througl> the 19th centuries 1n Europe was ing trend experienced o•-cr the p»t IOO·plus years due to
humnn-mduced because pbgucs. which lullttl nulbon> of peo- increasing greenhousr gasc• ond an enh.lnud grcenhouie
ple. cnuscd a reduction in farming. effect? Before"" can address this question,"" need to review a
the re~orung behind this idcol goes somethmg like this: i!w concepts we learned 111 Ch.ipter 2.
A\ fumt> Jn: dtared for farming, levels of CO, and methane
mc"'3>t. produanga stronggrecnhouoedfect and a rise insur· Radiative Forcing Agents We know from Ch.lpter 2 th.lt wr
face air tempcmure. When c:at:istrophic pl3gurs <trike-the "ur!d without water vapor. CO,. drd other greenhouse pses
bubon11.: pbgue, for mstincr-higl> mor1ab1y ratrscause farms would be a colder world-about 33'C (59"1') cddtr than at pres·
to be abandontd As forests begin 10 uke over the untcndtd enL \\'ith an average surf3Cetcntpcrillurt of about -IS°C, much
land, lewb ofCO, and mcthanedrop.uusing a ttducuon in the of the planet would be uninhabiublc. Jn Chapter l, "''t al.o
grttnhou>t elfttt and a oorrcspond.,g drop Ill rut temperature. leamtd that wbrn the rate oft he 1ncomlllg ~ energybabncrs
When thepbgut abatts, the farms return, forests ltt cleared, lcv- the rate of outgoing utframl energy from the canh's su rfacc
dsof gr""'1hwse gaoes ~up. and surface aartemperalum;riSe. and atmosphttc. the canh~atn>o,ph<tt syMem 1s in a state of
mdiati>'e eq11ilibriu'1L lncrtaMng concentrations of greenhouse
--- -
gasescandistwb tluscquilibnumand are, thcrlfocc, r<ferred to as
radiath-eforeingagcnts.1he ri1dlath-efordng" provided by ex-
Climate Change: Global Warming tra CO, 3lld other g.rc•<:nhou.c g.•><'> incn:a.cxl by aboul 3 W/m'
011erthepast sevcralhundrt\I ycnr>, l<ilh CO, contributingaboul
We hnvc.cen.cvcrul1h11C> in 1hischup1crthn11hc cor1h's a1mo· 60 percent of the incrcu>c. So II ls very likely thu1 p~trt of the
•phcrc is In n worming 1rcnd thnl bcgnn nround the turn of the \\"arming during the las t century is due to incrcu;ing levels of
20th century. ' Ihis Wltrming tre1KI h rcul, ns the ovcrugc globnl greenhouse gases. But whnt part dcic> nnturnl clbnate varinbilil y
>1arfocc air tempernturc since the curly 190<>.. has rbcn by more play in global warming? And with lcVLh of CO, increa>ing by
thou 0.8°C. In u report cnllcd Sluteof tire Omwte In 1009, more more than 25 perrentslncethecarly 1900s. whyhn> thcobS<'t\-cd
than 300 ><.ientlsts from '18 countries cm eluded th.rt: All cxnm· increase in global temperature been rdat1wly >tnaD?
intd scientific r\'idence sugge>t> th.lt (I) the world t. dcfindely We kncM tbat the clunac nt.1y diange due to natural c•'<'nts.
warming and 11 h.1s bttndoing•o for thcp.ist SO )'<'arS. and (2) For example. ch:utg115 in the sun's enrrgy output (caDed sol.Jr
that the dc.:adtof2000to 2009was thewaml<SI on record: irmdianu) and volcnruc erupt1Uns n:h 1n sulfur are two ng-
Global wanning might C\\'11 be appattni whctt )'OU li•'t'.1 he ;or natural radiati\\' fomng •gm~ Studio~ that since the
P'>"'ng ..-..son, for ~c. may beex1trded. or thechangmg middle I 7~.cha.n8t'S in the <.un's tncrgy output may h3\'t con·
cithebfcolor Ill auturnnmaybeobsen...!lillcrth.ln Ul the past. tributtd a small poSlll\'e forc111g (about 0.12 W/m') on the cli-
Global "'3ml1ng m illlY gi•-en )Ur, howewr, 1umal~ and only mate system, most ofwhich oa:utttd dunngthe first half oft ht
bca>me. >1gnilicant when a•'<'t3ged o•-cr many )"'ats.>uch as dt- 20th century. On the other h.lnJ. volc:anic truptions that inject
Clldc.. So 11"' unportant not to bast global wamung on aspecific sulfur-rich particles Ullo the ;tmtnsphere product a negatiw
weather C\\'nt. A!. an example. a January cold waw ncros. North forcing, which lasts for a few yrars after the rruption. Bec.iusc
Amcri<.1 u1 2009 ;mt tempera1urcs plun1met111g. In Moine, the several major eruptions occurred between 1880 and 1920, •>
oolJ """•produced an all-time low of -so•f, and Ul Waterloo, well as between 1900 and 1991. ti"' combuied change in radia·
l<>"'a. thet<mperaturedroppcdtoa record I""' -31°1: Yet.globa~ live forcing due to both wk.mic Jctrvrtyand solar activity O\\'r
January, 2009. was the founh wanne>t on record. and the the past25 to45 )~appe-.irs to be 11~atrvt, which mcansth.lt
)-c;r 2009 o•\'tall was the ~nd wannnt in modem lime$. !he net effect is thill of coo/mg tht e-Jrthl..urfaa. Did thi>rool-
ll 1> 1ntrrc>1111g IO note that 2011 was• record )\'ar for ing in combination with the<oolUlg productd by sulfur-rich
"''tather-rdated c.iustrophrs: Ooods, tomadOd., heat waves,
drought, ~ow.iorms- a total o( 12 b1Dion · JoDar dt.asttts.. Did •lbd.tai'ff' ~ts u:R.f"J!Klld US\ il'W:lt_,, rpm.au•.rl Of .ad«r._. (ncg.tb,<) 1.n
IY1 Wimt~ot:rgydw.-..d O'f<I' .a.n•r• lftlht n.s.ilrot tbt tropop.tWC. Al t.k""ll'ln
..,lit, r"'P1" ~' ptbh.t.da•• •rcWwwkmrn1 to1hc •&tr.. fl/dw -""''"".,,. bemg~ m loanw in Wt111Wl-••JCrM)' nd1"t"t~ ...,.'I·• hrrta• a
~~ 1.J\arn: Jurw,.!ICUO.
d«rt»U tnJI)' udu.:~ "~~-··
The Sahel-An Example of Oimatic Variability and Human Existence
The Sa h el ~ in North Africa, located between e FIGURE 3 The semi·

about 14• and 18°N latitude (see Fig. 3). arid Sahel of NorthAfricais
bounded by the Sahara Des-
Bounded on the north by the dry Sahara and
ert to the north and
on the south by the grasslands o f the Sudan, grasslands to lhesouth.
the Sahel isa semi--arid region of variable
rainfall. Precipitation totals may exceed
~arloOosort
SO cm (20 in.) in the southern portion while
in the north, rainfall is scanty.Yearly rainfall
amounts are also variable asa }~a r wi th ade-
quate rainfa ll can be followed by a dry one.
During the winter, the Sahel is dry, but
as summer approaches, the lntertropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) with its rain usu 4
ally moves into the region. The inhabitants

of the Sahel are mostly nomadic people
who migrate to find grazing land for their Cl'"'l..~~~~~~~~~--
cattle and goats. In the early and middle 1Cl'W 1rPE 20'E 30'E 40'E
1960s, adequate ra infall led to imprwed Longj1ude
pasture lands; herds grew larger and so
did the population. However, in 1968, the be more related to the intensity of rain that Consequently1 desertification isnot pres-
annual rainsdid not reach as far north as falls during the so-called rainy season. But entlyovertaking the Sahel, nor is the
usual, marking the beginning of a series of what causes the lack of intense rain?Some albedo of the region showing much year-
dryyears and a severe drought. scientists feel that this situation isdue to a to-yearchange.
The decrease in rainfall, along with biogeophysiwlfeedbacl<medlOnismwherein So the question remains:Why did the
overgrazing, turned thousands of square less rainfall and reduced vegetation cover Sahel experience such dew.stating drought
kilometersof pasture into barren wasteland. modify the surface and promote a positive during the 1970sand 1980s?Recentstudies
By 1973, when the severe drought reached feedback relationship: Surface changes act to suggest that the dry periods were due to a
itsclimax, rainfall totals were 50 percent reduceconvectiveactivity, which in turn pro-- cooler North Atlantic Ocean. The cooler
of the long· term average, and perhaps motes or reinforces the dry conditions. As an ocean appears to be the re.suit of sulfate
SO perce nt of the cattle and goats had d ied. example, when the vegetation isremoved aerosols that enhance the formation o f highly
The Sahara Desert had migrated southward from the surface (perhaps through overgraz- reflective clouds above the water. The in-
into the northern fringes of the region, and ing or excessive cultivation) the surface 1 crease in cloud reflectivity cooled the ocean
a great famine had taken the lives of more albedo ~eflectivity) increases, and the surface surface, which in turn influenced thecircula-
than 100,000 people. temperature drops. But studies show that tion of the atmosphere in such a way that the
Although low rainfall years have been less vegetation cover does not always result rrCZdid not, on average, move as far north.
fo llowed by wetter ones, relatively dry condi- in a higher albedo. The sulfate pollution* apparently originated
tionshave persisted CNer the region for the Since the mid ·1970s t he Sahara Desert over North America, suggesting that human
past 40years orso. The overall dryness of the has not progressively migrated southward activities on one continent could potentially
region has caused many of the larger, shallow into the Sahel. In fact, during dry years, cause climate variability on another, with the
lakes (such as Lake Chad) to shrink in size. The the desert does migrate southward, but in end result being a disastrous famine.
wetter years of the 1950s and 1960s appear wet years, it retreats. By the same toke~ •Recent studies shO\V a correlation behwen sul·
to be due to the northward displacement of vegetation co.ier throughout the Sahel is fate particles ej ected into thestratospherefrom
the ITCZ. The drier years, h o~r, appear to more extensive during the wetteryears. volcanic eruptions and past dry S:pells in theSahal.
aerosol~ in the lower troposphere reduce the overall warming o.s•c ( l.4°F) since the beginning of the last century. How does
of the earth'ssurface during the last century? 'Jbe use ofclimate this ob served temperature change compare with temperature
model~ can help an~wer this question. changes derived from climate models using d ifferent forcing
agents? Before we look at what climate model~ reveal, it is
Climate Models and Recent Temperature Trends We know important to realize that the interactions between the earth and
that theearth'.~ averagesurfacetemperatureincreased by at least its atmosphere are so complex that it is difficult to unequivocally
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*<' niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl<'l~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i..., ,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.,. <>.;•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
prove that the earth'.~ present warming trend is due entirely 10 in- greenhouse effect and accelerating the temperature rise. (1his
creasingconcentrationsofgreenhouse gases.1 he problem i~ that phenomenon is the watervapor-gree11J10usefeedback described
any human-induced signal ofclimate change is superimpnsed on p. 465.) Without thi~ feedback produced by the added ""aler
on a background of natural climatic variations ("noise"), such vapnr, the models predict that the warming will be much less.
as the El Nii\o-Southern Oscillation (£NSO) phenomenon (dis- o Figure 16-20 shows climate models' proje.cted warming
cussed in Chapter 10). Moreover, in the temperature observa- during this century due 10 increasing kvel~ ofgreenhouse gases
tions, ii is difficult to separate a signal from the noise of natural and various forcing agents. Notice that the climate model~ do
climate variability. However, today'.~ more sophisticated climate not all project the same amount of warming. £ach model uses
model~ are much better at filtering out this noise while at the scenari<>~ describing how gre.enhouse gas emissions will likely
same time taking into account those forcing agents that are both
natural and hum.~n-induced.
1 .o~-------------------~
• Figure I6.l 9asho",; the predicted changes in global sur-
fare air temperature from 1900 lo 2000 mad& by different di mate 11
Ob-1 temperat~e
-v o.5
models (mathematical models that simulate climate) using only
natural forcing agents, such as solar energy and volcanic erup-
tions. Notice that the models' projected temperature (blue. line)
does not follow the observed trend in surface air temperature
f
(gray line). In fact, the model~ project a slight cooling for the pe- " 0.0
\)"' ' 7
!
riod,suggeslingthat if only natural forcing agent~actedon earth's
climate system, we would likely be talking about global cooling.
t
l
M"f'els' prea.Cllon
Figure 16.19b shows how the models project changes in
global surface air temperature from 1900 lo 2005 when botli
~ -0.5
Santa Mar\a Agung Pina1ubo
t I
natural forcing agents and hum an forcing a gents (such as green- 1902 1963 El Chlchon 1991
house gases and sulfur aerosols) are added 10 the models. Notice . 1.o + - - - + - - - - 1 - - - - - . - -"'
19"i
aF-
2----.--'
how the projected temperature change (red line) now dosely 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
follows the observed temperature trend (gray line). II is inter- Yeas
esting 10 note that if negative forcing agents-such as volcanic (a} Natural forcing agents only
eruptions and sulfur aerosols-were not acting on the earth~
climate system, the observed warming trend over the past 1 .0 ~------------------~
IOO -plus years would have likely been greater.
II is climate studies using computer models such as these ObsefVj 1empe1al4re
that have led scientists 10 conclude that most of the warming
sincethemiddleofthe 20th century is very likely due to increas-
v 0.5
ing levels of greenhouse gases. In fact, the Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change (lPCC), a committee of over 2000
leading earthscienti~ts,considered the issues of climate ch:tnge
f
!!!
0.0
in a repnrl published in J 990 and updated in l 992, in l 995, in

200 l, and again in 2007. 'fhe 2007 l'ourth A~s.~ment report of t
~ -05 l
the JPCC stales that:
~1ost of the observed increase in globally avera~d ten1perarures
Santa Marla
1902 El Chici1oo
f PinatubO1991
since the rnid-20Lh centur)' Lo; vel)1 likel)' due to the obsen1ed -1.0-t---..-----r---..---~1982
=r~---t---'
incte.ase in anthropogenic greenhouse ga.<i concentrations. [In the 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
report '\ 1ery likely,. nleans a greater than 90 percent probability. I Year
(b) Natural and human iorclng agents.
FUTURE CLIMATE CHANGE: PROJECTIONS Climate models
predict that, by the end of this century, increasing concentra- • FIGURE 16.19 (a) Projected global surface air temperature changes using
tions of greenhouse gases could result in an additional global only naturalforc:ing agent s {dark blue fine} compared to observed global sur·
face air temperature changes (gray line). light blue lines sho\V range of model
warming of at least several degrees Celsius. The newest, most
simulations. {Namesand dates of major volcanic eruptions aregiven at the bot·
sophisticated models take into account a number of important tom of the graph.} (b) Projected global surface air temperature changes using
relationship~. in duding the int er actions bet ween Lhe oceans and both naturaland human fordng agents (dark red line} compared to ob.served
the atm<>~phere, the processes by which CO, is removed from global surface air temperature changes (gray line).Orange linesshO\V range of
the atmosphere, and thecooling effect produced by sulfate aero- model simulat ions.. (Temperature changes in both (a) and (bl are relative to the
period 190t to 1950.) (Adapted from the Technical Summary by the Working
sols in the lower atmosphere. The models also predict that, as the Group 1contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report to the IPCC, 2007.)
air\\•arm~. additional \\•ater\\•illevap<>rate from theocean:i;sur-
In Fig. 16.19b, how do you feel the
face and enter the atmosphere as water vapor. 1 he added water CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION
model's projected temperature
vapnr (which is the most abundant greenhouse gas) will produce changes would appear (red line) If only human forcing agents were
a feedback on the climate system byenhancing theatmo~heric used int he model 1
C'1')'rif• ) ) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U . ......................... " ',........ in p .... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''"..
"IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••- ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i ., ,...., .._.~ ...,·- ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c.. 'll'tl..1~...'ll"""....., .,~••"- ........... :o11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
The Extremes of 2011: Did Climate Change Play a Role?
Americansdealt with a succession of ex- shaped the locations of the precipitation

treme weather events in 2011 that seemed extremes in the United States, but it is
never-ending. Two major winter storms possible that recent g lobal warming helped
struck the Eastern Seaboard in January, make these events stronger, as warmer
leaving New York Citywith its snowiest temperatures can lead to heavier snow until
January on record. A February storm para- it becomes too warm to snow.
lyzed Chicago w ith 21 .2 inches and brought The link between climate change and
several cities their heaviest snow in history. tornadoes is much weaker. The number of
Theonslaught shifted in the spring1as a tornado reports in the United States has
catastrophic four-day series of tornadoes roughly doubled since the 1 950~ but this
swept through the southeast United States. phenomenon is mainly due to thegrowth
Theworst dayby farwasApril 27, which of storm spotters and chasers, as well as
brought the nation's most prolific 24-hour
outbreak of twisters on record, and the
fl better post-storm surveys. There has been
no significant trend in the number of the
deadliest in more than 80 years. At least strongest tornadoes (those ranked EF3
322 people were killed and an estimated or greater on the enhanced Fujita scale).
$10 billion in damage occurred. less than a Some research has pointed to a potential
month later, a violent tornado ripped increase in severe thunderstorms across
through Joplin, M issouri, killing an parts of the southern and eastern United
estimated 159 people- the largest toll • FIGURE 4 A man carefulty maneuvers between States as the climate warms and average
.stranded cars on Chicago's Lake Shore Drive after a
from a single tornado since 1947. instability increases. However, there are
huge snow.storm during February, 20 11.
Disastrousweather continued into the also signs that, as the nation warms, aver-
late spring and summer. Record floods w hether climate change might be boosting agevertical w ind shear might decrease,
poured across the Missouri and Mississippi the occurrence of extremes. Scientists had w hich would reduce the odds that a given
river valleys, and unprecedented drought already shown that precipitation in the severe storm would be a tornado-producer.
and heat struck the Southern Plains. Texas United States was increasingly concentrated A growing area of research focuses on
recorded the hottest summer in history in periods of very heavy rain and snow detection and attribution. These studies at-
for any state, with a statewide average tem- events. A warming climate allows more tempt to identify a change in climate, and
perature o f 86.S"F. Tropical cyclones largely water to evaporate into the atmosphere determine how much can be attributed to
bypassed the nation, but Hurricane Irene from the oceans, which could help intensify human-produced greenhouse gases. With
brought destructive floods to New England rain and snowwhere it is falling. However, the help of new statistical and numerical
in August, followed by the Northeast's warmer temperatures also help dravv mois- modeling tools, scientists are now begin-
heaviest October snows in more than a ture from already-dry land. Computer mod- ning to estimate how the odds of a given
century. e ~ suggest that both precipitation and weather event, such as the Texas heatwave
These and other noteworthy weather drought will continue to intensify thiscen- of201 1, m ight have been boosted by our
""'nts in 2011 had many peoplewondering tury. The presence of La Niiia in 2011 likely warming planet.
mange "1th time, and how society "ill utilize energy in !he f u- during !he past 10,000 years. (Up to this point, we've looked 'II
ture (see • 1able 16.1 ). how climate models predict changes in future surface air
With the aid of these climate models, !he IPCC in its temperatures. For additional information on these models,
2007 report concluded that doubling the concentration of read the Focus section on p. 480.)
CO , would likely produce surface warming in the range of
2•Cto 4.s•c, wilh !he bestestimate being 3•c. Jf, during !his Uncertainties about Greenhouse Gases There are, however,
century, !he surface temperature should increase by 2•c, the WlCertainties in predicting the climate of the future. At this point
warming would be three times greater than that experienced in time, it is unclear how water and land will ultimately affect
during the 20th century. An increase of 4.s•c would have ri~ing levels of CO, . Currently, the oceans and the vegetation on
potentially devastating effects worldwide. Consequently, land absorb about half d !he CO, emitted by hwnan sourt"es, al-
it is likely that the warming over this, the 2 1st century, though !he exact proportion varfus from year to year. Asa result,
will be much larger than the warming experienced during both oceans and landmasses play a major role in the climate sys-
the 20th century, and probably greater than any warming tem,yet theexacteffectthey will have on ri~inglevelsofCO, and
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' ,....1rc... in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
e FIGURE 16.20 Globalaverageprojected
surfaceair t emperature c hanges ("C) a bole the
1980-1999 average {dark purple zero line) for the
6.0 A2 years 2000 to 2100. Temperaturec hanges inside
A1B the graph and to t he right of thegr<iph are based
B1 on multi<limate models\Vith different scenarios..
5. Year 2000 constant Each scenario describes how· the average tempera-
concentraUons ture\vill change based on different concentrations
20lll Century
~ 40
of greenhousega.sesand various brcing agents.
The black line sh°'vsglobal temperaturechange
"' during the 20th century. The orange line sho\vs
1 projected temperature change \Yhere greenhouse

ga.sconcentrations are held constant a t the year
~..
2000 level The vertical gray bars on t he right side
of the figure indicate the likety ranged tempera·
~
...,, turechangefor each scenario. Thethic:ksolid bar

within each gray bar gives the best esti1n.1tefor
$1 temperature dlange for each scenario. {See
C>
Table 16.1 belo\V for additional informat ion
on the six models..) (Source: Climate Change 2007,
ThePhysico/ScienceBasis, by the Working Group I
contribution to t he Fourth Assessment Report
to the IPCC, 2007. Reprinted by permission of the
lntergovemmenta I Panel on di mate ChangeJ
1900 2000 2100

Year
global warming is not totally clear. !'or instance, the microscopic human-induced CO, emissions continue to increase at their
plants(phytoplankton) d\\<tlling in the oceans extract CO, from present rate, more CO, should remain in the atmMphere to
the atmMphere during photM ynthesis andstoresomeofit below further enhance global warming. An example of how rising
the oceans' surface, where they die. Willa ""armingearthtrigger temperatures cm play a role in altering the way landmasses
a large blooming of these microocopic plants, in effect reducing absorb and emit CO , is found in the Alaskan tundra. There,
the rate at which atmospheric CO, is increasing? temperatures in recent years have risen to the point where more
Current models show that warming the earth tends to re- frozen soil melts in summer than it used to. Accordingly, dur-
duce both ocean and land intake of CO,. 'Jlterefore, if levels of ing the warmer months, deep layers of e.xposed dectying peat
.,, TABLE 16.1 The Projected Average Surface Air Temperature Ranges and BestTemperature Estimates
for the Decade 2090-2099, Using Six Scenarios*
LIKELY ESTIMATED
NAME OF TEA-1PERATURE TEMPERATURE
SCENARIO RANGE. "C CHANGE, ~ c SCENARIO DESCRIPTION
Bl 1.1 - 2.9 1.8 Energy pmductiol'\ technolog}~ and ec:onon1y al I focu'i on increa1;ed efficiency
and n1ioin1al resource use. Gro,vth race is high. Energ>' consun1ption i.'i very lo\\I.
AJT 1.4-3.ll 2.4 Energy produced using n1ostly uoufos.sil sa4rces. Econonlic: and technological
gro,vth is rapid. Energ>' consun1ption is high.
B2 1.4-3.8 2.4 Energy produced by the nlOsC effective nleans available. &onon1ic and techno·
logical developnlentare slo\\I. Energ>' consun1ption is n10derate.
AlB 1.7- 4.4 2.8 Energy produced using a balance offossil fuels and 11011-fossi/ sources. Economic
and technological growth l< rapid. Energy consumption l< high.
JU 2.0- 5.4 3.4 Enew is produced by tl>e simplest means available. Global economic and
technological growth is slow. Energy consumption l< high.
AJFI 2.4-6.4 4.0 Energy produced using mostly fossi/fuds. Economic: and technological growth
i.'i rapid. Energ>'consun1ptton i.'i high.
"Tc1npcnnure chonges ~re rcluivc to the aitcmgc .surface air 1e1npcrature for lhe period 1980- 1999.
'°"">' .....buq10.U .......................... " ',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl """"" .........
C'1'1'rif* )) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i
<1<n11....i ., ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..~c .. ...
....,, """'I•• - ..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w..i..r..........i....
'll'tl..1~ 'll"""....., .,~••"- ... ........ :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,.,...o1,..,""I...,.,. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
Climate Models-A Quick Glance
Climate models that simulate the physical The GCMs represent the atmosphere by the atmosphere, the model is repeatedly
processes of the atmosphere (and the dividing it up into grid squares, usually about run with increasing concentrations ofC02•
oceans) are called General Circulation 100 kilometerson a side. General circulation In this manner, theGCMs revea l how the
Models, or GCMs for short. When an atmo- models simulate the behavior of the real at- atmosphere and its circulation might
spheric component of a GCM is linked to mosphere and describe the major circulation change with time, due to increasing levels
an ocean component, the model is said to features as well as the seasonal and latitudi- of greenhouse gases. When the models a re
be "coupled" and the model is called an nal temperature patterns. run with different scenarios (that is, varying
Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Today's coupled models are extremely concentrations of green house gases and
Model, o r AOGCM. General circulation sophisticated, taking into account land and different forcing agents), the end result is
models use mathematics and the laws of vegetation processes, atmospheric chemis- usually a va riation in the predicted temper~
physics to describe the general behavior try1carbon cycles in the ocean and on land, ature (such as those temperature projec-
of the atmosphere. To reduce some of the ice and snow cover, and aerosols. These tions shown in Fig. 16.19 on p. 477 and in
atmosphere's complexities, the models models are increasingly referred to as Wrth Fig. 16.20on p. 479).
make simplified assumptions a bout the System Models because they include not only General Circulation Models are not per-
atmosphere and describe the atmosphere an evaluation of oceans and atmosphere, fect because they have imperfect parame-
in more simplified physical terms . They but other parts of our global ecosystem. terization of all processes. and they cannot
also reduce many of the small-scale A General Circulation Model is first run resolve processes that are less than the grid
atmospheric processes (such as those for a few decades to make sure that the spacing. However, as mentioned previously,
due to clouds) into a single approxima- model simulates the real atmosphere. today's modelsare extremely sophisticated,
tion, or parameter, w hich is kn ONnas Then, to see how some variables (such as and serve as the most reliable tools available
parameterization increasing levels of CO ) might influence for estimating climate change.
moss release CO, into the atmosphere. Until recently, this region Although ozone is a greenhouse gas, it pl1ys a very minor role
absorbed more CO, than it released. Now, however, much ofthe in the enhancement of the greenhou.o;e effect as its concentra-
hmdra acts asa producing source of CO ,. tion near the earth~ surfac-e i~ typically less than 0.04 ppm. ' lbe
Atpresent,deli>restation accounts for about one-fifth ofthe concentration ofthi~ greenhouse gas varies greatly from region
observed increase in atmospheric CO,. Hence, ch:tnges in land to region, and depends upon the production of photochemical
"''*'could influence level-; of co, concentrations, especially if smog. The increase in surface ozone has probably led to a very
the practice of deforestation is repl1ced by reforestation. Fur- small increase in radiative IOrcing. Before going on to the next
thermore, it is unknown what futurestepscountries will take in section you may wish to read the Focu.o; section on p. 482 th:tt
limiting theemio;sions of CO, from the burning offossil fuels. detaifasomeof the misconceptions that have ario;en about global
Currently it is not kno\\11 how quickly greenhou.o;e gases will '""ming. ozone, and the ozone hole.
increase in thefuture. We can see iii.Hg. 16.21 thedramaticrise
in CO, level-; during the 20th century. In the year 1990, carbon The Question of Clouds As the atmosphere warms and more
dioxide levels were increasing by about 1.5 ppm/year, whereas '"'ter vapor is added to the air, global cloudiness might increase
today they are increasing by about 2 ppm/year. lfthis trend con- as well. How, then, would clouds-which come in a variety of
tinues, CO, concentrations could easily exceed 550 ppm by the shapes and sizes and form at different altitudes-affect the
end of this, the 2 lst century. ln l'ig 16-2 1 notice that the atmo- dim.1le system?
spheric concentration of methane has increased dramatically Clouds reflect incoming Slmlight back to space, a pro-
over the last 250 years, and it is still increasing. Alw notice that cess th:tt tends to cool the climate, but clouds also emit infra-
atlllQspheric concentrations ofnitrous oxide h'we risen quickly, red radiation to the earth, which tends to " "arm it. Just how
and its concentration is still rising. the climate will respond to changes in cloudiness "111 probably
Since the mid- l 990s, the atmospheric concentration of depend on the type of clouds that form, their height above the
a group of greenhouse gases called cliloroj1uorocarbo11s surface, and their physical properties, such as liquid water (or
(halocarbons) has been decreasing. However, the substitute ic.e) content, depth, and droplet size distribution. For exam-
compounds for chlorofluorocarbons, which are al so greenhouse ple, high, thin cirriform douds (comp0-o;ed mostly of ice) ap-
gases, have been increasing. Moreover, total amount ofsurface pear to promote a net warming effect: They allow a good deal
ozone probably increased by more than 30 percent since 1750. ofsunlight to pass through (which warms the earth~ surface),
However, the majority of ozone is found in the stratosphere yet because they are cold, they warm the atmosphere around
where its maximwn concentration is typically less th'm I 2 ppm. them by ab.wrbing more infrared radiation from the earth
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,....,.._..,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
than they emit upward. Low stratified clouds, on the other
hand, tend to promote a net cooling effect. Compo.sed mo.~tly
of water droplets, they reflect much of the sun's incoming 400
energy, which cools the earth's surface and, becau.se their tops are 375
.J
1.5
350
relatively wann, they radiate to space much of the infrared en-
ergy they receive from theearth. Satellite data confirm that, over-
all, clouds presently h'we a 11etcaoli11g effu1 on our plmet, which
1 350 300 I
.~
means that, \\1thout clouds, our atmo.~phere would be warmer.
Additional clouds in a warmer world would not neces.~rily
J.,, 325 fsor':
y_,,, u
.§
0.5
-~
have a net cooling effect, however. Their influence on the aver- ~ 300 .!i
'g
age surfac-eair temperature would depend on their extent and on <'.! 275
0 a:
whether low or high clouds dominate the climMe scene. Conse-
quently, the feedback from clomts could potentially enhance or 250 Cartl<tl dioxide
reduce the wanning produced by increasing greenhou.se gases.
Mo.st models show that as the surface air warms, there will be 2000
more convect ion. more convective-type cumulu.o; doudo;. and an 2000 0 .5
1750 F
increase in cirrus clouds. The latest re.search shows that the global 1500 ~ .;-
~
teedbackfrom clouds"1llbeverysmall, and that any '""ming or • 0 .4 E
1500 1000 :!:.
cooling brought on by cloud~ will tend to balanceouteachother.• :c I
At this point it is interesting to note that jet aircraft may h<we
Q
.s 1250 500 0-3
j
been influencing climate ch<tnges by producing contrails (con- ~ 0 .2
den~tion trails) high in the tropo.sphere, generally above about
.i; 1000 -~
~ 0.1 .,,
""
20,000 feet (see Fig. 5.28, p. 135). Mo.~t contrails fonn asa cirrus- 700 &
like trail behind the aircr,ut. Some disappear quickly, whereas 0
others persist overtime, occasionally stretching acro.s.s the sky as 500
streamers ofcirriform clouds that coalesce into a white canopy. Melhane
Contrails can affect climate by enh,mcing cirriform cloudi- 33)
ness and by adding ice crystals to existing cirri form clouds, thus
ch'mging their albedo. Because contrails reflect sunlight and
absorb infrared energy, they h<we theabilitytoalterthe tempera-
3 15
30
300 0.15 I
ture near the grotmd.
After the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center in
:c
Q
.s
300 270 0.1 t
2000 240 .§
New York City on September 11 , 2001, all commercial aircr<Ut :§ 285 1800
0.05 "
flights in the United States were CU1Celledforthreedays. During this 0
..,,.
·l.
peri<XI ("1th virtually no contrail~). the average daily lempemture
range at the earth's surface across the United States increased by
about 2' F above the climatological average. Resean:h is presently
I 0 &
ongoing, so th<tt our understanding of the role that contrails \\111

have on the climate system a~ the world warms should improve.
5000 ()
The Ocean's Impact ' lbeoc-eansplay a m.1jorroleinthedimate Ye,.s (before 2006)

system, yet the exact effect they will have on climate ch,mge is
not dear. For example, theoceanshavea large capacity for stor- e f IG URE 16.21 Changes in thegreenhou.sega.sescarbon dioxide, meth--
ing heat energy. Thus, as they slowly warm, they should retard ane,and nitrous adde indicated from ice core and modern data.(Source:
Climate Change 2007, The Physica/SdenceBasis. by the Working Group 1
the rate at which the at mo.sphere ""arms. Overall, the response con tribution to the Fourth Asse.ss:ment Report to the IPCC. 2007. Reprinted by
of ocean temperatures, ocean circu~ttions, 'md sea ice to global permission d the Intergovernmental PanelonClimateChange.}
warming will probably determine the global pattern and speed
of climate change.
global average, particularly in the northern high latitudes in win-
CONSEQUENCES OF CLI MATE CHANGE: THE POSSIBILI · ter (see • Fig. 16.22a). We can see in Fig. 16.22b that the greatest
TIES lfthe world continues to warm as predicted by climate surface wanning tOr the period 2001to2006occurredover land-
mode.ls, where will mo.st of the warming take place' Climate masses in the high latitudes ofthe Northern Hemisphere. These
model~ predict that land areas will warm more rapidly than the observations of global average temperature change suggest that
•tn a ddi1ion to I he anl ount a nd d is tribu1ion of clouds. the wny in which cli1uatc
dim.1te models a re on target with their ""arming projections.
nlodels calculate the o ptknl propc11icso(a cloud (such as albedo) can huvc a large As high-latitude regions of the Northern Hemisphere
influence on the 1nodcl's Cllculnlions. Als o. there is 1nuch unccn ainty as to how continue to warm, modification of the land may actually
d ouds wiD interact with aerosols. and what the OCI elfoct wiJJ be. enh<rnce the warming. For example, the dark green boreal
<1<n11....i fl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
Ozone and the Ozone Hole: Their Influence on Climate Change
THE IMPACT OF OZONE ON THE GREEN· have negligible impact on the greenhouse wavelen gths. Alth ough UV waves do carry
HOUSE EFFECT AND CLIMATE CHANGE effect and on climate change. more energy than visible waves, there are
Ozone is indeed a greenhouse gas, but its too few of them to produce much warm-
influence on the greenhouse effect is just THE IMPACT OFTHEOZONE HOLE ON ing. Those UV waves that do reach the
minor. Why? Because of th e following two CLIMATE CHANGE How does the ozone surface mostly impinge upon snow and
conditions: hole affect climate change? You may recall ice, ensuring that virtually no surface
that we briefly looked at the ozone hole in warming occurs.
1. The concentration of atmospheric ozone
Chapter 1 (seep. 8)*. There, we saw that It's interesting to note that the main
is extremely small. Near the earth's surface,
over springtime Antarctica ozone levels in temperature-related effect of ozone de--
ozone averages only about 0.04 ppm.
the stratosphere plummet, in some years pletion is in the lower stratosphere, which
and in the stratosphere where it is more
leaving virtually no protective ozone has been cooling. Temperatures at this
concentrated, its a~rage value is only
above this region. Now, ozone readily height (above about 20 km, or 12 mi) have
between Sand 12ppm. Bycomparison,
absorbs incoming ultraviolet solar (UV) dropped to record lows in recent years,
the average value of carbon dioxide in
radiation at wavelengths below about in large part due to the loss of ozone.
our atmosphere is about 395 ppm.
0.3 µm . So, does this fact mean t hat the Therefore, the depletion of ozone
2. Ozone only absorbs infrared energy in a over Antarctica during its spring (that is,
formation of the ozone hole enhances
very narrow band, near 10 µm. look at the ozone hole) does not enhance g lobal
global warm ing by allowing more UV
Fig. 2. 12 o n p. 4S and observe that both warming at the earth's surface. We then
radiation to reach the surface and warm it?
watervapor and carbon dioxide are must take care not to link the ozone hole
We know from Ch apter 2 (p. 4 1)
much more prolific absorbersof infrared with global warming. These are two dis-
thatthe sun emits only a sma ll fraction
energy than is CO,. tinctlydifferentatmospheric conditions
of its total energy output at ultraviolet
Accordingly, given these two facts, any virtually unrelated- basically a case of
'The ozone hole is covered in more detail in
small change in ozoneconcentration would Chapter t8on p. 531. apples and oranges.
fores1s• of!he high latilude,~ absorb up 10 three limes as much in !his region could have an adverse effecl by placing added
solar energy as does the snow-covered !undra. Consequently, stress on agriculture.
the \\'inter temperatures in subarctic regions are, on the aver- Some model~ suggesl 1ha1 changes in global pattern~ of
age, much higher than they would bewithoul trees. If warming precipilalion mighl cause more extreme rainfall even!s, such
allows 1he boreal forests 10 expand into the !undra, the forests as floods and severe drough1. Jn fact, ii is inleresting lo nole
may accelerate the " 'arming in tha! region. A~ the temperature that during the wanning of the 20th century, !here appears to
rises, organic malter in the soil should decompose al a faster have been an increase in precipilation by as much as 10 peramt
rate, adding more CO, lo 1he air, which might accelerate the <Ner the middle- and high-latitude land areas of !he Northern
" "arming even more. Trees tha! grow in a climate zone defined Memi~phere. In contrast, ii appears !ha! over sub!ropical land
by temperalure may become especially hard hi! as rising 1em- areas, a decrease in pre.cipilation has occurred. It also ap-
peralure,~ place !hem in an inhospitable environment In a pears 1ha1!here has been an increase in the frequency of heavy
weakened slate, they may become more susceptible to insects precipilation evenls during the las! 50 years or so.
and disease. In mountainous: regions of \\'eStern North America. \\'here
For many people, changes in pre.cipilation and drought much of the precipilation falls in winier, a greater fraclion of
may be just as imporlanl as changes in lempcralure over precipilalion mighl fall as rain, causing a decrease in snow-me!!
!he coming decades. A~ the world warms, to!al rainfall must runofflhal fills the reservoirs during thespring. In California, the
increase 10 balance the increase in evaporation. Bui precipi- reduction in waler s1oragecould lhre.rten the slate's agriculture.
talion will no! be evenly distributed as some areas will get Other consequences ofclimate change will likely be a rise in
more precipitation, and 01hers less. Notice in • Fig. 16. 23a !hat sea level as glaciers over land recede and !he oceans conlinue lo
!he model~ project an increase in winter precipitation over high expand as they slowly warm. During the 20th cenlury, sea level
latitudes of!he NorthfTn Hemi~phere and a decrease in precipi- ro.o;e aboul 15 cm (6 in.) and today's improved climate models
tation over areas of 1he subtropics. A decrease in precipilation estimale !ha! sea level will ri~e an additional 30 cm ( 12 in.) or
more by theend oflhiscentury. 111erio;e insea level will depend
•1be bore1J forest consists of woodlands (norlhern p.1r1) and conifers and so1nc
on how much the lemperature rises, and on how quickly 1he
h.irdwoods (southern part). Its northern bounJ.ar y is nex1 to the tundra along I.he ice in Greenland and Antarctica mel!s. In fac1, recenl models
Arctic ll'ee line. sugges1 that sea level will rise more than I 00 cm (40 in.) by 1he
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.. ,....,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
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2090-2099
0 0.6 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3,5 41 •.5 s $ 5 13 8.6 7 7.5 cc

e FI G URE 16. 22 {a} Projected surfaceair 1emperaturec han9es averaged for the decade 2090-2099 (using the A l B scenario} compared to the average
surface temperature br the period 1980-1999. The largest increase in air temperature is projected to be over landmasses and in the Arctic region.Cb} The
average change in surface air temperature for the period 200t-2006 compared t o the average fortheyears 195 1- 1980. The greatest\varming \Vas over
the Arct ic region and the high-latitude landmasses of the Northern Hemisphe~ (Diagram !al (Source: Climate Change 2007, The Physic.olSdenceBasis
~ theWorl<.ing Group 1 contribution to the Fourth Ass~sment Report to the IPCC,2007. Reprinted by permission of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. Diagram !bl Court esy NASA}
year 2100, as the ice in Greenland and Antarctica appears to be snow, any increase in precipitation will likely be offset by rapid
melting quite rapidly. melting. and so the ice sheet is expected to continue to shrink.
Ri~ing ocean levels could have a damaging influence on coastal Presently, in the Arctic, warming has catLsed sea ice to shrink
ecosystems. Jn addition, coastal groundwater supplies might be- and thin. (Sea ice i~ formed by the freezing ofsea water.) During
come cootaminated with saltwater. And as we saw in Chapter 15, the summer of2007, the extent of sea ire dropped dramatically
as sea surface temperatures increase (other factors being equal) to new record lows(see eFig. 16.24). If the warming in this region
the inten~ity of hurricanes "ill likely increase as well. (For more continues at its present rate, polar sea ice in summer may be to-
infi>nnation on hurricanes and global warming. read the section tally absent by themiddleof thi~ century or sooner.
about "HurricMes in a Warmer World" on p. 450.) increasing levels of CO, in a \\"Jr mer world might have ad-
In polar regioll~, as elsewhere around the globe, rising ditional consequences. For example, higher levels of CO, might
temperatures produce complex interactions among tempera- act as a "fertilizer" for some plants, accelerating their gro"1h,
ture. precipitation, and \\ind pattern~. J·lence. in Antarctic.a, although thi~ process could slow over time if nitrogen and other
more snow might actually fall in the warmer (but still cold) nutrients are not plentiful enough to sustain the growth. In-
air. This situation could allow snow to build up across the increased plant growth consumes more CO,. which might retard
terior, although it may be counter-balanced by an increase in the increasing rate of CO, in the environment. On the other
melting already taking place along the Antarctic coastline. hand, the increased plant gro"1h might force some insects to
Over Greenland, which i~ experiencing rapid melting ofice and eat more, resulting in a net loss in vegetation. 1t i~ possible that
e FI G URE 16.23 Projected relative changes in precipitation {in percent) for the la:Stdecadeof this century (2090-2099}mmpared to the average for
the period 1980-1999. Values are multimodelaverages for {a} December through February, and {b} June through August. The stippled areas represenl
regions \Vhere more than 90 perrentof the modelsagreeas to\vhether precipitation \Viii increase ordecrease;\vhite regions sliavwhere less than
66 percent of t he models agree about ha.v precipitation \Viii change. (Source:C1imateChange 2007, 11iePhysica/Scienre Basis, by the Working Group 1
contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report to the IPCC.2007. Reprinted by permission d the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.)
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WEATHER WATCH during any other SO-year period in the last 500 years and likely
the highest in at least the past 1300 years.
In our warmer world, many freshwater lakes in northern
• Temperature,rnfthe most extreme hot nights, cold nights, and
latitudes are freezing later in the fall and thawing earlier
in the spring than they did in years past. Wisconsin's lake cold days are likely to have increased due to anthropogenic
Mendota, for example, now averages about 40 fewer days forcing. It i~ more likely tlra1111ot that anthropogenic forcing
with ice than it did 150years ago. has increased the risk of heat waves.
• Since JPCC's first report in 1990, assessed projections have
suggeste.d global average temperatureincn'ases between about
a major increase in CO, might upset the balance of nature, O. IS°C ando.3•Cper decade IOr 1990 to2005. This can now be
with some plant species becoming so dominant that others are compared with observed values of about 02•c per decade,
eliminated. In tropical areas, where many developing nations are strengthening confidence in near-term projections.
located, the warming may actually decrease crop yield, whereas • Widespread changes in extreme temperatures h:we been ob-
in cold climates, where crops are now grown only marginally, the served over the last 50 years. Cold days, cold night~. and frost
warming effect may actually increase crop yields. Jn a warmer have become les.~ frequent, whereas hot days, hot nights, and
world, higher latitudes might benefit from a longer growing heat waves have berorne more frequent.
season and an earlier snowmelt. Extremely cold winters might e 1be average atmospheric water vapor content has increased
become less numerous with fewer bitter cold spell~. since at le<1st the 1980s over land and oce<1n as well as in the
Follo"ing are some conclusion~ about global warming and upper tropo-~phere. The increase is broadly consistent with the
its future impact on our climate system summarized from the extra \\':.tter vapor that \\'armer air can hold.
2007 Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel
• Observationssince 1% l show that the average temperature of
on Climate Change (IPCC):
the globa I ocean has increased to depths ofat least 3000 m and
• The primary source of the increased atmospheric concentra- that the ocean has been absorbing more than 80% of the heat
tion of carbon dioxide since the pre-industrial period results added to the climate system. Such warmingcnuse,~se:rwater to
from fossil fuel use, with land-use change providing another expand, contributing to sea level rise.
significant butsmallercontribution.1 he atmospheric concen- • Average Arctic temperature.s increased at nlm<>-~t twice the
tration of carbon dioxide in 2005 exceeds by far the natural global average rate in the past JOOyears. Arctic temperatures
range over the ht~t 650,000 years (180 to 300 ppm) as deter- have high decadal variability, and a warm period was also
mined from ice cores. observed from 1925 to 19<15.
• Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the • Mid-latitude westerly winds have strengthened in both
second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than hemispheres since the 1960s.
• FI GURE 16. 24 Theextent dArcticseaicein

la} March, 2007, \Vhen the ice coter\va.s at or near
-
its maximum and in (bJ September,2007, \vhen
the ice cover \W.S near or at its minimum. The
orange line in {a) represents the median maxi-
mum of the ice cover for the period 1979-2000.
The orange line in (b) represents the median
minimum extent of the ice cover for the period
1979-2000. The yello\v line in {b} is the minimum
extent of ice ccverduring September,2005.
North
Pole
(b) September 2007
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• Extratropical s!Orm tracks are projected to move poleward, toward a close, negotiators had not agreed on the framework
with consequent ch,mges in wind, precipitation, and tempera- of a global agreement that might succeed the protocol. How-
ture patterns, continuing the broad pattern ofobserved trends ever, many large slates such as California have implemented
over the last half-century. climate change policies. California's aggressive plan (adopted
• Based on a range of models, it is likely that future tropical in 2006) sets targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to
cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes) will bctome more intense, 1990 levels by the year 2020. In addition, the mayors of more
with larger peak wind speeds and more heavy precipitation than LOOO towns and cities in the United States h'we pledged
associated with ongoing increases of tropical sea surface 10 reduce the levels ofcarbon emissions in their municipalities
temperatures. below 1990 le.vels.
• Global average sea level rose al an average rate of 1.8 [J. 3 to Jn recent years, the idea ofusing technology to mitigate cli-
2.3[ mm per year over 1961 10 2003. The rate was faster over mate change has been gaining support. Called geoengineering,
1993 to 2003: about 3.1 [2.4 to 3.SJ mm per year. the idea i~ 10 use global scale technological fixes 10 counter
clim.11e change by either (I) removing greenhouse gases from
• More intense and longer droughts have been observed over
the atmosphere or by (2) changing the amom1t ofsunlight that
wider areas since the 1970s, particularly in the tropics and
reaches the earth. Several geoengineering ideas that remove
subtropic~.
CO, from the atm<>sphere include: Fertilization of the o~an~
• Mountain glaciers and snow cover have declined on average with plants that absorb CO,. sprinkling iron-rich particles over
in both hemispheres. Widespre.1d decrt:lseS in glaciers and ice portions ofthe ocean to promote the growth ofcarbon-absorbing
caps have contributed to sea level rise (icecaps do not include phytoplankton, and placing large drifting vertical pipes into the
contributions from the Greenland and Antarctic Jee Sheets). ocean so that \\'UVe activity \vill pull up nutrient-rich \\'ater from
• 'Jl1e observed widespread warming of the atmosphere and below to promote algae blooms. HO\\<ever,all of these prop<>~aLs
ocean, together with ice mass loss,support the conclusion that tend lo enhance the acidification of the oceans, a problem that
it is extremely unlikely that global climate change of the past exists today for certain marine life. Still another idea to extract
50 years can be explained without external forcing, and very CO, from the atrn<>o;phere is to build ~~ynthetic trees" made of
likely that it is not due 10 known natural causes alone. recyclable memicals that react \\1th co, in the air.
To prevent sunlight from reaching earth~ surface, one idea
CLIMATE CHANGE: EFFORTS lO CU RB The most obvious way prop<>ses placing an array of reflecting mirrors in space high
to curb global warming is 10 re.duce greenhouse gJs emissions above the earth. Another proposal suggests injecting highly
by reducing the use of fossil fuels, such as oil and coal. Using reflective sulfate aer<>~ols into the strat<>o;phere. Jn one study,
alternative energy such assolarcollectorsand wind po"'er- the scientists using clinlate models pla~d tons ofsulfate aerosols-
world'.~ two fastest growing energy sources-could also help on the order of those lofted by Mount Pinatubo in 1991-into
with this endeavor. the stratosphere at various intervals. The study concluded that
Jn an attempt to mitigate the impact humans have on the injecting these sulfate aerosols every one to four years in con-
clinlatesystenl, repre,sentativesfrom 160 countries met at Kyoto, junction with reducing greenhouse gases could provide a "grace
Japan, in 1997 to work out a formal agreement to limit green- period" ofup to 20 years before m.1jor cutback in greenhouse gas
house gas emissions in industrialized nations. The international enlissions would be required.
agreement-called the Kyolo Protowl-was adopted in 1997, All of these geoengineeringproposal s may have unfore.seen
and was put into force in February, 2005. or unwanted consequences. Injecting the stratosphere with sul-
The Protocol sets mandatory targets for reducing green- fate particles, for example, might alter the temperature of the
house gas emi~sions in countries that adopt the plan. Although upper atm<>~phere and affect the fragile ozone layer.1 he science
the percent by whim each country "''l~ 10 reduce its enlissions of geoengineering is intriguing, but p<>ses costly tedmological
varies, the overall goal was to reduce greenhouse 8'l~ emissions mallenges for the scientific communil y.
in developed countries by at least 5 percent below existing 1990
levels during the 5-year period of2008 through 2012. CLIMATE CHANGE: A FINAL NOTE Cutting down on the
The agreement was structured to give countries flexibil- enlissionsofgreenhouse gases and pollutants has several poten-
ity in meeting their emission-reduction goals. !'or ex=ple, a tially po~itive benefits. A reduction in greenhouse ga~emissions
country that plants forests could receive "credit" for reducing could slow down the enhancement of the earth's greenhouse
greenhouse gases, because tree~ act as a "sink" and remove CO, effect and reduce global warming while at the same time, the
from the atmosphere. Other types of "credits" could be given reduction in air pollutants might reduce acid rain, diminish
to industrialize.d countries that established emission-reducing haze, and slow the production of photochemical smog. Even if
projects in developing countries. Although the plan gained the greenhouse warming proves 10 be less than what modern
worldwide acceptance, the United States has not signed the climate models project, the,se measures would certainly benefit
Protocol as of this writing. As the 5-year Kyoto period drew humanity.
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SUMMARY
In this chapter, we considered some of the many ways the Little ke Age, 462 Milankovitch theory, 467
earth'.~dimate can be changed. First, we saw that the earth's global warming, 463 eccentricity, 467
climate has undergone considerable change during the \\"<tier vapor-greenhouse pre.cession, 468
geologic past. Some of the evidence for a changing dimate feedback, 465 obliquity, 468
romes from tree rings (Mndrochronology), chemical analysis positive feedback Maunder minimum, 470
i:L oxygen isotopes in ice cores and IOs.~ilshells, and geologic mechanism, 465 sulfate aerosols, 473
evidencdeft behind by advancing and retreatingglaciers. The snow- albedo feedback, 465 de~ertification, 473
evidence from these suggests that, throughout much of the negative feedback radiative forcing
geologic past (long before humanity arrived on the scene), mechanism, 465 agents, 475
the earth was warmer than it is today. There were cooler chemical weathering-CO, radiative forcing, 475
periods, however, during which glaciers advanced over large feedback, 465 • geoengineering, 485
section.~ of North America and Europe. theory of plate
We examined some of the possible causes of di mate tectonics, 466
ch<tnge, noting that the problem is extremely complex, asa
change in one variable in the dimatesystem almost immedi-
ately changes other variables. Climate changes can be brought QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
on by both natural events and by human (anthropogenic) I. What methods do scientists use to determine climate
activitie~. One natural cau.se of climate change suggests that conditions that have occurred in the past?
the shifting oftherontinents, along with volcanicaclivity and 2. Explain how the changing climate inlluence.d the for-
mountain building, may aa:ount for variations in climate th'tt mation of the Bering land bridge.
take place over millions of years. 3. How does today~ average global temperature compare
Another natural cau.se of climate change is the Milanko- with the average temperature during most of the past
vitch theory that propose~ that alternating glacial and inter- LOOO years?
glacial episodes during the past 2.5 million yearsaretheresult 4. What is the Younger Dryas episode? When did it occur?
of small variations in the tilt ttthe earth's axis and in the ge- 5. How doe,~ a positive feedback mechanism differ from a
ometry of the earth's orbit around the sun. Climate change negative feedback mechanism? Is the water vapor-
may also be brought on naturally by vokaniceruptionHich in greenhouse feedback considered po.~itive or negative?
sulfur and by variations in the Slm 's energy out put. Explain.
Human activities, such as emitting vast quantities of 6. Explain why thechemical weathering-C02 feedback is
greenhouse gase~ into the atmosphere can produce dimate a negative feedback on earth'.~ climate system.
changes worldwide. Temperatures since the beginning 7. How does the theory of plate tectonics explain climate
of the last century have risen by more than o.s•c. Many change over periods of millions of years?
studies suggest that it is very likely th'tt increasing levels of 8. Describe the Mihmkovitch theory of climatic change
greenhOlL~e gases contributed significantly to thi~ ""rming, by explaining how each of the three cycles alters the
Sophisticated climate models project that, as levels of CO, amount of solar energy reaching the earth.
and other greenhouse gase~ continue to increase, the earth's 9. Given the analysis of air bubbles trapped in polar ice
surface will warm sub.~tantially by the end of this century. during the past 650,000 years, were CO, level~ gener-
Thernodelsalso predict that,astheearth warms, there will be ally higher or lower during warmer glacial periods?
a global increase in atmo~pheric water vapor, an increase in Were methane levels higher or lower at thi~ time?
global precipitation, with more extreme rainfall events (such JO. Mow do sulfate aero.~oL~ in the lower atmo.~phere affect
as floods and severe drought), a more rapid melting ofsea ice, surface air temperatures during the day?
and a rise in sea level. I J. Describe the scenario of nuclear winter.
12. Do volcanic eruption.~ rich in sulfur tend to warm or
cool the earth's surface? Explain
KEY TERMS 13. Explain how variations in the sun's energy output
might influence global climate.
The following terms are listed (with page numbers) in the
14. Climate models predict that increasing levels of C02
order they appear in the text Defmeeach. Doing so will aid
"1!1 cau.~e the mean global surface temperature to rise
you in reviewing the material covered in this chapter.
significantly by the year 2100. What other greenhou.se
climate change, 458 Younger Dryas gas niust also increase in concentration in order for
dendrochronology, 460 (event), 461 this condition to occur>
Ice Age, 461 mid-Holocene 15. Describe some of the natural and human-induced
interglacial period, 461 maxilnLun. 46 l radiative forcing agents and their effect on climate.
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... ..i M:.y ta>thc....,icd >........J ,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;ko• in .,.... floe .., ch<,....., ..... -11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f W "'1¥.,..al iun,.h nfl LU;,,.,J\ o «Ii""""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
16. List five ways natural events can cause climate change. plausible> What type(s) offeedbllck(s) is/are involved>
17. List three ways hwnan (anthropogenic) activities can Whttt type ofclouds (high or low)?
cau.~e climate change. 4. Explain two different ways that an increase in sulfate
18. Describe how clouds influence the climate system. particles might lower surface air temperatures.
19. ln Fig. 16.19a, p. 477, ei.:plain why the actual rise in sur- 5. Are ice ages in the Northern Hemisphere more
face air temperature (g«ly line.) is much greater than the likely when: (a) the tilt of the earth is at a maximllm
projected rise in temper<\lure due to natural forcing or a minimum? (b) the sun is do.~est to the earth
a gen IS. during summer in the Northern Hemisphere, or
20. Why do climate scientists now believe that mo.~t of the during winter? Expl1in your reasoning for both (a)
warming experienced during the last SO years was due to and (b).
increasing levels of greenhouse gases? 6. Mo.~t climate models show that the poles will warm
21. List some of the con.~equences that climate change might faster than the tropics. What effect will this have on
have on the atmosphere and ilS inhabitanlS. \Vinter storms in mid-httitudes?
22. Is CO, the only greenhouse gas we should be concerned 7. The oceans are a major sink (absorber) of CO,. One
with for climate change? If not, what are the other hypothesis state.~ that tls warming increases, less CO,
gases? "1!1 be dio;.~otved in the oceans. Would you expect the
23. Explain how the ocean's conveyor belt circulation works. earth to cool or to warm further? Why?
How does the conveyor belt appear to influence the cli- 8. Why did periods of glacial advance in the higher
mate of northern Europe? (Hint: the answer is found in latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere tend to occur
the Focus se.c tion p. 463.) "'th colder Sllmmers, but not necessarily with colder
, ..inters?

I. lee core.~ extracted from Greenland and Antarctica have
yielded valuable information on climate changes during J. lf the annual precipitation near Hud~n Bay (latitude
the past 650,000 years. What do you feel might be ss•N) is 38 cm (1 5 in.) per year, calcullne how long
some of the limitation.~ in using ice core information to it would take snow falling on this region to reach a
evalu.1te past climate changes> thickness of 3000 m (about 10,000 ft). (Assume that
2. When glaciation was al a maximllm (about 18,000 years all the precipitation falls as snow, that there i~ no
ago), was global precipitation greater or less than at pres- melting during the summer, and that the annual pre-
ent? Explain your reasoning. cipitation remains constant. To account for compac-
3. Consider the following climttte change scenario. Warming tion of the snow, u.~e a water equivalent of 5 to I.)
global temperalures increase saturation vapor pres.~ures 2. On a \\"<lrming pillnet, the snow-albedo feedback
over the ocean. As more \\'3.ler evaporates. increasing quan· produces a positive feedback. Make a diagram (or
litie.~ of ""ter vapor build up in the tropo.~phere. More several diagrams) to illu.~trate this phenomenon.
clouds form as the ""ter vapor condense.~. The clouds Now, with another diagram, show that the snow-
increase the albedo, re.~ulting in decreased amounts of albedo feedback produces a positive feedback on a
solar radiation reaching the earth'.~ surface. ls this scenario cooling planet.
CiEOSCIENCE I Go to the Reference section of the Globa I Environment Watch: Climate Change
portal and search for the report "Climate Modeling" from E11viro11me11ta/ Science: Iii Conte.xt(or other reference works in thi~
portal). What would a climate model and a weather forecasting model have in common? How might they be different? What
aspects of the average climate expected by the 2050s might be most useful for city planners or farmers to know?
ONLINE RESOURCES
'O well as additional re,~urces, including video exercises, pmctice quizzes, an interactive eBook, and more.
«It""""' I f!4u.Wt_.,...,.t.....
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?'''!
Global Climate
CONTENTS
T
he climate is unbearable .. . At noon today the highest
A World with Many Climates temperature measured was - 33°C. We really feel that it is
Gia bal Tern peratu res late in the season. The days are growing shorter, the sun is low
Global Precipitation
and gives no wa rmth, katabatic winds blow continuously from
Precipitation Extremes the south with gales and drifting snow. The inner wa lls of the
Climatic Classification tent are like glazed parchment with several millimeters thick
The Ancient Greeks
ice-armour .. . Every night several centimeters o f frost accumu·
The Koppen System
Thornthwaite's System late on the walls, and each time you inadvertently touch the tent
The Global Pattern of Climate cloth a shower o f ice crystals falls down on your face and melts.
Tropical Moist Climates (Group A)
Dry Climates (Group B) In the night huge patches of frost from my breath spread around
Moist Subtropical Mid -Latitude Climates the opening of my sleeping bag and melt in the morning .
(Group C)
The shoulder part of the sleeping bag facing the tent·side is
A Desert with Clouds and Drizzle permeated with frost and ice, and crackles when I roll up the
FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC bag .. . For several weeks now my fingers have been perma·
When Does a Dry Spell Become a Drought7 nent ly tender with numb fingertips and blistering at the nails
Moist Continental Climates (Group D)
after repeated frostbites. All food is frozen to ice and it takes
Polar Climates (Group El
Highland Climates (Group HJ ages to thaw out everything before being able to eat. At the
Summary depot we could not cut the ham, but had to chop it in pieces
Key Terms
Questions for Review with a spade. Then we threw ourselves hungrily at the chunks
Questions for Thought and chewed with the ice crackling between our teeth. You have
to be careful with w ha t you put in your mouth. The other day
I put a piece of chocola te from an outer pocket directly in my
mouth and promptly got frostbite with blistering of the palate.
Ove Wilson (Quoted in David M. Gates, Man and His Envfronment)
Facing page: In mountainous regions, a va.rietyof climate

types can ex.i!ot \Vithin a relatively short distance. Here.
in Colorado,dedduousand conifer treE?$9fO\V at bwer
elevations in a continentaJ.typeclimate, \VhUe snow
and iceco1.erthe high mountain peakswherea polar
dimate prevails.
489
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J ,,.. .l....wod,"' "f>•lrc<><in p.... ll<to i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb."*'"' llo.nl poo-1)' •.,,..,. ""1 W "'l••-..i ..,.,.,h ~dl ... :.1J\o .0."l'nV I f:1"'-i.rtn1•"'!....
ur opening comes from a repart by Norwegian scien- We can ;1scertain the effect these controls have on climate
0 tists on their encounter v. ith one of nature~ cruelest
the profound effect that climate can have on even ordinary

1
climates-that of Antarctica. Their experience illustrates

by observing the global pattern~ of two weather elements-
temperature and precipitation.
events, such a~ eating a pieceofchocolate. Though we may not al- GLOBAL TEMPERATURES • Figure 17.l shows mean annual
ways think about it,climMe profotmdly affects nearly everything temperature,s forthe world.1o eliminate the distorting effuctof
in the middle latitudes, too. For instance, it influences our hous- topagrnphy, the temperatures are corrected to sea level.' Notice
ing, clothing, the shape of landscapes, agriculture, how we fed that in both hemispheres the isotherms are oriented east-west,
and live, and even where we reside, as most people "111 choose to reflecting the fact that locations at the same latitude receive
live on asurmyhillsideratherthan in a cold, dark, and foggy river nearly the same amount of solar energy. Jn addition, the an-
basin. Entire civilizations have flourished in favorable climates nual solar heat that each latitudereceive,s decreases from low to
and have moved away from, or perished in,unfavorableone.s. We high latitude; hence, annual temperatures tend todecreasefrom
learned early in this text that climate is the average of the day-to- equatorial tO\\"ard palar regions."
day weather over a long duration. But the concept of climate is The bending of the isotherms along the coastal margins is
much larger than this, for it encompasses, among other thin~, due in part totheune.qual heatingand cooling propertiesofland
the daily and seasonal extremes of weather "1thinspecified ar<>as. and water, and to ocean currents and upwelling. For example,
When we speak ofclimate, then, we must be careful to spec- along the west coast of North and South America, ocean
ify the spatial location we are talking about. For example, the currents transpart cool water equatorward. Jn addition to
Chamber of Commerce of a rural town may boast that its com- this, the wind in both regions blows toward the equator, par-
munity has mild winters with air temperatures seldom below allel to the coast. This situation favors upwelling of cold water
freezing. 'Jbis may be true several meters above the ground in (see Chapter LO), which cools the coastal margins. Jn the area
an instrumentshelter, but near the ground the temperature may of the eastern North Atlantic Ocean (north of 4o•N), the pole-
drop below freezing on many winter nights. This small climatic ward bending of the isothenns is due to the Gulf Stream and
region near or on the ground is referred to as a mlcrodimate. the North Atlantic Drift, which carry warm water northward.
Becatcse a much greater extreme in daily air temperatures exists The fact that landmasses heat up and cool off more quickly
near the ground than several meters above, the microc.limate than do large bodies ofwater means that variations in tempera-
for small plants is far more harsh than the thermometer in ;Ill ture bet\vt.en summer and \Vinter \Vilt be far greater over con-
instrument shelter would indicate. tinental interiors than along the west coastal margins of conti-
When we examine the climate of a small area of the earth's nents. By the same token, the climates of interior continental
surface, we are looking at the mesodimate. The size of the regions will be more extreme, as they have (on the average)
area may range from a few acres to several square kilometers. higher swnmer temperatures and lo\ver \\'inter temperatures
Mesoclimates include regions such as forests, valleys, beaches, than their west-coast counterparts. Jn fact, west-coast climates
and t0\\1lS. 1 he climate of a much ktrger area, such as a state or a re typically quite mild for their kttitude.
a country, is called macrodimate. The climate extending over The highest mean temperature,s do not occur in the
the entire earth is often referred to as global climate. tropics, but rather in the subtropical deserts of the Northern
ln this chapter, we will concentrate on the larger scaks of Hemi~phere. Here, the subsiding air associated with the
climate. We will begin with the factors that regulate global cli- subtropical anticyclones produces generally dear skies and
mate; then we will discuss how climates are classified. Finally, we low hwnidity. Jn swnmer, the high sun beating down upon a
will examine the different types of climate. relatively barren landscape produces scorching heat.
The lowest mean temperature.soccur over large landmasses
at high latitudes. The coldest areas in the Northern Hemisphere
are found in the interior of Siberia and Greenland, whereas the
A World with Many Climates coldest area of the world is the Antarctic. During part of the
year, the sun is below the horizon; when it is above the hori-
Tue world i~ rich in climatic types. From the teeming tropical
zon, it is low in the sky and its rays do not effectively " "arm the
jw1gles to the frigid polar '\~astelands; there seems to be an
surfao?. Consequently, the land remain~ snow- and ice-covered
almost endless variety of climatic regions. Tue factors that pro- year-rotmd. The snow and ice reflect perhaps 80 percent of the
duce the climate in any given place-the climatic controls- sunlight that reaches the surface. Much of the unrefle.c ted solar
are the same that produce our day-to-day weather. Briefly. the energy is used to transform the ice and snow into water vapar.
controls are the: The relatively dry air and the Antarctic's high elevation permit
I. intensity ofsunshine and its variation with latitude rapid radiational cooling during the dark winter months, pro-
2. distribution of land and wate.r ducing extremely cold surface air. 1 he extremely cold Antarctic
3. ocean currents
"lhis correclion is nlOOc by ndding to each station above sen level un anlount of
4. prevailing winds 1c1npcroture th<lt would correspond to the nornul (stand1rd) tempcrnture lapser.ate
5. positions of high- and low-pressure are'l~ of6.S"Cpcr IOOO m (3.6°F per 1000 11).
6. mountain barriers ., Aver.aw global 1c1nperatt1res for f:anuaryand fulyare given in Figs.3.13and 324.
7. altitude re.speaivtly.on p.80.
°*"'"''*..
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
90 0 90 180
30 60
.->
~
30
'
.. , 30
60
90 0 90 180
Longitude
e FI GURE 17. 1 Avera.ge annual .serlevel temperatures throughout the world fF}.
helps to explain why, overall, the Southern Hemisphere is cooler whilethesubtropicsandthe polarregionsarerehttivelydry.The
than the Northern Hemisphere. Othercontributingfactorsfora global distribution of precipitation is closely tied to the general
roofer Southern Hemisphere include the fact that polar regions circulation of winds in theatmo.spheredescribed in Chapter 10,
of the Southern Hemisphere reflect more incoming sunlight, and to the distribution of mountain range.sand high plateaus.
and the fact that less land area is found in tropical andsubtropi- • Figure 17.2 shows in simplified form how the general cir-
cil areas of the Southern Hemisphere. culation influences the north-w-south distribution ofprecipi-
tation to be expected on a uniformly water-covered earth. Pre-
GLOBAL PRECIPITATION Appendix G shows the worldwide cipitation is mo.st abundant where the air rises; least abundant
general pattern ofannual precipitation, which varies from place where it sinks. Mence,oneexpects a great deal ofprecipitation in
to place. 'lb ere are, however, certain regions that standout as be- the tropics and along the polar front, and little near subtropical
ing wet or dry. For example, equatorial regions are typically wet, highs and at the poles. Let'.s look at this in more detail.
Nonh Sou1h • FIGURE 17.2 Avertical cross section along

Pole 60' o• 30' 60' Pole a line running north to south illustrates the main
global regionsof rising and sinking air and ho\V
each region influences precipitation.
( --- ( Jl ) A
~
J
Polar Subtropical ITCZ Sublroplcal Polar Polar
high high high fron1 high
:;; :;;
c ~ ~ c
'!' '!'
~
q;
~
"4
q;
c:- ~ ~ ~ "c:- "
a;
~
;;
~
c:-
"§"' ~
'>
"~
...."~ ~ :\!~ "E
~
§.. "
E
.."' ~
""'
E
;-:,._
"'
E
""'
:\!
"fl ""' "ill ~,._ "ill ..:\!""'
~ ~ 5 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 5 ~ ~
J.r:oi 1l11111~e 1:i;«lCerq11ge2012

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..
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Jn tropical regions, the trade winds converge along the steer storms to the north, central and southern California areas
Jntertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). producing rising air, experience little, ifany, rainfall during the summer months.
towering clouds, and heavy precipitation all year long. Poleward On the western side of subtropical highs, the air is less
of the equator, neM latitude30°, the sinking air of the subtropi- stable and more moist, as \\'armer air moves: pale\"'ard. ln sum~
cal highs produces a "dry belt" around the globe. 'llte Sahara mer, over the North Atlantic, the Bermuda high pumps moist
fko;ert of North Africa i~ in this region. Here, annual rainfall tropical air northward from the Gulfof Mexico into the eastern
is exceedingly light and varies considerably from year to year. two-thirds of the United States. The humid air is conditionally
Because the major wind belts and pressure systems shift with tmstable to begin with, and by thetirneit moves over theheated
the season- north"•ard in July andsouthward in January- the ground, it becomes even more unstable. Jf conditions are right,
area between the rainy tropics and the dry subtropics is the moist air will rise and condense into cumultLs clouds, which
influe.nced by both the !TCZ and the subtropical highs. may build into towering thunderstorms.
Jn the cold air ofthepoktr regions there is little moisture, so Jn winter, the subtropical North Pacific high moves south,
there is little precipitation. Winter storms drop light. powdery allowingstonnstravelingacross the ocean to penetrate the "~st
snow that remains on the ground for a long time because of the ern states, bringing much needed rainfall to California after a
low evaporation rates. Jn summer, a ridgeofhigh pre.ssure tends long, dry summer. The Bennuda high also moves south in \\1nter.
to block storm systems that would othen"ise travel into the area; Across much of the United States, intense \\1nter storrns develop
hence, precipitation in polar regions is meager in all seasons. and travel eastward, frequently dumping heavy precipitation as
There are exceptions to thi~ idealized pattern. For example, they go. Usually, however, the heaviest precipitation is concen-
in middle kttitudes themigratingposition ofthesubtrcpical anti- trated in the eastern states, as moisture from the Gulf of Mexico
cyclones also has an effect on the west-to-east distribution ofpre- moves northward aheadof the.o;e systems. Therefore, citieson the
cipitation. 'llte sinking air associated \\1th the.o;e systerns is more J~ainstypically receive more rainfall insummerandth0-o;eon the
strongly developed on theireasternside. Hence, the air along the \iVest ('.oast have maximum precipitation in v.'inter. \vhereas cit-
eastern side of an anticyclone tends to be more stable; it is also ies in the Midwest and East usually h'weabundant precipitation
drier, as cooler air moves equatorward becatcse of the circulating all year long. • Figure 17.3 shows the average annual precipitation
\\1nds around these systems. Jn addition, along coastlines, cold acr0-o;.~ North America, 'ts "di as thecontrast in seasonal precipi-
upwelling ""ater cools the surface air even more, adding to the tation among a West Coast city (San Francisco). a Central l~ains
air'.~ stability. Consequent! y, in summer, when the Pacific high city (KansasCity).and an eastern city (Baltimore).
moves to a position centered off the Califi>rnia coast, a strong, Mountain ranges disrupt the idealized pattern of global
stable subsidence inversion forms above coastal regions. With precipitation (I) by promoting convection (because their slopes
the strong inversion and the fact that the anticyclone tends to are warmer than the surrounding air) and (2) by forcing air to
Legend
Avera99 anooaJ
precipitation (In.)
CJ <10
CJ 10-20
CJ 20-40
- >40
6- San Francisco " 15 6 - Kamas City 15 6 - Battimore 0 15

La11tude 37" Lalltude 39' Latil!Jde 39'
5- 5- s-
.s. 4- ·'10 4 - 10 4-
g
!! 3 ...
·g.
~ 2-
ol:
1-
O- 0 J FMAMJJASOND 0
J
Precipitation ebundB11t
all yearlong
• FI GURE 17. 3 Average annual precipitation across North America along \Vith variation in annual precipitation for three Northern Hemisphere cities..
kl.Oii fl•S PlijC is«l Col!J11JCZ•1
WEATHER WATCH
Even -'1summersj• in the Anta rcti c can be brutal . In 191Z during
the Antarctic sum mer, Robert Scott of Great Britain not only
Pacific lost the race to the South Pol e to Norway's Roal d Amundsen,
Ooean but perished i n a blizzar d tr ying to return. Temper atur e data
taken by S<ott and hi s crew showed that the summer of 1912
was unusuall y cold, with a ir temperatures rema ining below
- 30°F fo r nearl y a month. These exceptionally low tempe ra -
tureseroded the men's heal th and created an increase in
f rictional drag on the sl eds the men were pulli ng.Just before
Scott's death, he wrote in his journa l that •(no one in the world
In,
would have expected the tempe ratures and surfa ces which we
Po<t Townsend encountered at this t ime of year.''
,.. annual 101at
.60.
precipitation ~
18.41n.
precipitation is !es.~ than 43 cm (17 in.),and irrigation is neces·
..
'30 sary to grow certain crops. e f'igure 17.Sshows a classic example
of how topography produces several r ain shadow effects. (Ad·
..........___ • i:..10 ditional information on precipitation ext re.m es is given in the
JFMAMJJASONO Focus section on p. 494.)
BRIEF REVIEW
Before going on to th e sectio n on climate classification, here i.s
a brief review ofsome of t he facts we have covered so far:
• FI GUR E 17.4 TheeffectoftheOlympicMountains in Washington Stat eon
averageannual precipitation. • The climate cont rols are th e factors t hat govern th e climate of
any given region.
rise along their windward slopes (orographic 1plift). Conse· • The hottest p laces on ear th tend to occur In the subtropical
quently, the\\indwardsideofmountains tends to be "wet." A~ air deserts of the North ern Hemisphere, where clearskles and
descend~ and warm.~ along the leeward side, there is less likeli· sin king air, coupled with l ow humidi ty and a hig h summer
hood ofclouds and precipitation. Thus, the leeward (dowm,ind) sun beating dow n upon a rel atively barren l andscape,
side of mountains tends to be ''dry." As Chapter 6 points out, a produce extreme heat.
region on the leew.1rdsideof a mountain where precipitation is • Th e coldest p laces on earth tend to occur In th e Interior of
noticeably less is called a rain slwdow. high-latitude landmasses. The coldest areas of the Northern
A good example of the rain shadow effect occurs in the Hemisphere are found In th e interior of Siberia and Greenland ,
northwestern part ofWashington State. Situated on the western whereas th e coldest area of the world i.s the Antarctic.
side at thebaseoftheOlympicMountains, the Hoh River Valley • The wettest pl aces in t he w orl d tend to be l ocated on t he
annually receives an average 380 cm ( I SOin.) of precipitation windward side of mountains where warm, humid air rises
(see e Fig. 17.4). Onthee'~~tern (leeward)sideof thisrange, only upslope. On t he downwind (leeward) side ofa mountain
about JOO km(62 mi) from the Hoh rain forest, the mean annual th ere often exl.sts a "dry" region, know n as a rain shadow.
WEST EAST • FI GURE 17.5 Theeffectof topographyon

averageannual prec-ipitat ion along a line run-
Sietra Novada
ning from the Pacific Ocean through cent ral
California into\vest ern Nevada.
Coaif Aange mountains
C'1')'rif• ) ) ·~ On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i °*"'"''"..

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Precipitation Extremes
Most o f th e "rainiest" places in th e world Madagascar in th e Indian Ocean), a tr opi- February, 1972. A r ecord season al sn ow-
are located on t h ewindward side o f moun- cal cyclon e d umped 135 cm (53 in.) o f rain fall total o f 2896 cm (11 40 in.) fell o n
tains. For example, Mount Waialeale o n the on Belou ve in twelve h ours. Heavy r ains Mt. Baker ski area, Washington, d urin g
island of Kauai, Hawaii, has the greatest of sh or t duration often occur w ith severe th e w inter o f 1998- 1999.
annual average rainfall in the United States: thunderstorms th at move slowly o r stall As we n oted earlier, t h e driest reg ion s
1168 cm (460 in.). Mawsynram. on th e crest over a r egion. O n July 4, 1956, 3 cm (1 2 in .) of th e world lie in th e frigid polar reg ion,
of th e south ern slopes o f th e Khasi Hills in of rain fell from a thunderstorm on th e leewa rd side o f mounta ins, an d in
n ortheastern India, is con sidered th e wet- Union ville, Marylan d, in on e m inute. th e belt o f subtropical high pressure,
test place in th e world as it receives an Sn owfa lls ten d to be h eavier w h ere between 15" an d 30' latit u de. Arica in
average of 11 87 cm (467 in.) o f rainfall cool, moist air rises alon g th e w in dwa rd n orth ern Chil e h olds th e world record for
each year, the majority o f which falls d ur- slopes o f mountains. O n e of th e sn owiest lowest annual rainfall, 0.08 cm (0.03 in.) .
ing th e summer mon soon, between April places in Nor th America is located at th e In t h e United States, th e driest r egion s are
and October. Ch errapunj~ w hich ~onl y Paradise Ran ger Statio n in Mt. Rainier foun d in th e desert sou t h west, th e
abou t 10 m iles from Mawsynram, h olds th e Nation al Park, Washin gton. Situated at sou th ern San Joaquin Valley of Califo rnia,
greatest 12-mon th rainfall total o f 2647 cm an elevatio n o f 16 46 m (5400 ft) above an d Death Valley in sou th ern Califo rnia,
(1042 in.), and once rece i ~d 380 cm sea level, this station receives an average w hich averages only 4.5 cm (1.78 in.) o f
(150 in.) in j u st 5 days. 1758 cm (692 in.) o f snow annuall y, an d precipitation annually. Fi gure 1 gives
Recor d rainfall amounts are often h ol ds th e world's record 12-mon t h additio n al infor matio n o n world
associated with tropical.s torms. On the sn owfall tota l of3109 cm (1224 in.), precipitation recor ds.
islan d of L a Reunion (abou t650 km east o f w hich fell between Februar y, 1971 and
• FI GURE 1 Som e precipitation records throughout the \vorld
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Polar climates: E.xtremely cold winters and
E
summers. 1 he average temperature of the wannest
Climatic Classification month i~ below LO' C (so•F). Since all months are
The climatic controls interact to produce such a wide array of cold, there is no real summer season.
different climates that not wo places experience exactly the same ln mountainous country. \\•he.re rapid changes in eleva·
climate. Mowever, thesimilarity of climates within a given area tioo bring about sharp changes in dimatictype, delineating the
allows us to divide the earth into climatic regions. dimatic regions i~ impos.~ible. 'Jliese regions are designated by
the letter H, for highland climates.
THE ANCIENT GREEKS By considering temperature and e figure 17.6 gives a simplified overview of the major cli-
worldwide sunshine distribution, the ancient Greeks catego- mate types throughout the world, according to Koppen'ssystem.
rized the world intothreedimatic regions: Superimposed on the map are some of the climatic controls.
These include the average annual po.~itions of the semi-
I. A low-latitude tropical (or torrid) zone; bounded by the
permanent high- and low-pressure areas, the average position of
northern and southern limit of the sun~ vertical rays (23Y,.N
the lntertropicalConvergence Z-0ne in January and July, the ma-
and 23V,•S); here, the noon sun is always high, day and night
jor mountain ranges and deserts of the world, and some of the
are of nearly equal length, and it is "'arm year-round.
major oa?an currents. Notice how the climate controls impact
2. A high-latitude poltir (or frigid) zone; bounded by the An:tic the climate in different regionsof theworld. As we would expect,
or Antarctic Circle; cold all year long due to long periods of due to changes in the intensity and amount ofsolar energy, polar
\\inter darkness and a 10\\' summer sun. dimates are found at high latitudes and tropical climates at low
3. A middle-latitude temperate zone; sandwiched between the latitudes. Dry climates tend to be located on the downwind side
othert\\'O'Zones.hasdistinctsummer and \\tinter.so e.xhibil~ of major mountain chains and near 30• latitude, where the sub-
cha racteristic.rnf both extremes. tropical highs (with their sinking air) are found. Climates with
more moderate winters (C climates) tend to be equatorward of
Such a sunlight, or temperature-based, climatic scheme is,
those with severe winters (D climates). Along the west coast of
ofcourse, far too simplistic. Jt excludes precipitation, so there is
no way to differentiate between wet and dry regions. 'Jl1e best North America and Europe, warm ocean currents and prevail-
ing westerly winds modify the climate such that coastal regions
classification of climates would take into account as many me-
experience much milder winters than do regions farther inland.
teorological factors as can possibly be obtained.
Keep in mind that \\1thin the Koppen system each major cli-
maticgroup containssubgroupsthat describe special regiooal char-
THE KOPPEN SYSTEM A widely used classification ofworld
acteristics, such asseasonal changes in remperature <Uld precipita-
climates based on the annual and monthly averages of tem-
tion. The complete Koppen climaticclassificatioosystem, including
perature and precipitation was devised by the famous German
the criteria for thevarioussubgroups, isgiven in •'table 17.1.
scientist Waldimir Koppen (1846-1940). Initially published
Koppen's system has been criticized primarily because
in 1918, the original Koppen classificatio n system has si nee
his boundaries (which relate vegetation to monthly tempera-
been modified and refined. Faced with the lack of adequate
ture and precipitation values) do not correspond to the natu-
observing stations throughout the world, Koppen related
ral bound<tries of each climatic zone. In addition, the Koppen
the distribution and type of native vegetation to the various
system implies that there is a sharp boundary between climatic
climates. In this ""Y• climatic boundarie.~ could be approxi-
zones, when in reality there is a gradual transition.
mated where no climatological data were available.
'Jbe K<:ippen system has been revised several times, most no-
Koppen's scheme employs five major climatic types; each
tably by the German climatologist Rudolf Geiger, who worked
type is designated by a capital leuer:
"1th Koppen on amending the climatic boundaries of certain
A Tropical moist climates: All months have an average regions. A popular modification of the Koppen system was de-
temperature above 1s•c (64•F). Since all months veloped by the American climatologist Glenn T 1rewartha, who
are \\•ar1n. the-re is no real \\inter season. redefined some of the climatic types and altered the climatic
B D1y climates: Deficient precipitation most of the world map by pulling more emphasi~ on the lengths of gro"1ng
year. J'otential evaporation and transpiration exceed seasons and average summer temperatures.
precipitation.
THORNTHWAITE'S SYSTEM 1b correct some of the Koppen
C Moist mid-latitude climates with mild winters: deficiencies, the American climatologist C. Warren Thornth-
Warm-to-hot summers '''ith mild \\1inters. The waite (1899-1963) devised a new classification system in the
average temperature of the coldest month is below early 1930s. Both systems utilized temperature and precipita-
1s•c (64• F) and above -3•c (27•f). tion measurements and both related natural vegetation to cli-
D !vfoist 111id-ltl.l'itude cli111ates 1vitlt severe 1vinlers: mate. However, toemphasizethe importance ofprecipitation (P)
Warm summers and cold "faters. ' lbe average temper- and ev<1porat ion (E) on plant growl h, Thorn! h""ite developed a
ature of the warmest month exa?eds I O"C (S0°F), and PIE ratio, which is essentially monthly precipitation divided by
the coldest monthly aver:ige dr<lpS below -3"C (27•F). monthlyevaporation. The annualsum of the P/E ratios gives the
<l<nl1nlfl .._...., .._,~..,,._ .i..,.n•• _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,n.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' n<i•• ""''"""..,,....,,..,n.
e FIGURE 17.6 A simplified overview of the m ajor dim at e typesaccording to l'Dppen, along \Vith some o f lhe dim at ic controls. The large Hs and
Lson the m ap represen t the average position of the semi·permanent high- and 10\v· pressure areas. The solid red lines shO\V the average position of
the lntertropical Covergence Zone {ITCZ} in January and July. Theoce.an c urrents in red are \Varm. \Vhereas those in blue are cold. The m ajor moun·
tain ra ngesa nd deserts of the\vorld also a: re incJuded.
Dry climates occupy more land area than any other major climatic type. If the world' s average annual
su·face air tcmperature increases by 3~c ove r the next 100 years or so (and worldwide average
precipitation does not change), would you expect the area occupied by dry climates to Increase, decrease, or show no change?
P/E index. Using this index, the Th ornthwaite system defines

five major humidity provinces and their characteristic vegeta-
tions: rain forest, forest, grassland,steppe, and desert. The Global Pattern of Climate
Tb better describe the moi~ture available for plant growth, • Figure 17.7 gives a more detailed view of how the major cli-
Thornthwaite proposed a new classification system in 1948 and matic regions and subregions of the world aredi~tributed based
slightly revi~edit in 1955. His new sc'heme emphasized thecon- mainly on the work of Koppen. (The major climatic types along
c:ept ofpotentitli evapotra11spimtio11' (PE). which is the amount with their subdivisions are given in Table 17.l.) We will first
ofmoisture that would be lost from the soil and vegetation ifthe examine humid tropical climates in low latitudes and then
moisture were available. we'll look at middle latitude and polar climates. Bear in mind
Thornthwaite incorporated potential evapotran.~piration that each climatic region has many subregions oflocal climatic
into a moisture index that depends essentially on the differ- differences wrought by such factors as topography, elevation,
ences between precipitation and PE.1 he index is high in moist and k1rge bodies of water. Remember, too, that boundaries of
climates and negative in arid climates. An index ofO mark~ the climatic regions represent gradual transition.~. ' I hus, the major
boundary between wet and dry climates. climatic characteristics ofa given region a re best observed away
•&aporr,1rupiratfo11 refers to the evnporlltion fro1n soil and lrnnspir.Hion of pbnts.. from its periphery.
kl.Oii fl•SPlijC is«l Col!J11JCZ•1

C'1'1'rif• :tl 1~ On~ t.cmn~ AU l!i11i..a_.....i """>' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 '*"'"''".. "IJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, """'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> • t:.w....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,.,~c ..'ll'tl..
1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
,. TABLE 17.1 Koppen's Climatic Classification System
UTTER SYMBOL
1st 2nd 3rd Climatic Cha1actenst1cs CI1tena
A Humid tropical AH n10nth.'i have an a\\l'rage cen1perature of 18°C (64°F) or higher

f Tropical wet (rain furest) \Vet all sea.<>ons; a Unlonths have at least 6 cn1 (2.4 in.) of rainfall
w Tropical \\retand dl)r \A/inter dr)• season; rainfal I in driest n1onth i..'i les.'i than 6 cn1 (2.4 in.) and
(savanna) less tlian JO - P/25 (Pis mean annual rainfall in cm)
m Tropical n1onsoon Short dr)' sea'ion; rainfaUin drie.'it n1onth is less than 6 cn1 (2.4 in.) but
equal to or greater than JO - P/25
B Dry Potential evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation. The dry/ han1id
boundary is defined by the foUO\\fing fonnulas:
p = 2t + 28 \\'hen 70%or nlOre of rain falL<i in ''iarnlt'r6 n1ontra (di)• '"inter)
p -= 21 \,•hen 70W1or n1ore of rain falL'i in cooler 6 nlOnths (dry sun1n1er)
p = 21 + 14 '"hen neither half year ha.'i 70% or nlOre of rain (pis the nlf'an
annual precipitation in cn1 and t l<! the n1ean annual ten1perature in °C)•
s Semi-arid (steppe) 11>< BS/BW boundary is exactly one-balf the dry/ humid boundary
w Arid (desert)
h Hot and dry Mean annual ten1perature is J8°C (64°'F) or higher
k Cool anddry Mean annual temperarure is below I S"C (64°F)
c Moist \\Tith n1ild \\'inters Average ten1perature of coole.'it nlOnth is belO\\f l8'°C (64°F) and above
- 3°C (27°F)
w Dry,\Tinters Average rainfaUof \\'ettest sun1nler n1onth at least 10 tinles a.'i nluch as in
driest \\tinter nlOnth
s Dry s-un1nlt'rs Average rai:nfaUof driest sun1nler month less than 4 cn1 (1 .6 in.); average
rainfall of \\fettest \\Tinter n1onth at least 3 tinle$ as n1uch as in drie.<1t sununer
n1onth
f \Vet all seasons Criteria for \\T and s c:annot be n1et
a Sun1n1ers long and hot Average cen1perature of '"arm est n1onth above 22°C (71°F)i at least 4 n1onths
with average above JO'C (SO'F)
b Sun1n1ecs long and cool Average ten1perarure of all nlOnths belO\\t 22°C (72°F); at Lea.'it 4 nlOnth.'i \\Tith
average above JO'C (SO'F)
Sun1n1er-s short and cool Average ten1perature of all nlOnths belo'" 22°C (72°F)i 1 to 3 n10nths \\Tith
' average above JO'C (SO'F)
D 1\4oist \V'ith cold \\•inters Average ten1perature of coldest nlOnth is - 3°C (27°F) or belo\\f; average
ten1perature of\\tarnlest tnonth is gre.ater than J0°C (SO°F)
w Dry,vinters San1e as under O\t
s Dry sun1nlers San1e as under Cs
f \Vet all seasons San1e as under Cf
a Sun1niet.'i long and hot Same as under Cfu
b Sun1n1ers long and cool Same as under Clb
Sun1n1ers shore and cool San1e as under Cfc
'd Sun1n1ers short and cool; Average ten1perature of coldest nlOnth is - 38°C ( - 36°F) or be lo'"
\V'inters severe
E Polar <lin1ates Average temperature of wam1est montl1 is below JO'C (SO'F)

T Tundra Average ten1perature of \\'3rme.'it n1onth is greater than 0°C (32°F) bat less
than Hl°C (50'F)
F Ice cap Average ten1perature of '''3rmest n1onth is OOC (32°F') or belO\\'
"The drylhu1nid bound.uy is de lined in English unitsas: p = 0.4•1t - 3 (d1y , \·inter): p = 0.44 t - 14 (drysumnl cr); and p = 0 .4•1t - 8.6 (rainfall c\\:nlydi.stribu1ed ):
where pis rocom annu:d rain full in inches and tis 1ucan annwl te1uperature in "F.
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ',...,,• .,,in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,. w"'I•• -"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i..r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c ..'ll'tl..
1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• FI GURE 17.7 'M>rlchvidedistribution
of dimatic regions {after KOppen).
ET
.,,.,,_. .,- '&o·
_.... l
~.......--
~
ab
""
I
'
....
II) ·!~c ... H
/,,,
Bl\•
Cl•
~ ,,,..._ t +
~
-
--
I
......,
-- • Zn --
f 2'1'
A
""' '"°'
120'
....
LJ
-
Aw
l iO(ISull WOlo01rd><ty
Dew ..........
__
B D1y
D es ,.......
---
Sarri«ld or tlepp&
c f.tJisc CimlUll
D er.
o:
[] ca
......
~(c)ysumw>
H CW
,_......., D ... lll'y-
o:
-
..........
-
D
JUNd """""""'
o:
- o .. _.._
\
D aw
!i0'~851<Clb~~ET~'---4
lll'y-
E
0£T _....,,,
- -
ET ~
-;-+ -
H ........... OH "" 't"
....~
\
\,-,
ET · '
TROPICAL MOIST CLIMATES (GROUP A) veget'1tion. Jn the forest, liuksunlight is able topene1ra1e101he
General characteristics: year-round warm remperalure.~ (all ground through the thick crown cover. As a result, little plant
months have a mean remperalure above J8°C, or 64°F); abun- growth i~ found on the forest floor. However, at rhe edge of!he
dant rainfall (typical annual average exceeds 150 cm, or 59 in.). forest, or where a clearing has been made, abundant sunlight
allows for rhe growth oftangled shrubs and vines, producing an
Extent: northward and southward from !he equator 10 about almost impenetrable jungle (see e Fig. 17.8).
latitude 15° 10 25°. Within the tropical wet climate' (Af), seasonal tempera-
Major types (based on se'lsonal distribution of rainfall): tropical ture variations are small (normally less than 3°C) because the
wet (A(), tropical monsoon (Am). and tropical wet and dry (Aw). noon sun i~ always high and the number of daylight hours i~
Ar low ele.v arions near rhe equator, in particular rhe relatively constant. HO\vever. the.re is a greater variation in tctn-
Amazon lowland of South America, the Congo River B,l~in of peraturebeiween day (average high about 32°C) and night (av-
Africa, and the East Indies from SumaIra lo New Guinea, high erage low about 22•c) than there is between the warmest and
remper'11ures and abundant yearly rainfall combine 10 produce coolest months. Th is is why people remark th'11 winter comes
a dense, broadkaf, evergreen fores! called a tropical rain for- to the tropics al night. The weather here is monotonous and
est. Here, manydi!Turent plant species, each adapte.d to differing
light inrensily, present a crudely layered appearance of diverse ·lhe tropicaJ \.\'t'I cli1ua1e isaJso known as the tropiud nti11 fo~st clirnt'ltc'.
C'1'1'rif• :tl 1~ On~ t.cmn~ AU l!i11i..a_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, """'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> • t:.w....r....,.....i....
<l<nlonl fl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...~,,..~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11..,......., fl~••"-"''..,...., :.11,.,.,,.•.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o(,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
Ole
f-; °"' Ola

B$k
BW>
1:..-
f
H
0$>
°""
""" 1- \. ~
~· ~
., ' .I"
-· \
IH ..-i. -
.,.,
............. -~···
. -
, I
I ..
0.. ... ""
TIQPl:I ot Capncorn I
.,., ae: I
"
--·1
I- ......
\ (1 3/Y
\ ' ~
; / / f J:\\~-I-,·- ~1--t''°'
Clb
\ \ .•
\
\I
\
~
·~ .. "'' ..I ,...,.
sultry. 'J11ere is little change in temperature from oned,ty to the Iquitos has an average annual temperatureof25<c (77• f). with
next. Furthermore, almost every day, towering cumulus clouds an annual temperature range of only 2.t>C (4•f). Notice also
!Orm and produce heavy, localized sh<Mers by early afternoon. that the monthly rainfall totals vary more than do the monthly
A~ evening approaches, the showers usually end and skies dear. temperatures. "Jl1is is due primarily to the migrating position of
Typical annual rainfall totals are greater than 150 cm (59 in.) the lntertropic.ul Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and il~ '~~sociated
and, in some cases, especially along the "1ndward side of hills wind-flow patterns. Although monthly precipitation total~ vary
and mountains, the total may exceed 400 cm (157 in.). considerably, the average for each monthexceeds6 cm, and con-
The high humidity and cloud cover tend to keep maximum sequently no month is considered deficient of rainfall.
temperatures from reachingextre.me.ly high values. Jn fact, sum- Take a minute and look again at Fig. 17.8. From the photo,
mer afternoon temperatures are normally higher in middle one might think that the soil beneath the forest's canopy would
latitude~ than here. Nighttime radiational cooling can produce be excellent for agriculture. Actually, this is not true. As heavy
saturation and, hence, a blanket ofdew and-occasionally- fog rain falls on the soil~ the \\•at er \\'Ork.~ its \\".l.Y dO\\'O\\'ard, remov-
rovers the ground. ing nutrients in a process called /ooching. Strangely enough,
An example of a station with a tropical wet climate (Af) many of the nutrients needed to sustain the lush forest actually
is Iquitos, Peru (see e fig. 17.9). Located near the equator come from dead trees that decompose. The roots of the living
(latitude 4•S), in the low basin of the upper Amazon River, trees absorb this matte.r before the rains leach it away. When the
• FI GURE 17. 8 Tropicalrainforestnearlquitos.
Peru. (Climatic information for thisregion is pre·
sented in Fig. 17.9.)
forests are cleare<l for agricultural purposes, or for the timber,

J F M A M J J A S 0 N 0 what is left isa thick red soil called laterite. When exposed to the
intense sunlight of the tropics, the soil may harden into a brick-
~nannual
temperal\lfe likeconsistency, making cultivalion almost impo.~sible.
90
sort-+.....!..-!-..!
2
rC(r1 30
25
Koppen chtssified tropical wet regions, where the monthly
precipitation totals drop below 6 cm for perhaj>-S one or
l\\'O months, as tropical monsoon climates (Am). Here, yearly
: l
rainfall totals are similar to tho.~ of the tropical wet climate,
20 <LSually exceeding ISO cm a year. Because the dry se<tson is brief
and copious rains fall throughout the rest ofthe year, there is suf-
15 ficient soil moisture to maintain the tropical rain forest through
Annual lemperal re the short dry period. 1ropical monsoon climates ('an be seen in
50 ra,nge; 2.2"C (4°F) 10 Fig, 17.7 along the ('OOSts ofSoutheu.st Asia, lndia, andin north-
I I I
eu.stern South America.
In
. I
Aonual11alprec11J'tatl n 274cm(108m.)
I Cm
Poleward of the tropical wet region, total annual rainfall
14 diminishes, and there is a gra<lual tran~ition from the tropical
35
wet dimate to the tropical wet-and-dry climate (Aw), where a
12 distinct dry season prevails. £ven though the annual precipita-
30
tion u.~ually exceeds 100 cm, the dry season, where the monthly
10 rainfall islessthan6cm (2.4 in.),lastsformorethan t\\'Omonths.
Because tropical rain forests cannot survive this "drought," the
jungle gra<luall y gives way tot all, coarse savanna grass, scattered
\\1thlow, drought-resi~tantdeciduoustrees(see• Fig, 17. 10). The
6 15 dry se<tson occurs during the "inter (low sun period), when the
region is under the influence ofthe subtropical highs. Jn summer,
4 10
the lTCZ moves poleward, bringing with it heavy precipit;~ion,
usually in the form ofshowers. Rainfall is enhanced by slow mov-
2 5 ing shallow lows that move through the region.
Tropical wet-and-dry dimates not only receive les.s total
rainfall than the tropical wet climates, but the rain that does
J F M A M J J A S 0 N 0 occur is much less reliable, as the total rainfall often fluctu-
ates widely from one year to the next. In the course of a single
year, for example, destructive floods may be followed by seri-
• FI GUR E 17.9 Temperatureand precipitation data for Iquitos. Peru,
latitude4°S. A station \Villi a tropical \Vet dimatet.AO. (This type of diagram ous droughts. As with tropical wet regions, the daily range of
is called aclimogroph It sliO\vsmonthly mean temperatures with a solid red temperature tcsually exceed~ the annual range, but the climate
tine and monthly mean precipitation \Vith blue bar graphs.} here is much les.s monotonous. There is a cool season in winter
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i...
<1<n11....ifl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""",,.,.,..........c.,'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, "~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,l<'ll...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,,
• FI GURE 17. 10 Baobobandacacia trees
illustrate typical trees of the East African
grassland savanna.a region \Vith a tropical
\Vet·and><lrycfimate {Aw}.
when the maximum temperature averages 30"C to 32•c (S6•F to

90•f). At night, the low humidity and clear skiesaUow for rapid
radiational cooling and, by early morning, minimum tempera-
tures drop to 20•c ( 6WF) or below. J F M A M J J A s 0 N D
•c
From Fig. 17.7, pp. 498- 499, we can see that the principal
areas having a tropical wet-and-dry climate (Aw) are those lo- 35
cated in we.stern Central America, in the region both north and
south of the Amazon Basin (South America), in southcentral 30
and eastern Africa, in parts of India and Southeast Asia, and in
northern Australia. In many areas (especially \\1thin India and 25
Southeast Asia), the marked variation in precipitation is associ-
'~ed \\1th the monsoon- the se;isonal reversal of winds. 20
As we saw in Chapter 9, the monsoon circulation is due
15
in part to differential he<tting between landmasses and oceans.
During \\inter in the Northern Hemisphere, winds blow out-
ward, aw;iy from a cold, shallow high-pressure area centered over Cm
continental Siberia. These downslope, relatively dry northeast-
erly winds from the interior provide India and Southeast Asia 35
with generally fair weather and the dry season. In summer, the
wind-flow pattern reverses as air flows into a developing thermal 30
low over the continental interior. The humid air from the water
rises and condenses, resulting in heavy rain and the wet season. 25
(A more detailed look at the winter and summer monsoon is
shown in Fig. 9.38 on p. 252.) 20
An example of a station with a tropical wet-and-dry
climate(Aw) is given in • Fig. J7. 11. Located at latitude u • N 15
in \\ est Africa, 'Timbo. Guinea. receives an annual avera&~
1
163 cm (64 in.) of rainfaU. Notice that the rainy season is during 4 10
the summer when the JTCZ has migrated to iLs most north-
ern position. Note also that practically no rain falls during the 2 5
months of December, January, and February, when the region
romes under the domination of the subtropical high-pressure 0 0
are-a and its sinking air. J F M A M J J A s 0 N D
The monthly temperature patterns at 1imbo are char-
acteristic of most tropical wet-and-dry climates. As spring • F I GURE 17. 11 Climatic data hr Timbo, Guinea, latitude t l"N.A station
approaches, the noon sun is slightly higher, and the more \oAth a tropical we t-and~ dry dimate (A\v}.
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,bu q10.U , ........,,......._.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....i fl ,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,... """""",,..~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll ..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
intense sunshine produces greater surface heating and higher (BS). ' lbese two climatic types can be divided even further. For
afternoon temperature,~ - usually above 32•c (9 o•F) and example, ifthe climate is hot and dry with a mean annual temper-
occasionally above 3s•c (loo•F)- creating hot, dry desertlike ature above I WC(64•F),it is either BWh or BSh (!heh isforlteis~
conditions. After this brief hot season, a persistent cloud cover meaning "hot" in German). On the other rutnd, if the climate is
and the evaporation of rain tends to lower the temperature cold (in winter, th'\t is) and dry "1th a mean annual temperature
during the summer. The warm, muggy weather of summer below l S°C, then it is either BWk or BSk (where the k is for ka/1,
often resembles that of the tropical wet climate (Af). The rainy meaning "cold" in Germ>m).
summer is followed by a warm, relativelydry period, \\1th after- 1 he arid climates (BW) occupy about I 2 percent of the
noon temperatures usually climbing above 30-C (86•F). world'.s land area. From Fig. I 7.7, pp. 498-499, we can see 111>11
Poleward of the tropical wet-and-dry climate, the dry sea- this climatic type is found along the west coast of South America
son becomes more severe. Clmnpsoftrees are more isolated and and Africa and over much of the interior of Australia. Notice,
the grasses dominate the landscape. When the potential annual also, that a swath of arid dimateextends from north"-est Africa
water loss through evaporation and transpiration exceeds the all the way into central A~ia. ln North America, the arid climate
annual " "at er gain from precipitation, the climate is described extends from northern Mexico into the southern interior oft he
as dry. United States and northward along the leeward slopes of the
Sierra Nevada. 1 his region includes both the Sonoran and
DRYCUMATES (GROUP Bl Mojave deserts and the Great Basin.
Ge11eral cliaracteristics: deficient precipitation most of the year; The southern desert region of North America is dry
potential evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation. because it is dominated by the subtropical high most of the
year, and winter stormsystems tend to weaken before they move
&:1e11t: the subtropical deserts extend from roughly 20• to
into the area. The northern region is in the rain srutdow of the
30• latitude in large continental regions of the middle latitudes,
Sierra Nevada. The.se regions are deficient in precipitation all
often surrounded by mountains.
year long, with many stations receiving less than 13 cm (5 in.)
Major lypes: arid (BW)-the "true desert" - and semi-arid (BS). annually. A~ noted earlier, the rain that does fall is spoil y, often
A quick ghmce at Fig. I 7.7, pp. 498-499, reveals that, ac- in the form of scallered smnmer afternoon showers. Some of
cording to Koppen, the dry regions of the world occupy more these showers can be downpours that crutnge a gentle gully into
land area (about 26 percent) than any other major climatic type. a raging torrent of water. More often than not, hO\\'tver, the rain
Within these dry regions, a deficiency of water exists. Here, the evaporates into the dry air before ever reaching the ground, and
potential annu,\l loss of water through evaporation is greater the result is rain streamers ( virga) dangling beneath the clouds
than the annual water gained through precipitation.1 hus, clas- (see . Fig. 17.12).
sifying a climate as dry depends not only on precipitation totals C'.ontraryto popular belief.few deserts are completely \\1th-
but also on temperature, which greatly influences evaporation out vegetation. Although meager, the vegetation that does exist
For example, 35 cm (14 in.) of precipitation in a hot climate mlk~I depend on the infrequent rains. Thus, most of the native
"'ll support only sparse vegetation, while the same amount of plants are xerophytes-those capable of surviving prolonged
precipitation in much colder north-central ('~mada "1llsupport
a conifer forest In addition, a region with a low annual rainfall
total is more likely to be clas~ified as dry if the majority of pre-
cipitation is concentrated during the warm summer months,
when evaporation rates are greater.
Precipitation in a dry climate is both meager and irregular.
Typically, the lower the average annual rainfall, the greater its
variability. For example, a station that reportsan annual rainfall
ofS cm (2 in.) may actually measure no rainfall for two years;
then, in a single downpour, it m>ty receive lO cm (4 in.).
1he major dry regions of the world can be divided into two
primary categories. The first includes the area of the subtropics
(between latitude 1s• ,md 30•), where the sinking air of the sub-
tropical ant icy don es produces generally dear skies. 'f he second
is found in the continental areas of the middle latitudes. Here,
far removed from a source of moisture, areas are deprived of
precipitation. Dryness here i~ often accentuated by mountain J
ranges that produre a rain shadow effect. ~
Koppen divided dry climates into l\\'O types based on their ::;~
degree of drynes~: the arid (BW)' and the semi-arid, or steppe "
• FI GURE 17. 12 Rain streamers {virga) arecommon in dryclimates, <l$
1he l ette r~' is for l.Vil.sre. the Gennan word for•deser1: falling rain evaporates into the drier air before ever reaching tlie ground.
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,.b""I"""' "<i•• """'"""... '"""'''"'"·
'F
J F M A M J J A s 0 N 0
•c
35
90
30
80
25
70 20
60 15
I te<npe<alure
IAnnual
10
40 rMge: 22'0 (40'F) 5

In.
' ' Cm
4
Annual total precopltallOtl: 16 em (7 In)
Tl 15
10
2 5
o o
• FI GURE 17.1 3 Creosote bushes and cacti are typical of thevegetation • FIGU RE 17 .14 Climatic data for Phoenix,. Arizona. latitude 335~N.A station
bund in the arid south\vestern American deserts{BWh). \Vith an arid climate (IJl/lh).
periods of drought (see . Fig. 17. 13). Such vegetation includes winds are likely 10 sweep over the region 'md develop into after-
various forms of cacti and short-live.d plants that spring up dur- noon showers and thunderstorms(see Fig. 9.40, p. 253).
ing the rainy pe.riods. In middle-latitude deserts (BWk), average annual tem-
In low-latitude deserts (BWh), intense sunlight produces peratures are lower. Summers are typically warm to hot, with
scorching heat on the parched landscape. Here, air tempera- afternoon temperatures frequently reaching ,10•c (104• F).
tures are as high as anywhere in the world. Maximum day- Winters are usually extremely cold, with minimum tempera-
time readings during the summer can exceed 5o•c (122•F), ture.s sometimes dropping below -35• c (-3 1• F). Many of
although 4o•c to 45•c (104•F to l t3•r) are more common. In these deserts lie in the rainshad0\\ of an extensive mountain 1
the middle of the day, the relative humidity is usually bet"•een chain, such as the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade mountains
5 and 25 percent. At night, the air~ relatively low water-vapor in North Americ11, the Himalayan Mountains in Asia, and
content allows for rapid radiational cooling. Minimum tem- the Andes in South America. 'Jbe meager precipitation that
peratures often drop below 25•c (n•F). ' JllUS, arid climates falls comes from an occasional summer shower or a passing
have large daily temperature ranges, often bet ween 15• c and mid-latitude cyclonic storm in \\•inter.
2s• c (27• f and 45•f) and occasionally higher. Again, refer to Fig. 17.7 and notice that around the mar-
During the \\•inter. temperatures are rnore moderate. and gins of the arid regions, where rainfall amounts are greater, the
minimums may, on occasion, drop below freezing. 'Jhe varia- climate gradually changes into semi-arid (BS). This region is
tion in temperature from summer to "inter produces large an- called steppe and typically has short bunch grass, scattered low
nual temperature ranges. We can see this in the climate record bushes, trees, or sagebrush (see e Fig. 17. 15). In North America,
IOr Phoenix, Arizona(see . Fig. 17.14),acityin thesouthweste.rn this climatic region includes most of the Great Plains, thesouth-
United States with a BWh climate. Notice that the average anern coastal sections of California, and the northern valleys of
nual temperature in Phoenix is 21•c (7o•F), and that the aver- the Great Basin. A~ in the arid region, northern areas experi-
age tempe.rature of the warmest month (July) reaches a sizzling ence lower winter temperatures and more frequent snowfalls.
32-C (9o•F). As we would expect, rainfall is meager in all months. Annual precipitation is generally between 20 and ,10 cm (8 and
'lbere is, ho"'ever, a slight maximum in July and August. ' ll1is 16 in.). The climatic record for Denver, Colorado (.see
is due to the summer monsoon, when more humid, southerly • Fig. 17.16), exemplifies the semi-arid (BSk) climate.
°*"'"''".. niJb.""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni>, t:.w.....r....,.....i....
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i M")' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,. ,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
As average rainfall amounts increase, the dim.1te gradu-
ally changes to one that is more humid. Hence, the semi-arid
(steppe) climate marks the tr<tnsition between the arid and the
humid climatic regions. (Before reading about moist climates,
you may wish to read the Focus section on p. 505 about deserts
that experience drizzle but litrle rainfall.)
MOIST SUBTROPICAL MIO-LATITUDE CLIMATES (GROUP C)
General cht1racteristics: humid with mild winters (i.e., average
temperature of the coldest month below 18°C, or 64°F, and
above -3°C, or 27°F).
F.xtent: on the eastern and western regions of most c.onti-
~nts, from about 25° to 40° latitude.
• FIGURE 17.15 Cumulusc:louds forming over t he steppe grasslands of Mcljor types: humid subtropic.al (Cfa), marinc(Cfb), and dry-
western North America, a region \Vith a semi.arid c.limate {BS). summer subtropic.al, or Mediterranean (Cs).
The Group C climates of the middle latitudes have dis-
J F M A M J J A $ 0 N 0
tinct summer and winter seasons. Additionally, they have
'F •c ample precipitation to keep them from being classified as dry.
30 Although "1nters can be cold, and air temperatures can change
80 appreciably from one day to the next, no month has a mean tem-
25
perature below - 3°C (27°F), for if it did, it would be classified as
70 aD di1nate-one "'ithsevere '''inters.
20
111efirst C climate we will consider is th eh umidsubtropical
60 15 climate ( Cfa).' Notice in Fig. 17.7, pp. 498-499, that Cfa
climates are found principally along the east coasts of conti-
50 10 nents, roughly between 25" and 40° latitude. 1bey dominate
the southeastern section of the United States, as well as eastern
40 5 China and southern Japan. Jn the Southern Hemisphere,
they are found in southeastern South America and along the
30 southeastern coasts of Africa and AllSlralia.
A trademark of the humid subtropical climate is its hot,
20 muggy summers. 1bissulrry summer weather occurs because
AMuaf temperature
- 10
Cfa climates are located on the western side ofsubtropical highs,
range. 25'C (45'Fl where maritime tropic.al air from lower latitudes is swept pole-
I I J
In. Cm ward into these regions. Generally, summer dew-point tem-
perature.s are high (often exceeding 23°C, or 73°F) and so is the
relative humidity, even during the middle of the day. 'J11e high
6 15 humidity combines with the high airtemperature(<Csually above
32•c , or 90•F) to produce more oppressive conditions than are
4 10 found in e.qu;itorial regions. Swnmermorninglowtemperature.s
often range between 21•c and 27°C (7o•r and 8 J0F). Occasion-
2 5 ally, a weak swnmer cool front will bring temporary relief from
the S\Veltering conditions. 1-lo,,•eve.r. devastating heat "'ave.s,
J F M A M J J A $ 0 N 0 sometimes lasting many weeks, can occur when an upper-level
ridge moves over the area.
Winters tend to be rehitively mild, especially in the lower
• FIGURE 17. 16 Oimat ic data for Denver, Colorado, latitude40"N.A station latitudes, where air temperatures rarely dip much below freezing.
semi~rid climate (BSk}.
with a Poleward regions experience \\faters th;it are colder and harsher.
I-le.re. frost.snov.-. and ice storm.:;: are more common, but heavy
WEATHER WATCH snowfalls are rare. Winter weather can be quitechangeable, asal-
Phoenix , Arizona , a city with an arid climate, had a record most summerlikeconditionscan give way toe.old rain and "1nd
143 cons.ecutive days without measured rainfall - from in a matter of hours when a middle-latitude cydonicstorm and
October, 2005, to March, 2006. And during the summer of ils accompanying fronts pass through the region.
2007, Phoenix set a temperature record with 29 days of
110°F or greater. •tn the C fuc lirnate. the • f"' means t h:it nil seasons nre w~ t and the "'a" mc:in slhat sum·
rncis are long.ind hoL A rnore d et:ailcd aplan,u ion isgi w n in Tublc 17.1 on p.497.
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ',...,,• .,,in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w....r....,.....i....
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i
<1<n11...i fl ,....., .._.~..,,*_ ..
..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'11..,......, .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
A Desert with Clouds and Drizzle
We alread y know that not all deser ts are

hot. By t he same toke n, not all deser ts ar e
sunny. In fact, some coastal deserts experi -
01
ence considerable cloudiness, especially
low stratus a n d fog.
Amazingly, these coastal deser ts are
some of the driest places o n earth. They
include the Atacama Desert o f Chile and
Peru, the coastal Sahara Deser t o f nor th-
west Africa, the Namib Desert of south-
western Africa, and a portion of the Sonoran
Deser t in Baja, California (see Fig. 2). O n the
Atacama Desert, for example, some regions
go w ithout measurable rainfall fo r decades.
And Arica, in northern Chile, has a n annual
rainfall ofonly 0.08 cm (0.03 in.) .
The cause o f this aridit y is, in part, d ue
to the fact that each region is adjacent to a
• FIGURE 2 Location of coastal deserts{dark orange shade} that experience freque nt fog,drizzle,and
large body o f relatively cool water. Notice lo\vc.louds. (Blue arro\vs indjcate prevailing \Vinds and the movem ent o f wol ocean current s.)
in Fig. 2 that t hese deser ts are located
along the western coastal marg ins of conti- howe\-er,accounts for very little rainfall. In it to drift back toward the ocean, where it
nents, w here a subtropical high-pressure most regions, it is only enough to dampen sinks, completing a rather stro ng sea
area causes prevailing w inds to move cool the streets w ith a mere tr ace o f precipitation. breeze circulation. T he position o f the sub-
water from higher latitudes along the As the cool stable air moves inland, it tropical highs, w hich tend to remain al-
coast. In addition, these winds help to ac- warms, and the water droplets evaporate. most stationary, plays an additional role by
centuate the water 's coldness by initiating Hence, mast o f the cloudiness and d rizzle preventing the lntertropical Convergence
upwelling - the rising o f cold water from is found along the immediate c oast. Al- Zone w ith its rising 1 unstable air from en-
lower levels. The combination of these though the relative humidity o f this air is tering the region.
conditions tends to produce coastal water high, thedew-point temperature is And so w e have a desert w ith clouds
temperatures between 10°C and l S"C (50°F comparatively low (often near that o f the and drizzle- a deser t that owes its e xis-
and 59°F), w hich ~q ui te cool for such low coastal surface watei). Inland, further tence, in par t, to its proxim ity to rather cold
latitudes. As surface air sweeps across the warm ing causes the air to rise. However, a ocean water and, in pa~ to the position
cold water, it is chilled to its dew point, o f- stable subsidence inversion, associated and air motions o f a subtropical high.
ten prooucing a blanket o f fog and low w ith t he subtropical highs, inhibits ~ rti ca l
clouds, from w hich drizzle falls. T he drizzle, motions by capping the rising air, causing
Humid subtropical climates experience adeq uate and continents from about latitude 40• to 60•. 'Jl1ese r egiom are
fai rly " 'ell-distributed precipitation thr oughout the year, dominated by pr evailing winds from the ocean that m oderate
"ith typical annual averages between SO and 165 cm (3 1 and the climate, ~eping winters considerably milder than stations
65 in.). Jn summer. \\'hen thunderstorms are common. much locate.d al the s ame latitude farther inland. Jn addition to this,
of the precipitation falls as afternoon showers. 'fropical stor~ summers are quite cool. When theswnmerseason is bothshort
enter ing the United States and China can substantially add to and cool, the climate is designated as Cfc. £quatorward, where
their summer and autumn rainfall tot,1ls. Winter precipita- summers are longer (but still cool), the climate is classified as
tion most often occurs "ith eastward-trekking middle-latitude 1ve!tt coast 1narine, or simply n1arine, Cfb. •
cydonicstorm.~. l n the southeastern United States, the abundant Where mountain.~ par allel the coastline, such as along the
rainfall supPor lS a thick pine forest that becomes mixed with 1w;st roasts of North and South America, the m arine influence
oak at higherlatitudes. The di m ate data for Mobile, Alabam a, a is restricte.d to narrow belts. Unobstructed by high mountains,
city with a Cfa climate, is given in . Fig. 17.1 7. ·rn 1hc C tb c lim.l le. the "'b" me.lns that sunlnlcrs3rc cooler t hln in those regio1l1
Glance back at Fig. 17.7, pp. 498- 499, and observe that otpcr iend ng a Cfu d i m ate. The 1e1u pcrature criteria fo r lhe vari1n1s subregi on s ~
C climates extend Poleward along the western side of most given in T~bl c 17.1 , p.497.
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
J F M A M J J A $ 0 N 0
70
20
60 15
50 10
40
0
30
In. Cm
12 30 12 30
10 25 10
8 20 8
6 15
10
2 5
J F M A M J J A S 0 N 0 J F M A M J J A $ 0 N 0
• FIGURE 17.17 Climatic data for Mobile, Alabama, latitude 30'N.A station • FIGURE 17.18 Climatic data for Port Hardy, Canada. latitude 51"N.
\Yith a humid subtropical climate fCfa}. A station with a marine er.mate {Cfb).
prevailing westerly winds pwnpocean air over much of western precipi!arion rorals. For example, along rhe \\'l!S! coasr of Norrh
£urope and !hus provide rhis region wirh a marinedimate (Cfb). Ame.ric.a. coastal mountains not only force airup\\oard,enhanc-
During much of !he year, marine climates are character- ing precipirarion, rhey aL~oslow rhe storm~ e;~~!ward progress,
ized by low clouds, fog, and drizzle. "Jhe ocean's influence pro- which enables rhe srorm ro drop more precipi!:l!ion on !he area.
duces adequate precipi!a!ion in all months, wi!h much of i! Along !he nor!hwes! coasr of Nor!h America, rainfall
falling as ligh! or moderate rain associated wi!h maritime polar amounts decrease in summer. 'D1i~ phenomenon is caused by
air masses. Snow does fall, bu! frequently i! !urns ro slush afre.r !he northward migration of rhe subtropic.al Pacific high, which
onlyadayor so lnsomeloC:llions,!opography greatly enhances is locaredsourhwes! of rhis region. "J he swnmer decrease in rain-
fall c.an be seen by examining rhe climatic record of f>orr Hardy
WEATHER WATCH (see • Fig. J7. 18), a srarion situated along rhe coasr of Canada~
Vancouver Island. The dara illusrrare another impor!an! char-
The warm water of the Gulf Stream ensures that Bergen, acreris!icof marine dimares: !he low annual remperarure range
Norway (which is located just south of the Arctic Circle at
IOr such a high-lati!udesrarion.1b eocean'sinlluencekeepsdaily
latitude 60° N)1 has relatively mild winters and a climate
more common to the middle latitudes. In fact, the average
remperarure ranges low as well. In !his climate rype, ir rains on
winter temperature (December, January, and February) in many days and when iris nor raining, skie.s are usually overcast
Bergen is about 1°F warmer than the average winter '111" heavy rains produce a dense fores! of Douglas fir.
temperature in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a middle· Moving equarorward ofmarine climates, !he influence of!he
latitude city near latitude 40°N. subtropical highs becomes greater, and !he summer dry period
more pronounced. Gradually, !he climate changes from marine
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I•• -"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
'F
J F A
·c 'F
°C
80 Mea:naMuat 80
1emperatu1e: 25 25
14"C (57'F)
70 70
I 20 20
60 15 60 15
so 10 50 10
40 5 40 5
IAnnual 1emperat e
[ range·17"C (:icr F)
I I l
In. Cm In Cm
10 25 10
AnnuaJ Olal ec1pttation:

], 1 cm (16'ln.J
25
8 20 8 20
6 15 6 15
4 10 4 10
2 5 2 5
0 0 0 0
J F M A M J J A s 0 N 0 J F M A M J J A s 0 N 0
San Francisco, Collfomla, 37'N Sacramen10. Caldomia. 38°N
Cllma1e: Csb c nmate: Csa
• FI G URE 17 .19 Comparison ofacoastalMediterranean climate., Csb (San Franc:isco, at left}, \Yith an interior Mediterranean climate. Cs.a (SacramentQ. at right).
to one of dry-swnmer subtropical (Cs), or Mediter ranean, reach about 21•c (70°F), while overnight lows often drop be-
because it also borders the co:~~tal areas of the Mediterranean low l5°C (59°F). Inland, away from the ocean~ influence, sum-
Sea. (Here the lowercase "s" standsfor"summerdry.") Along the mers are hot and "1nters are a little cooler than coastal areas.
west roast of North America, Portland, Oregon- beca1.Lse it has Jn this interior MediteiTa110011 climate (Csa), stun mer afternoon
rather dry summers- marks the transition between the marine temperatures usually dimb above 34°C (93"F) and occasionally
climate and the dry-summer sublropical climate to the south. above 4U°C ( I 04°F).
Th e extreme summer aridity of the Me.d itemmean climate, • Figure 17. 19 contrasts the coastal Mediterranean climate
which in C.alifornia may exist for five months, is caused by the of San Pranci~co, California, with the interior Mediterranean
sinking air of the subtropical high~. In addition, the.se anticy- dimate of Sacramento, California. While Sacramento is only
clones divert summer storm system~ poleward. During the win- 130 km (80 mi) inl,md from San Francisco, Sacramento's aver-
ter, when the subtropical high~ moveequatorward, mid-latitude age July temperature is 9•c ( 16•F) higher. As we would expect,
storms from the ocean frequent the region, bringing with them Sacramento~ annual temperature range is considerably higher,
much neede.d rainfall. Consequently, Mediterranean climates too. Although Sacramento and San Francisco both experience
are characterized by mild, wet winters, and mild-to-hot, dry an occasional frost,snO\\' in these areas isa rarity.
summers. Jn Mediterranean climates, yearly precipitation amounts
Where surface winds parallel the coast, upwelling of cold range between 30 and 90 cm (U and 35 in.). However, much
water helps keep the water itself and the air above it cool all more precipitation falls on surrounding hillsides and moun-
summer long, In the.se coastal areas, which are often shrouded tain~. Because of the summer dryness, the land supports only
in low clouds and fog, the climate is called coastlll lvfediterra110011 a sc.rubby type of low-growing woody plants and trees called
(Csb). Here. summer daytime maximum temperatures usually cliapam1/(see . Fig. 17.20).
When Does a Dry Spell Become a Drought?
When a region'saverage precipitation • TABLE 1 Palmer Drought Severity Index

drops dramatically for an extended period
VALUE DROUGHT VALUE MOISTURE
of time, drought may result. The word
drought refers to a period of abnormally dry - 4.0 or les.s Extren1e + 4.0 or greater Extren1ely Moist
weather that produces a number of nega-
tive consequences, such as crop damage or - 3.0 to - 3.9 Severe +3.0 to 3.9 Very Moist
an adverse impact on a community's water
- 2.0to - 2.9 Moderate + 2.0 to 2.9 Unusually Moist
supply. Keep in mind that drought is more
than a dry spell. In the dry, summer sub· - l.9to+l.9 Nonnal - 1.9 to +1.9 Nom1al
tropical (Csa) climate of California's Central
Valley. it may not rain from May through
September. This dry spell ~ normal for this
Palme< HydrOIOgical Droughc S9V<l<ily l.ndex
region and, therefore, would not beconsic:l -
AugllSC. 2011
ered a drought. However, if this summer
dry spell were to occur in the humid sub--
tropical (Cfa) climate of the southeastern
United States, the lack of rain could be di-
sastrous for many aspects of the commu-
nity, and a drought would ensue.
In an attempt to measure drought
severity, Wayne Palmer, a scientist with
the National Weather Service, de\<!loped
the Palmer Drought Severity index (PDSO. The
index takes into account average tempera-
ture and precipitation values to define
drought severity. The index ismost effec-
tive in assessing long-term drought that
lasts several months or more. Drought con-
ditions are indicated by a .set of numbers • Exlreme drought • Extremely moist
that range from 0 (normal) to - 4 (extreme • Severe clroughc • Very moist
drought). (See • Table 1.) The index also • FIG URE 3 The Palmer Hydrological Drought Index for Augu.st,.2011, shO\ving long·
assesses wet conditionswith numbers that tenn droughtconditionsand region.s\vith suffident moisture. {National Climatic Data
range from + 2 (unusually moist) to +4 Center, NOAA}
(extremely moist). The Pa/mer Hydro/ogico/
• FIGURE 17. 20 lntheMediterranean~type clim atesofNorthAmeri ca.

typica I chaparral vegetation includeschamisa. manzanita.and foothill pine.
At t his point, we should note that summers are not '~~dry

along t he Mediterranean Sea'~~ they are along the west roast of
North America. Moreover, co:~~tal Mediterranean areas are also
\\"armer, due to the lack of upwelling in the Mediterranean Sea.
Before leaving our discussion of C climates, note that
when the dry season is in winter, the climate is clas~ified as
Cw. Over northern India and partionsofChina. the relatively
dry wint ers are the result of northerly winds from cont inental
regions circulating southward around the cold Siberian high.
Many lower-latitude regions with a Cw climate would be tropi·
cal ifit were not for the fact they are too high in elevation and,
consequently, too cool to be de.s ignated as tropical.
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I•• -"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..
..,.,..,,, 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Drought Index (PHO/} expands the PDSI by Pamer Drought Seve<lty Index
taking into account additional water (hydro- July 1934
logical) information, such as a region's
groundwater reser...es and reseivoir levels.
Figure 3shows the PHDI across the
United States d uring August. 2011. Notice
that several regions are in an extreme
drought (dark red shade), including almost
the entire State of Texas,. w hich is suffering
through one of its worst droughts ever. The
parching of the state due to this persistent
Texas drought was responsible for the deaths
of hundreds of millionsof trees during 2011.
Morec:Ner, drought-induced wildfires during
the same year destroyed millions more. No-
tice also in Fig. 3 that there is an extensive
region of green color extending from the
• less lhan -o.o Exceptional
upper Plains to theWest Coast that indicates c:::J -2.0to-2.9Moderate
ample moisture. • -4.0to-4.9Extreme
D -1.9to 1.9 Notmal
Drought is not uncommon to North • -3.0 to -3.9 Severe
America . In fact. p robably the worst • FIGURE 4 Palmer Drought Severity Index for July, 1934. (U.S. Department ofAgriculture}
weath er rel ated disaster to hit the United
States during the twentieth century was whole farm houses, reduced millions of of the state of Texas was experiencing some
The Gr eat Drought of th e 1930s. That acres to an unproductivewasteland, and form of d rought. But notice that the 1934
d rought. w hich tragically coincided w ith financially ruined thousands of families. drought in Texas was not nearly as extreme as
The Great Depression, actually began in Because of the infamous dust storms, the in 2011. Hovve1Jer, in 1934 extremediycondi-
the late 1920sand continued into the late 1930s are often referred to as "the Dust Bowl tionsexisted over a vast area of the upper
1930s. It not only lasted a long time, bu t it years." To worsen an already bad .situatio~ Plains and far west, with many regions experi-
extended over a vast area (see Fig. 4). the drought was accompanied by extreme encing a Palmer Index of - 4 or below. Unfor-
Thedrought. coupled w ith poor farm- summer heat that was most .severe during tunately, this already disastrous drought
ing practices, left the top soil o f the Great the summer o f 1934 and 1936. became progressivelyworse and eventually
Plains ripe forwind erosion. As a result, w ind How does the Texas drought of 2011 affected the lives of millions of people, many
storms lifted millions of tons of soil into the compare w ith the drought year of 1934?We of whom eventually became destitute.
air, creating vast dust storms that buried can see in Fig. 4 that d uring 1934 about half
When a moist climate turns dry, drought often results. 'f he D climates are controlled by large landmasses. There-
What con~titutes a drought <1nd how is it measured? These fore, they are found only in the Northern Hemisphere. Look
aresomeofthequestions addressed in the Focus section begin- at the climate map, Fig. 17.7, pp. 498-499, and notice that D
ning on p. 508. climates extend across North America and Eurasia, from about
latitude40•N to almost 70"N. ln general, they are characterized
MOIST CONTINENTAL CLIMATES (GROUP 0) by cold winters and warm-to-cool swnmers.
General L'.hartlderistics: \\'arm-to-cool swnmers and cold \\'in- As \\'C' kno\''• for a station to have a D climate. the average
temperature of its coldest month must dip below -3°C (27• f).
ters (i.e., average temperature of warmest month excee.ds JO"C,
or so•F, and the coldest monthly average drops below -3°C, or This is not an arbitrary number. Ki\ppen found that, in Europe,
this temperature marked the southern limit of persistent snow
27"f)• \\•inters are severe \\•ithsnO\\'Storms>blustery "'illds, bitte.r
rover in winter.• Hence, D climates experience a great deal of
rold; climate controlled by large continent.
&tent: north of moist subtropical mid-latitude climates.
·rn North A1ncrka. s1udiessuggcs1 that an nverage nlonlhly te1npcrature oi
Majorlypes: humidcontine.ntal withhotswnmers(Dfa), humid ~ (32"F) or below tbr 1be coldest month sec1ns to rorri$pond beucr to pcrsislcnt
rontinental with cool summers (Dfb), andsubpolar (Dfc). winter snow cowr:
C'1'1rif• :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,..... i....
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• F I GURE 17.21 The leavesofdedduous
trees burst into brilliant color during autumn
over the countryside o f Adirondack Park.a
region \Y-ith a humid continental climate.
winter snow th:it stays on the ground for extended periods. of crops. Winters tend to be \\fody, cold, and snowy. Farther
When the temperaturedrop.s to a point where every month has north, \\•here summers are shorter and not as bot," the climate
an average temperature below IO"C (50"F), thedimateis dassi- i~ descTibed as lnmiid co11ti11e11tal with long cool summers (Dfb).
fied as pok1r (£). Koppen found that the average monthly tem- In Dlb climates, summers are not only cooler but much le.ss
perature of I O"C tended to represent the minimum temperature humid. Temperatures may exceed 35•c (9S"F) for a time, but
required for tree growth. So no matter how cold it !,'<!IS in a D extended hot spells fasting many weeks are rare. The frost-free
climate (and winters can get extremely cold), there is enough season is shorter than in the Dfa climate, and normally fasts
summer warmth to support the gro"1h of trees. between three and five months. Winters are long, cold, and
There are two basic types of D dimate.s: the humid conti- \\fady. Jt is not uncommon for temperatures to drop below
nental (Dfa and Dlb) and the subpolar (Dfc). Humid conti- -30"C ( - 22• F) and stay below - I S"C (O"F) for days and some-
nental climates are observed from about latitude 4o•N to so•N times v~·e.eks. Autumn is short, \\•ith \vinteroften arriving right
(6o•N in Europe). Here, precipitation is adequate and fairly on the hedsofsummer. Spring, too, is short, as late springsnow-
evenly distributed throughout the year, although interior sta- storm.s are common, especially in the more northern latitudes.
tions experience maximum precipitation in summer. Annual • Figure 17 22 compares the Dfa climate of Des Moines,
precipitation totals usually range from 50 to 100 cm (20 to Iowa, with the Dfb climate of Winnipeg, Canada. Notice
40 in.). Nativevegetation inthe wetterregionsindudesforestsof that both cities experience a large annual temperature range.
spruce, fir, pine, and oak. In autumn, nature~ pa&>eantry unveils This is characteristic of climates located in the northern
itselfas the leaves of deciduous trees turn brilliant shades ofred, interior of continents. Jn fact, as we move poleward, the
orange, and yellow (see • Fig. 17.21). annual temperature range increases. In Des Moines, it is 31•c
Humid continental climates are subdivided on the basis (56•F), while 950 km (590 mi) to the north in Winnipeg. it i~
ofsummer temperatures. Where summers are long and hot, • 3s•c (68°F).1lte summer precipitation maximum expected
the climate is de,scribed as humid continenttd witl1 hot summers for the.se interior continental locations shows up welt in
(Dfa). Mere summers are often hot and humid, especially in Fig, I 7.22. Mo.st of the summer rain is in the form of convec-
the southern regions. Midday temperatures often exceed 32•c tive showers, although an occasional weak frontal system can
(9o•F) and occasionally 40"C (I04•F). Summer nights are usu- produce more widespread procipitation, as can a du.ster of thun-
ally warm and humid, as well. 1lte frost-free season normally derstorms - the Me.so.scale Convective Complex described in
fasts from five to six months, long enough to grow a wide variety Chapter 14. The weather in both climatic types can be quite
""'Hot" metlns tha1 1be average 1e1nperature of 1be \\'\lrnlesl 1nonth i s above •"'Not 3s hot" means that the average 1e1npcrature o f the \\'.U'nlest nlonth is be·
22"C (72"f) and at least four 1nontM have a 1non1hly 1nean ltmpernture above low ll"C (72°F) and at least four n1onths have a n1onthly 1nean tt1nperature above
IO'C (SO'f). IO"C (SO'F).
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ tcc..n~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11...ifl ,...., .._,~..,,._ "'"""'' _..,..,.,..nt•i.. -.u""""""n~C<>'!l'tl..1~...'11..,......., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., ,..u,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• ..,,,,-.11..,,....,,..,...
J F M A M J J A s 0 N 0 J F M A M J J A s 0 N 0
<f 'C •F •c
80 80 Mean annual
25 temperature 25
70 70 3°C (37' F)
20 20
60 15 60 15
50 10 50 10
40 5 40 s
0 30 0
-5
20
-10 -10
10
-15
0 0
- 20 - 20
-10 Annual temper.tul-e -10 Annual tempereture
range· 31'C (Sfl"F) - 25 range 38'C (fl8' F)
-25
J '
In.
I 1
AMual totlll prear 1at1on- 76 cm (30 In.)
r Cm In. Cm
6 15 6
4
I 10 4
0
Des Moines, Iowa, 42°N Winnipeg, Canada, SO'N
Clinale: Dfa Ci mate:Olb
• F I GURE 17.22 Comparison of a humid continental hotsummerclimate, Dfa (DesMoines..at left), \Vith a humid continental cool summer climate, Dfb
{Winnipeg.at right}.
ch'mgeable, especially in winter, when a brief warm spell is reat a time. Because of the low temperatures, there is a low annual
placed by blustery winds and temperatures plummeting well rate of evaporation that ensure.s adequate moisture to support
below -30'C ( -22'F). the boreal' forests of conifers and birches known as taiga (see
When "fatersare severe and summersshort and cool, with • Fig. 17.24). Hence, the subpolar climate is known also as a
only one to three months having a mean temperature exceeding boret1/ c/imMe and 'tsa lt1igt1 c/imt1te.
IO'C (SO' F). the climate is described as suhpolar (Dfc). From Jn the taiga region of northern Siberia and Asia, where
l'ig.17.7 we can see that, in North America, this climate occurs the average temperature of the coldest month drop.s to a frigid
in a broad belt across Canada and Alaska; in Eurasia, it stretches -38'C (-36•F) or below, the climate is designmed Dfd. Where
from Norway over much of Siberia. 1 he exceedingly low tem- the winters are considered dry, the climate is designated Dwd.
peratures of winter account for these areas being the primary
source regions for continental polar and arctic air masses. POLAR CLIMATES (GROUP El
Extremely cold winters coupled with cool summers produce General cl1aract.e1istics: year-round IO\\' temperatures (i.e.• aver-
large annual temperature r<mges, as exemplified by the climate age tempera!ure of the warmest month is below 10•c, or SO'F).
data in • Fig. 17.23 for Fairbanks, Alaska.
Hxtent: northern coastal areas of North America and Eurasia;
Precipitation is comparatively light in the subpolar climates,
Greenland and Antarctica.
especially in the interior regions, with most pbces receiving less
than 50 cm(20 in.) annually. A good percentage ofthe precipita- Major types: polar tundra (ET) and polar ice caps (EF).
tion falls when weak cydonic storms move through the region
in smnmer. 1 he total snowfall is u.sually not ktrge but the cold •Tue word bari•al co1nes fro1n the ancient Greek 8ot\'d.\ 1neaning ''wind fronl Lhe
air prevents melting. so snow stays on the ground for months north:'
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,bu q10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,... """"""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll ..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
In the polar tundra (ET'), the average temperature of the
'"1rmest month is below LO"C (so•F). but above freezing. (See
e Fig. 17.25, the climate data for B.irrow, Alaska.) Here, the
ground is permanently frozen to depths of hundreds of meters,
a condition kno,..,n as permafrost. Swnmer ,..,eather. hO\\'-
60 15 ever. is just \varm enough to th a''' out the upper meter or so
of soil. Hence, during the summer, the tundra turns swampy
50 10 and muddy. Annual precipitation on the tundra i~ meager, with
most stations receiving less th'm 20 cm (8 in.). In lower latitu<les,
40 5 this would constitute a desert, but in the cold polar regions
evaporation rates are very low and moisture remains adequate.
0 Because of the extremely short growing season, tundra
30
vegeu.tionconsistsof mosses, lichens, d "".trf trees, and scattered
20 woody vegetation, fully grown and only several centimeters tall
(see e Fig. 17.26).
- 10
10 Even though summer days are long. the sun is never very
- 15 high above the horizon. Additionally, some of the sunlight
0 that reaches the surface is reflected by snow and ice, while
Ii some is used to melt the frozen soil. Consequently, in spite of

the long hours of daylight, summers are quite cool. The cool
-20 I Lnual,.Jperatu•e - 25 summers and theextremely cold winters produce large annual
temperature ranges.
When the average temperature for every month drops
rr~ T·F)
01
1 below freezing. plant gro"1h is impossible, and the region is
"'f f tJ,,,I,,
perpetually covered with snow and ice. This climatic type is
In. Cm known as polar kecap(£F). It occupies the interior ire sheets of
4 l, 10
Greenland and Antarctica, where the depth of ice in some places
measures thousands of meters. In this region, temperature.s are
never much above freezing. even during the middle of "sum-
mer~ ' lbecoldest places in the world are located here. Precipita-
2 5
tion i~ extremely meager, with many places receiving less th;\n
JO cm (4 in.) annually. Most precipitation falls as snow during
J F M A M J J A S 0 N 0 the "warmer" summer. Strong downslope katabatic winds fre-
quently whip the snow about, adding to the climMe~ h'1rshnes.~.
• FI GURE 17.23 Climatic data for Fairbanks.Alaska. latitude ~N.A station
\yith a subpolar climate (Dfc).
• FIGURE 17.24 Conii?rousforests

(taiga} such as this occurwhere\vinter
temperaturesare lo\v and precipitation
is abundant.
J F M A M J J A s 0 N D J F M A M J J A s 0 N 0
'I' 'C °I' 'C
Mean annual ean annual -5
50 temperature· 10 20 temperature:
-12•c {10'F)I -30"C (-22'F) - 10
40 5 10
-15
0 0
30
-20
-5 -10
20 - 25
- 10
10 - 20
-30
0
- 15
-30 I -35
lI
-20
-40
-10
-25
-20 I
Aoouat temperature
range: ?2'C (57"j)
AnnJ 1emL..
range: 36"0 (6rF)
L. I
-45
1 I I l
In. Cm In. Cm
4 10 4 10
2 5 2 5
0 0 0 0
J F M A M N D J F M A M J J A s 0 N D
• F IGURE 1 7. 25 C limatic data for BarrO\v,Alaska, latitllde 71° N.A station • FI GURE 17.27 Oimaticdata for Eismitte.Greenland, latitude 7 1°N.
\vith a polar tundrac6mate (ET). Located in the interior o f Greenland at a n elevation o f almost 10,000 feet above
.sea level. Eismine has a polar ice cap d imat e{EF}.
• FI GUR E 17. 26 Tundra vegetation

in far no rth ern Canada. This type o f
tundra is composed most ly of sedg es
a nd d\varfed wildflowers that bloom
during the briefgro\ving season.
Wh.at type of climate change

would have to take place over
the tundra inorderfor the tundra
vegetation in Fig. 17.26 to become
a coniferous forest (taiga), shown
in Fig. 17.247
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... "' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""" ""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
WEATHER WATCH side of a mountain, precipitation amounts usually increase the
higher you go. 'Jlterefore, when ascending a high mountain, one
Temperature extremes at the South Pole. On December 25, can travel through m.~ny climatic regions in a relatively short
2011, the Amundsen-Scott scientif ic station at the South distance. ' lltus, highland di mates often show a great deal of
Pole recorded its all -t ime h igh temperature of 9.9°F. The
variation in temperature. precipitation. and vegetation over a
station recorded its all -time low of - 117° F on June 23,
relatively short vertical change in elevation.
1983. Reco rds at this station have been kept since 1957.
e Pigure 17.28shows how thedimateand vegetation change
along the \\'eStern slopes of the central Sierra Nevada. (See
Pig 17.5, p. 493, for the precipitation patterns for this region.)
The data in e Fig. 1727 for £ismitte, Greenland, illlk~trate the Notice that, at the base of the mountains, the dimate and veg-
severity ofan EF climate. eration represent semi-arid ronditions, while in the foothills the
dim.~te becomes Mediterranean and the vegetation changes to
HIGHLAND CU MATES (GROUP H) Jt is not necessary to visit chaparral. Higher up, thick fir and pine forests prevail. At still
the polar regions to experience a polar climate. Because tem- higher elevations, the di mate issubpol ar and the taiga gives way
perature decre,1ses with altitude, climatic change,~ experienced to dwarf trees and tundra vegetation. Near the summit there are
when climbing 300 m (1 000 ft) in elevation are about equiva- permanent patches of ice and snow, \\1th some small glaciers
lent in high latitudes to hori'tontal changes experienced when nestled in protected areas. Hence, in less than 13,000 vertical
traveling 300 km (186 mi) northward. (!his distance is equal feet , the climate has changed from semi-arid to polar.
to about 3• tatitude.) Moreover, as air rises along the windward
13
10 3
=
0.,
e
~
.,
""))! 2 ~
"
~a>
5
Mixed
i
'O
conifer ~
"
~
fores1s
~
"
Grassland
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Distance (km)
• FI GURE 17. 28 VerticalviE.wof changing vegetation and climate due to elevation in thecentral Sierra Nevada.
SUMMARY
In this chapter, we examined global temperature and pre- marine climate, 505 taiga, 511
cipitation patterns, as \<'ell as the various climatic regions dry-summer subtropical polar tundra climate, 51 I
throughounheworld. Tropical cUmatesarefound in low lati- (Mediterranean), 507 permafrost, 512
tudes, where the noon sun is always high, day and night are of humid continental polar ice cap climate, 512
nearly equal length, every month is wnrm, and no real winter climate, 510 highland climate, 514
season exists. Some of the rainiest places in the world exist in subpolar climate, 510
the tropics, especially where warm, humid air rise~ upslope
along mountain rani,oe.~.
Dry climates prevail where pntential evaporntion and QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
transpiration exceed precipitation Some deserts, such as the
I. What factors determine the global pattern of precipi-
Sahara, are mainly the res<tlt ofsinking air associated with the
tation?
subtropical highs, while others, due to the rain shadow effect,
2. Explain why, in North America, precipitation typically
are found on the leeward side of mountains. Many deserts
is a maximum along the West Coast in \\•inter>a maxi-
!Orm in response to both of these effects.
mum on the Central Plains in summer, and fairly
Middle latitudes are characterized by a distinct winter
ewnly distributed between summer and winter along
and summer season. Winters tend to be milder in '°'''er lati-
the East Coast
tudes and more severe in higher latitudes. Alongtheeast coast
3. Why are the lowest temperatures in polar regions ob-
ofsome continents, summers tend to be hot and humid as
served in the interior of large landmasses>
moist air sweeps poleward around the subtropical highs. 1be
4. What climatic information did Koppen ll~ in classify-
air often rises and condenses into afternoon thunderstorms
ing climates>
in this humid subtropical climate. 111e west coasts of many
5. How did Koppen define tropical climate? How did he
continent~ tend to be drier, especially in summer, as the com-
define a polar climate?
bim1tion of cool ocean water andsinking air oft hesubt ropica I
6. According to Koppen'.~ climatic system (Fig. 17.7,
highs, to a large degree, inhibit the formation of cumuliform
pp. 498- 499), what major climatic type is most abun-
clouds.
dant in each of the following areas:
In the middle oflarge continents, such as North America
(a) in North America
and Eurasia,summersareusually wetter than winters. Winter
(b) in South America, and
temperntures are generally lower than those experienced in
(c) throughout the world?
coastal regions. As one moves northward, summers become
7. What is the primary factor that makes a dry climate
shorter and winters longer and colder. Polar climates prevail
"dry"?
at high latitude~. wherewintersaresevere and there is no real
8. In which climatic region would each of the following
summer. When ascending a high mountain, one can travel
be observed: tropical rain forest, xerophytes, steppe,
through many climatic zones in a relatively short distance.
taiga, tundra, and savanna?
9. What are the controlling factors (the climatic control~)
that produce the following climatic regions:
KEY TERMS (a) tropical wet and dry
(b) Mediterranean
'The following termsarelisted (with page numbers) in the or-
(c) marine
der they appear in the text. Oefme each. Ooingso will aid
(d) humid subtropical
(e) subpolar
microclimate, 490 tropical monsoon ( f) polar ice cap
mesoclimate, 490 climate, 500 I 0. How do C-type climates differ from D-type climates>
macroclimate, 490 tropical wet-and-dry I 1. Why a.re large anmml temperature ranges characteris-
global climate, <190 climate, 500 tic of D-type climates>
climatic controls, 490 savanna grass, 500 I 2. Why are D climates found in the Northern 1-lemi-
Koppen classification arid climate, 502 sphere but not in the Southern Hemisphere>
system, 495 xerophytes, 502 I 3. Explain why a tropical rain forest climate will support
P/E index, 496 semi-arid climate, 503 a tropical r;\in forest, while a tropical wet-and-dry
tropical rain forest, 498 steppe, 503 climate \\111 not.
tropical wet climate, 498 humid subtropic<tl 14. Why are marine climates (Cs) usually fotmd on the
laterite, 500 climate, 504 \\•est coast of continents?
IS. What is the primary di~tinction betwe en a Cfa and a 8. As shown in Figure l7.19, p. 507, San Francisco and
Dfa climate? Sacramento, California, have similar mean annual
16. Explain how arid deserts can be found adjacent to temperature~ hut different anmi.,l temperature ranges.
oceans. What factors control the annual temperature ranges at
17. Why did Koppen use the 10•c (so•f) aver<tge tempera- these t\\'0 locations?
ture for July to distinguish between 0 and E climates? 9. Why is there a contrast in climate types on either side
18. What accounts for the existence of a llWk climate in of the Rocky Mountains, but not on either side of the
the we~tem Great Basin of North America> Appalachian Mountains?
19. Barrow, Alaska, receive~ a mere 11 cm (4.3 in.) of pre· I 0. Over the past l00 years or so the earth h'ts "'"med
cipiration annually. Explain why its climate i~ not clas- by more than o.s•c (J.4•F). lf this warming should
sified as arid or semi-arid. continue over the next 100 years, explain how this rise
20. Explain why subpolar climates are also known as bo· in temperature might influence the boundary bet1"een
real climates and taiga climates. C and D climates. How would the warming influence
the botmdary between D and E climates?

I. Why do cities directly east of the Rockies (such as
Denver, Colorado) receive much more precipitation I. Suppo.se a city has the mean annual precipitation and
than citie~ east of the Sierra Nevada (such as Reno and temperature given in v'fable 172. Based on Kiippen's
Lovelock, Nevada)? climatic types, how would this climate be chtssified?
2. What climatic controls affect the climate in your area? On a map of North America, approximately where
3. Los Angeles, Seaule, and Boston are all coastal cities, would this city be located? What type of vegetation
yet Bo.~ton has a continental rather than a marine would you expect to see there? Answer these same
climate. Explain why. questions for the data in 1:1ble 17.3.
4. Why are many structures in polar regions built on 2. Compare the follo"1ng climate chtssifications for your
pilings? area:
5. Why are surnmer afternoon temperatures in a humid (a) Ancient Greeks
subtropical climate (CTa) often higher than in a tropical (b) Koppen system
wet climate (Af)? (c) 1 hornth"'<tite's system
6. Why are humid subtropical climates (Cfa) found in Which classification system is best for your are,is me·
regions bounded by 20• and 40° (Nor S) latitudes, and sodimate? Macrodimate?
nO\\•here eLo;:e? 3. On a blank map of the world, roughly outline where
7. ln which of the foUowing climate types is virga likely to Koppen~ major climatic regions are located.
occur most frequently: humid continental, arid desert,
or Polar tundra? Explain why.
• TABLE 17.2
JAN. FEB MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. VEAR
Temperature (°F) 40 42 so 60 68 77 80 79 73 62 49 42 60
Precipitation (in.} 4.9 4 .2 5.3 3.7 3.8 3.2 4.0 3.3 2.7 2.5 3.4 4 .1 45
• TABLE 17.3
JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JUL'f' AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. YEAR
Temperature (°F} IS 18 29 42 55 65 70 68 60 48 36 23 44
Precipitation (in.) 1.9 1.5 2 .2 2.6 2.9 3.6 3.8 3.0 3.1 2.9 2.8 1.9 32
GEOSCIENCE Within the Global£nvironment Watch: Meteorology portal, goto the Website
and Biogs section and choose websites from three different state climate centers. How doe~ <.'ach center go about d<.'scribing the
average dim.11eofitsstate? Does it uS<'only the variables outlined in the Koppen classification system, or are other climatological
factors included?
ONLINE RESOURCES
I!\ Log in to the CourseMate website at: www.rengagebrain.com to view the concept anim.ations as noted in the text, as
~ well as additional resources, including video exercises, practice quizzes, an interactive eBook, and more.
?'''!
Air Pollution
CONTENTS
A Brief History of Air Pollution
Types and Sources of Air Pollutants
A ir pollution makes theearth a less pleasant place to live. It
reduces the beauty of nature. This blight is particularly
noticed in mountain areas. Views that once made the pulse beat
faster because of the spectacular panorama of mountains and
Indoor Air Pollution
Principal Air Pollutants valleys are more often becoming shrouded in smoke. When
Ozone in the Troposphere once you almost always could see giant boulders sharply etched
Ozone in the Stratosphere
in the sky and the tapered arrowheads of spired pines, you now
Stratospheric Ozone: Production·
Destruction often see a fuzzy picture of brown and green. The polluted air
Stratospheric Ozone: Upsetting acts like a translucent screen pulled down by an unhappy God.
the Balance
Air Pollution: Trends and Patterns Louis J. Batt.ln, The Undean Sky
The Ozone Hole
Factors That Affect Air Pollution
TheRoleoftheWind
The Role of Stability and Inversions
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVAHON
Smokestack Plumes
The Role ofTopography
Severe Air Pollution Potential
FOCUS ONAN OBSERVATION
Five Days In Donora-An Air Pollution Episode
Air Pollution and the Urban Environment
Acid Deposition
FOCUS ON SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT
Heat Waves and Air Pollutlon : A Deadly Team
Summary
Key Terms
Fadng page: Air pollutants from factorychimneys

make it diffic-ult to see houses and trees on a\vinter
morning in Christchurch, Ne\v Zealand
519
very deep breath fills our lungs mostly with gaseous sea coal, an impure form of coal that produced a great deal of
E nitrogen and oxygen. Also inhaled, in minute quantities,

may be other gases and particles, some of which could
be considered pollutants. ' lbese contaminants come from car
soot and sulfur dioxide when burned. One person was reputedly
executed for violating this decree. In spite of such restrictions,
the use of coal grew as a heating fuel during the fifteenth and
exhaust, chimneys, factories, power plant~. and other sources sixteenth centuries.
related to human activities. As industrialization increased, the smoke problem wors-
Virtually every large city has to contend in some " "ay with ened. Jn 166 1, the prominent scientist John Evelyn wrote an
air pollution, which clouds the sky, injures plants, and damages essay deploring Londons ftlthy air. And by the 1850s, London
property. Some Pollutants merely have a noxious odor, whereas had become notorious for its "pea soup" IOg, a thick mixture of
others can cause severe health problems. The cost is high. In the smoke and fog that hung over the city. 1 hese fogs could be dan-
United States, for example, outdoor air pollution takes its toll in gerous. Jn 1873, one was resPonsible for as m.my as 700 deaths.
health care and lost work productivity at an annual expense that Another in 19 JI daimed the lives of I 150 Londoners. To de-
runs into billio11sofdollars. £stim.11es are that, worldwide, nearly scribe this chronic atm<>-spheric event, a physician, Harold Des
one billion people in urban environments are continuously Voeux, coined (around 1911) the word smog. meaning a combi-
being exPosed to he,1lth hazards from air Pollutants. nation ofsmoke and fog.
1bi~ chapter take.s a look at this serious contemporary con- Little " "JS done to control the burning of coal as time went
cern. We begin by briefly examining the history of problems in by, primarily because it was extremely difficult to counter the
this area, and then go on to explore the types and sources of air basic attitude of the powerful industrialists: "Where there~
pollution, as well as the weather that can produre an unhealthful muck, there's money." Londons acute smog problem intensi-
accumulation of pollutants. Finally, we investigate how air pol- fied. Then, during the first week of December, 1952, a m.1jor
lution influences the urban environment and also how it brings disaster struck. ' lbe winds died down over London and the fog
about unwanted acid precipitation. and smoke became so thick that people walking along the street
literally could not see where they \\'ere going (see • Fig 18.1 )
People wore masks over their mouths and found their way along
the sidewalks by feeling the " "alls ofbuilding~. This particulardi-
A Brief History of Air Pollution sastroussmog lasted 5 days and took nearly 4000 lives, prompt-
ing Parliament to pass a Clean Air Act in 1956. Additional air
Strictly speaking, air Pollution is not a new problem. More pollution incidents occurred in£nglandduring 1956, 1957, and
than likely it began when humans invented fire wh0-se smoke 1962, but due to the stronglegislative measures taken against air
choked the inhabitants of pQOrly ventilated caves. In fact, very pollution, Londo1is air today is much cleaner, and "pea soup"
early accounts ofair Pollution characterized the phenomenon as fogs are a thing of the past.
"smoke problems;· the major cause being people burning wood Air Pollution episodes were by no means limited to Great
and coal to keep warm. Britain. During the winter of 1930, for instance, Belgium's
To alleviate the smoke problem in old England, King highly industrializedMeu.se Valley experienced an air Pollution
&!ward I issued a proclamation in 1273 forbidding the use of tragedy when smoke and other contamin.mts accumulated in
• FI GURE 18.1 Thefogandsmoke\wreso

denM> in London during December, 1952. that vis·
ibilities\vereoften restricted to less than tOOfeet
and streetlights had to be turned on during the
middle of the day.
WEATHER WATCH
On any given day, estimates are thal about 10 millio n Types and Sources of Air Pollutants
tons of solid particulate matter are sus pendtd In our
1tmosphe, e. And In a polluted environmtnt, 1 volume of Air pollutants att atrbornt: wl»t•nces (tither solids, liquids,
1lr 1bout lhe sin of a sugar cube can cont1l n u m111y u i:r g;ises) that occur 111 conctn1rat11>cu high enough to t.luntm
200,000 llny portldes. the h<althof peoplt and atumab.. to harm "<f!<1aliOD and st.rue·
tures,or to toxify a S""" mv1ronmtnL Atr pollutants come from
bttb DallJJal souroes and human act11·t1~ Eumples of mtural
a narro"' stup·sidtd valley. The 1ttmcndo11> buildup of pol S<lUJreS include wt0d pclUng up du>I and soa. from the ~th's
lutonh cou~ about 600 people to become tll . and ultJmately surface and~ 1t aloft. \ulcanoes belching tons of ash and
63 du~d. Not only did humans suffer, but omit, btrd>, and rats dust into our atmosphere, and i>n..,t firr, producing vast quMti-
"II victim to the deplorable conditions. lies ofdrifting smoke (;cc I ig. IR.2).
' lhc indu•trio l revolution brought :ur pollution to the Human-induced pollution enter;. the atmosphere from
United Stntcs, os homes and coal-burning indu>trici. belched both fixe.d sources and mu/Ji/1• SOlll'<"'- Pixed >Ources encompass
;nKlkC,MlOt, ond 01hcrundesirabk! cmb;ion• Into the nlr. Soon, industrial complexes, power plnnt" homes, office building,<, and
lur8e lndu•triol cit ks, such as St. Louis nnd l'itt>burgh (which so forth; mobile source; indudc motor vehicles, ships, and jct
bccunll: known us the "Smoky City"). bl'g:Ul to fed the effects of aircraft. Certain pollutnnb nrc cnllcd primary air pollutants
!he ewr Increasing use of cool As early~ 1911. >1ud1es docu· because they enter the uuno>pherc directly - from smokestacks
mcntcd the lrntnting eflect of smoke particles on the human 3Jld tail pipes. for example. Other pollutunts,known as second·
n:.pitatory sy"em and the "depttssing Md ckvubnn1( effects ary air pollutanlS, fonn only when a chemical reaction occurs
of the conmn1 darlmess brought on by giant. bla.ck cloud> o( bttwttna primlll)' pollucanl •nd some ocher component of air.
~. By 19 IO. the air .,.-ersom• citits h:id bttome so pollull'd such as watrr 1-apor or anoc her pollutanL • Tal* 18.1 SUIDJJlil·
th;at •ut<>mobtle h...Digbtshad to betumcdon during theda)c riu:s some of the sou rco ofpnmary our pollutaots.
The liDl major documeottd a1.t polluuon I.busier 1n • figure 18.3a shows that carbon monmide is the most
thr Untied SlateS occurred at Donora. l'enns1lvan1;a. dunng abundant primary a1.t pollutanl 1n the United StateS. The pn·
October. 1918, when indUSlrial polluhon btamr trapptd tn marysoun:e for all poDu~nhtS tran>ponation (mo!O< •""1icles.
the Monongaheb Rh,,,. Valley. During the ordc.il. "tuch W.ted
5 days. more than 20 people died Md thou"'1Jld> be.;;inw ill•
Scvcrnl times during the 1960s, air pollution level> became
dllnlJCl'tlll>ly high over New York City. Mclmwhile. on the West
Con,t, In cities such ns Lo.<Angeles, the cvcr· ri>inK nutomohilc
populntlon, coupled \\ilh the large petroleum proce»lnK plnnl<,
were ln•trumcntnl in generating a different type of pollutant,
pl1otudtrmirnl smog-one that forms in ;unny 1•eather nnd
itrttalc> the eyes. 'lbward the end of World War II. Lo. Angeles
had 1b fir>t (ti many)smog alerts.
Attpolluuonepisodtsin LosAngdcs. NC'< York. and other
l;uge Amtt o:;in a ties IN! to theestablishmtnl of much s ~er
emt<"°11 <tandards for indl.ISlr}· and au tomobib 1h.: a..an Atr
A..t 11f 19~0. furexample.empGWtttd the ftdmal ('l''L'rrvnenl to
S<"1 rm1»10n ;undards that each stale was req\11.ftd to enforce.
lhc Oun AJr Act was re1istd in I 977 Md updattd by Congress
ui 1990 to include n1'n strictttemission rrqutttmrnb forautos
and 1ndu>try. 'lhe new version of the ACI also includes incen·
tivc; to encourage companies to lower em t>>iom of tho.c pol lut •
ant\ contributing tot he current problem of nckl rain. Moreover.
nmcndmcnt. to the Act hnve identified 189 hJXIC nir pClllutants
for regulation. In 200 I, the United Stlttcs Supreme Court, in a
unnnlmou> rulb1g, made it dear that co.t need 1111t be taken into
ucttiunt when >Cttingdean air standard>.
Most of the pollutants""' ";u =mine in the 1~xt ;ewrnl
~ta>ns are those more typicall)' foondtlUl~e. Uut attpoOulJOn
(llll bu maior health problem insidt astruc:tlltl! IM Fo<;us~·
'""' on p. 52? d iscus.ses the health ruks of indt>or atr polluuon . FIGURE 18.2 Stiong,_.,_,• .,.s.,,.. ..,......isonOctdoer2&lOCB
• ,\JJ1uo.wl IAk>n'DAdl »au lht- Do.non U' pGAJ .. _, '1tu*f liill~ Lft tM blewthesmob: flOtn n"l.MIJW'Mld ,..., . . . . . .hem <Alamia outowier tM
fu. 11• • t.- • p. s.eD. hdKO<mn.
,......,.. ,ll.IJ(••"-,.._.,....._• ....,_.......,..___. -~• .... lt••I''"" P...•- ..... --..~-----------~""'~'._ .......,.__
_... .... """ ...,,....._ - · · ...... · - · - · .........., .. ,...___ ( .... , ......... - llonf:. -~-..w-.i- ·--... . .-.... -·-·. . -
When people think of air pollution, most think furnace and pipe insulation, texturing mate-
of outside air w here automobiles, factories, rials, and floor tiles o f older buildings. The
and power plants spew countless tons of con- most lethal fibers of asbestos are invisible.
taminants into the air. But,. surprisingly, the air When inhaled, these tiny par ticles can accu-
vve breathe inside o ur homes and other struc- mulate and remain deep in the lungs for ex-
tures can be between Sand 100 times more te nded periods o f time, w here they damage
polluted than theairwebreatheoutdoors, tissue and potentially cause cancer or asbes-
even in the largest,. most industrialized, cities! tosis, a permanent scarring of the lung that
(See Fig. 1.) Since we spend so much time in- can be fatal.
doors, the quality of air we breathe there can Smoking tobacco indoors can also cre-
have a far greater impact on our health and ate an e.xtremelydangerous health situation.
well-being than the air outdoors. Environmental tobacco smoke is a complex
The Enviro nmental Protection Agency mixture of morethan 4700 different conr-
(EPA) has identified many sources of indoor • FIGURE 1 With a ndl es. burning, a fir e in the
pounds. These pollutants enter the body as
air pollution, ranging from building mater ials, fireplace.and stain..res.i stanl m aterialo n rugsand par ticles and as gases, such as carbon mon-
pressed wood products, furnishings, and carpet s. there are probably m ore a ir pollutants in oxide and hydrogen cyanide. E.xposureto
home cleaning products, to pesticides, adhe-- this living room t han the re are in asimilar size tobacco smoke greatly increases the risk of
sives, and personalcare products. In addi- volume o f air o utdoors.. developing lung cancer in both .smokers
tion, heating sources (such as unvented kero- and nonsmokers (studies shOIN that the non-
sene heaters, wood stoves, and fireplaces) (abouts million) in the United States may smoking spouses of smokers experience a
can release a variety o f p ollutants into a haYe elevated levels of radon. The levelof ra- 30 percent increase in the occurrence o f lung
home. The pollution impact o f any heating don varies greatly from structure to structure cancer). The small children of smokers are
source depends upon sever al factors, such and can only be measured by devices kncmn also more likely to fall victim to such illnesses
as how old the source is, the level of mainte- asrodondetectors. Inside a home, the radon as bronchitis and pneumonia. Heart disease
nan ce it receive.si as well as its location an d decays into polonium, a solid substance that is closely linked w ith expo.sure to tobacco
access to ventilation. For example, a gas attaches itself to dust in the air. The tiny d ust smoke, as is premature aging of the skin.
cooking stove or heating stove w ith im- particles can be inhaled deep into the lungs, In some region Si a phenomenon known
proper fittings and adjustments can cause a where they attach to lung tissue.As the polo- as "sick building syndrome• has become the
significant emission of carbon monoxide nium decays, it damages the lung tissu~ focuso f public concern. Se\eral illnesses,
(CO). New carpets and padding (as well as the sometimes pro ducing mutated cells that may such as legionnaire'sdiseose (which is spread
adhesives used in their installation) can emit develop into lung cancer. through contaminated air conditioning
volatile organic compounds. Another major chemical pollutant found systems), have been attributed to specific
Some pollution sources, such as building inside o ur homes is formaldehyde. It is a color- building problems, but other, less definite, ill-
materialsand foam insulation, produce a con- less, pungent-smelling gas, used w idely to nesses have been traced to the indoor office
stant streamof pollutants, w hereas activities manufacture building materials,. insulation, enviro nment as well. These complaints range
like tobacco smoking emit pollutants into the and other household products. In most from dry mucous membranes, sneezing, fa-
air on an intermittent basis. In certain in- home Si the significant sources of formalde- tigue, and irritability to forgetfulness and
stances, outside pollution is brought indoors. hyde are urethane-formaldehyde foam insu- nausea. Unfo rtunately, the nature of these
Some pollutants enter homes and other struc- lation and pressed wood products, such symptoms and their random occurrence
tures through cracks and holes in foundations as particle board and plywood paneling. makes tracing the sourcedifficult, if not
and basements, as is the case with radon. Emissions o f formaldehyde from new prod- impossible.
Radon is a colorlesSi odorless gas- a nat- ucts can be greatly affected by indoor Indoor pollutants are responsible for a
ural radioactive compound - that forms as temperatures and ventilation. Exposure to w ide variety of health problems. Irritation of
the uranium in soil and rock breaks down. formaldehyde can cause watery eyes, burn- the eyes, nose, and throat, headaches, fa-
Radon is found everywhere on earth and only ing .sensations in the nose and throat, breath- tigue, and d izziness are b ut a few of the mal-
becomes a problem when It leaks out of the ing d ifficulties, and nausea. It can also trigger adies attributed to indoor air pollutants.
soil and becomes trapped inside homes and attacks in individuals suffering from asthma. While these symptoms can be annoying,
buildings.The radon gas that seeps in through Another polluter of our indoor air isas- other life-threatening d iseases can occur af-
cracks and other openings in a building can bestos, a mineral fiber o nce used in insulation ter prolonged exposure to many of the sub-
accumulate to levels that create a serious and as a fire-retardant. In recent ~ars, manu- stances mentioned earlier, such as radon, aT
health threat. Studies by the EPA have shown facturers have \()luntarily reduced the use o f bestos, and other toxic compounds.
that as many as 10 percent of the homes asbestos, b ut much asbestos still remains in
°*"'"''"..
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1
.. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
,. TABLE 18.1 Some of the Sources of Primary Air Pollutants
SOURCES POLLUTANTS
Natural
Volcanic eraptions Partides (dust, ash~ gases (SO,. CO,)
Forest fires Sn10ke, unburned h)rdrocarbons, C0 2,

nitrogen oxides, ash
Dust storn1s Suspended partkulate matter
Ocean \\laves Salt partkles
Vegetation Hydrocarbons (VOC<).' pollens
Hot springs Sulfurou< gases
Au1nan-c.aus.ed
ludustrinl Paper m ills Particulate n1atter, sulfur oxides
Coal Ash, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxide.'>

Oil Sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxide<. CO
Refinerie.'i Hydrocarbons. sulfur oxide<. CO
~tanufactu.ring Sulfilric acid SO,. SO,. and H1SO,
Phosphate fertilizer Particulate n1atter, gaseous Huoride

Jmn and steel nlills Metal oxides, snlOke, fun1e.'i., dust, organic
and inorganic gases
Plastics Gac;eous resin
VarnL<h/ paint Acrolein, sulfur con1pounds
Persounl Auton10biles CO. nitrogen oxides, hjtlrocarbons (VOCs),

partkulate nl3tter
Hon1e furnaces/fireplace.'i cotpartk:ulate n1atter
Open burning of refuse CO~ particulate n1atter
• VOCs ~re volJtilc organic compounds: I.hey 1l'presen1a d ass of organic co1npounds. most of which are hydrocarbons.
and soon), "'th fuelc.ombtt~tion fromstationary (fixed) sources PRINCIPAL AIR POLLUTANTS The term particulate m ailer
coming in a distant second (see Fig ! 8.3b). Although hundreds represents a group of solid particles and liquid droplets that
of pollutants are found in our atmosphere, most fall into five are small enough to remain suspended in the air. Collectively
groups, which are summari1.ed in the following section. known as aerosols, this grouping includes solid particles that
-tie O<l!Mle Industrial • FI GUR E 18. 3 {al Estimates of emissions of the

compounds proeesMS primary air pollutants in the United States on a per
9"'
""' \Veighl basis.Cb) The primary sources for the pollut·
ants. lData courtesy of United States Environmental
Nlerogen Protect ion AgencyJ
oxldes 15'%-
(a) Primary pollutants (b) Primary sources
C'1'1'rif• :tl•~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....i ., ......,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I"""' "<i•• """'"""... '"""'''"'"·
• FI GUR E 1 8.4 fa} Denver, Colorado, o n ac:lear day, and (b} on a day \vhen particulate matter and o ther pollutant sgreatly reduce visibility.
may irritate people but are <L~ually not poisonous, such as soot day or so after being emitted; whereas fine, lighter particles with
(tiny solid carbon particles), dust, smoke, and pollen. Some of diameters less than l µm (0.00 1 mm) can remain suspended in
the more dangeroussubstances include asbestos fibers and arse- the l0\\ E!'r atmosphere for several \Veek~.
1
nic. 1iny liquid droplet~ ofsulfuric acid, PCB.~. oil, and variOllS Finer particle.~ with diameters smaller than 10 µmare re-
pesticides are also placed into this category. terred to as PM- I 0. These particles pose the greatest health risk,
Because it often d r;unatically red uces visibility in urban as they are small enough to penetrate the lung~ natural defense
environments, particulate matter pollution is the most notice- mechanis1ns. Moreover. \\•ind-; can carry these fine particles
able (see o Fig. 18.4). Some particulate matter collected in cit- great distances before they finally reach the surface. l n fact,
ies includes iron, copper, nickel, and lead. This type of pollution S<L~pended particle.~ from sources in Europe and the former
can immediately influence the human respiratory system. Once Soviet Union are believed responsible for the brownish cloud
inside the lungs, it can make breathing difficult, particularly for layer called Arctic haze that forms over the Arctic each spring.
those suffering from chronic respiratory disorders. Lead particles And strong winds over northern China can pick up dust
especially are dangerOlLS as they tend to fall out ofthe at m<lsphere particles and sweep them eastward, where they may settle on
and become absorbed into the body through ingestion of con- North America. This Asian dust, which has increased dramati-
taminated food and water supplies. Lead accumulates in bone cally over the past 80 years, can reduce visibility; produce spec-
and soft tis.sues, and in high concentrations cm c.ausebrain d;un- tacular sunrises and sunsets, and coat everything with a thin
age, convulsions, and death. Even at low doses, lead can be par- veneer of particles (see o Fig. 18.5).
ticularly dangeroll~ to fetuses, infants, and child ren who, when Studies show that particulate matter with diameters less
exposed, may sllffer central nervous system damage. than 2.5 µm , called PM-25, are especially dangerous. For one
Particulate pollution not only ad versely affect~ the lungs, thing, they can penetrate farther into the lungs. Moreover, these
but recent studies suggest that particulate matter can interfere tiny particles frequently consi~t oftoxic or carcinogenic (c.anc.er-
with the normal rhythm of the human heart. Apparently, as ClllSing) combll~tion product~. Ofrecent concern are the f>M-2.5
this type of pollution increases, there is a subtle change in a particles found in die,sel soot. Relatively high amounts of these
person's heart rate. For a person with an existing cardiac prob- particles have been measured inside school buses with higher
lem, a change in heart rate can produce serious con.sequences. amounts observed downwind of traffic corridors and truck
In fact, one study estimated that, each year, particulate pollution terminals.
may be responsible for as many as 10,000 heart disease fatalities
in the United States.
WEATHER WATCH
Of the nearly 7 million metric tons of particulate matter
emitted over the United States each year, about 40 percent comes Air pollution and tropical cyclones - is there a link? In a
from industrial processes, with highway vehicles accounting for study published in the journal Nature in November, 2011,
about 17 percent. One main problem is that particulate pollu- scientists at the University of Virginia in Charlottesvi lle,
tion may remain in the atmosphere for some time depending concluded that the increase in the intensity of tropical
cyclones in the Arabian Sea over the last three decades
on the size and the amount of precipitation that occurs. For
was primarily due to vast clouds of air pollution from
example, larger, heavier particles "1th diameters greater than
India and surrounding countries that coo led the surface
about 10 µm• (0.01 mm) tend to settle to the ground in about a
enough to reduce vertical wind shear, which tends to
•RecaU tha1one 1ukro1uctcr (µ1u) is one·miJlion1h ofn 1ueler. (lhe thld~n esso f this destroy tropical cyclone development.
p.1ge is nhout 100 nlicm1neteJS.)
°*"'"''"..
..
a FIGURE 18. S Athick.hazeabout200km
\Viele and about600 km long covers a portion of
the East China Se.a on Mardi 4, 1996. The haze is
probably a mixture of industrial air pollution. dust.
and smoke.
Rain and snow remove many of these particles from the from combustion processes, such as those produced by diesel
air; even the minute particles are removed by ice crystals and engines and power plants. "lbe hazy air mass may become quite
cloud droplets. In fact, numerical simulations of air pollution thick, and on humid summer days it often becomes well defined,
suggest that the predominant removal mechani~m oa:urs when as illustrated in • Figure 18.6.
these particles act as nuclei for cloud droplets and ice crystals. Carbon monoxide (CO), a major pollutant of city air, is a
Moreover, a long-lasting accumulation of suspended parti- colorless, odorless, poisonous gas that forms during the incom-
cles (especially those rich in sulfur) is not only aesthetically plete combustion of carbon-containing fuels. As we saw earlier,
unappealing but has the potential for affecting the climate, as carbon monoxidei~ the mo.~t plentiful ofthe primary pollutants
some particles reflect incoming sunlight and prevent a portion (see Fig. 18. 3a).
of the sun~ energy from reaching the surface. Thus, as we saw The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that
in Chapte.r 16, these sulfur-rich aerosols have the net effect of over 60 million metric tons of carbon monoxide enter the air
cooling the earth~surface. annually over the United States alone- about half from high-
Many suspended particles are hygroscopic, as water vapor way vehicles. Mowever, due to stricter air quality standard~ and
readily condenses onto them. As a thin film of water form.~ on the use of emission-control devices, carbon monoxide levels
the particle.~. they grow in size. When they reach a diameter have decreased by about 40 percent since the early 1970s.
between 0.1and 1.0 µm these wet lu1zeparticleseffectively scat- Fortunately, carbon monoxide is quickly removed from
ter incoming sunlight to give the sky a milky white appearance. the atmosphere by microorganisms in the soil, for even in
"Jbe particles are <L~ually sulfate or nitrate particulate matter small amounts this gas is dangero<L~. Hence, it poses a serious
• FIGURE 18.6 Cumuluscloudsanda thun·

derstorm rise abovethethic:k la)Erof haze that
frequently covers the eastern half of the United
Stateson humid summerdays.
problem in poorly ventilated areas, such as highway tunnels environments is between LO and LOO time.~ greater than in non-
and underground parking garages. Because carbon monoxide urban areas. Jn moi~t air. nitrogen dioxide reacts \\•ith \\•ater
cannot be seen or smelled, it can kill without ""Jrning. Here's vapor to form corrosive nitric acid (HNO). a substance. that
how: Normally, your cells obtain oxygen through a blood adds to the problem of acid rain, which we will address later.
pigment called hemoglobin, which picks up oxygen from the The primary sources of nitrogen oxides are motor vehicles,
lungs, combines with it, and carries it throughout your body. power plmts, and waste disposal systems. High concentrations
Unfortunately, human hemoglobin prefers carbon monoxide are believed to contribute to heart and lung problern~. as well as
to oxygen, so if there is too much carbon monoxide in the air lowering tbe body'.~ resistance to respiratory infections. Studies
you breathe, your brain will soon be srarved of oxygen, and on test animalssuggest that nitrogen oxides may encourage the
headache, fatigue, drowsiness, and even death may result.• spread of cancer. Moreover, nitrogen oxide.~ are highly reactive
Sulfur dioxide (SO,) i~ a colorless gas that comes primarily gases that play a key role in producing ozone and other ingredi-
from the burning ofsulfur-containing fossil fuel~ (such as coal ents of photochemical smog,
and oil). Its primary source includes power plants, beating de- At this point it should be noted that in 2007 the
vices.smelters. petroleum refineries, and paper mills. H-O\\'ever, United States Supreme C'.ourt ruled that the greenhouse gas
it can enter the atmo.~here naturally during volcanic eruptions carbon dioxide. (CO,) is a pollutant covered by the Oean Air
and as sulfate particle.~ from ocean spray. Act. Because of this ruling, the Environmental Protection Agency,
Sulfur dioxide rt>adilyoxidizestofonn the secondary pollut- in 201 0, began to regulate CO, as a pollutant on the premise that,
ants sulfur trioxide (SO) and, in moist air,highlycorro.sivesulfu- asa greenhouse gas, CO, causes a risk to public health.
ric a<id (H,SO,). Winds can carry these particles great distances
belOre thev reach the earth as <mdesirable contaminants. When OZONE IN THE TROPOSPHERE As mentioned earlier, the
inhaled ;,;to the lungs, high concentrations of sulfur dioxide word smog originally meant the combining of smoke and fog,
aggravate respiratory problems, such as asthm.1, bronchitis, and Today, howe.ver, tbe word mainly refers to the type of smog that
emphysema. Sulfurdioxidein largequantitieuan cause injury to IOrms in large cities, such as Los Angeles. Becau.se this type of
certain plants, such as lettuceandspinach,sometimes producing smog forms when chemical reaction~ take place in the presence
bleached mark~ on theirleaves and reducing their yield. of sunlight (called plwtoclmnical reactions), it is termed
Volatile organic compounds (VO Cs) represent a class photochemical smog, or Los Angeles-lype smog When the smog
of organic compounds that are mainly hydrocarbons- is composed ofsulfurous smoke and foggy air, it is usually cal led
individual organic compounds composed of hydrogen and London-type smog.
carbon. Al room temperature they occur as solids, liquids, and 'Jbe. main component of photochemical smog is the gas
gases. Even though thousands of such compounds are known to ozone (0 ,). Ozone is a noxious substance with an unpleas-
exist, methane (which occurs naturally and po.ses no known ant odor that irritates eyes and the mucous membranes of the
dangers to health) is the most ab<mdant. Other volatile organic respiratory system, aggravating dironicdiseases,suchas asthma
compounds include benzene, form.-tldehyde, and some chloro- and bronchitis. Even in healthy people, expo.~ure to relatively
fluorocarbons. ' lbe Environmental Protection Agency estimates low concentrations of crtone for six or seven hours during
that over 18 million metric tons of voes are emitted into the periods of moderate exercise can significantly reduce lung
air over the United States each year, with about 34 percent of function. This situation often is accompanied by symptoms
tbe total coming from vehicles used fortransportation and about such as chest pain, nausea, coughing, and pulmonary conges-
50 percent from industrial proces.ses. tion. Ozone also attacks rubber, rt>tardstn.>e growth, and damages
Certain VOCs,such as benzene (an industrial .solvent) and crop.s. £ach year, in the United States alone, otone is responsible
benzo-a-pyrene(a product ofburning wood, tobacco, and bar- for crop yield lo.~ses of several billion dollars.
becuing), are known to be carcinogens -cancer-causing agents. We "'LI see later that ozone forms naturally in the strato-
Although m.my VOCs are not intrinsically harmful, some will sphere through the combining of molecular oxygen and atomic
react with nitrogen oxides in the presence ofsunlight to produce oxygen. ' lb ere, s/ratosplieric ozone provides a protective shield
secondary pollutants, which are harmful to human health. again~! the sun~ harmful ultraviolet rays. Mowe.ver, nearthesur-
Nitrogen oxides are gase~that form when some of the nitro- face, in polluted 'tir, ozone-often referred to as troposplieric( or
gen in the air reacts \\1th oxygen during the. high-temperature ground-level) ozone-is a second,try pollutant that is not emit-
combustion of fuel. 'Jbe two primary nitrogen pollutants are ni- ted directly into the air. Rather, it forms from a complex series
trogen dioxide (NO,) and nitric oxide (NO), which, together, of chemical reactions involving other pollutants, such as nitro-
are oommonly referred to as N 0 , -or simply, oxides ofnitrogen. gen oxides and volatile organic compounds (hydroc.arbons).
Although both nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are pro- Because sunlight is required to produce ozone, concentrations
duced by natural bacterial action, their concentration in urban of tropospheric ot0ne are normally higher during the after-
noon~ (see. • Fig. 18.7) and during tbe summer months, when
•should you boco1u e trapped in your car during a sno\,'Slonu. and you have your
engine and healer running to keep wanu. roll down the wb1dow ;usl a lit I.le. This
sunlight is more intense.
action will allow 1he escape o fany carbon fflonoxide that may have t'ntert'd the C~lr In polluted air, ozone production occurs along the fol-
1hrough leaks in the ahaus1 syste1n . lowing line,~. Sunlight (with wavelengths shorter than about
It § 0 MI K
removes nitric o.xidc by combining with ii to form nitrogen di·
ox.id<', sh-Own by the exprc»ion
RO,· • NO-+ NO,+ other produw,.
i Jn !his manner, nit ricoxideca n react with hydrocarbon; ru fonn

nitrogen dioxide without re11101111g ow1~. I lcn<e, lhc rtJCh\'C
hydrocarlions in polluted air allow 070111! <Onc:entral klll> lo ln-
J 1 -t t 8 ~ 1~ 1}.,L.~ I ~ I b 1
8 2
a...ase by preventing nitric aride from dtttroy1ng tht ozone'"
rapidly as ii is i>rmed.
The hydrocarbons (\ 'OCs) abo "'xi w11h oxygt"n and 111
NA Pt.I trogm dioxide to pmdoce other uncJcs.rablc oont•nunanu. ;uch
Tme
as PA.'J (pcroxyaat)i nitrate) -• pollut.u11that1mt11e;. eyn
of lGURE 18.7 ............. ,...,..n.,.._,olomnttn1-••• and is e:ctttmcly harmful to •q:eu11on - and organw: Lum ·
tNfO' Obotl, Oler• ~ C*od. pounds. Ozone, PA.'I, and $mall amowm of other cwd•ung
pnlhi!an1sare the ingttdicn1Sofphotochm11al >me>g 1,.1c.ad
0.41 11ml d1»e>ciatt> rotrogcn cho11de mto n1tnc oule and ofbcingsptcified indi\idiull)·~ thne pollutant• att •onwtann
a1omic Ol<Yl}M "iuch may buxpr~ bj grouped under a single hc:iding ca led 1'iotochmucal oxul.JnlJ. •
In addition to the hum:an-rdlred souruschs.:u»ale-.ulier.
NO + >c>lo11 raJ1•hon-> NO + 0 . m:ani· hi-droc:ubons (\'OCs) also oc"'r natur.il) 1n tht •Imo·
1he a1om1c oxyl}M then rnmbtnes wnh molccul.lr oxyp (in sphere, as they are given olfb) veg111auon Oxllln o( nitrogen
tM prescnceofo thin! mola:ule,M~ 10 fonn oz.me, a.s drifting downwind from urban areas can react ""ht~ nJtu
ml hydrocarbons and pmdu.:e $lllog m relatswly un1nh.1bt1td
0 • O+M->0, +~t areas. This phenomenon ha.s bem obsentd down ..1nd of otses
1 he0Lone1> tMnck>trli)'Cd by<Clmb1ning with 111troc oxide; thus such as Los Angele., London, andNewYork.Some rtgllltbh.1w
>0 much natural (background) hydrocarbon 1h.11It111.1y be dif
0 , + NO-> NO,+ 0 ,. finilt to reduce 020ne leveb as much as de>tred.
If sunlight h present, howcwr, thc newly formed nitrogen di- In spite of vast efforts to control ownc levd> In >Ome 11111
oxide will break down 11110 nitrk. oxkle nn<l otomic oxygen. The jor metropolitan areas, rcsull\ haw been g<'ncrnlly cli•nppolnt
atomic oxyscn Ihen cmnblnc> with molccuhtr oxygen 10 form ing because ozone, a!. \\1e have SCl!n. i) n M!'condnry pollulant
ozone again. Co1t1cquen1ly. l11r~c ulnCcntrnliOn> of ozone can that fonns from chemical reoctio1\~ invC>lvlng other poliutnnts.
form in polluted nlr only If MJlllC of the nitrk. oxide reacts with Ozone production should ck cren>e in nli»l 11rcns when cml•·
01 her gnscs l!lltl1011t rl!mo vl11g uzo11c 111 tlw p1wc11>. Underthcsc sions of botlt nitrogen oxides and hydl'ocnl'lx 111s (VOCs) urc
ctmdi1ions, certnin hydrocnrhons (cmill<"0urccs) nnd the hydroxyl rodical come into play. antswill not necessarily diminish "wne product ion becau.c the
·r he formation of the hydroxyl roJirnl (01J) begins when oxidl's of nil rogen acl a~ a cara ly>t for producing 01onc In the
uhrnviolcr rt1dia1ion (al wavelengths of about 0.31 µm and presence of hydrocarbons (VOC>). Air pollution model> •ug
below) di»Ociale> ;omc of ti~ owne into molecular oxygen gest that, in lhe Los Angeles bao;in, ;ub>tanlially r•'<lucing the
and a1omicoxygen:accurdingly aoissions of hydrocarbons(VOC.) Mlould aho rcdU<c ownc
production.
0 , • UV radtalJon-> 0 , + 0. Up to DO\\\ we h"'" concenlrated on ozone m tht tropo -
The atomoc oxygrn fonned lS m •n <M:lled "1.'lle, which means sphere, primarily in a polluted environment. the next Woctllln
ii can react w11h a varirly o( utha molecules. rnduduig water examines the formation and d~tructson ol 01one rn the uppn
,,.por,to produu two h)-dtoX)i radical molttulcs; thus atmosphere-in the stratosphere
0•11.0-+011 + 011 OZONE INTHE STRATOSPHERE Recall from Chapttt I th1t
Tht OH 1; calltd a •tac11<at• bteau~ a coru1m an unpautd the 51r.llospbett is a region of the atm~ th:it lit> abcn.. 1M
eltctron. 1lus .cuallon allo"' thtOll molecule to ttacl with u-oposphae brtwttn about 10 and SO km (6 and ll mi) abtn"
mall)· otha atoms and moltcults, mdud1~ ud>umedor par- thearth'ssurfua.. lheaunosphett1s~ 1nthei.tr.110-~.
tially bumcJ h)Jro.:arbons CRIO ..,It.~ mt.o the air by auto- as thetteristsastrong "1np<r• u"' 1n'~ - the airk'mp<Ta
mobilts and ind ust I) .li turr iocmises rapidly with bright (look bad at fig. 110. r 13~
1hein\1'J"Sion isdut, in pari. totMg~ozoneth.11 a~ ultrJ
011 RI I ~ R· + 11.0. ,·iokt radiation at \\'3vdength> belo\\ about OJ .,.m.
1he product R· rql"'>enl> an 0tg•n1< hiJrocarbon that can
ha'" •compkx molrtuLlrs1t11<turo. lh.. R· 1> then able to ttact •An cttil.OIW is 2 Dst ltk? ( 9ldl as'*"") ..-M"' n~n c.umbtna 4 hrn..: .at~ •• h
with mole.:ular <ll<)llCn to form RO,-, a reactlVC molecule that .tnocher sd>.sun.:c..
A,.111lf1••·'1"1CIC.•11JtJd'O
('.,,.....,. )ll h .... , . . . _
ti.-ohol M.. '°"'
, .... . . . . . ._ ... ,..,,. .............. '""'"""" .. .,........... - ........, ... , .._.,."' ....._~ _.....,fW• •"-""'t""
"~lj•+ +ol '"'""' ,... ,.,. _......., . ..,,... _.., ...._ ,..~(:. . . . . a.--.-
.."'"'-............
lo•t'fl• .,,_ _ ...i....,....,,..,. • . . , _ .. .......-
dl .... ... .1•• '4,llofH'lltl . ......... .. -i..
¥•• -·•"•"''""'' .,..
Stratospheric Ozone: Production-Destruction Ozone (0,)
IOnn~ naturally in the strato.~phere by the combining of atomic
40 25 oxygen (0) with molecular oxygen (0,)- in the presence of an-
35
Stratos
I ere
20
other molecule. Although it forms mainly above 25 km, ozone
gradually drifts downward by mixing processes, producing a
peak concentration in middle latitudes near 25 km. (ln polar
regions, iL~ m.1ximum concentration is found at lo"•er levels.)
Ozone is broken down into molecular and atomic oxygen by
30
absorbing ultraviolet (UV) radiation with wavelength.~ between
ec. I
0.2 and 0.3 mm (see • Fig, 18.9). Thu.~
., 25 15 ., 0 , + UV ~ 0, + 0.
i 20
i Ozone is destroyed by colliding with other atoms and molecules.
For example) <YL.One and atomic oxyt,'i?:n combine to form t\•,tO
oxygen molecule,~. as
10
15 o, + 0 ~ 2 o,.
Likewise, the combination of two ozone molecules destroys
10 ozone~as
5 o,+ o, ~30,.
'Jbe,seequatioi>~ also represent the net result ofa number of
5
complex chemical reactioi>~ that indudetracegasesofnitrogen,
hydrogen, and chlorine. For example, l\\' O natural destructive
0 ga.ses for ozone are nitricoxide (NO) and nitroi,oen dioxide{NO,),
0 s 10 15 which, as \\'e have seen, are collectively known as oxitles ofnitro-
Otone concentration (ppm) b"'"· 'lbe origin of the,se gases begins :ll the earth~ surface as soil
bacteria produce N ,0 (nitrOlcrnxide). This gas gradually find~ its
way into the strato.o;j>here where, above about 25 km, solar energy
• F I GURE 18.8 The averagedistribution ofozone above theearth'ssurface
in the middle latitudes. ronvertssomeofit into ozone-destroying oxides ofnitrogen. In
the str:llo.~phere just a small amount of nitric oxidecan destroy
In the stratosphere, above middle latitudes, ozone is most
den~e :ll an altitude near 25 km (see a Fig, 18.8). Even at this al-
titude, its concentration i~ quite small, as there are only about
12 ozone molec,des for every million air molecules (12 ppm).•
Although thin, this layer of ozone is sig,nilkant, for it shields
earth's inhabitants from harmful amowitsof ultraviolet solar ra-
di:llion. This protection is fortunate becalcse ultraviolet radiation
'~ wavelengths below 0.3 µm has enough energy to cau.se skin
C'Jncer in humans. Also, UV radiation at 026 µm can destroy
acids in DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). the substance that trai>~
mits the hereditary blueprint from one generation to the next.
ff the concentration of stratospheric ozone decreases, the
IOUo"ing are expected to occur:
• An increase in the number of cases <:iskin cancer.
• A sharp increase in eye cataracts and sunburning,
• Suppression of the human immune system.
• An adverse impact on crop.~ and animalsduetoan increase in
ultraviolet radi.~tion.
• A reduction in the growth of ocean phytoplankton.
• A cooling of the stratosphere that could alter stratospheric
wind patterns, possibly affecting the destruction of ozone.
•\ \Tith 3 concen1ra1ion of omnc of only 12 p.1rts per nlillion in the s1ra1osphcre,
1hecompo sition of 3!r he1e is abou1 lhe S<l1ue as it is near lhe C.lrlhS surface - • FI GURE 18.9 An ozone moleculeamorbing ultraviolet radiation can
n\.'linly78 pera nt nilrog:cn nnd 21 pcn:cnt oxygen. become molecularoxygen {0 7 )and atomic O:Kygen (O).
a lorge amount of ozone. 'I he following >Cqucncc of chemic:il 2. in building thundersiorm>, c;pccla lly lho.c 1hn1 develop In
reactions will illl•'lmlc why. In \lCp I , !he nhric oxide quickly the tropics along the ln1er1ropical Convergence Zone ond
rombine> whh ownc 10 form nilrOijCn dioxide ond molc-cular p<'llttrote the lower •lratospherc.
oxygen. ' llwn, in >tcp 2, lhe nitrogen dioxide combine> with
Once chlorofluorocarbon molecule;, reach the middle
atomkoxygcn 1ofom1 nhric oxide Jnd mokoeularoxygen. 11111>
stratosphere. ultraviolet energy 1ha1 i> normally abwrbt-d by
Step/ NO+O,-+NO +O,. o:rone breaks lhem up, releasing atomic dllorrm 111 the pm
Sttp1 N0,+0-+NO•O cess. Note in lhe following ~uence of reactions how thlorU1t
destroys ozone rapidly. In sttp I, atomic 'hlonne (Cl) com·
1be mine oxide (NO) relu.td 1n 'ttp 2 1s now rndy to start bines ....ii o:rone. forming chlorine monoxu:k (00) •new
desuopng o:ront again. substance - and molecular oxygen (0 ). Alnlll>I 1mmcd iaidy.
Stratospheric o:ront ~ m•U1l3lntd by• dclatc natunl bal- the chlorine monoxide combines "•lh free atomic oxygen
aoce bt-lwttn producll-Ofl and d~uctmn. Could this balarice (step2) to produacblorint 3IO!m and molt<ubt OX)'I!"" lhe
~upset>
freechmine 31oms attn°" rnd) to comb1ne"1th and dr<tnl)
more ozone molecules. Estimates are I hat~ single chlonne atom
StralDsph«ic Ozone: Upwtun9 tl'M! 8,t' .1 ·x ·~ 'lhcconctntra- remm-es as manr as 100.000 ozone molt<ules Ix-fore u i ; ukn
tion ofozone in tht <tnloophtre mat be changed by natural out ofaction by rombining with ocher subsunce..
t\~b. In lhe upptt almo'!'here. both co>nuc U\~· and scl.r
pan1des can produce stcond.iry dtctrons han;,g sufficitlll s1ep1 c1-o, ~ao~o,.
mttg)' tOSt'JXl<ate molecular nitrugen (N,) into two n&rogen Stepl CI0-0-+-000 ,.
atom, <Ni 1he nCrog<'n atomHombtnr w'1th frtt atomic OX)·-
fortunately, chlorine 31oms do noctxist 1n !ht stral~here
gen to fonn ncnc oxide "flu.h, 111 turn. rJpdly destroys OZOOI.'.
i>re\tt 1hey are removed as chlonnt monolUde combines" ch
Furthermore. btge\·olcan1cerupoons rich in sulfur, such as the
nitrogen dioxide to form chlorine tulrale, OONO (step 3). In
~itippme'sML Pinatubo in June, 1991, produce>ulfa1eatt0sols
step 4, free chlorine atoms combine w11h methane 10 form hy
that act as a cataly•t to help chloruie destroy ozone. And scien-
drogen chloride (HCI) and n ncwsub>tunce, C l I,.
tists, w.ing measurement> from >.1tdl11es. discovered that even
changes in ultraviolet ra<lrnt1on from the sun can cause sm:ill Stttp3 CIO +NO,~ OONO,.
variation> in the nmounl of >lflllO>pheric otone. Step4 CH, + Cl-+ HCI + Cll,.
II is oow nppnrenl 1hn1 humnn nciivitic> are nbo :iltcring
the amount of >lralo>phcrk ozone. 'I hi> po>sibili1y was first Since the average lifetime of n Cl'C molecule h nboul 50 IO
brought 10 light in lhc early 1970> tl~ CongrcS• pondered over 100 years, any increase in 1he conccnlrnlk>n ofCl'C;, l, long·
whether or 001 the United S1u1cs shoulcl build a >Upcr.onic jcl lasting and a genuine thrca110 I he conccnlrnllun ufuwnc, Given
tra1i~por1. One of the g.1 .cs cmincd from 1hc engines of this this facl and the additional knowledge 1ht11Ci'C.co111rlhu1c111
aircrnfl b nhric oxide. Although the aircrnfi "''"' dc.igned 10 the earth's greenhouse effccl, an inlCrnnllOMi nllfCClllCnl c,1llcd
fly in 1he Slrnlo>phcrc below 1hc level of maximum ozone, the /lofontreal Protorol w•S•igncd in 1987. ' I hl~ ngrccmcnl c,1,1b·
ii wa;, feared lhtll lhc nilrlc oxide would cvc111u:illy have an lished a timetible for dimini,hb1g Cl'C cml-.kln> and 1he u;c
odversc cffec1 on lhe 01.onc. ·1hi> fu<lOr wa. one of many con- of bromine com Pounds (halons), which de>1roytllone al a rJlc
sidered when Congre.; decided 10 hJh the development of SO times greater than do chlorine compound>.'
the Unilcd S1a1e>' ver.ion of the >upc.-01uc trail\ port During November, 1992, represenl.lllVt.'> of more 1h.111 h.ilf
More recently, concern~ Involve cm ..>101\\ of chcnucali. al !he \\urld'snalions met in Copenhagen 1oupda1cand revlse1he
the eanh's surface, •uch t i ndrow; ox1dccmincd from rutrogt'n treaty. Provisions of !he mtttingcalled for a qwcker r!iJ>e ·OUI
fertilizers (\\hich rnaydnft 11110 theura1o-pherc. where II could of lhe previously targeted ozone-destn>)1ng chemical> •nd the
destroy ozone) and chlorojluoro.-arlkllrs (Cl<:•). Until the late establishmrnt of a pennanent fund to hd p1 h It'd World nation•
1970s. chlorotluoroarbom wrrethe moi.t widelyu>t)'S. In the phase-out appears to Ix- ""rung, t i global concen1nunn\ of
troposphere. these gas<> are qu•e we, being nonflamm..t>le. amospheric chlorint and bromine ha\·e bttn decreasing bee
nontoxic. and unable to <hemic.&I)' combtne w11h othrr sub- e Fig.18.10).
stmus." Hm<e, these p~ iln"i) ddTu><!d uP"·ard witho.A •.\hhougbtheuseofCFCslwd~96prrttnlbciwttn
being dest IO)YC! ·1 ht) "!'p<tttnliy mitt thestratnsphere 1986 and 2005. thrtt are •till m1l1ons of Ut>gnm> 1n tht In)·
pospbett thal ,.jjjcontinu.. to slowl)' Jiff'u.e UP"'afd. In .I 1991
l near bre;il.s 111 the Iropopaus.,. e<pto.JI)' in the ncimt) ofjet study,anUttmationalpandofO\tt80scitnti>ts<onduJcd1ha1
streams lhro:rone la)1.T thinned ht abool 3 peroenl Junng 1he <ununer
from 1979to 1991 o\wheavilypopula1td:ma;oftheNonh<m
~ ,., "" t.~ cna-p •IPm'- raJd at\$ i1111im-. parbdo th.II: AN lhroup
tp~.11~almncl)' htlJh
'fl'C'o.I• .... ,. '°'mkr•,. ah'br:l11:•td-.i"011Nlrum uplod- Hemisphe:tt. ~1oreover; recenl >tudies lilrn. that ilratti.rhtro:
"'J •I•• l~N). ••~.ush ...mt •-t pa~J In dutl--.
1ht11t att m.ta, chmuol re:acb(lnJ: th:a1 tn\O._c '~"'"" ..,.J bnlfnlM .-kl 1~ O; .
--R~au ttom C:h...p1cr J 1h.&1 t fCA Jc> !kl• ••tuna grttnhouw g.ua in the: Jlnxbonofoz.orw tn W S:lt;tbphtrt Tht eumpk p\otn h ju.I cwwnt 1hfm .,1,.,
""P<"rMt•
('.,,.....,. )llh.... , . . . _ , .........._ ... ,..,,. .............. '""'"""" .. .,........... - ........, ... ,.._.,."' ....._~_.....,fW••"-""'t""
a.--.-
.."'"'-...........dl ........1•• '4,llofH'lltl ............ - i . .
ti.-.holM.. '°"'"~lj•++ol•!!•o ..t , .....,. _......., ....,,... _..,...._,..~(:. . . . . lo•t'fl•"•--...i....,,,,,.,,..,. • . . , _ .........- ¥•• -·•"•"''""'' .,..
1o help protect the ozone layer from ozone-destroying
3.16
chemicals, there are nowt wo major substitutes for CFCs, hydro-
ch/orojluorocarbons (HCFCs) and lrydrojluorocarbons (HFCs).
3.12 'llte HCFCs contain fewer chlorine atoms per molecule than
CFCs and, therefore., pose much les.' danger to the ozone layer,
c whereas HFCs contain no chlorine. These gases may have to
~ 3.08
=D be phased out, hO\\<tver, as both are greenhouse gases that can
..8.
t:'.
3 .0 4 enhance global warming.
Al present, mo."
scientist' believe that ozone levels in the
~
..
.s
3 .0 0
strato.~phere throughout the world (except over Antarctica)
\\ill return topre-1980 level~ by the year 2050. Over Antarctica,
.§ ozone concentrations will likely remain low until about 2070.
"'
<.> 2.96 In fact, ozone roncentrations over springtime Antarctica have
been exceptionally low. 'lltissharpdrop in ozone is known as the
2.92 ozone hole. (More information on the ozone hole is provided in
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 the Focus section on p. 531.)
Year
AIR POLLUTION: TRENDS AND PATTERNS Over the past
• FI GURE 18.10 Global average concentration of atmospheric chlorine. decades, striMs have been made in the United States to im-
(Data from NOAA) prove the quality of the air we breathe.• Figure 18.12 shows the
estimated emission trends over the United States for the pri-
ozone concentrations above the United States presently are mary pollutants. Notice that since the Oean Air Act of 1970,
about 3 percent below normal in summer and about 5 percent
belov.• normal in ''inter.
Satellite measurements in 1992 and 1993 revealed ozone
concentrations had dropped to record low levels over much
of the globe. The decrease appears to stem from ozone-
destroying chemical' and from the 1991 volcanic eruption of
Mt. Pin3lubo thm sent ton' <i sulfur dioxide gas into the strato-
sphere, where it formed tiny droplets ofsulfuric acid. These drop-
lets not only enhance the ozone destructiveness of the chlorine
chemicals but also alter the circulmion of air in the stratosphere,
making it more favorable IOr ozone depletion. During the mid- ~
>
1990s, wintertime ozone level' dropped well below normal over ~
much of the Northern Hemisphere. By 1997, springtime ozone j
levels over the Arctic had dropped dram31 ically. This decrease ap- ..
parently was due toozone-MstroyingPollution along with natural
coldstrato.,phericweather patterns that favored ozone reduction.
i
r.
During theearlyyearsofthe 2 lst century,springtime ozone ~
levels over the Arctic varied greatly from year to year. For exam- j
pie, 201Ohad relatively high str3lo.,pheric ozone levc?ls, whereas ;I!
in 2011 ozone level' approached the lowest readings ever !
observed there(see e fig. 18. 11 ). Although the ozone layer is in ~
a long-term state of recovery, it remains vulnerable to large an- i
nual variations, due in part to the presence of ozone-destroying Ozone (Dobson Units)
chemicals and in part to stratospheric temperatures that can
change dramatic.ally from one year to the next. 110 220 330 440 550
• F IGURE 18.11 Ozonedistributionover theArctic::for March 19, 20 11. as

measured byOltV1eMonitc,,ing1nsr1umenr $:>Ml) on NASA'sAurosatellite.Total
WEATHER WATCH ozoneamountsare in Dobwn units (DU).A Dobson unit is the physical thickness
cl the ozone layer if it \....ere brought to the earth's surfacel500 DU equalsS mm).
Reduction in stratos.phericozone over North America has Notice low reading.sovertheArctic (blue shade) and that these readings are not
allowed ultraviolet (UV-B) radiation levels to increase. neartyas lo\vas readings over the Antarctic as s:ho\Yn in Ag. 2on p.531.
In fact, ultravio let radiation levels are between 4 and The ozone hole forms during
5 percent higher today over the United States than they September and October over the
were in themid-1980s. Antarctic. Why, In the Northern Hemisphere, does the "ozone hole"
form over the Arctic during the months of March and April?
C'1'1'rif• :tl •~ On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,, buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''"..
niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••- "" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....ifl ,...., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,.,_
The Ozone Hole
In 1974, two ch emists from th e University of • FI GURE 2 Ozo ne distribution o ver

the South Pole on September 29, 2006,
California at Irvine - F. Sh eiwood Rowlan d
<lS m easured by o zone m onitoring equip-
and MarioJ. Molina - warned that increas- m ent o n NASA's Aura Sat ellite. No tice
ing le"'~ of CFCs would even tually deplete that the lo\wst ozoneconcentration or
str atosph eric ozon e on a global scale. Th eir o zone ho le {purple shades} covers mosl of
studies suggested that ozone depletion Antarctica. The oolor scale on the botto m
of the image shows totalo mne v alues in
would occur gradually an d would perhaps
Dobson units (DU).A Dobson unit is the
not be detectable for many years to come.It ph>Sical l hic:knessof the ozone layer if
wa.s surprising, then, when British res.earch- it were brought to the earth~surface
ers identified a ~ar-to-year declin e in {SOO DU equals S mm}.
str atosph eric ozon e over An tarctica.T h eir
fin dings, corroborated later by satellites an d
balloon -borne instrumen ts, sh owed th at
since th e late 1970s ozone con cen tration s
h ave d im inish ed each year during th e
mon ths o f September an d October. This de-
crease in stratosph eric ozon e o~ r spring-
time A n tarctica is known as th e ozone hale.
In ~ars of severe depletion, su ch as in 2006,
th e ozon e hole covers almost twice the area
of th e Antarctic con tinen t (see Fig. 2).
To understan d th ecau ses behind th e
ozon e h ole, scien tists in 1986 organized th e In 1986, th e NOZE-1 stu dy detected high levels o f azone--destroying chlorine
first National Ozone Expedition, NOZE-1, unusu ally high levels o f chlorine com-- compounds in th e stratosph ere. Bu t obser-
w h ich set u pa full y instrumented observing pounds in th e stratosph ere, an d, in 1987, vation s could n ot detect an ozon e hole
station near Mc M urdo Sound, An tarctica. th e instrumen ted aircraft o f NOZE-2 mea- like th e on e th at forms over th e An tarctic.
D uring 1987, w ith th e aid of instrumen ted sured enormou s increases in chlorinecom-- (Compare Fig. 2 w ith Fig. 18.11.)
aircraft, NOZE-2 got under way. Th e fin dings pounds w h en it en tered th e polar vortex. Apparently, several factors inhib it mas-
from th ese research p rograms h elped scien - Th ese fin dings, in conj unction w ith oth er sive ozone loss in th e Arctic. For on e thing,
tists p u t togeth er th e p ieces of th e ozon e ch emical d iscover ies, allowed scien tists to in th e stratosph ere, th e circ ulation o f air
puzzle. p inpoint chJorjnefromCFCsas the main over th e Arctic differs from th at over th e
T h e stratosph ere above An tarctica h as cau se o f th e ozon e h ole. An tarctic. Th en, too, th e Arctic stratosph e re
on e of th e world's h igh est ozon e con cen tra- Even w ith a decline in ozone-destroying is normally too warm for th e w idespread
tion s. Most of this ozon e forms over th e ch emicals. th e largest An tarctic ozone developmen t o f clou ds th at h elp activate
tropics an d is b rou gh t to th e An tarctic by h oleobsenoed to date occurred during chlorine molecules. However, it appears
str atosph eric w inds. During September September, 2006 (Fig. 2).Apparen tly, th ese th at a ver y cold Arctic stratosphere, along
an d October (spring in the Sou th ern yearly variations in the size an d depth o f the w ith ozon e-destroying ch emicals. were
H emisph ere)1 a belt of stratosph eric w inds ozon e h ole are mainly du e to ch anges in responsib le for th e low readings in 1997
called th e polar vortex en circles th e An tarctic polar stratosph eric temperatures. an d in 2011.
region n ear 66°S latitu de, essen tially isolat- Because ozon e p rotects earth 's inhab-- D uring th e past 40years o r so, we h ave
ing th ecold An tarctic stratosph eric air from itan ts from th e sun's h arm ful UV rays, th e lear ned m u ch about stratosph e ric ozon e
th e warmer air of th e middle latitu des. Dur- springtime drop in ozon e over th e South - an d th e ozon e h ole. Ozone-depleting sub -
ing th e lon g dark An tarctic w inter, tempera- ern Hemisph ere is seriou s en ou gh th at stances are n ow regulated, an d emissions
tures inside th evor tex can drop to - SS'°C governmen t agen cies in New Zealan d an d o f th ese su bstan ces are essen tially zero.
(- 12l' F). This frigid air allows for th e forma- Au stralia warn th eir citizen s to p rotect T h e ozon e h ole is still th ere - stron ger in
tion of polar stratosphericdouds. Th ese ice th emselves from th e sun's rays w h en th e someyears, weaker in oth ers. It is hoped
clou ds arecritical in facilitating ch emical in- ozon e h ole forms each year. th at sornetimeduring this cen tu ry th e
teraction s amon g nitrogen , hydrogen, an d In th e North e rn Hemisph ere's polar ozon e h ole w ill stop form ing over spring -
chlorine atoms, th e en d p rodu ct o f w hich is Arctic, airborne instrumen ts an d satellites time An tarctica and ozon e depletion in th e
th e destruction of ozon e. during th e late 1980san d 1990s measured str atosph ere ceases altogeth er.
C'1'1'rif* :tl •~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 f:•"'*'"'•..,,...,.i....
.w........ .,,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""l'""""""c.. 'll'tl..1~...'ll"""....., .,~••"- ........... :.11 ............... ,.,,..,,.,... o1,..,""I"""' n<i•• """'"""... ,....,,..,...
• FI GURE 18.12 Emb:"ion estlmale• ol •lit pol lu t~nu. In
Lhe United States from 1940 through 2003.{~tacoui t ttJy 140 ,------~-------------~~...,
of Un.ited .Stal.es Envlmnmenta.I ProtecUon Ag~ncy.}
120
100
80
O j...-...-.-r~'T"'".......,,........"'T'~,.,.,.....,-~..,.......,,....,..."""1"'.,.,.....,.""T..,.,.,.,...,..,..i
11MO 1945 19&1 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1960 1985 1990 1995 :!000 2006
v-
200
I 100
Ij Oj............;-m-.,.....,......,....,..,..,.,..,...,..........,....,.~,....,.......ri'-....,..,.......................,.J
llMO UMS 11160 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 , _ 11111() IGl!l5 :!000 2006
~ v-
- 36 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
j 30
ru·-
20
15
5
'""7
o Par1icUlale mall« 2.5
19<10 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1960 1985 1990 1995 :!000 2006
Yeat
WEATHER WATCH Qean air standards ore established by the Environmcn1al

l'rotcruon Agency. Primary ambient 11ir quality s1a11dards arc
In a repon released In April, 2010, the American lung
set to protect human heolth, whereaHeamdary sta11dards pro-
Associatlon state d that about 17S m illion p e ople in the
Uni ted State s (about 6 In 10) a re llvlng In places where ai r
t<.'d human "tlfare, as mea=ed by lhe effects of air pollution
pollution often reache> dangerous levels. on visibility, crops, and buildings. The Nationol Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS) currcntlyinelTect for six pol wt ants
are given in • Tobie 18.2. The table ;hows the concentration of
emissions of most pollu1on1S ha\1! fallen ofT substrntially, with each pollutant needed to exceed lhe NAAQS. Tha><! areas that
lead showing the greatest reductlOn, primarily due to the grad- do not meet air quality standards ore called 110111111td11me111 areas.
ual eliminotion ofleadoo &JSolme Even with stronger emission laws, estim:ues ore that more than
Ahhough the situation hos improved we can see from 80 million Americans are breathing air that docs not meet at
Fig. 18.12 that much more needs to be done, as largequ:ull~ics least one ofthe standards (see • Fig. 18.13).
of pnllutants still spew into our oir. In fact, l'Ditny areas ofthr To indicate the air quality in •particular region, the EPA
country do not conform to the stGndards for air quality set by developed the airquality index(AQI): The index includes the
the Clean Ak Act of 1990. A lorge part of the problem of pol - pollutants c:ubon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide.
lution control lies in the fact that even with stricter emission particulate mailer, and ozone. On any given day, the pollutant
laws, increasing numbers ofautos (e>timates are that more than measuring the highest value is lhe one used in the index. The
198 million are on the road today) and other sources cnn over- "In lune.~. tht> EPA upditl?d the palluum .saand:v-d Index (PSI) .ul.J rt0.;i1ncJ Ir
'"helm control efforts. the airqwJilyinde.x (AQI).
pollutant's me,1surement is then converted to a number that • TABLE 18.2 The National Ambient Air Quality Standards
r<tnges from 0 to 500 (see • Table 18.3). When the pollutant's
AVERAGING PRIMARY SECONDARY
value is the same as the primary ambient air quality standard, POLLUTANT PERIOD NAAQS NAAQS
the pollutant is assigned an AQI number of JOO. A pollut,tnt is
considered unhealthful when its AQJ valueexceeds JOO. When Ozone !·hour 0 .12 ppm 0.12 ppm
the AQI value is between SLand I 00, the air quality is described (0) &~hou r 0 .08 ppm O.OS ppm
as "moderate~ Although these levels may not be harmful to
Carbon Monoxide l ·hour JS ppm
humans during a 24-hour period, they may exceed long-term (CO) &~h our 9 ppm
standards. Notice that the AQJ is color-coded, with each color
corresponding to an AQI level of health concern. Th e color Sulfur Dioxide 3·hour O.Sppm
green indicates "good" air qt••lity; the color red, "unhealthy" (SO,) 24-hour 0 .14 ppm
air; and maroon, "hazardous" air quality. Table 18.3 also shows Annual 0 .030 ppm
the health effects and the precautions that should be taken when Nitrogen Dioxide Annual O.OS3 ppm O.OS3 ppm
the AQ I value reaches a certain level. (NO,)
Higher emission standanls, along \\1th cleaner fuels (such as
natural gas), h'we made the air overourlargecities deanertoday Respirable 24-hour ISOµg/m ' ISO µglm '
than it was years ago. In fact, total emissions of toxic chemicals Particulate Nlatter Annual SO µglm' SOµglm'
spewed into the skies over the United States have been declining (IOµmor less)
steadily since the f.f>A began its inventory of these chemicals in PM 10
1987. But the control of ozone in polluted air is still a pervasive Respirable 24-hour 6S µglm' 6S µ glm'
problem. Becalkse ozone is a secondary pollutant, its formation Partkulate Matter Annual IS µg/m' IS µ glm'
is controlled by the concentrations of other pollut,1nts, namely (2.Sµmor less)
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons (VOCs). Moreover, weather PM2.S
conditions play a vital role in ozone formation, asozonereachesits Lead (Pb) Calendar l .S µglm' l.S µ g/m'
highestconamtrations in hot stmnyweatherwhensurfacewinds Quarter
are light and a stagnant high-pressure area covers the region. Asa
result of these factors, year-to-year ozone trends are quite variable,
although the Los Angeles area has shown a steady decline in the
• Near the surface, pri mary air po llutants (such as particu late
number ofunhealthful days due to ozone (see . Fig. 18.14).
matter. CO, so,, NO, NO,. and VOCs) enter the atmosphere
directly, whereas secondary air pollutants (such as O, ) form
when a chemical reaction takes place between a primary
BRIEF REVIEW po llu tant and some other component of air.
Before goin g on to the next several sections, here Is a brief re- • The word "smog" (coined In London In the early 1900s)
view of some of the important points presented so far. originally meant the combining of smoke and fog. Today,
• FIGURE 18.13 Thenumberof

unhea hhf ul days {!:¥ county) across the
United States for anyone of the ftve
Nllllber ol pollutants (OJ, S01 , N07 O,. and partic·
unhealthful ulate matter}during 2008. {Oatacour·
days tesy o f United States Environmental
Protection Agency.)
D No data
t=J 0
- 1-2
- 3--5
D &-10
- >10
,. TABLE 18.3 The Air Quality lndex(AQI)
AQI VALUE AIR QUALITY GENERAL HEALTH EFFECTS RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
0- 50 Good None None

51- 100 Moderate There nla}' be a n10derate health concern \'\'hen OJ A.QJ values are in t his range, unu.;ually- -
(or a very sn1all nun1berofindividuals. sensitive people should consider lin1iting prolonged
People unusuallysensitive to oz.one n1ay outdoor expo..;ure.
experience respiratory syn1pton1s.
lOl - 150 Unhealthy for Mild aggravation ofsymptoms in Active people '"ith respiratory or heart disease
sensitive groups susceptible persons. should lin1it prolonged outdoor exertion.
151 - 200 Unhealthy Aggravation of symptoms in susceptible Active children and adults with respiratory or heart
pers.on.'i, \\•ith irritation synlptonu in the disease ~'ihould avoid extended outdoor activities;
healthy population. everyone else, es~cially children.should limtt
prolonged outdoor exertion.
201 - 300 Very unhealthy Significant aggravation of symptoms and Active children aod adults withexi<tingheart or
decreased exen:ise tolerance in person.Iii lung disease should avoid outdoor activities and
wtth heart or lung diS<'llse, wtth widespread exertion. Everyone else, especially children, should
s •m toms in the health lation. limit oucdoorexertion.
301 - 500 Hazardou'> Significant aggravation of synipton1s. Everyone should avoid all outdoor exertion and
Pren1ature onset of certain diseases. n1inin1i7..e physical outdoor activities. £lderl}' and
Prcn1ature death nl<lyoccur in ill or elderly persons \\Tith existing heart or lung disea1;e should
people. Healthy people may e.'perien<e a stay indoors.
decrease in i:xercise tolerance.
e FI GURE 18.14 The number ofdays

ozone exceeded the 8-hour federal stan·
dard {0 .08 ppm) and m aximum 8 ~hour
ozone concentrat ion {ppm} for Los
A ngeles and surrounding areas in t he
South Coast air basin. {Courtesy of
South Coast Air Pollution Dist rict)
YEAR
Days °""'
8-Kour Fe<letaJ Ozone S1anctllld
Maximum a.Hour Ozone Cooceovalfon (ppm)
the word mainly refers to photochemical smog -pollutants • Human-Induced chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons
that form In the presence of sunli ght. (CFCs), have been al tering the amount of ozone In the strato-
• Stratospheric ozone forms naturally In t he stratosph ere sphere by releasin g chl orine, wh ich rapidly destroys ozone.
and provides a protective shiel d against the sun's harmful • Even though the emissions of most pollutants have de-
ultraviolet rays. Tropospheric (ground-level ) ozone that clined across t he United States since 1970, mi ll ions of
forms In polluted air Is a health hazard and Is the primary Americans are breathing air that does not meet air quality
Ingredient of photoch emical smog. standards.
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
--- ---
- ----
I< Sm > I
----
-- -------
--- ~
---
10m -1
--- -------
(8) (b)
• F IGURE 18.15 If each chimney emits a puffo f smoke every second, then \vhere the wind speed is lo\v (a}, the smoke puffsarec losertogether and more con·
cent rated. Where the w ind speed isgreater (b}, the smoke puffs are farther apart and m ore diluted a-s turbulent eddies mix the smoke\Yith the surro unding air.
temperature either decreases quite slowly as we ascend, or

actually increases wilh height (remember that this is called
Factors That Affect Air Pollution an inversion), the atm<>~phere is stable. An inversion repre-
If you Ii vein a region !hat periodically experiences photochemi- sents an extremely stable atmosphere where warm air lies
cal smog. you may have noticed that these episodes often occur
,.,,ith clear skies. light '"'in<ls. and generally ,.,,.a rm sunny '''eat her.
Although this m ay be "typical" air pollution •veather, it by no
means represents the only weather conditions necessary to pro-
duce high concentrations of pollutanL~. as we will see in !he fol-
lowing sections.
Temperature
/ profile
THE ROLE OF THE WIND The "ind speed plays a role in dilut-
ing pollution. When vast quantities ofpollutants are spewed into
the air, the wind speed determines how quiddy the pollutanL~
mix with !he surrounding air and.of course, how fast they move
away from their source. Strong winds tend to lower the concen-
tration ofpollutanL~ byspreading !hem apart as they move down-
stream. This process ofspreading i~calleddispersion. Moreover, (a)
the stronger the wind, the more turbulent the air. 1urbulent air
produces swirling eddies that dilute the pollutanL~ by mixing
them with the cleaner surrounding air. Hence, when the wind
dies down, pollutants are not readily dispersed, and they tend to
become more concentrated (see e l'ig. 18.15).
THE ROLE OF STABILITY AND INVERSIONS Recall from

Chapter 6 that atmospheric stability determines !he extent to
which air will rise. Remember also that an unstable atmosphere
favors vertical air currents, whereas a stable atmosphere strong! y
resi~ts upward vertical motions. Consequently.smoke emitted
into a stable atmosphere tends to spread horizontally, rather
than mix vertically. lncieaslng 1empera1U1e -
(b)
Th e stability of !he atmosphere is determined by the
way the air temperature changes with height (the lapse rate).
• FIGURE 18.16 {a) During the aft ernoon, w hen theatmosphere is most un·
When the measured air temperature decreases rapidly as
stable, pollutants rise, mix.and disperse downw-ind. (b} At night when a radi<t-
we move up into the atmosphere, the atm<>~phere lends to tion inversion exists, pollutants from the short er stacks are trapped \Vithin the
be more un~table and pollulanL~ tend to be mixed vertically inversion, \Vhile pollutants from th e ta.II~ staek,. above the inversion, areable to
as illustrated in e l'ig. l8.1 6a. If, however, the measured air rise and disperse down\vind.
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........
<1<n11....ifl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,.w,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,..
"'I••-""
....,, ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,•.O."l'ni> 1 t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
"<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
certain regions. For exan1ple, on abusyciry street corner, carbon
monoxide levels can be considerably higher in the early morn-
ing th:m in the early afternoon {with the same flow of traffic).
Ch:mges in atmo~pheric stability can also cause smoke plumes
from chimneys to change during the course of a day. (Some d
these changes are described in the Focus section on p. 537.)
Radiation inversions normally last just a few hours, while
subsidence invers ions may persist for several days or longer.
Subsidence inversion~. therefore, are the ones commonly asso-
ciated "'th major air pollution episodes. They form as the air
above a deep anticyclone slowly sinks (subsides) and ""arms.•
A typical temperature profile of a subsidence inversion i~
shown in e Fig. 18.17. Notice trutl in the relatively unstable air
beneath the inversion, the pollutants are able to mix vertically
..... up 10 the inversion base. The stable air ofthe inversion, however,
inhibits vertical mixing :md acts like a lid on the pollution below,
preventing it from entering into the inversion.
Jn Fig. 18.17, the region of relatively unstable {well mixed)
air that extends from the surface to the base of the inversion is
referred to as the miting layer. 1 he vertical extent ofthe mixing
IfyouVIOUId like a quick refresheron atmospheric: stability before
layer is called the mixing depth. Ol>serve that if the inversion
going on to the next section, go to the Cengage CourseMate vtebsite rises, the mixing depth increases and the pollutants would be dis-
at wwv1.cengagebrain.com and view the animations entitled A Stable persed throughout a greater volume ofair; if theinversion lowers,
Armasphereand An Unstable Atmosphere. the mixing depth would decrease and the pollutants would be-
rome more concentrated,sometimes reaching unhealthy levels.
Sincetheatm<>-~pheretendsto be m<>-~t unstable in the afternoon
abovecool air (see Fig. l8.16b) . Any air parcel that attempts •R('1nenlber fro1n Chnp1er 2 Lhnl sblk ing n i rnl\~\l }'S wanns because ii is being coin·
to rise into the inversion will, at some point, be cooler and pre.Med by the surrounding air.
heavier (more dense) than the warmer air surrounding it.
Hence, the inversion acts like a lid on vertical air motions.
The inversion depicted in Fig. 18.16b is called a radiation
(or surface) inversion. This type of inversion typically forms
during the night and early morning hours when the sky is dear
and the wind~ are light. A~ we saw earlier in Chapter 3, radia-
tion inversions also tend to be wdl developed during the long
nights of winter.
Jn Figure 18.16b, notice that within the stable inversion,
the smoke from the shorter stacks doe,~ not rise very high, but
spreads out, contaminating the area around it. In the relatively
unstable air above the inversion, smoke from the taller stack is
able to rise and become dispersed. Since radial ion inversions are
Ii
often rather shallow, it should be apparent why taller chimneys
have replaced many of the shorter ones. Jn fact, taller chimneys
disperse pollutants better than shorter ones even in the absence
ofa surface inversion becalkse the taller chimneys are able to mix
pollutants throughout a greater volume of air. Although these
taller stacks do improve the air quality in their immediate area,
they may also contribute to the acid rain problem by allowing
the pollutants to be swept gre:tt distances downwind. • FI GURE 18.17 The inversion layer acts asa lid on the pollutants below. If
As the sun rises and the surface warms, the radiation the inversion IO\vers, the mixing depth decreases and the poll u tan t.s areco~
cent rated \Vithin a smaller volume.
inversion nonnally weakens and disappears before noon.
By afternoon, the atmosphere is sufficiently unstable so that, CRITICAL THINKING QUESTION
If the surface air temperature vl<!re
to increase dramatically in Fig. 18.17,
with adequate winds, pollutants are able to disperse vertically would you expect the base of the inversion to raise or lower (assuming
(Fig. 18. I6b). 'Jlte ch:tngingatmosphericstability, from stable in that the lapse rate in the diagram below the inversion does not
the early morning to conditionally <mstablein the afternoon, can change)? How would the change in the height of the inversion base
have a profound effect on thedailyconc-entrationsofpollution in influence the mixing layer and the conc:entrationof pollutants?
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
Smokestack Plumes
We know that the stability of the air (espe-
cially near the surface) changes during the
course o f a day. These changes can influ-
ence the pollution nea r the g round as well
as the behavior of smoke leaving a chim-
n ey. Figure 3 illustrates d ifferent smoke
p lumes that can develop with adequate (a)
w ind, but different types of stability.
In Fig. 3a, it is early morning, the
w inds a re light, and a r adiation inversion
__ ! ______ _
lnvelsion
extends from th e surface to well above Fumigation

t he height of the smokestack. In this stable
environment there is lit tle up an d down
(b)
motion, so the smoke spreads horizonta Hy
rather than ver tica Hy. When viewed from
above, the smoke plume resembles the
shape of a fan. For this reason1 it is referred
to as a fanning smoke plume. (
Later in t he morning, the surface air lllU llll
warms quickly and destabilizes as the r adi-

(c)
ation inver sion grad ua Hy disappears from
t he surface upward (Fig. 3b). H owever, the
a ir above th echim ney is still stable, as
ind icated by the p resen ce of the inver sion.
Consequently, vertical motions are
con fined to t he region near the surface.
H ence., the smoke mixes down wind,
increasin g the concentration of pollution
at th e surface- sometimes to danger-
ously high levels. T his effect is called fumi· Now•al )
gation. Here again, we can see why a taller
smoke.stack is pr eferred. A taller stack Stabk! l!'llle1stari
extends upward into the stable layer, I
producing a fanning p lume that does not Temperature - (e)
mix down ward towar d the g r oun d. • FIGURE 3 A s the vertical temperature pro fil echangesduring the course of a
If daytime heatin g o f the g round d ay {a through e), the pattern a
smo ke emitted fro m the stackc.hanges as\vell
continues, th e depth of atmospheric
instability increases. Notice in Fig . 3c that from the stack tends to take o n the shape stability of th e atmosphere, and knowing
the inversio n ha..s completely d isappeared. of a cone, form ing a coning smoke plume. the stabilityyields impor tant information
Light-to-moderate w inds combine w ith After sun.set, th eg round cools r apidly about the d isper sion of pollutants.
rising and sinking air to cause the smoke and the radiation inversion reappears. Of course, other factors influence the
to move up and down in a wavy pattern, When the top of the inversion extends dispersion of pollutants from a chimney,
producing a looping smoke plume. upward to slightly above t he stack, stable including the pollutants' temperature and
The cont inued rising of war m air and air is near the ground w it h neutral air exit velocity, wind speed and d irection,
sinking of cool air can cause th e tempera- above (Fig. 3e). Because the stable air in and, as we saw in an earlier section, th e
ture profile to equal that of th e dry the inversion prevents t he smoke from chim ney's height . Overall, taller chim neys,
adiabatic rate (Fig. 3d) . In this neut ral mixing down wa rd, the smoke is carried greater w in d speeds, and higher exit
atmosphere, vertical and horizonta l upward, producing a lofting smoke plume. velocities result in a lower concent ration
motions are about equal, and t he smoke Thus, smoke plumes pr ovide a clue to t he of pollutants.
C'1'1'rif* :tl • ~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,....,.._..,..... " ' "f>•lrc<>•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
<1<n11....ifl,.....,.._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,..."""""",,..l'""""""c..'ll'tl.. 1~..,'ll..,......, fl~••"- .,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.,. <>.;•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
\\~tter from belO\\'- makes the surface \\•ater cool. \\•hich. in
turn, cools the air above. Warm air aloft coupled "1th cool,
surface (marine) air together produce a strong and persistent
subsidence inversion-one that exists 80 to 90 percent of the
time over the city of Los Angeles between Jtme and October, the
smoggy months. ' lbe Pollutants trapped within the cool marine
air are occasionally swept eastward by a sea breeze. This action
carries smog from the coastal regions into the interior valleys
producing a smogfronl (see o Fig. 18.19).
THE ROLE OF TOPOGRAPHY The shape of the landscape

(topography) plays an imPortant part in trapping pollutants.
We know from Chapter 3 that, at night, cold air tends to drain
downhill, where it settles into low-lying basins and v-alleys. ' lbe
roldaircan have several effects: ltcanstrengthen a pre-existing
surface inversion, and it can carry pollut,1ntsdownhill from the
surrounding hillsides (see • Fig. 18.20).
Valleys prone to Pollution are those completely encased by
mountains and hilk 1 he surrounding mountains tend to block
• FI GURE 18.18 A thick la)erof polluted air is trapped in the valley. The top the prevailing wind. With light winds, and a shallow mixing
of the polluted air marks the base of a subsidence inversion. layer, the poorly ventilated cold v,1Uey air can only slosh back
and forth like a murky bowl of soup.
and most stable in the early morning. we typically find the great- Air pollution concentrations in mountain valleys tend to be
est mixing depth in the afternoon and the most shallow one greatest during thecolder months. During the warmer months,
(if one exists'" all) in the early morning. Consequently, during daytime heating can warm the sides of the valley to the point
the day, the top of the mixing layer may dearly be visible (see that upslope valley winds vent the Pollutants upward, like a
• Fig. 18. 18). Moreover, during take-off or landing on daylight chimney. Valleyssrn;ceptible to stagnant air exist in just about
flights out of large urban areas, the top of the mixing layer may all mountainous regions.
sometimes be observed. The pollution problem in several large cities is, at least, partly
The Position of the semipermanent Pacific high off the due to topography. For example, the city of Los Angeles i~ sur-
coast of California contribute.s greatly to the air pollution in rounded on three sides by hills and mountains. • Cool marine
that region. 'Jhe Pacific high promotes subsiding air, which
warms the air aloft. Surface \\1nds around the high promote 'The city of Los Angeles with itssurrounding 1opography is shown in Fig. 92 8on
upwelling of ocean water. Upwelling-the rising of cold p. 248.
e FI GURE 18.19 TheleacJ;ngedgeof

coo~ marineaircarries pollutants into
Riverside. California.as an advancing
smog fronL
<1<n11....ifl ,.....,.._,~ ..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""" ""~c..'ll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
air from off the ocean moves inland and pushes agaii.st the hill~.
which tend to block the air~ eastward progress. Unable to rise,
the cool air settles in the basin, trapping pollutants from industry
and millions of autos. Baked by sunlight, the pollutants become
the infamous phOlochemicalsmog (see • rig. 1821). By the same
token, the "mile high" city of Denver, Colorado, sit~ in a broad
shallow basin that frequently traps both cold airand pollutants.
SEVERE AIR POLLUTION POTENTIAL The greatest poten·

tial !Or an episode ofsevere air pollution occurs when all of the
factors mentioned in the previous sections come togethe.r
simultaneously. Ingredients for a major buildup ofatmospheric
pollul ion a re:
• many sources of air pollution (preferably clustered close
together)
• a deep high-pressure area that becomes stationary over a
region
• FI GURE 18.20 At night, cold air and pollutantsdrain do\vnhill and settle
• light surface windsth"1 are unable to disperse the pollutants in l~v· lying valleys.
• a strong subsidence inversion produced by the sinking of
air aloft often experiences dear skies, light winds, and a subsidence
• ashallow mixing layer with poor ventilation inversion. Moreover. ,.,,here \\•arm air rides up over cold
• a valley where the pollutants can aa:umulate surface air. such as ahead of an advancing ,.,,ar1n f ront,stable
• dear skies so that radiational cooling at night will produce a atmospheric conditions promote the trapping of pollutants
surface inversion, which can cause an even greater buildup of near the surface. On the other hand, the strong and gusty
pollutants near the ground \\fads and generally less-stable air behind a cold front usually
• and, for photochemical smog, adequate sunlight to produce results in good dispersion (see eFig. 18.22).
secondary pollutants, such '1sozone If air stagnation conditions persist for several days or
longer where there are ample pollutant sources, the buildup of
Light winds and poor vertical mixing can produce a pollution can lead to some of the worst air pollution di~asters
condition known as atmospheric stagnation. 1be atmo· on record, such as the one in the valley city of Donora,
spheric conditions resulting in air stagnation usually occur Pennsylvania, where in 1948 seventeen people died within
during particular weather patterns. For example, a region IOurteen hours. (Additional information on the Donoradis,tster
under the domination of asurfacehigh·pressure area or ridge i~ found in the Focus section on p. S•IO.)
e f l GURE 1 8. 21 Athick~yerofsmog
covers the city of losAngeles.
Five Days in Donora -An Air Pollution Episode
On Tuesday morning, October 26, 1948, a

cold surface anticyclone moved over t he
eastern half o f the United States. There
was nothin g unusual about this high-
p ressure area; w ith a central p ressure of
onl y 1025 mb (30.27 in.), it was not excep-
t ionally str ong (see Fig. 4). A loft, however,
a large b locking-type ridge formed over
the region, a nd th e jet stream, w hich
moves the surface pressure features a long,
was far to the west. Consequently, the
surface anticyclone became entrench ed
over Pennsylva nia and remained nearly
stationary for five days.
The w idely spaced isobars around t he
hig h-pressure system prod uced a weak
p ressure grad ient and gener ally light
w inds t hroughout the area. These light
w inds, coupled w it h the gr adual sinking of
a ir from aloft, set the stage for a disastrous
air pollut ion episode.
On Tuesday morning, r adiation fog
g radually settled overthe moist gro und • FIGURE 4 Surfaceweather map that show'Sa stagnant antic)Clone over the
in Donora, a small town nestled in eastern United States on October 26, 1948. The insert map s h~v-s th eto\Yn cl
Donora on the Monongahela River.
the Monongahela Valley of western
Pennsylvania. Because Don ora rests o n
bottom land, surrounded by rolling hills, mix and disperse both horizontally and factory representatives to see w hat could
its residents were accustomed to fog 1 but vertically, the dirty air became confined to be done to cut down on the emission of
n ot to w hat was to follow. a shallow, stagnant layer. pollutants.
The strong radiationa I cooling that Meanw hile, the factories continued to The light w inds and unb reathable air
formed the fog, along with the sinking air belch impurit ies into the air (primarily sul- persisted until, on Sund ay, an approaching
of the anticyclone, combined to produce fur dioxide and par ticulate matter) from storm gen erated enough w ind to
a str ong temperature inver sion , Light:i stacks no higher than 40 m (130 ft) tall. The ~rti cally mix the air and disperse the
downslope w inds spread cool air and fog grad ually thickened into a moist dot pollutants. A welcome rain t hen cleaned
contaminants over Donora from the of smoke and water droplets. By Thursday, the air further. All told, the episode had
community's steel m il~ zinc smelter, and the visibility had decreased to th e point claimed the lives of 22 people. During t he
sulfuric acid plant. w her e one could barely see across the five-day period , about halfof the area's
The fog with its burden of pollutants street. At the same time, the air had a 1
· 4,000 inhabitants experienced some ill
lingered into Wednesday. Cool drainage penetrating 1 almost sickening 1 smell of effects from the pollution. Most of those
w inds during the night strengthened the sulfur dioxide. At this point, a large affected were older people w ith a histor y
inversion and added more effluents to the percentage of the population became ill. of ca rd iac o r respiratory disorders.
already filthy air. The dense fog layer The episode reached a climax o n
b locked sunlight from reaching the ground. Saturday, a.s 17 deaths were reported. As
W ith essentially no surface heating 1 the the death rate mounted, alarm swept
m ixing depth lowered and the pollution through the town. A n emergency meeting
became more concentrated. Unable to was called between city officials and
C'1')'rif• )) ·~On~""""""~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U .......................... "',........in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. "*'"' llo.nl """"" ........ ....,, """'I••-..........h~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r.......... i....
<1<n11....i.,,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,.,.,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll-....., .,~••"- .,,..,....,:.11 ............... ,.,,..,,..... o1,..,""I...,.. n<i•• """'"""..,'"""'''"'"·
-- 3. when the region is dominnlcd by o high-pressure llrcn wilh
lighl winds, dear skic;;, and les. humid uir.
Air Pollution and the Urban
Over time, incrtasing urban hcai 1>iand> affect dima
Environment lolog!cal ~empcralur< record>, producmg artificial warming
!'or mort 1h:ln IOOyears, ii has bttn l.nown lb.it Clues= gm· in climat1c rtcor warming mui.t be
erall) w;irmer 1han surroondi"8rural artM. 1111s rtglllnof city accounted for when inlerprttmgchmaw changt over lhe past
warmth, kno"n as 1he urban heat island, an lnOucnce the 100-plus years.
concenlrallon of air pollution. 1lowcvtt, befort \\C look al 115 The constant outpouring ofpollutant\ into lhetn•il'OM'lm&
1nllucncc,kt'sitt ho" 1hc heal island 3Clwlly forms.. may inOumce lhedima1eof a city.Ccrum parudesrcRcrt sofar
!he urban heal island is dill' lo indu;tnal and urban ~'d radiation. thereby rtduongthc wnlighl 1ha1 inches !ht surface.
opmenl. In rur.il atta>. a I~ part oflhr 1nroming>Olar ~ Some particles serve as nuda upon which w;1..- and ice form.
n-:iporales waltt from '"8tution and .oa. In cih"" who:tt less Water vapor condenses on10 these pan1d<> when lhe rdall•e
\-cgct.111on and expos<'d ;oilexisls.. lhe maion1yof 1hcsun)<'ll<tgY hwnidity is as low 3S 70 percent, fornung haze th:lt grtally
i>absorbed byurbanslructuresandasph:lh. I lcnc:r,duringwarm rtduces visibility. Moreowr. lhe added nuclei increase the
daybghl hours.. lc.s cv•poraliw cooli"8 m cllll'< allow) >urfoce frequency cL city fog.·
tempera1ures1n ri~ highcrihan in rum) areas.· Studies suggest thal precipil•hon may be grcaler in cities
Al night, !he sobr energy (st~ as VJ>l qunn111~ of heal than in !ht surrounding countr)~1dc. lh"' phenomenon may~
1n clly bwld1"8' and roads) is slo"iY released 11110 the dly aic due in part to the increased roughn<>>oft11y1crrain,brought on
AddiuonaJ rny heal i; giv~ ofT at nighl (and duruig the day) by large structures lhal cu~ surf.Ke rur 10 >low and gradwDy
by vehicles and fac1ories, as well as by mdu>1rial and domestic COll\'ttge- This piling-up of air over lhe cily lhtn slowly ri;es.
heaungand cooli"8 unils. ~ rtleal.e ofhl'al mergy 1s rcurdtd much like 1oolhpa5tedoes when ai.1ube 11>qu~. At lhe same
by lhe l.11 \tttical Ol)' \\'38s that do not allow infrartd radlauon timr,city beat "'arms lheMJrfa..e.ur, malung • moreunsuble,
lo escapeu reailil) JS do lhc ttb1ivdyln•tburface> olthc sur· which enhances rising air motJoru. which, in lurn, aid 1n form
round1"8 <ountrysick. 1he slow rtlease of hea1 1ends to kttp ing clouds and lhundenlonm. 'Ibis pruc<» hdps eicpl.un why
nighll ime ell y1empcra1u res higher lh:ln lh°"' oft™" faster cool· bolb clouds and stnrm> tend to be more frequtlll over ciht>.
irig rurnl nreas.. O•'\'rall, the heat ,;land IS strongest Tnbk> 18.4 swnmnrize; the envirorunental mRuence o( dtit'S
by contrasting the urban environmcnl with the rornl.
I. '~ night when compensating ;unbgh1 IS absenl On dear still nigh!> when the heal i>Ltnd is pronounced, n
2. during 1he winier when night> nre longer nnd lhcrc I> more >mall thermal low-prc»urc area form> over lhc cily. So1nc1in1c>
heal gencrlll eel in 1hc d ly n lighl breeze-culled a counlry brcczc- blows from thc ooun·
~u.; ~•I 11~1 h t.\11 l5Llnd Is qul1c lnvolvt.•<.t Otpcndlng flu lht loc.1llon, lryside inlo 1he cily. lf 1hcrc nre mnjor lnclu.>lrinl ureas along
1huc OI t"•ll', .1nd 1lnH• ol d"Y· ""Y fll' 1\11 o f1he followlng dl1fo rt nC'•'\ b111wten t ll 1...,, lhe cil y'souiskiris, pollulilnl>nrc cnrricd ln1n 1hc hcurl of1own,
<'Ind lhrlr •un-oundlng,c:.n ht hnpon l'lnl:tlbcdc> frt<llrc.1ivilyfll'Ihit Jt11l~oc). tu•Iii«
1-oughnt'a. t'1nlulnntof ht';t1, (' 1nb.~lonsof n'IOblu1c., and c1nif..don•ol f.111lidtt 1ha1 "1ht impaa tha1 I hlyliquld :andiOlid 1'1111 k.ln., M'rOW'..I\, IN)' IU\CC)O" b rgo'6Calr
.flea oa 1.tl..i Inn ••\d1hc f;l'0\\1 h ol cl('1,1dd1"'1'k1.t.. is cnmp1a:-aod depmds u~n 1nany i~uion 1h1111"" addlt'\.Mld In O-r>l('1 10.
FIGURE 1122 WNlhorpo•em•-•od
-.....
POOR D1SPU1S10N
·t.oill'l-
S..AI z•w
""ch pc!Of. • • ~good •
.,...,......... polubeln
0000 DISPERSION
SIOl'O-
Oooelahng
~COi·
--
_......,.
. __ _ _ _J . .... ~.
Ml . . . ,.'" • iO~ Jftl

............, ... o. • ._..,.,.._... ,...._...., .....~..... -111 ...- ......... ~.l··......··--
,.,.....,..,,!.:.":'...__.""'~""'·-t.,'
,....., ...,... ..._ .... --...- .........
..................... .............*,.......t
_ ..~_..,. ... ,.....~----·111a··-..u-"'-·. . -· . .~ . . ¥11-·-·Mf'-"
,. TABLE 18.4 Contrast of the Urban and Rural Environment WEATHER WATCH
(Average Conditions)*
Cubatao, Brazil, just may be the most po ll uted city in
URBAN AREA the world. located south of Sao Paulo, this heavil y
ICONTRASTEO industria lized area of 100,000 people lies in a coasta l
CONSTITUENTS TO RURAL AREAi
va ll ey - known by loca l residents as "the vall ey of death. "
~tean pollution level higher Temperature inversions and stagnant air combine to t rap
the many poll utants that spew dail y Into the environment.
Mean sunshine reaching the surface lo\\•er Recently, nea rl y one- th ird of the downtown resi dents suf-
fered from resp iratory disease, and more babies are born
Mean tenlperature higher defo rmed there than anywhere else in South America.
i\'Jean relative huo1idity lo\\fer
Mean visibility lo\,1er industrial development upwind. This study also demonstrated
that precipitation amounts were significantly greater on week-
Mean \Vind .speed lo\\!'er
days (when pollution emis.~ions were higher) than on weekends
~tean precipitation higher (when pollution emissions were lower). Corroborative findings
have been reported for Paris, France, and for other citie,~ as well.
Mean an1ount of cloudiness higher However, in areas with marginal humidity to support the for-
Mean thunder.;torm (frequency) higher mation of cloud~ and precipitation,studiessuggest that the rate
of precipitation may actually decrease as exces.~ pollutant par-
·v.-iluesare onl itt«I bocaus:c theyv•;u·ygreatlydcpending upon dty. size. type o( ticles (nuclei) compete IOr the available moisture,simiktr to the
industry. and season of the ye:ir. effect of overseeding a cloud, discussed in Chapter 7. Moreover,
studies using satellite data indicate that fine airborne particles,
where they become even more concentrated. Such an event is concentrated over an area, can greatly reduce precipitation.
especially likely if an inversion inhibits vertical mixing and dis- Before we look at the menacing problem of acid rain, it
persion (see . Fig. 18.23). is interesting to note that, on average, more people in the
Pollutants from urban areas may even affect the weather United States die from excessive heat during heat ""aves than
downwind from them. In a controversial study conducted at from any other extreme weather event. But recent studies
La Porte, lndiana-a city located about 50 km downwind of suggest that perhaps a fair percentage of these deaths actually
the industries of south Chicago-scientists observed that La occur due to exposure to high levels of air pollution. This topic
Porte had experienced a notable increase in annual precipita- is presented in moredetailin the Focussection " Heat Waves and
tion since 1925. Because this rise closely followed the increase Air Pollution: A Deadly 1eam," found on p. 543.
in steel production, it was suggested that the phenomenon was
duetothe additional emission of particles or moisture (or both)
by industries to the west of La Porte.
A stud yconducted in Sc. Louis, Missouri (the Metropolitan Acid Deposition
Meteorological Experiment, or METROMHX) indicated that
the average annual precipitation down"1nd from this city in- Air pollution emitted from industrial areas, especially products
creased by about 10 percent. These increases closely followed of combustion, such as oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, can be
carried many kilometers downwind Either these P'trticles and
gases slowly settle to the ground in dry form (dry deposition) or
they are removed from the air during the formation of cloud
particles and then carried to the ground in rain and snow (wet
deposition). Acid r ain and acid precipitation ,trecommon terms
used to describe wet deposition, while acid deposition encom-
passes both dry and wet acidic substances. How, then, do these
substances become acidic?
£missions of sulfur dioxide (SO.) and oxides of nitrogen
may settle on the local land~cape, where they transform into
acids as they interact with w:ller,especially during the formation
of dew or frost. The remaining airborne particles may transform
into tiny dilute drops of sulfuric acid (H,SO,) and nitric acid
( HNO,) duringacomplexseriesof chemical reaction~involving
• F I GURE 18.2 3 On a dear, relatively calm night, a \o.eakcountry breeze
carries pollutants from the outskirts into the city, \Vhere theyconcentrateand sunlight, "''ttervapor, and other gases. These acid particles may
rise due to the \Yann th of the city's urban heat island. Thi$ effect may produce a then fall slowly to earth, or they may adhere to doud droplets or
pollution {or dust) dome from the suburbs to the center of town. to fog droplets, producing acid fog. They may even act as nuclei
C'1'1'rif* )) ·~On~"""""'~ All l!itJ!aa_.....i '°"">' .....buq10.U . ......... ................ "',........ in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. "IJb. ""'"' llo.nl """"" ......... ....,, """'I••-..........h ~dl ... ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> I t:.w.....r..........i....
<1<n11....i.,,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c..'ll'tl..1~...'ll-....... .,~••"- ........... :.11 ................ ,.,,.., ,..... o1,..,""I...,.,. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,,.,...
Heat Waves and Air Pollution: A Deadly Team
Some of the worst weather calamities of produce m ultiple days of sunshine and and Air Pollution Study(NMMAPS), w hich
the 21" century have been triggered by stagnant air, conditions ideal for the combines health- and weather-related
intense, pr olonged episodes of heat. By fo rmation of g round-level ozone and t he data for about 100 urban areas from
itself, the cumulative impact o f high accumulation of sma II par ticulates in 1987 t hrough 2000. Using NMMAPS, the
temperatures can be enough to kill th e atmosphere. T hese, in turn, are directly researchers fo und that, as a rule. ozone
people, especially those in poor healt h linked to a variety of dangerous, poten- did tend to boost t he link between hot
w ho have lit tle or no way to cool down. tially fatal health cond itions, includ ing weath er and deaths related to hear t dis-
But air pollution ca n also play a significant cardiovascular and respiratory problems. ease. For example, a 10°C (lS°F) increase
ro le in the deadly nature of heat waves. Severa I studies of the Europea n heat in temperature produced about 1 percent
The numbers involved are staggering. waveof 2003examined th ecausesof more cardiovascular deaths w hen ozon e
Mortality specialists have found that more death and t he potential role of pollutants. concentrations were at their lowest, but
than 40,000 people d ied as a result of a One team found that between 13 and the increase was about 8 percent w hen
heatwave that g ripped Europe during the 30 percent of t he roughly l OOO deaths in ozone levels were highest.
summer of 2003. Likewise, the record- Switzerland associated w ith the heat wave The role of air pollution in heat-
b reaking heat that struck Moscow in 2010 were actually ca used by ozone rather than related health p roblems could be magni-
took more than 10,000 lives. Because a h eat by the heat itself. Anoth er study attrib uted fied in coming decades. Climate change
wave unfo lds over days and weeks, death between 21 and 38 percent of more than simulations ind icate that heat waves may
tolls such as these arecalculated by taking 2000 heatwave fatalities in the United increase in number, duration, and strength
the total number of fatalities observed and Kingdom tot he effects of ozone and across many par ts of the world. At the
adjusting that total based on the number particles with diameter s smaller than same time, an ever-greater p roportion of
of deaths that would normally have been 10 m icrometers (PM-10). O ne reason w hy the world's population is clustering in
expected at a given time of ~ar. it is difficult to narrow the ranges repor ted urban areas. In the absence of stringent
like a gang of criminals, high temper- in studies like these is that researchers are air pollut ion control, this trend could
atures and air pollut ion often appear at not yet sure of the extent to w hich heat increase both the amount of air pollution
t he same t ime and place, so it can be and pollut ion have a synergistic effect, as in a given area and the number of people
d iffi<:ult to tell whether the v illains acted opposed to acting independently. v ulnerable to its healt h effects.
ind ividuallyor collectively. Th e stationary To get at this q uestion, o ne analysis
domes of upper-level high pressure that in the United States drew o n data from
can lead to heat waves also tend to t he massi ve Nation al Morbidity, Mor tality,
§ 1
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June 17. 2010 August 7 , 201 O
• FIGURE 5 The sever e effec~ o f Mosco\v's 20 10 heat \vaveon air quality can be seen in these t\vo pho tos o f the same!.1reet.. o ne taken o n June 17 {before
the heat v1ave began}and the o ther o n August 7 (near the peak o f the heat \ Vave}.
C'1'1'rif* :tl • ~On~ t.cmn~ A11 l!i11taa_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' •.,.,..,• ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,.....i....
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acid rain can be carrie.d great distances from their sources. For
14 example, scientists in one study discovered high concentrations
cL pollutants about 600 km off the east coast of North America.
1
13 Lye
It is suspected that they came from industrial East Coast cities.
12 UTie Even though most pollutants are washed from the atmo~phere
11 Artrnonia during stonns, some may be swept over the Atlantic, reaching
places like Bermuda and Ireland. Acid rain knows no national
(basic) 10 boundaries.
9 Although studies suggest that acid precipitation may be
Bal<ing soda nearly worldwide in distribution, regions noticeably affected
8
are eastern North America, central Europe, and Scandinavia.
Newai- 7 Dis4111ed waler Sweden contends that m0-~t of the sulfur emissions responsible
6 li>r its acid precipitation are coming from factories in £ngland.
NatUr'al rain In some places, acid precipitation occurs naturally, such as
5 in northern Canada, where natural fire,~ in exp0-o;ed coal beds
Acid rain
4 produce tremendous quantities of sulfur dioxide. By the same
Apples token, acid fog can form by natural means.
T
Vinegar Precipitation is naturally somewhat acidic. The carbon di-
oxide occurring naturally in the air dissolves in precipitation,
Banecy acid making it slightly acidic with a pH between 5.0 and 5.6. Conse-
quently, precipitation is considered acidic when its pH is below
about 5.0 (see • Fig. 18.24). In the northeastern United States,
where emission~ ofsulfur dioxide are primarily responsible for
the acid precipitation, typical pH values range between 4.5 and
• FIGURE 18.24 The pH scale ranges from O to 14. with a value of 7 4.7 (see • Fig. 18.25). But acid precipitation is not confined to
considered neutral Values greater than 7 arealkaline and belo\v 7 are the Northeast; the acidity of precipitation has increased in the
acidic. The scale is logarithmic, \Vhich means that rain \vith pH 3is southeastern states, too. Along the West Coast, the main cnuse
10 times more acidic than rain \Vi th pH 4 and too times more acidic
of acid deposition appears to be the oxides of nitrogen released
than rain with pH S.
in automobile exhaust. Jn Los Angeles, acid fog is a more seri-
ous problem than acid rain, especially along the coast, where
on which the cloud droplets begin to grow. When precipitation fog is mo_~t prevalent. The fog's pH is u.~ually betwe en 4.4 and
occurs in thedoud, it carrie,~theacids tot he ground. Because of 4.8, although pH values of3.0 and below have been measured.
this, precipitation is becoming increasingly acidic in many parts High concentrations ofacid deposition can damage plant.~
of the world, especially downwind of major industrial areas. and water resources (freshwater ec0-~ystemsseem to be partic-
Airborne studie,~ conducted during the middle 1980s ularly sen~itive to change~ in acidity). Concern centers chiefly
revealed that high concentrations of pollutants that produce on areas where interactions with alkaline soil are unable to
• FIGURE 18.25 Values of pH in predpitation01erthe

United States during 2009. (NationalAtmospheric Deposi•
tion Program}
pH
C >S.3
[ ] s . 1105.3
1&1 •.8105.0
• • .5 104.7
. ...6
neutralize the acidic inputs. Studies indicate that thousands of
lakes in the United States and Canada are so acidified that en-
tire fish populations may have been adversely affected. In an
attempt to reduce acidity, lime (calcium carbonate, CaCO,) is
being poured intosomelakes. Naturalalkalinesoil particle,~ can
be swept into the air where they neutralize the acid. If it were
not for airborne alkaline dlk~t. China and the western United
States would have a more severe acid rain problem than they do.
Many trees in Germany show signs of a blight that is due,
in part, to acid depo.sition. Apparently, acidic particles raining
down on the forest floor for decades have caused a chemical
imbalance in the soil that. in turn. c.au.').t;'S seriousdeficiencie~~ in
certain elements necessary for the trees' growth. The trees are
thus weakened and become susceptible to insects and drought.
1 he same type of processes may be affecting North American
forests, but at a much slower pace, as many forests at higher
elev-at ions from southeastern Canada to South ('.arolina appear
to be in serious decline (see • Fig. 18.26). Moreover, acid pre-
cipitation i~ a problem in the mountainous West where high
mountain lake,~ and forests seem to be mo~t affected.
Also, acid depo.sition is eroding the foundation~ of struc-
ture.s in many cities throughout the world. Jn Rome, the acidity
of rainfall is beginning to disfigure priceless outdoor fountain
sculptures andstatues. 'Jlte est irn ated annual cost ofthis damage
to building surfaces, monument~, and other structures is more
than $2 billion.
Control of acid depo.sition is a difficult political problem
because th0-~e affected by acid rain can be quite distant from
• FI GURE 18.26 The effects of ac:id fog in the Great Smoky Mountains of
th0-se who cause it. Technology can control sulfur emissions
Tennessee.
(for example, stack scrubbers and fluidized bed combustion)
and nitrogen emissions (catalytic converters on cars), but some
people argue the co.st is too high. If the United States turns more develop computer model~ that better de,~ribe the many physi-
to coal-fired powerphtnts, which are among the leading sources cal and chemical proces.~es contributing to acid deposition.
of sulfur oxide emissions, many scientists believe that the acid 'JO deal with the acid deposition problem, the Clean Air Act
deposition problem will become more acute. of 1990 imp0-sed a reduction in the United States' emissions
ln an attempt to better understand acid depo.sition, the of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Canada has imposed
National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) and the pollution control standards and set a goal ofreducing ind<c~trial
Environmental J'rotection Agency have been working to air pollution by 50 percent.
SUMMARY
Jn this chapter, we found that air pollution has plagued 01.0ne (0), 526 mixing layer, 536
humanity for centuries. Air pollution problems began when 01.0ne hole, 530 mixing depth, 536
people tried to keep warm by burning wood and coal. These air quality index (AQJ), 532 3lmospheric stagnation, 539
problen1s \Yorsened during the industrial revolution as coal dispersion (of urban heat island, 54 I
became the primary fuel for both homes and industry. Even pollutants), 535 rou nt ry breeze, 541
though many Americancitiesdo not meet all of the air quality radiation (surface) acid rain, 542
standards set by the federal Clean Air Act of 1990, the air over inversion, 536 acid dept~•ition, 542
our large cities i~ cleaner today than it \•;as years ago due to subsidence inversion, 536 acid fog, 54.2
stricter emission sta nda r!L~ and cleaner fuels.
We examined the types and sources of air pollution and
IOund th 31 primary air pollutants enter the atmosphere directly,
whereas secondary pollutants form by chemical reactions that L What are some of the main sources of air pollution>
involve other pollutant•. The se<undary pollutant 01.0ne is the 2. List a few of the substances that fall w1der the category
main ingredient of photochemical smog - a smog that irritates of particulate matter.
the eyes and fonn.s in the presence of sunlight. ln polluted air 3. How does PM- 10 particulate m3lterdilfer from that called
near the surface, o·zone forms during aseries of chemkal re.ac~ PM-2.5? Which poses the greatest risk to human health?
tions involving nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons (VOCs). l n 4. List two ways particulate matter is remaved from the
the stratosphere, ozone is a naturally occurring gas that pro- atmosphere.
tects us from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays. We examined 5. Describe some of the sources of pollution found inside
hO\\' oz.one forn1s in the stratO,:)'Phere and ho\\' it may be altered a home or building.
by n3lural means. We also learned that human-induced gases, 6. Why are high levels ol radon in.•ide a home so dangerous?
such as chlorofluorocarbons. \\'ork their \Y'..ty into the strato .. 7. Describe the primary sou n:es and some of the health prob -
sphere where they release chlorine that rapidly destroys ozone, lem• a.'sociated with each of the foll<~•·ing p<>llutant<:
especially in polar regkms. (a) carbon monoxide (CO); (b) sulfur dioxide (SO,);
We looked at theairquality index and IOund thata number of (c) volatilei.-ganiccompounds(VOCs); (cl) nitrogen oxides
areasacro.sst he United States still hm"' dayscmsidered unhealthy 8. How does London-type smog differ from Los Angeles-type
by thestandanhset by the United States Environmental Protec- srnog?
t klO Agency. We also looked at the main factors affecting air pol- 9. What is the main component of phok>chemical smog?
lution and found that most air pollution episodes occur when the What are some of the adverse health effects of photo-
windsarelight,skiesaredear, the mixing layer isshall<x•, the at· chemical smog? Why is the production of photochemical
mosphere is stable, and a strong inversion exists 111eseconditions smog more prevalent during the summer and early fall
usually prevail when a high-pressure area stalls over a region. than during the middle of winter?
\Ve observed that, on the average. urban environments 10. Jn pollttted air, (a) describe the role that NO, plays in the pro-
tend to be warmer and more polluted than the rural areas that cltKtkm of tn>pa&pheric (gmund-lewl) O"l<lne, and (b) the n>le
surround them. We saw that pollution from industrial areas th31 NO plays in the destruction of tr<ipospheric (ground-
can n1odify environments dO\'iO\Yind fr-01n then1>as oxides level) MX1e. What role do hydrocarbon.< (VOCS) play in the
of stdfur and nitrogen are swept into the air, where they may prixluction of owne and other phok>chernical oxklanto;?
transft.-m into adds that fall to the surface. Add deposition, a I I. Describe the main processes that account IOr strato-
serious problern in many regions of the \\'Orld>knO\'ls no na~ spheric orone production and destruction. What natural
tional boundaries - the pollution of (lOecountry becomes the and human-produced substances could alter the concen-
acid rain of another. tration of ozone in the stratosphere?
12. Why is stratospheric ozone beneficial to life on earth,
whereas tropospheric (ground-level) ozone is not>
KEY TERMS 13. (a) How are CFCs related to the destruction of strato-
The IOllowing terms are listed (with page numbers) in the spheric oz.one?
order they appear in the text. Define each. Doing so will aid (b) If most of the oz<me in the stra!O>'!>here were
you in revie\ving the material covered in this chapter. d estroyed, what pos.,ible effects might this have on
the earth's inhabitants?
air pollutants, 52 1 vol,rtile organic compounds
14. Explain how scienti>~s believe the Antarctic "ozone hole"
primary air pollutant•, 521 (VOCs), 526
forms.
secondary air hydrocarbons, 526
15. What are priniary ambient air quality standards and
pollutants, 52 l nitrogen dioxide (NO.), 526
secondary standards intended to do> What are nonat-
particulate matter, 523 nitric oxide (NO), 526
tainment are-as?
carlxm monoxide (CO), 525 smog, 526
16. Why is a light wind, rather than a strong wind, more
sulfur dioxide ($0, ), 526 photochemic.al smog, 526
conducive to hig.h c.oncentrations of air pollution?
I 7. How does atmospheric stability influence the accumula· 4. Table 18.4, p. 54.2, shows that doudines.< is generally greater
tion of air pollutants near the surface? in urban areas than in rural areas:. Since cloud') reflect a
18. What we:Jther patterns often lead to :Jtmospheric stagn:Jtion? great deal of incoming sunlight, they tend to keep daytime
19. Why is it that polluted air and inversions seem to go hand temperatures lower. Wby then, during the day, are urban
in hand? ar!r.is generally \rarmer than &trrounding rural areas?
20. Give several reason.' why taller smoke stacks are better 5. Add snow can be a major problem. In the high mountains
than shorter ones at improving the air quality in their of the western United States, especially d ownwind of a
immediate are.a. major metropolitan or industrial area, explain why. for a
21. How does the mixing depth normally change during the high-mountain lake, acid snow can be a greater problem
course of a day> As the mixing depth changes, how does than acid rain, even when both have the same pH.
it affect the concentration of poBution near the surface? 6. \iVhy do \\'e \\'ant to reduce high ozone concentrations at
22. How does topography influence the concentration of the earth's surface \Vhile, at the same tin1e1 \<i'e do not \..·ant
pollutants in cities such as Los Angeles and Denver? In to reduce ozone concentrations in the stratosphere?
mountainous terrain? 7. Give a (e\'i reasons \vhy, in industrial areas, nighttime
23. List the factors that can lead to a major buildup of atnlC>· pollution levels might be higher than daytime levels.
spheric pollution. 8. A large indtc\'trial smokestack located within an urban area
24. What is an urban heat island? ls it more strongly devel· emits va~'t quantities ofsulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
oped at night or during the day? Explain. Following criticism from local residents that emissions from
25. What causes the "country bretne"? Why is it usually more the stack are contributing to poor air quality in the area, the
d eveloped at night than during the day> Would it develop management mi.es the height of the stack from J0 m (33 ft)
more easily in summer or in \'linter? Explain. to JOO m (330 ft). Will thi< increase in stack height change
26. How can pollution play a role in influencing the predpita· any of the exi<ting air quality problems? Will it create any
tion downwind of certain large industrial complexes? new problems? Explain.
27. Why is acid deposition considered a serious problem in 9. Ifthesulfuricaddand nitric add in rainwater are capable of
many regions of the world? How does precipitation be· adversely affectingsoil, trees, and fish, why doe,' °'thissame
c.on1e acidic? acid adversely affect pe<iple when they walk in the rain?
QUESTIONS FOR THOUGHT PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES

I. (a) SuppQ-~e clouds of nitrogen dioxide drift slowly I. Keep a log of the daily AQI readings in your area and
from a major indu..."trial complex over a relatively note the pollutants listed in the index. Al«~ keep a record of
unpoPulated area. If the area is essentially "free" of the daily weather conditions, such as cloud cover, high tern·
hydrocarbons, wottld you expect bigh levels of tro· perature for the day, avemge wind direction and speed, etc.
pospheric (ground-level) owne to form? Ex:plain. See if there is any relationship between these weather condi·
(b) Now suppose th:Jl the clouds of nitrogen dioxide tiOn.< and high AQJ readings for certain pollutants.
drift slowly over an area that has a high concentra· 2. Suppose the AQI reading for ozone is 300.
tion of hydrocarbons (VOCs). from both natural (a) How would the air be described on this day>
and industrial sou rces. Would you expect high (b) What wOltld be the general health effects, and what pre·
level• of tropospheric (ground -level) ozone to form cauti<lflS should a person take under these amditions?
under the~i;e conditions? £.\.-plain your reasoning. 3. Keep a log u( daily AQI readings fr.. one urban and one rural
2. For least-polluted alnditiuns. what would be the be-1t time loc:Jtion k>r days <lfl which both area' have similar ,...,.Jther
of day for a farmer~> burn agricttltural debri'? Explain why conditions; noie the 1""1ther conditions. Compare them. How
you chose that time of day. do the we:Jlher conditions influence the AQI in both loca·
3. Why are most severe air pollution episodes as'""iated with tions? Do the 1wather conditions contribute k> greater differ·
.subsidence inversions rather than radiati<)ll inversions? ences in AQI reading.' between the ~"° loc:Jtions? EA1'lain.
CiEOSCIENCE Go to the Global Environment Watch: Air Pollution portal. Within the
Document section, open the document "Emissions Trading," from C/im(lte Cl1tmge: Jn Context. When was the first U.S.
cap-and-trade •)'Stem created by legislation> What pollutant was it designed to control? What could explain why it has proven
more difficult to institute a cap-and-trade system for carbon dioxide?
ONLINE RESOURCES
~ Log in to the CourseMate ,..,.ebsite at: \..,,.,.\Y.cengagebrain.co1n to vie\\' the t'Oncept animations as noted in the text>as \..·ell
~ as additional resources>including video exercises. practice quizzes, an interactiveeBoo~ and n1ore.
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Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics

CONTENTS
White and Colors
White Clouds and Scattered Light
T he sky is clear, the weather cold, and the year, 1818. Near Baffin
Island in Canada, a ship with full sails enters unknown waters. On
board are the English brothers James and John Ross, who are hoping
Blue Skies and Hazy Days to find the elusive "Northwest Passage; the waterway I in king the
Red Suns and Blue Moons
Atlantic and Pacific oceans. On this morning, however, their hopes
Twinkling , Twilight, and theGreen Flash
would be dashed, for directly in front of the vessel, blocking their
The Mirage: Seeing Is Not Believing
FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION path, is a huge towering mountain range. Disappointed, they turn
The FotoM01gono back and report that the Northwest Passage does not exist.
Halos, Sundogs, and Sun Pillars About seventy-five years later Admiral Perry met the same barrier
Rainbows and called it"Crocker land." What type of treasures did this mountain
conceal- gold, silver, precious gems?The curiosity of explorers
Can It Be a Rainbow If It Is Not Raining?
from all over the world had been aroused. Speculation was the rule,
Coronas, Glories, and Heiligenschein
Summary until, in 1913, the American Museum of Natural History com mis·
Key Terms sioned Donald MacMillan to lead an expedition to solve the mystery
Questions for Review of Crocker land. At first, the journey was disappointing. Where Perry
Questions for Thought had seen mountains, MacMillan saw only vast stretches of open wa-
ter. Finally, ahead of his ship was Crocker land, but it was more than
two hundred miles west from where Perry had encountered it.
MacMillan sailed on as far as possible. Then he dropped anchor and
set out on foot with a small crew of men.
As theteam moved toward the mountains, the mountains
seemed to move away from them. If they stood still, the mountains
stood still; if they started walking, the mountains receded again.
Puzzled, they trekked onward over the glittering snow-fields until
huge mountains surrounded them on three sides. At last the riches
of Crocker land would be theirs. But in the next instant the sun disap·
peared below the horizon and, as if by magic, the mountains dis·
solved into the cold arctic twilight. Dumbfounded, the men looked
around only to see ice in all directions-not a mountain was in sight.
There they were, the victims of one ofnature's greatest practical
j okes, for Crocker land was a mirage.
facing page: The bending cJ Sunlight through ict'CfYS"
ta.ls produces hw sundogsand a circumzenithal arc
above the Missouri River in eastern Nebraska on a cold
January day.
549
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llo.nl poo-1)' ,.,,..,. ""1 W "'l••- ..i
..,.,.,h ~dl ... :.1.l\ o .0."l'nV I f:1W....rtn1<"'!....
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he sky is full of visual events. Optical illusions (mirages) red light is reflected from the object to our eye,~. 13lue objects
T can appear as lO\\•ering mountains or \\'el road\\'ays. Ln

dear weather, the sky can appear blue, while the horizon
appears milky white. Sunrises and sunsets can fill the sky with
have blue light returning from them, since they absorb all vi~
ible ""avelengths except blue. Some surfaces absorb all visible
""avelengthsand reflect no light at all Since no radiation strikes
briUiant shades of pink, red, orange, and purple. At night, the the rods or cones, these surfaces appear black. 'llterefore, when
S~')' is black, except for the light from the stars, planets, and the we see colors, we know that light must be reaching our eyes.
moon. 1 he moon~ size and color seem to vary during the night,
and the stars twinkle. To understand what we see in the sky, we
will take a closer look at s unlight, examining how it interacts
with the atmo~phere to produc'l' an array <f atmospheric vi~uals. White Clouds and Scattered Light
Jt is interesting to watch the underside ofa puffy, growing cumu-
lus cloud change color from white to dark gray or black. When
White and Colors we see this change happen, our first thought is usually, "Jt'.s going
to rain." Why is the doud initially white? Why does it change
We know from Chapter2 that nearly half of the solar radiation color?1b anS\\'l?rthesequestions. \\•eneed to investigate in more
that reaches the atmosphere is in the form of visible light. As detail the concept of scattering.
sunlight enters the atmosphere, it is either absorbed, reflected, When su~ight bounces off a surface at the same angle at
scattered, or transmitted on through. How objects at the sur- which it strikes the surface, "'e say that the light is reflected, and
face respond to this energy depends on their general nature call this phenomenon refle.tion (sre • Fig. 19.l). There are various
(color, density, composition) and the wavelength oflight that constituents of the ,umosphere, however, that tend to deflect solar
strikes them. How do we see? Why do we see various colors? radiation from its path and send it out in all directions. We know
What kinds of visual effects do we observe because of the from Chapter 2 that radiation reflected in this way is said to be
interaction between light and matter? Jn particular, what can scattered. (Scattered light is al~ called tiiffuse lighl.) During the
we see when light interacts with our atmosphere? scattering process, no energy is gained or lost and, therefore, no
We perceive light because radiant energy from the sun trav- temperatu re change~occur. Jn the atmo~phere,scattering is usually
els outward in the form of electromagnetic waves. When these caused by small objects.such as air molecules, fme particles <fdust,
waves reach the human eye, they stimulate antenna-like nerve water molecules, and some pollutants. )ll~l as the ball in a pinball
endings in the retina. 11iese antennae are of two types- rods machine bouncesoff the pins in many directions, so solar radiation
and cones. 11ie ro<l~ respond to all wavelengtt.s of visible light is knocked about by small particles in the 'rtmosphere.
and give us the ability to distinguish light from dark. If people Cloud droplets about 10 p ill or so in diameter are large
possessed rod-type receptors only, then only black and white enough to effectively scatter all wavelengtt.s of visible radia-
vision would be possible. The cones respond to specific wave- tion more or !es.~ equally, a phenomenon we call geometric (or
lengths ofvisible light. Radiation "'th a wavelength between0.4 11onselective) sm1teri11g (see• f ig. 19. 2). Clouds, even small ones,
and 0.7 micrometers (µm) strikes the cones, which immediate!y are optically thick, meaning that they are able to scatter vast
fire an impulse through the nervous system to the brain, and we amounts of sunlight and there is very little chance sunlight will
perceive this impulse as the sensation of color. (Color blindness pass through unscattered. '.lltese s ame clouds are poor absorbers
is caused by missing or malfunctioning cones.) Wavelengths of ofsunlight. Hence, when we look at adoud, it appears white be-
radiation shorter than 0.4 µm, or longer than 0. 7 µm, do not cause countless doud droplets scatter all wavelengths of visible
slimt~ate color vision in humans. sunlight in all directions (see e Fig. 19.3).
White light i~ perceived when all visible w'welengtt.~strikethe Asa cloud grows larger and taller, more sunlight is reflected
conesoftheeyewith nearly equal intensity.• Because thesunradi- from it and less light can penetrate all the way through it (see
,ues almost half ofitsenergy a~ visible light, all visible wavelengths
from the midday sun reach the cones, and the sun usually appears
Incident ray Rolloctod ray
white. Astart hat is cooler than our sun radiates rnost <fits energy
,u slightly longer wavelength-~; therefore, it appears redder. On the
other hand, a star much hotter than our sun radiates more energy
,u shorter wavelengths and thus appears bluer. Astar who.se tem-
per.llure is about the same as the stm'sappear.i white.
Objects that are not hot enough to emit radiation at Ai'
visible wavelengths can still have color. Everyday objects we see GlaSs
as red are those that absorb all visible radiation except red. The
• FI GURE 19.1 Fora ray of light striking a flat, !-mooth surface., the angle at
•RecalJ f ro1n Chnpter 2 thot visible white light is!I co1nbination o(waves with dif· \Yhich the incident ray strikes thesurface{lheangleofinc:idence., or 91} is equal
ferent w:ivelengths. 1he wavelengths of visible light in decrelsing order nre: red to theangleat \vhic:h the reOected ray leaves the surface {the angle of reflec-
Oongt$t) , or<inge. yellow. g1ecn, blue. and violtt (sho11est). tion, or OJ. This phenomenon is called Snelfslaw.
°*"'"''"..
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..
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,..,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl<'l~"''ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
100
10,000
Clood Uiickness (m)
• FI GURE 19. 2 Cloud droplets scatter all \vavelength.sofvisible white light • FIGURE 19.4 Average percent of radiation reflected.absorbed. and trans·
about equally in a process called geomet1ic(nonselecti\4e) scortg-ing. The differ· mitted by douds ofvarious thickness.
entcok>rs represent different \vavelen9th.sof visible lighL
Blue Skies and Hazy Days

'fhe sky appears blue because lighr 1ha1s1imula1es rhe sensation
of blue color is reaching rhe relina of !he eye. How does !his
happen>
Individual air molecules are much smaller !han cloud
droplers-!heir diameters are small even when compared wilh
rhe wavelengrh of visible light Each air molecule of oxygen
and nilrogen is a selective scatterer in rha! each scallersshor!er
waves of visible lighr much more effeclively !han longer waves.
Some llght Thi~ selccrive scal!eringisaLso known as R«yil>igli swttering (see
penetralf!S • Table 19.1 ).
lO As sunlighr enlers Lhe armosphere, rhe shorler visible
cloud t>ase
White Rgllt ls scauered In all dlrocllons wavelength.~ of viole!, blue, and green are scal!ered more by
atmospheric gases !han are rhe longer wavelengrhs of yellow,
e FI GURE 19. 3 Since tiny doud droplets scatter visible light in alldirections.
light from many billion.sof droplets tu ms a cloud \Vhite.
• TABLE 19.1 The Various Types of Scattering of Visible light

• Fig. 19.4). In facr, relatively link lighr pene1ra1esacloud whose
!hickness is 1000 m (3300 fr). Since li!!le sunlighl reaches rhe PARTICLE
DIAMETER
underside of !he cloud, linle lighr is scallered, and !he cloud TYPE OF (MICRO· TYPE OF
base appears dark. Al !he same lime, if droplers near !he cloud PARTICLE METERS,µ ml SCATTERING PHENOMENA
base grow larger, !hey become less effective scal!erers and belier
absorbers. As a re.~ul!, !he meager amounl of visible lighr 1ha1 Air 0.0001 to Rayleigh Blue s~y, red
nlOlecules 0 .001 sun~e ts
does reach !his par! ofrhe cloud is absorbed ra!her !han sca1-
1ered, which makes rhe cloud appear even darker. 'lbese same Aerosols 0.01 to 1.0 Mie Bro,\l'nish
cloud droplers may even grow large and heavy enough 10 fall 10 (pollutants) smog
!he earth as rain. From a casual observation of clouds, we know
Cloud JO to JOO Geonx>trk White clouds
Iha! dark, 1hrea1ening ones frequently produce rain. Now, we (nonselective)
droplets
know why !hey appear so dark.
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WEATHER WATCH
Ever see a green thunderstorm? Severe thunderstorms
that form over the Great Plai ns often appear green. The
green co lor may be due to reddish sunlight (especia ll y at
sunset) penetrating the storm, then being scattered by
cloud particles composed of water and ice. With much
of the red li ght removed, the scattered li ght casts the
underside ofthecloudasa faint greenish hue.
ornnge, and especiallyre.d. • Jn fact, violet light isscme.r edabout

16 times more than red light. Consequently, as we view the sky,
the scattered waves of violet, blue, and greenstriketheeyefrom
all directions. Because our eyes are more sensitive to blue light.
the,se waves, viewed together, produce the sensation of blue
roming from all around us (see • Fig. 19. 5). Therefore, when we • FIGURE 19. 5 The sky appears blue because billion.sofair molecules selec·
look at the sky it appearsblue(see . Fig. 19.6). (Earth, by the way, l ively scatte r t he shorter \vaveleng t hsof visible light more effectively t han the
isnot theonly planet \\1th acolorfulsky. On Mars, dust in the air longer ones.. This causes us to.see blue light coming from all direct ions.
turns the sky ruddy at midday and purple at sunset.)

The selective scattering of blue light by air molecules all ""avdengths <"i visible light, the sky appears milky white, the
and very sm:lll particles can make distant mountains appear visibility lowers, and we call the day "h:vLy." If the rek1tive hu-
blue, such as the Blue RidgeMountainsof\lirginiaand the Blue midity is high enough, soluble particles (nuclei) "ill "pick up"
Mountains of Australia (see e Fig. 19.7). In some ph1ces, a blue '"lier vapor and grow into haze particles. "lbus, the color of the
haze may cover the landscape, even in areas far re.move.cl from sky gives us a hint about how much material is suspended in
human contamination. Although its cause is still controversial, the air: the more particles, the more scattering, and the whiter the
the blue haze appears to be the result of a particular process. sky berornes. Since most of the suspended particles are near the
Extremely tiny particles (hydrocarbons calle.d terpe11es) are surface, the horizon often appears white. On top of a high moun-
released by vegetation to combine chemically with small tain, when we are above many of these haze particles, the sky
amounts of ozone. This reaction produces tiny particles (about usually appears a deep blue.
0.2 ftm in diameter) that selectively scatter blue light. Haze can scatter light from the rising or setting sun, so that
When small partides,sudt as fine dust and salt, berome sus- we see bright light beams, orcrepuscular rays, radiating across
pended in the atrnosphere, the color of the sky begin~ to change the sky. A similar effect occurs when the sun shine,~ through
from blue to milky white. Although these particles are small, a break in a layer of clouds (see • Fig. 19.8). Dust, tiny water
they are large enough to scatter all wavelengths of visible light droplets, or haze in the air beneath the clouds scatter sunlight,
fairly evenly in all directions. When our eyes are bombarded by rnaking that region of the sky appear bright with rays. Because
"lbe re3.son for 1his fa ct is Lha1 lhe intensity of Rayleigh santering w ries as'..;,•. these rays seem to reach doM1ward from clomts, some people
where )I. is 1he W;'tvclcnglh o f radiation. \\ill remark that the "sun is drawing up water." Jn England, this
• FIGURE 19.6 Blue skies and white douds.The

selective scattering of blue light bt air molecules
produces t he blue sky, \vhereas the scattering of
all\vavelengt hs of visible light by liquid cloud
droplets produces t hewhiteclouds.
Why does the
lower part
of this developing cumulu.s cloud appear so
much darker than the upper part?
C'1'1'rif* :tl 1~ On~ t.cmn~ AU l!i11i..a_.....i '°"">' ...,,buq10.U , ........,,....,.._..,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1°*"'"''*.. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ t:.w.....r....,.....i....
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....,, """'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> •
.,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• F I GURE 19.7 The Blue R.idge Mountains in
Virginia.. The blue haze is caused by the scattering
of blue light bye.xtremetysmall partides-
smaller than the\vavelengths of visible light
Notice that the scattered blue fight causes the
most distant mountains to becomealm~1 ind is·
tinguishable from t he sky.
same phenomenon is referred to as "Jacob's ladder." No matter mlk~l pass through much more atmosphere than at any other
what these sunbeamsarec.alled, it is the scauering ofsunlight by time during the day. (When the Slm is 4• above the horizon,
particles in the atmosphere that make.~ them visible. sunlight must pass through an atmosphere more than 12 times
thicker than when the sun is directly overhead.) By the time
sunlight has penetrated this large amount of air, most of the
shorter waves of visible light have been scauered away by the
Red Suns and Blue Moons air molecules. Ju.~t about the only waves from a setting sun that
At midday, the sun seems a brilliant white, while at sunset it make it on through the atmosphere on a fairly direct path are
usually appe<1rs to be yellow, orange, or red. At noon, when the the yellow, or;1nge, and red. Upon reaching the eye, these waves
sun is high in the sky, light from the sun is most inten~e-all produce a bright yellow-orange sunset (see • Fig. 19. 9).
wavelengths of visible light are able to reach the eye with about Bright, yellow-orange sunsets only occur when the atmo-
«jual intensity, and the sun appears white. (Looking directly at sphere is fairly dean, as it wo•tld be after a recent rain. If the
the sun. especially during this time of day, can cause irreparable atmosphere contains many fine particles whose diameters are
damage to the eye. Normally, we get only glimp.ses or impres- a little larger than air molecules, slightly longer (yellow) waves
sions of the sun out of the corner of our eye.) also would be scallered away. Only orange and red waves
Near sunrise or sunset, hO\\'t'ver. the rays coming directly would penetrate through to the eye, and the sun wo•tld appear
from the sun strike the atmosphere at a low angle. 'Jhese rays red-orange. When the atmo.~phere becomes loaded with
• FI GURE 19.8 Thescatteringofsunlightby

du.!ot and haze produces these\vhite bands of
c repuscular rays..

Would you
expect the
<:r cpuscul.lr r:.ys in Fig. 19.8 to become
brighter or dimmer (less bright) if the size
of particles that are scattering the light
became smaller in diameter?
°*"'"''".. niJb. "*'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w"'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl .,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni>, t:.w..i.r. ...,.....i....
<1<n11....i fl ,....., .._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, ..
_..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl"'~"''ll..,......, .,~,.,i.. .....,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
• F I GURE 19.9 BecauseoftheseJectivescat·
tering of radiant energy bya thick.section of at·
mosphere, the sun atsurviseand sunset appears
either yello\v,orange,.or red. The more partic:les
in the atmosphere, the more scattering of sun-
light. and the redder the sun appears..
particles, only the longest red wavelength~ are able to penetrate beautiful sunrises and sunsets for months and even years after
the atmosphere, and we see a red sun. the eruptions. 1 hese same volcanic particles in the stratosphere
Natural events may produce red sunrises and sunsets over can turn the sky red after sunset, as some of the red light from
the oceans. For example, the scattering characteristics of small the setting sun bounces off the bouom of the particles back to
suspended salt particles and water molecules are responsible for the earth's surface. Generally, these volcanic red sun~ets occur
the brilliant red suns that can be observed from a beach (see about an hour after the actu,tlsun~et (see • fig. 19.11).
• Fig. 19. JO). Volcanic eruptions rich in sulfur can produce red Occasionally, the atmosphere becomes so laden with dust,
sunsets, too. Such redsun~ets are actually produced by a highly smoke, and pollutant~ that even red waves are unable to pierce the
reflective cloud of sulfuric acid droplets, formed from sulfur di- ftlthy air. An eerie effect then occurs. Because no visible waves en-
oxide gas injected into the stratosphere during powerful erup- ter the eye, the sun literally disappears belOreit reaches the horizon.
tions, like that of the Mexican volcano £1 Chich6n in 1982 and 'fhe scallering of light by large quantities of atmospheric
the Philippine volcano Mt. Pinatubo in I 99 1. These fine par- partidescan cause some rather unusual sights. lf the dust,smoke
ticles, moved by the wind~ aloft, circled the globe, producing particles, or pollutants are roughly uniform in size, they can
selectively scalier the sun:~ rays. Even al noon, various colored
sun.~ have appeared: orange sun~, green sun.~. and even blue suns.
For blue suns to appear, the size <i the suspenMd particles must
be similar to the wavelength of visible light. When these particles
are present they tend to scatter red light more than blue, which
causes a bluing of the sun and a reddening of the sky. Although
rare, the same phenomenon can happen to moonlight, making
the moon appear blue; thus, the expression ''once in a blue moon."
In summary, the scattering of light by small particles in
the atmosphere causes many familiar effects: white clouds,
blue skies, hazy skies, crepu.~cular rays, and colorful sunsets. In
the absence of any scallering, we would simply see a white sun
again~! a black sky-not an allractiveahernatiw.
Twinkling, Twilight, and

the Green Flash
Light that passes through a substance is said to be transmitted.
Upon entering a denser substance, transmilled light slows in
speed. If it enters the substance at an angle, the light's path also
bends. This bending is called refraction. The amount of refrac-
• F I GURE 19.10 Red sunset nearthecoast of Iceland. The reOection of sun~ tion depends primarily on two factors: the density of the mate-
light off the slightly rough \Vater is producing aglitter path. rial and the angle at which the light enters the material
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e FIGURE 19.11 Bright red sky over California produced by thesulfur· rich part ides from thevolc.ano Mt. Pinatuboduring
September, 1992. The photowa-s taken about an hour after sunset
Re.fraction can be demon~trated in a darkened room by shin- A~starlight ente.r s the atmosphere, it often passes through
ing a flashlight into a beakerofwater(see e fig. 19.12). If thc light regions of differing air density. £ach of these regions deflects
i~ held directly above the water so that the beam strikes the sur- and bends the tiny beam ofstarlight, constantly changing the
flre of the '''ater straight on, no bending occurs. But, if the light apparent position of the star. '!his causes the star to appear to
enters the w:tter at some angle, it bends toward the nonnal, which t:JVinkle or flicker, a condition known asscinliUatlon. Planets,
is the dashed line in thediagram running perpendicular to the air- being much closer to us, appear larger, and usuall ydo not twin-
water boundary. (The normal is simply a line that intersects any kle because their size is greater than the angle at which 1heir
surface at a right angle. We use it as a referenre to see how much light deviates as it penetrates 1hc atmosphere. Planets some-
bending occurs as light enters and leaves variott~ substances.) A times t'"inkle. ho\..'f'ver. ,.,,hen they are near the horizon, ,.,•here
small mirror on the bottom clthe beaker reflects the light upward. 1he bending of their light is greatest.
1bis reflected light bends "''ay from the normal as it re-enters the 'Jl1e refraction of light by the a!rnosphere has some other
air. We can summarize these observations as folio"~' Light that interesting consequences. For example, the atmosphere gradu-
travels from a less-dense to a more-dense medium loses speed ally bends the rays from arising or setting sun or moon. Because
and bends toward the nonnal, 1Vl1i/e ligl1t that enters a less-dense light rays from the lower part of the sun (or moon) are bent
niedhon increases in speed and beudsa1vayfro1n the 11onnal. more than those from the upper part, the sun appears to flatten
The refraction of light within the atmosphere causes a
variety of visual effects. Al night. for example, thelight from the • TABLE 19.2 The Amount of Atmospheric Refraction
stars that"'< see d irectly above us is not bent, but starlight that (Bending) in Minutes Viewed at Sea Level Under Standard
enters the earth's atmosphere at an angle is bent. In fact, a star Atmospheric Conditions (60 minutes equals 1°)
whose light enters the a!rnosphere just above the hori20n has ELEVATION ABOVE HORIZON REFRACTION
more atmosphere to penetrate and is thus refracted the most. IOEGREESJ IMJNUTESI
As we can see in • Fig. 19.13, the bending is toward the normal
as the light enters the more-dense atmosphere. By the time this 11' 35.0
"bent" starlight reaches our eyes, the star appears to be higher 5• 10.0
than it actually is because our eyes cannot detect that the light
path is bent. We see light coming from a particular direction 211' 2.6
and interpret the star to be in that direction. So, the next time
40' 1.2
youtakeamidnightstroll, point to any star near the horizon and
remember: 'Jl1is is where the star appears to be. 'lb point to the flJ' 0.6
star'.~ !rue position, you l••ould have to lowe.r your arm just a bit
9(f 0.0
(about one-half a degree, according to •'!'able 19. 2).
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• FI GURE 19.12 The behavior of lightas it enters and leaves a more-dense
substa nee, such as \Vat er.
out on the horizon, taking on 'Ul elliptical shape. (1 he sun in

o Fig. 19.15 shows this effect.) Also, since light is bent most on
the horizon, the sun 'md moon both appear to be higher th<m
they ~ally are. Consequently, they both rise about Mo minutes
earlier and set about two minutes later than they would if there
were no atm0-~phere(see • Fig 19.14).
You may have noticed that on clear days the sky is often
bright for sometime after the sun sers. The atm<>~phererefracts
• FI GURE 19.1 3 Due to the bending of starlight by the atmosphere.stars
and scatters sunlight to our eyes, even though the sun itself has not directtyoverhead appear to be higher than they realty are.
di~appearedfrom our vie." (Look back at Fig. 19.11.)Twilight is
the name given to the time after sunset (and immediately before In general, without the atm<>~phere, there would be no
sunrise) when the sky remains illuminated and allows outdoor refraction or scattering, and the sun "'ould rise later and set
activities to continue \\1thout artificial lighting. (Civil twilight earlier than it now does. Instead of twilight, darkness would
lasts from sunset •mtil the sun is 6• below the horiron, while arrive immediately when the sun disappears below the horizon.
t1Stro11omiu1l t 1vilight lasts until the sky is completely dark and Imagine the number of s.1ndlot baseball games that would be
the astronomical observ-ation of the faintest stars is possible.) called because of instant darkness.
1 he length of twilight depends on season and latitude. Occasionally, a flash of green light-called the green
During the summer in middle latitudes, twilight adds about flash- may be seen near the upper rim of a rising or setting sun
30 minutes of light to each morning and evening for outdoor (see ofig. 19.15). Remember from our earlier discussion that,
activities. The duration of twilight incre.1ses with increas- when the sun i~ near the horizon, its light mu.'t penetrate a thick
ing latitude, especially in summer. At high latitudes during section of atm0-o;phere. This thick atm<>,phere refracts sunlight,
the summer, morning and evening twilight may converge, with purple and blue light bending the most, and red light the
producing a white night - a nightlong twilight. le.1st. Jleca•cse ofthis bending. more blue light sho,Jd appe<lr along
• FI GURE 19.14 The bending of sunlight bytheatmosphere causes the sun to rise about l\..o minutes earlier, and set about hvo minutes later, than it\vould
ot her\vise.
°*"'"''*..
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..
<1<n11....ifl ,...., .._,~..,,*_ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,., .._,..."""""",,..~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
e FIGURE 19.15 Thevery 1;ght
greenon the upperrim of thesun is
the green flash. Al~ observe ho\Y the
atmosphere makes the sun appear to
flatten on the horizon into an elliptical
shape.
the top of the sun. But bocalkse the atmoo;phereselectively settters

blue light, very little reache,~ us, and we see green light instead.
Usually, the green light is too faint to see with the human The Mirage: Seeing Is Not Believing
eye. HO\\"ever>under certain atmo.~pheric conditiom. such as In the atmosphere, when an object appears to beclisplaced from
whenthesurfaceair i~ very hot or when an upper-level inversion its true position, we call this phenomenon a mirage. A mirage
exists, the green light is magnified by the atmosphere. When this is not a figment of the imagination - our minds are not playing
happens, a momentary flash of green light appears, often just tricks on us, but the atmosphere is.
before the sun disappears from view. Atm0-spheric mirages are created by light passing through
1 he flash usually lasts about a second, although in polar re- and being bent by air layers of clifferent densitie.~ . Such changes
gions it can last longer. Here, the sun s lowly changes in elevation in air density are<LSuallycausecl by sharp changes in air tempera-
and the flash may exist for many minutes. Members of Admiral ture. The greater the rate of temperaturechange, the greater the
Byrd's expedition in the south polar region reported seeing the light rays are bent. For example, on a warm, sunny day, black
green flash for 35 minutes in September as the sun slowly r0-se road surfaces absorb a great deal of solar energy and become
above the horizon, marking the end of the long winter. verv hot. Air in contact \\lith these hot surfaces \var1no; by con-
du~tion and, because air is a poor thermal conductor, we find
much cooler air only a few meters higher. On hot days. these
BRIEF REVIEW road surfac'1?s often appear "'"t (seee l'ig. 19.1 6). Such "puddles"
clisappear as '"e approach them, and advancing cars seem to
Up to this poln~ we have examined how light can Interact S\\1m in them. Yet, we know the road is dry. 'Jbe apparent wet
with our atmosphere. Before going on , here Is a review of pavement above a road i~ the result of blue skylight refracting
some of the Important concepts and facts we have covered: up into our eyes as it travels through air of clifferent densities. A
• When light Is scattered, It Is sent In all directions-forward, similar type of mirage occurs in deserts during the hot summer.
sideways, and backward. Many thirsty travelers have been disappointed to fine! that what
appeared to be a water hole ""as in actuality hot desert sand.
• White cloud s, blue skies, hazy skies, crepuscul ar rays, and Sometimes, these "watery" surfaces appear to shimmer. 'Jbe
co lorful sunsets are t he result of sunlight being scattered. shimmering results as rising and sinking air near the ground
• The bending ofllght as It travels throug h regions of differ-
ing density Is called r~fraction.
• As llghttravels from a less-dense substance (such as outer WEATHER WATCH
space) and enters a more-dense substance at an angle (such On Oecember14, 1890, a mirage-lasting several
as our atmosphere), the li ght bends downward, toward the hours- gave the residents of Saint Vincent, Minnesota,
normal. This effect causes stars, the moon , and the sun to a clear v iew of cattle nearly 8 miles away.
appear just a tiny bit higher than they actually are.
• FI GURE 19.16 The road in the photo appears wet because blue skylight is bending up into the c:ameraas the light p.»ses through air ofdifferent densities..
constantly change the air density. As light moves through these i:L nearly constant density and, therefore, bend~ very little. These
regions, its path also changes, causing the shimmering effect rays reach the eye "straight-on; and the tree appears upright.
When the air near the ground is much warmer than the air Hence, offin the distance, we see a tree and it~ upside-down im-
above, objects may not only appear to be lower than they really age beneath it (Some of the trees in Fig. 19.16 show this effect)
are, but also (often) inverted. These mirages are called inferior ' lbe atmosphere can play optical jokes on us in extremely
(lower) mirages. '!he tree in • Fig. 19.17 certainly doesn't grow cold areas, too. In polar region.~. air nextto a snow surface can be
upside down. So why does it look that way? It appears to be in- much colder than the air many meters above. Because the air in
verted because light reflected from the top of the tree moves out- this cold layer is very dense, light from distant objects entering it
ward in all directions. Rays that enter the hot, less-dense air above bends toward the normal in such a ""'Y that the objects can ap-
the sand are refracted upward, entering the eye from below. '!he pear to be shifted upward. 'Ibis phenomenon is called a superior
brain is fooled into thinking that these rays came from below the (upward) mirage. • Figure 19.!Sshows the atmospheric condi-
ground, which makes the tree appear up.~ide down. Some light tions favorable for a superior mirage. (A special type of mirage,
from the top ofthe tree travels directly toward the eyethrough air the Fau1 Morgana, is described in the Focu.~section on p. 559.)
Dlreci view
!~-----~
·~~1:-.c-~e~~:g~.h~---_-•• .- .-
Tempe<ature
/prome
1
--- ~~-- - Temperature ----+
.. .. - ----~"' • FI GURE 19.17 lnferiormirageoverhotdesert sand.
• FI GURE 19.18 Theformation

Peak appearsA ofa superior mirage. When cold
here 411- I~ air lies close to the surface \Vith
I~ Wasm air \Va.rm air aloft, light from djstant
mountains is refracted t<7'vard the
normal as it enters the cold air. This
causes an observer on theground
Temperalllre to see mountains higher and closer
P<oflle than they really are.
Great Pla>ns
Temperature-
<1<n11....i fl ,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,.., .._,...""""""""~Cn'll'tl..1~..,'11"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,...., :.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,.,.,.o1,..,""I...,.. "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
The Fata Morgana
A special type of superior mirage is the magical powers that could build fantastic increases w ith height above the surface,
Fata Morgana, a mirage that transforms a castles out of thin air. Looking across slowly at first, then more rapidly, then
fairly uniform horizon into one of vertical the Straits o f Messina (between Italy slowly again. Consequently, mirages like
walls and colum ns w ith spires (see Fig. 1). and Sicily), residents of Reggio, Italy, on the Fata Morgana are frequently seen
According to legend, Fata Morgana (Italian occasion would see buildings, castles, and w here warm air rests above a cold surface,
for "fairy Morgan") was the half-sister of sometimes w hole cities appear, only to such a.sabove large bodies of water and in
King Arthur. Mor9a n, who was said to live vanish again in minutes. The Fata Morgana polar regions.
in a crystal palace beneath the water, had is observed w here the air temperature
• F I GURE 1 TheFotoM019ana mirage over \Valer. The mirage is the result of refraction- light from small islands and ships is bent in such a\vayas to make them
appear to rise vertically above the\vater.
(hexagonal), pencil-shaped ice crystals fall \\1th their long axes

Halos, Sundogs, and Sun Pillars horizontal to the ground. Refraction d sunlight through the ice
crystals produces the bright arc of light. When the sun is on the
Aringoflight encircling and extending outward from the sun or horizon, the arc that fonnsat the top ofthehaloiscalledan upper
moon is called a halo. Such a display is produced when sunlight
or moonlight is refracted as it passes through icecrystals. Hence,
the presence ofa halo indicates that cirriform douds are present.
The most oommon type of halo is the 22• halo-a ring of
light 22• from the sun or moon.• Such a halo forms when tiny
su.spended column-type ice crystals (with diameters less than
20 µm) become randomly oriented as air molecules constantly
bump against them. The refraction of light rays through these
crystals forms a halo like the one shown in • Fig. 19.19. Less
common is the 46• halo, which forms in '\similar fashion to the
22• halo(see. Fig. 19.20). With the46" halo, however, the light is
refracted through colwnn-type ice crystals that have diameters
in a narrow range between about 15 and 25 pm.
Occasionally, a bright arcoflight may be seen at the top ofa f
22• halo(see• Fig. 19.21). Since the arc istangentto the halo, it is '='
.~
called a tangent arc. Apparently, the arc forms as large six-sided -
" • FI GURE 19.19 A 22° haloaround the sun, produced by the refraction of
"Extend yourann and spread your fingers apart An angle o l'2 2° isabout 1he dis·
tance fro1n the tip of I he lhu1nb 10 lhe tip oft he little finger. sunlight through icecrystak.
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46°Halo
22' Halo
I
Observer
• F I GURE 19.22 Refraction anddispersionoflight through a glass prism.
• F IG URE 19 .20 The formation of a2~ and a4d' halo\vith column· lype ke and shorter wavelengths (violet)slow the most, red light bends
crystal~ the least, and violet light bends the most. The breaking up of
white light by "selective" refraction is called dispersion oflight.
As light passes through ice crystals, dispersion causes red light
to be on the inside of the h'tlo and blue light on the outside.
When hexagonal platelike ice crystals "'th diameters larger
than about 30 fUTI are present in the air, they tend to fall slowly
and orient themselves horizontally (see . Fig. 19.23). (The hori-
zontal orientation of these ice crystals prevents a ring halo.)
Jn this position, the ice crystals act as small prisms, refl"Jcting
and dispersing sunlight that passes through them. ff the sun is
near the horizon in such a configuration that it, ice crystals,
and observer are all in the same horizontal plane, the observer
will see a pair of brightly colored spots, one on either side of
the sun. 1 hese colored spots are called sundogs, mock suns, or
parhelia-meaning "with the sun" (see • Fig. 19.24, and the
openingphotoon p. 548. 'llte colors u.sually grade from red (bent
least) on the inside closest to the sun to blue (bent more) on the
outside. 'llte refraction cL sunlight through ice crystals can pro-
duce a variety of optica.l visuals. sometimes turning ,.,,hite cir-
riform clouds into a display of vibrant colors (see • Fig. 19.25).
• FI GUR E 19.21 Halo\vithan upper tangentarc. Whereas sundogs, tangent arcs, and halos are caused
by refraclion of sunlight through ice crystals, s un pillars are
ltmgen/ arc. When the sun is above the horizon, a lower /angenl c'1used by reflection of sunlight off ice crystals. Sun pillars
arc may form on the lower part of the halo beneath the sun.1 he appear most often at sunrise or sunset as a vertical shaft of
shape of the arcs ch:tngesgreatly with the position of the sun. light extending upward or downward from the sun (see
A halo is usually seen as a bright, white ring, but there are • Fig. 19.26). Pillars may form 'ts hexagonal platelikeicecrystals
refraction effects th'1t can cause it to have color. 1b understand fall with their flat bases oriented horizontally. A~ the tiny crys-
this,"~ must first examine refraction rnore closely. tals fall in still air, they tilt from side to side like a falling lea(
When whitelight passes through a glass prism, it is refracted 'lltis rnotion allows sunlight to reflect off the tipped surfaces of
and split into a spect nun of visible colors (see • Fig. 19.22 ). £ach the crystals, producing a relatively bright area in the sky above
wavelength oflight is slowed by the glass, but eMh is slo,wd a or below the sun. Pillars may also form as sunlight reflects off
linle diJrerently. Because longer wavelengths (red) slow theleast hexagonal pencil-shaped ice crystals th:tt fall with their long
e FI GURE 19. 23 Platelike ice c rystals falling w ith their flat surfams parallel to theearth producesundogs.
j "
. .~
"'\_• .."'
"
~
•
..
• FI GURE 19. 24 The brightareas on each sideof the sun aresundog.s.
'°"">' ...,,buq10.U ,........, ,.......,.,..... " ' "f>•lrc11•in p.... ti..: i;1 °*"'"''".. niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1 t:.w.....r....,..... i....
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e FI GURE 19. 25 The refraction of sunlight throughcirrusclouds (ice crystals) • FI GURE 19. 26 A brilliant red sun pillar extending UP'Ward above the sun,
a taboul 5811 above the horizon produces a. vibrantdisplayof color. produced by the reflect ion of sunlight off ice crystals..
Rainbows
Now we come to one of the most spectacular light sho"'S
observed on the earth-the r<linbow. Rainbows occur when
rain is falling in one part of the sky, and the sun is shining in
another. (Rainbows also may form by the sprays from waterfall~
Upl)e( tangent arc and water sprinklers.) 1bseethe rainbow, we must face the fall-
ing rain with the sun at our back~. Look at • Fig, 19.28 closely
and note that. \\•hen \\'l.? see a rainbo\'' in the evenin{;> \\•e are
facing east tO""ard therainsho..•er. Behind us- in the west-it
is clear. Because clouds tend to move from west to east in
Sun middle latitudes, the dear skie-~ in the west suggest that
Sun the shO\\fers \\•ill give \\'a y to clearing. liO\\•ever. \\•hen \\'l.? see
Sundog prllar Sundog
a rainbo\\' in the morning. \\•e are facing \\•est. t0\\1 ard the
\_ rainshower. It is a good bet that the clouds and showers will
move toward us and it willrainsoon. 'Jl10seobservationsexplain
why the following weather rhyme became popular:
Rainbo\'' in n1orning, sailors take \\•arning.
Rainbo\'' at night. a sailor's delight. --
When we look :1l a rainbow we are looking at sunlight that

has entered the falling drops, and, in effect, has been redirected
• FI GURE 19.27 Optical phenomena that form\vhencirriform icecrystal
doudsare present. (A picture of thecircumzenithal arc is in Ftg. 2 on p. S65J
back toward our eyes. Exactly how this process happens requires
some discussion.
As sunlight enters a raindrop, it slows and bends (see
ofig. 19-29). Although mostofthislight passeuighton through
axe-~ oriented horizontally. As these crystals fall, they can rotate
about their horizontal axes, producing many orientations that
11\is rhyme is often us.00 with the words °'red sky" in the ploce of min bow. 1be red
rellect stmlight. So, look for sun pillars \••hen the sun is low on
sky 1nakes s.cns.e when we consider that it is the result of red light irom a rising or
the horizon and cirriform clouds are present. • Figure 19.27 is $CUingsun being retleciOO fru1n lhe underside of clouds above us. ln the 1norning.
a summary of some of the optical phenomena that form with a red sl..-y indic:ites that it isde.1r to the east and doudy 10 thew-est. A red sJ,y in the
cirriform clouds. evening suggests the opposite.
e FIGURE 19. 28 When
)OU observe a rainbow,
thesun isatwaystoyour
back. In middJe latitudes, a
rainbow·in the evening indi 4
Falling raln a1tes that dearing \Yea th er

is ahead.
Sunlight
West
-- ... __ <,.- --) 42"
East
.L ---- ......... -
the drop and is not seen by us, some of it strikes the backside
of the drop at such an angle that it is reflected "1th in the drop.
The angle at which this occurs is cttlled the critical an!!e. and for
" 'Jter, this angle is48•. Notice in Fig. 19.29 that light that strikes
the back of a raindrop at an angle exceeding the critical angle
bounces off the back of the drop and is i111emally reflecteti toward
our eyes. Because each light ray bends differently from the rest,
each ray emerges from the drop at a slightly different angle as
illustrated in Fig. 19.29.
Observe in e Fig. 19.30 that inside a raindrop violet light is
r<fracted the most and red light the least. 'Ibis situation causes
red light to emerge from the drop at an angle of 42" from the
bemn of sunlight, whereas violet light emerges at an angle of
40•. The light leaving the drop is, therefore, dispersed into a
WEATHER WATCH
Although far rarer than a rainbow, a moonbow usuall y
occurs during a fu ll moon when rain is fa lli ng in one area
of the sky, and the moon is visible in another. Moonbows
appear white, and are much fainter than rainbows. Moon -
bows, howev er, do have color, it's just that it is so faint • FIGURE 19. 29 Rays of sunlight entering a raindrop bounce <if the back of
that our eyes are insensitive to it. thedropand are redirected to\vard our eyes..
°*"'"''"..
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..
SunSghl
• FI GURE 19. 32 A primary and a secondary rainbow.

e FIGURE 19. 30 Sunlight intemalty reflected and dispersed by a raindrop.
Light raysare internally reflected only\vhen they strike the ba<ksideof the
drop at an angle greater than the critical angle for\vater. Refraction of the light
as it enters the drop causes the point of reflection (on the bac.kof thedropJ
to be different for each color. Hence, the colors are separated from each other Falling ralndrops
\\lhen the light emerges from the raindrop.
Sunllghl
Sunllghl
o~,;e...,~_~:::::;:::::::~~L-~~~~--:::::::::::::~
- 429
• FIGURE 19. 33 T\vo internal reflections are responsiblefot the v..eaker,
secondary rainbow. Notice that theeye sees violet light from the upper drop
and red light from the lo\ver drop.
• F I GURE 19. 31 The brmationof a primaryrainbo\v.Theobserver sees red

figh t from the upper drop and violet tight from the k)\ver drop.
waist. Notice that red light reaches the observer's eye from the
higher drop. Because the color red comes from higher drops
spectrum of colors from red to violet. Since we see only a single and the color violet from lower drops, the colors of a primary
color from each drop, it takes myriad~ of raindrops (each re- rainbow change from red on the outside (top) to violet on the
fracting and reflecting light hack to our eyes at slightly different inside (bottom).
angles) to produce the brilliant colors of a primary rainbow. Frequently, a larger second (secondary) rainbow with
Figure 19.30 might lead us erroneously to believe that red its colors reversed can he seen above the primary bow (see
light should he at the bottom of the bow and violet at the top. • Fig. 19.32). Usually this secondary bow is much fainter than
A more careful observation of the behavior of light leaving the primary one. The secondary bow is caused when sunlight
two drops (see • Fig 19.3 1) shows us why the reverse is true. enters the raindrops at an angle that allows the light to make
When violet light from the lower drop reaches an observer's eye, t"'Ointernal reflections in each drop. Each reflection weakens
red light from the same drop i~ incident elsewhere, toward the the light intensity and makes the bow dimmer. • Figure 19.33
Can It Be a Rainbow If It Is Not Raining?
Up to this point, we have seen that the sky display in Fig. 2 is a type of refraction phe- of the crystal and exitsoneof its sicles
is full of atmospheric v isuals. One that we nomena called a circumzenitha/ arc. The (see Pig. 3). This is why the short-lived
closely examined was the rainbow. Look photograph was taken in the afternoon, circumzenithal arc can only form when the
back at Fig. 19.32, p. 564, and then look at during late winter, w hen the sun was sun is lower than 32° ab<:Ne the horizon.
Fig. 2. ls t he color display in Fig. 2 a about 300 or so above the western When the sun is higher than this ang le,
rainbow? The colors definitely show a horizon and the sky was full of ice crystal the re fracted light cannot be seen by t he
rainbow--like brilliance. For thisreason, some (cirrus) clouds. The arc was almost directly observer.
people will call thisphenomenon a rain- overhead,. at the zenith; hence, its name - There is a wide variety of other
bow. But remember, for a rainbow to form it "circumzenithal." refraction phenomena (too many to
must be raining, and on this day it isnot. The circumzenithal arc forms about describe here) that may at first g lance
The color d isplay in Fig. 2 is d ue to the 45° above the sun as platelike icecrystal.s appear as a rainbow. Keep in mind, how-
refraction of light through ice crystals. Ear- fall w ith t heir flat surfaces parallel to the ever, that rainbows only form when it is
lier in this chapter we saw that the refrac- ground. Remember that this is similar to raining in one part of the sky and the sun
tion of light produces a variety of visuals, the formation of a sundog (see Fig. 19.23, is shining in another.
such as halos, tangent arcs, and sundogs. p. 561), except that in the formation of a
(Refer back to Fig. 19.27, p. 562.) The color circumzenithal arc, sunlight enters the top
I
,,''
I
'
,'~
~ rce crystal
' Observer
• FI GURE 2 ls this a rainbow?The photograph \Yol:Staken looking almost straight up. • FI GURE 3 Theformationdacircumzenithalarc.
shows that the color reversals -with red now at the bottom
and violet on top - are due to the way the light emerges from
each drop after going through two internal reflections. Coronas, Glories, and
As you look at a rainbow, ki!ep in mind th'1t only one ray of
light is able to enter your eye from each drop. Every time you
Heiligenschein
move, \\•hether it be up. do\''"• or side\\•ays. the rainbo\\' moves When the moon is seen through a thin veil ofclouds composed
with you. The reason why this happens is th,ll, "'th every move- of tiny spherical water droplets, a bright ring of light, called a
ment, light from different raindrops enters your eye. The bow you corona (meaning crown). may appear to rest on the moon (see
see i~ not exactly the same rainbow that the person standing next • Fig. 19.34). The same effect can occur with the sun, but, due to
to you sees. In effect, each ofus has a personal rainbow to ponder the sun's brightness, it is <L~ually difficult tosee.
and enjoy! (Earlier we learned that for a rainbow to form, rain The corona is due to diffraclion of light - the bending
must befalling in one part ofthe sky. Can a rainbow actually form oflight as it J'<1Ssesaround objects. lb understand the corona,
on a day \\•hen it is not raining? ff you are unsure of the an.~\\'f?r. imagine \\•ater \\•ave$ moving around a small stone in a _pond.
read the Focus section above.) As the waves spread around the stone, the trough of one wave
• FIGURE 19. 34 Thecoronaaround the moon results from thediffraction e FIGURE 19. 36 Cloud iridescence.
of light by tiny liquid doud droplets of uniform size.
may meer rhe cresr of anorher wave. This silualion re.~ul!s in The colors appear when rhe cloud droplers (or any kind
rhe waves canceling each or her, rhus producing calm waler. of small particles, such as volcanic ash), are of uniform size.
('Jl1is is known as destructive interfen~tce.) Where rwo cresrs Because rhe amounl of bending due lo diffraction depends
come rogerher (constructive interference), rhey produce a upon the wavelength of lighr, rhe shorrer wavelength blue
much larger wave. ' ll1e same rhing happens when lighl passe,~ lighr appears on !he inside of a ring, whereas rhe longer wave·
around riny cloud droplers. Where lighr waves consrrucrively length red lighr appears on rhe oulside. 'lhese colors may
inlerfere, we see brighr lighr; where desrruclive inrerference repeal over and over, becoming fainter as each ring is farrher
occurs, \\'€' see darkness. Sometimes~ the corona appears from !he moon or sun. Also, I he smaller !he cloud droplers, rhe
while, "11h alrernaring bands oflighl and dark. On or her occa- larger rhe ring diamerer. 'll1erefore, clouds rhar have recently
sions, !he rings have color (see e l'ig. 19.35). formed (such as rhin alrosrralus and altocumulus) are rhe bes!
corona producers.
When differenrsizedroplersexisr wirhin adoud, rhecorona
becomes dislorred and irregular. Sometimes !he doud exhibirs
pa!che,r nfcolor, ofren pasrel shades <i pink, blue, or green. These
brighr areas produc:e.d by diffraction are called iridescence (see
• Fig. 19.36). Cloud iridescence is mos! ofrenseen wirhin 20" of
rhe sun, and is ofren associoted wirh clouds such as cirrocumu·
!us and alrocumulus.
Like rhe corona, rhe glory is also a diffrac!ion phenom-
enon. When an aircraft flies above a cloud layer composed of
waler droplers less than SO fun in diamerer, a ser of colored
rings, called !he glory, may appear around !he shadow of rhe
aircraft (see . Fig. 19.37). Thesarneeffecrcan happen when you
srand wirh your back 10 !he sun and look inlo a cloud or fog
bank, '~~ a brighr ring of lighr may be seen around rhe shadow
of your head. In !his case, rhe glory is called rhe brocken bow,
after the Brocken Mountains in (~e-rmany. \\•he-re it is particu-
•
.!I
larly comrnon.
For !he glory and rhe brocken bow to occur, the sun mus!
! be lo your back, so rha! sunlighr can be returned 10 your eye
from rhe waler droplers. Sunlighr rhar enrers rhe small waler
" e FIGURE 19. 35 Corona around the sun photographed in Colorado. This droplet along irsedge i~ refracred, rhen reflecte.d offrhe back-
type of corona.called Bishop's rirg, is the result of diffraction of sunlight by tiny side of !he droplet The lighr rhen exi!S al rhe orher side of !he
volcanic particles emitted from the volcano El Chich6n in 1982 dropler, being refracred once again (see • Fig. 19.38). However,
°*"'"''"..
..
• F I GURE 19. 37 The series of rings surrounding the shado\vof the aircraft
iscaUed the glory.
Sunlghl
Renec1ecr
ligh!
e FI GURE 19. 39 The HeUigensdiein is the ring of lighta round the shado\vcl
the observer's head.
Refracted ray
On a dear morning with dew on the grass, stand facing
• FI GURE 19. 38 Ughtthat produces thegloryfollo\vs thispath in a\vater the dew with your back to the sun and observe that, around
d roplet the shadow of your head, is a bright area-the Heiligensd1ei11
(German for halo). The Heiligensdiein forms when sunlight,
in order for the light to be returned to your eyes, the light actu- which falls on nearly spherical dew drops, is focused and
ally dingsever so slightly to the edge of the droplet- the light reflected back toward the sun along nearly the same path that
actually skims along the surface of the droplet as a swface wave it took originally. (Light reflected in this manner is said to be
for a short distance. Diffraction oflight coming from the edges r!!lrorejlected.) The light, however, does not travel along the
of the droplet~ produces the ring oflight ""'see as the glory and exact path; it actually spread~ out just enough to be seen as
the brocken bow.1 he colorful rin&~ may be due to the various bright white light around the shadow of your head on a dew-
angles at which different colors leave the droplet. rovered lawn (seea Fi& 19.39).
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niJb. ""'"' 11...i poo-1)' ........ ....,, w "'I••-"" ..,.,.,h ~dl.,.. ,.,.,,,• .O."l'ni> 1t:.w.....r....,.....i....
..
<1<n11....ifl,....,.._,~..,,._ ..,.,..,,, _..,..,.,..<d,,.,.._,...""""""""~c 'll'tl..1~..,'ll"""....., .,~,.,i...,,..,....,:.11,.,.,,.,.,,..,. ,.,,..,,..... o1..1>""1"""' "<i•• """'"""..,,....,,..,...
SUMMARY
'!he scattering ofsunlight in the atmo.~phere can produce a more-dense substance? Make a sketch to illustrate
variety of atmospheric visuals, from hazy days and blue skies your ans,.,•er.
to crepuscular rays and blue moons. Refraction (bending) 7. Since twilight occurs without the sun being vi~ible,
oflight by the '1tmosphere causes stars near the horizon to how does it tend to lengthen the day?
appear higher than they really are. It also causes the sun and 8. On a dear, dry, warm day, why do dark road surfaces
moon to rise earlier and set later than they otherwise would. frequently appear wet>
Under certain atmospheric conditions, the amplification 9. What atmosphe.ric conditions are neces.~ry for an
of green light near the upper rim of a rising or setting sun inferior mirage? A superior mirage?
produces the illusive green flash. I 0. What process (refraction or scattering) produces
Mirages form when refraction oflight disph1ces objects crepuscular rays?
from their true Positions. Inferior mirages cause objects 11. (a) Describe how a halo forms.
to appear lower than they really are, while superior mirages (b) How i~ the formation of a halo different from that
displace objecl~ upward. ofa sundog?
Halos and sundogs form from the refraction of light I 2. At what time of day would you expect to observe the
through ice crystals. Sun pillars are the result ofsunlight re- green flash?
flecting off gently fa Iling ice crystals. 'fi1e refraction, reflection, I 3. Explain how sun pillars form.
and dispersion oflight in raindrops create a min bow. To see a 14. What proces.~ (refraction, scattering, diffraction) is
rainbow, thesun must be to your back, and rain must be falling responsible for lengthening the day?
in front of you. Diffraction oflight produces coronas, glories, I 5. Why can a rainbow only be observed if the sun is
and cloud iridescence. We can see the Heilige11sdiei11on a dear toward the o bserver'.~ back?
morning when sunlight falls on nearly spherical dew drops. 16. Why are secondary rainbows higher and much dimmer
than primary rainbows? Explain your answer with the
aid of a diagram.
KEY TERMS 17. Explain why this rhyme makes sen~e:
Rainbow in morning. joggers take warning.
'Jhefollowing terms are listed (with page numbers) in the
Rainbow at night (evening) , jogger:~ delight.
order they appear in the text. Deflneeach. Doing so will aid
18. SupPose you look at the moon and see a brighl ring of
light that appears to rest on ils surface.
reflected light, 550 halo, 559 (a) Is this ring oflight a halo or a corona>
scattered light, 550 tangent arc, 559 (b) Whatt ype of douds (water or ice) must be present
crepuscular rays, 552 dispersion (of light), 560 for thi~ type of optical phenomenon to occur?
refraction (of light), 554 sundog (parhelia), 560 (c) Is this ring oflighl produced mainly by refraction
scintillation, 555 sun pillars, 560 or diffraction?
I wilight, 556 rainbow, 562 19. Would you expect to see the glory when flying in an
green flash, 556 corona, 565 aircraft on a perfectly dear day? Explain.
mirage, 557 diffraction (of light), 565 20. Explain how light i~ able to reach your eyes when
inferior mirage, 558 iridescence, 566 you see
superior mirage, 558 glory, 566 (a) a corona; (b) a glory; (c) the Heilige11sclrei11
Fata Morga11t1, 558 Heilige11sd1ei1; 567 21. How would you distinguish a corona from a halo?
22. What process is primarily responsible for the formation
of cloud iridescence- reflection, refraction, or diffrac-
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW tion oflight>
I. (a) Why are cwnulusclouds normally white?
(b) Why do theundersiMs of building cwnulus clouds
frequently change color from white to dark gray or
even black? I. Explain l••hy on a cloudless day the sk-y will usually appear
2. Explain why the sky is blue during the day and black at milky white before ii rain~ and a deep blue after ii rain~.
night. 2. I-low long does Milight last on the moon> (Hint: 'J11e
3. What can make a setting (or ris ing) sun appear red? moon has no atmosphere.)
4. Why do stars "twinkle"? 3. Why is it often difficult to see !he road while driving on
5. Explain l••hy the horizon sk-y appears white on a hazy day. a foggy night "1th your high beam lights on>
6. How does light bend as it enters a more-dense sub- 4. What would be the color of the sky if air molecules
stance at an angle? How does it bend upon leaving the scattered the longest wavelengths of visible lighl and
passed the shorter wavelengths straight through? (Use \\1nter, he saw the sun reappear. Explain how this
a diagram to help explain your answer.) event- called the Nov«ya Zm1/y11 effect-can occur.
5. Explain why the colors of the planets are not related to I 2. Could a superior mirage form over land on a hot,
the temperatures of the planets, whereas the colors of sunny day? Explain.
the stars are related to the temperatures of the stars. 13. Explain why it is easier to get sunburned on a high
6. If there "'ere no atmosphere surrounrung the earth, mountain than in the valley below. ('Jhe answer is not
what color would the sky be at sunrise? Al sunset? Wh,11 that you are clo_ser to the sun on top of the mountain.)
color would the sun be at noon> At sunri~e? At sunset? 14. Why are stars more visible on a clear night when there
7. Why are rainbows seldom observed at noon? is no moon than on a clear night with a fuU moon?
8. On a cool, clear summer day, a blue haze often appears 15. During the clay, clouds are white, and the sky is blue.
over the Great Smoky Mountains of Tenne~see. Why then, during a full moon, do cumulus clouds ap-
Explain why the blue haze usually changes to a white pear faintly white, while the sky does not appear blue>
haze as the relative humidity of the air increases.
9. During a lunar eclipse, the earth, sun, and moon are
aligned as shown in • Fig, 19.40. 'Jhe earth blocks PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES
sunlight from directly reaching the moon's surface, yet
1. Ch00-se a 3-day period in which to observe the sky
the surface of the moon will often appear a pale red
5 times each day. Record in a notebook the number of
color during a lunar e.clipse. How can you acc'Ount for
times you see halos, crepuscular rays, coronas, cloud
this phenomenon?
iridescence, sun dogs, rainbows, and other phenomena.
2. Make your own rainbow. On a sunny afternoon or
morning, turn on the water sprinkler to create a spray
of water drops. Stand 'is dose to the spray as possible
(without getting soaked) and observe that, as you move
up. d0\\'11, and sidev.iays. the bO\\' moves \\'ith you.
(a) Explain why this happens.
(b) Also, explain with the use of a diagram why the
sun must be at your back in order to see the bow.
3. Take a large be'lker or bottle and fill it with water. Add
a small amOtlfit of nonfat Powdered milk and stir until
the water turns a faint milky white. Shine white tight
into the beaker, and, on the opposite side, hold a white
piece of paper.
(a) Explain why the milk has a blue cast to it and why
the light shining on the paper appears ruddy.
• FIGURE 19.40 (b) What do you know about the size of the milk
partides?
10. Explain " 'hy smo~ rising from a cigarette often appears (c) How does this demonstration relate to the color of
blue, yet appears white when blown from the mouth. the sky and the color of the sun -at StITTrise and
I 1. During Ernest Shackleton's last expedition to Antarctica. sunset?
on May 8, 1915, seven days after the sun had set for the
GEOSCIENCE .« Within the Global Environmental Watch: Solar Energy Portal. find and open
the document "Solar Energy," from Climate Change: Jn Context. Among three behaviors oflight discussed in thischapter-
reflection. refraction, and absorption-which are most important in the t \\'O main types ofequipment designed to collect solar
energy? How many JOO,watt light bulbs could be powered if every bit ofenergy reaching Earth from the sun were harvested for
the task?
ONLINE RESOURCES
\i;;J well as additional resources, including vid~ exercises, practice quizzes, an interactive eBook, and more.
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... .al M:.y ta>thc ...icd >........J ,,.. .l....Wod."' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11...t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dl LU;,,.,,h• «It""""' I f!4u.Wt_.,...,.t.....
.bmcd fl,...., "'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19c1-mll(lfD.._ fl ••,:!o .. •mom::JJo.,.,,...,.,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii•• ...,,_ .....,.,.,..,,
_____
,....._. ..,1,.,......_.""-.....--..•.
.......... .. ..---·--
~_.......,..
..._ ~ ......... ,.... ...- ..........--...._____ .......-.... --....-.

__ ..,.....,. ____ ,_ ........._ ......._ ...,.... __ .........----..... -"',.._ ..
'--'
t ......_ _
Units, Conversions, Abbreviations,
and Equations
LENGTH SPEED
l kilometer (km) = JO()() m I knot = I nauticnl mi/ hr
= 3281 ft = 1.15 statute mi/hr
= 0.62mi = 0.51 m/ sec
1 statute mile (mi) = 5280 ft = 1.85 km/hr
= 1609 mi I mile per hour (milhr) = 0.87 knot
= 1.61 km = 0.45 m/ sec
1 nauticnl mile (nm) = 0.87 nm = 1.61 km/hr
= I.LS mi I kilometer per hour (km/ hr) = 0.54 knot
= 1.85 km = 0.62 mi/ hr
1 meter (m) = 100 cm = 02 8 m/ sec
= 3.28 ft I meter per second (m/sec) = 1.94 knots
= 39.37 in. = 224 mi/hr
1 foot (ft) = 12 in. = 3.60 km/hr
= 30.48 cm
= 0.305 m FORCE
1 centimeter (cm) = 0.39 in. I d yne = I gram centimeter per second per second
= 0.01 m Jg cm s-1
= 10 mm = 2.248 1 X 10 -• pound (lb)
1 inch (in.) = 2.54cm I newton (N) = I kilogram meter per second per second
= 0.08 ft ! kg m 2 s-
1 millimeter (mm) = 0. 1 cm = Jo> dynes
= 0.001 m = 0.2248 lb
= 0.039 in.
1 micrometer (µm) = 0.000 1 cm MASS
= 0.000001 m =
l gram (g) 0.035 ounce
l degree latitude = 111 km = 0.002 lb
= 60 nautical mi =
l kilogram (kg) 1000 g
= 69 statute mi = 2.2 lh
AREA ENERGY
I square centimeter (cm' ) = 0.1 5 in.! l erg = I dyne per cm
I square inch (in. 2) = 6.45 cm' = 2.388 X 10-• cal
I square meter (m1 ) = 10.76 ft' 1 ;oule ()) = 1 ne\.. ton meter
1
I square foot (ft') = 0.09 m' = 0.239 cal

= JO' erg
VOLUME I calorie (en!) = 4. 186 J
I cubic centimeter (cm') = 0.06 in.' = 4. 186 X JO' erg
1 cubic inch (in.') = 16.39 cm'
1 liter (I) = 1000 cm'
= 0. 2(>4 gallon
(gal) U.S.
A1
PRESSURE POWERS OF TEN
I millibar (mb) 1000 d)neslcm'
PREFIX
0.75 millimeter of mercury (mn1 Ilg)
• 0.02953 inches of mercury (in Ilg) mno one-billionth • 10 • 0.00000000 I
• 0.01450 poonds per squatt u>.h (lblUl 'l micro orr-millioath • 10 0.000001
- ---
• 100 pasc:als(Pa) milli one-thousandth • 10 0.001
1 '1and.lnl &llll06phttt 101325 mb Ct":nlJ ooe-hundmlth • 10 0.01
760mm Hg d.a one-tenth 10 I 0.1
29.91 in. Hg hteto Ont' bundrtd 10' 100
14.7 lblin.' kilo one 1bc=M1sand 10' 1000
1 m<h of mercury 33.865 mb mega ooe million I()' I ,<XX>•<X>O
1 mlDlmttcr of mercury 1.3332 mb !NP ooe billion 10• l ,OOl,(X)(),000
I pl&'1 I 0.0 1 mb
= I Nim' TEMPERATURE
=
I hcctop:1>c11I (hPa)
I kllopai.cnl (kl'n) =
I mb
JO mb
'C 9 'I•('F -32)
' lh convert degrees fahrenhcit ('µ) tO llCijrCC> (',elsiuS ('C):
Subtract 32 degrees from 0 1', then divide by 1.8.
POWER It> convert degrees CelsiU> ('C) t<> deg~> rahrenhi!it ('!'):
I wan (W) I J/sec Multipl)· •c by 1.8. thi!n add 32 de8r~>.
= 14. 3353 cal/ltlUl fo COD\'ttl degrees Celsius ( 'C) to ~lvuu (K). Add 273 to
1 cal1min = 0.06973 \\' Cdsius temperatuR. a;
1 honr P"'"'r (hp) = 746\\ K- ·c + 2;J.
_____
,....._. ..,1,.,......_.""-.....
.......... .. ..---·-- ........... ,.... ...-........_.._...._____ .......-..... --....-.
__ ..,.....,. ____ ,..._ ........._ ......._ ...,.... __ .....""'____..... _"',.._ .. t ......_ _
.
_
.
.
.
~
_
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
.
.
..._ ~ "-'
~ TABLE A.1 Temperature Conversions
"f "( 'F ·c "F "( "f "( 'F "( "F ·c "F ·c "f •c
- 40 - 40 - 20 - 28.9 0 - 17.8 20 - 6.7 40 4.4 60 15.6 80 26.7 100 37.8
- 39 - 39.4 - 19 - 28.3 - 17.2 21 - 6.1 41 5.0 61 16.I 81 27.2 101 38.3

- 38 - 38.9 - 18 - 27.8 2 - 16.7 22 - 5.6 42 5.6 62 J6.7 82 27.8 102 38.9
- 37 - 38.3 - 17 - 27.2 3 - 16.1 23 - 5.0 43 6.1 63 17.2 83 28.3 !03 39.4
- 37.8 - 16 - 26.7 4 - 15.6 24 - 4.4 44 6.7 64 J 7.8 84 28.9 104 40.0
- 35 - 37.2 - 15 - 26.1 5 - 15.0 25 - 3.9 45 7.2 65 I 8.3 85 29.4 105 40.6

- 34 - 36.7 - 14 - 25.6 6 - 14.4 26 - 3.3 46 7.8 66 18.9 86 30.0 106 41.1
- 33 - 36.1 - 13 - 25.0 7 - 13.9 27 - 2.8 47 8.3 67 19.4 87 30.6 107 41.7
- 32 - 35.6 - l2. - 24.4 8 - 13.3 28 - 2.2 48 8.9 68 20.0 88 31.1 108 42.2
-31 - 35.0 - )) - 23.9 9 - 12.8 29 - 1.7 49 9.4 69 20.6 89 31.7 109 42.8
-30 - 34.4 - JO - 23.3 JO - 12.2 30 - I.I 50 10.0 70 21.l 90 32.2 JIO 43.3
- 29 - 33.9 - 9 - 22.8 JI - 11.7 31 - 0.6 51 10.6 71 21.7 91 32.8 II I 43.9

- 28 - 33.3 - 8 - 22.2 12 - JI.I 32 0 .0 52 I l.l 72 22.2 92 33.3 112 44.4
- 27 - 32.8 - 7 - 21.7 13 - J0.6 33 0 .6 53 I 1.7 73 22.8 93 33.9 113 45.0
- 26 - 32.2 - 6 - 21.l 14 - 10.0 34 I.I 54 12.2 74 23.3 94 34.4 114 45.6

- 25 - 31.7 -5 - 20.6 15 - 9.4 35 1.7 55 12.8 75 23.9 95 35.0 115 46.I
- 24 - 31.l -4 - 20.0 16 - 8.9 36 2.2 56 13.3 76 24.4 96 35.6 J 16 46.7
- 23 - 30.6 - 3 - 19.4 17 - 8.3 37 2.8 57 13.9 n 25.o 97 36.J 117 47.2
- 30.0 -2 - 18.9 18 - 7.8 38 3.3 58 14.4 78 25.6 98 36.7 118 47.8

- 29.4 - ) - 18.3 19 - 7.2 39 3.9 59 15.0 79 26.I 99 37.2 119 4~
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,. TABLE A.2 SI Units* and Their Symbols
"
length nieter m m
ntass kilogram kg kg
tin1e second sec sec
ten1perature Kelvin K K
density kilogram per kg/m' kglm'

cubit: n\eter
speed nleter per second nl/set: nl/sec
fon:e ne\\Tton n1 • kglsec 2 N
pressure pascal N/ni' Pa
energy joule N • n1 J
p(H\Ter \\Ian )/sec w
•sf stands tOrSyste1nt l nternation:il. which is 1he international sys1c1n o f uniIS
;md sy1nbols.
- TABLE A .3 Some Useful Equations and Constants
NAME EQUATION CONSTANTS AND ABBREVIATIONS
Gao; la\\I p = pRT R= 287 J/ kg · K (SI) or

(equation of state) R= 2.87 X 10' erg/g · K
p= pre&<ure is Nim' (Sl)
p= density(kglm')
T= temperature (K)
Stefan-Boltzmann E = aT ' a = 5.6 7 X 10-• W/ m 2 • K' (SJ) or

13\\T .,. = 5.6 7 x 10_, erg/<ni' · K' ·sec
E = radiation emitted in W/ m' (SI)
'"" = 2897 µn1 K

>.._ , = wavelength (µm)
Solar constant 13 76 w/nr (SI)

1.97 caVcn1 2/ n1in
Geostrophic V = I tip V = geostrophicwind (m/sec)

• ifhin<l>p d 1
\\li.nd equation n= 7.29 )< 10-> radian"/sec
 = latitude
d = distance (m)
tip = pressur e difference (Ni m')
CorioU.~ paranleter f = 1!)sin g = fon:e of gravity (9.8 m /sec')
tip
Hydrostatic equation ~ = - pg tiz = c hange in height (m)
·21f rad.i.nnseqo3l J.60".
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.bmcdfl ,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f •nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl ••,:!o .. •mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
Weather Symbols and the Station Model
SIMPLIFIED SURFACE-STATION MODEL CLOUD COVERAGE
Tempera!ure (°F)
0 Clear
Wind direction (from the NW)
Wind speed ( 1 ~ 22 knots)
CD 1/8
Total amount of clouas ~ Scattered
~
(overcast)
3/8
I t 1013.a mb)
() 4/8
48 138
•• t +22 Pressu<e tendency during past
45 3 hOtJrs (rlsing) Et 5/8
I Amoun1 of pressure change in
past 3 hours (2.2 mb) a Broken
0
•
Sign indicating whether pressure 7/8
is higher or 100.ver 1han 3 hours ago
Overcast
Present weather (light rain)
Dew point ('F) Q9 Obscured
~ Missing
UPPER-AIR MODEL (500 MB) COMMON WEATHER SYMBOLS
Temperature ('C)
•• v Rain shower
Ir Height of pressure surface in meters with
- 15 564 first 3 digits given (5640 m) ...•
Ughtrain
Moderate rain ~
A
Snow shower
Vs~
Showers of hail
12 hour height change in meters ••• Heavy rain v
(04 equals 40 m)
** Light snow .t. Drifting or blowing snow
L= Sign indicating whether height is

rising or !ailing
Dew point depression (difference between
air temperature and dew point. 'C)
*
**
"'*
*
Moderate snow
Heavy sn<NI
~ Ouststoon
Fog
Wind speed (58- 62 knots) H Light drizzle CC> Haze

Wind direction (from the southwest) & Ice pellets (sleet) I Smoke
G\) Freezing rain r\ Thunderstorm
~ Freezing drizzle Hurricane

'
AS
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M:.y ta>thc....,icd • ........i,,.. ..
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19c1-mll(lfD.._ fl••,:!o .. •mo"":JJ'"*',...,.,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
WIND ENTRIES PRESSURE TENDENCY
MILES
(STATUlE1
PERHOUJI
KNOTS Kll.OMETE
PER HOUR
/' Rismg. then falling
RlsSIQ then s:eady.

/
© Calm Calm Calm or nsing, then •15.<'Q more alowfy
Ba-ometer
1-2 1-2 1-3
/ Rising stead.')' Ot ~ now higher
lhatl 3 nours
Falling 0t steady then nsino ago
,/
' 3-8 3-7 4-13 0t rising, lhen nsuig mo<o quockly
Steady, same as 3 hours ago

9-14 B-12 14-19
\, Falling, 1hon rising, samo or
lower than 3 hours ogo
u. 15-20 13-17 20-32
\_ Falling. then steady; or lalhng.
then falling more stowtv
\\ 21-25 18--22 33-40 Ba10meter
"' Fallmg steadily. 0t unsteadily nowtowe<

\\, 26-31 23-27 4 1-50
than 3 hours
ago
Steady 0t nsing. tnen lotong ,
\\\ 32-37 28-32 51~

"" or falling r>en falinQ rioro QUIC"'Y
'&1 38-43 33-37 61-69

FRONT SYMBOLS
~~ 44-49 38--42 70-79
Cold Iron! <uiatCJ
\\\\, 50-54 43-47 80-87 • • • warm l!Qnt !•"''""')
l_ 55-60 48-52 88-96
•• ••
• Oc<*Jded fro<~ (llJMo<:tl
l\_
61-66
67-71
53-57
58--62
97-106
107-114
•
I--··-
Slatawy frOrC ~
!4.81""'
> R<l;1o
~-
lltL9"
~~ n-n 63-67 11>-124 lll"'l >
l\L_ 71H13 ~72 12>-134 s
>
l\ll_ 84-89 73-n 135-143
ll\_ 119--123 103-107 144-198 j
_____
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__ ..,.....,. ____ ,..._ ........._ ......._ ...,.... __ .....""'____..... _"',.._ .. t ......_ _
.
_
.
.
.
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_
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
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Beaufort Wind Scale (Over Land)
T l ABLE C.1 Estimating Wind Speed from Surface Observation
BEAUFORT WINO SPEED
NUMBER DESCRIPTION Ml/HR KNOTS KM/HR OBSERVATIONS
0 (';ilm 0- 1 0- 1 0-2 SnlOke rises vertical!)'

Light air 1- 3 1- 3 2 -6 Direction of\\Tindsho\\Tn byd.riftingsnl.oke, but not by
\\Ti nd vanes
2 Slight breeze 4-7 7- 11 \"/ind felt on face; leaves rustle; \\find vanes n10ved by
\\find: flags stir
3 Gentle breeze 8- 12 7- 10 12- 19 Leaves and snlall t\'lfigs n1ove; \\find \V'ill extend light flag
4 Moderate breeze 13- 18 11 - 16 20- 29 \Vind raises du..'it and loose paper: snlall branches n10ve;
flags flap
5 Fresh breeze 19- 24 17- 21 30- 39 Sn13Utrees \\Tith leaves begin to S\V'3}"; Hags ripple
6 Strong breeze 25- 31 22- 27 40- 50 Large tree branche.'i in nlotion; ,,,hfstling heard in
telegraph \Vires; un1brella.'i used \\Tith difficulty
7 High wind 32- 38 28- 33 51 -6 1 \'\'hole trees in n10tion; incon\•enience felt \V"alking
against '"ind; flags e.xtend
8 Ga le 39-46 34-40 62- 74 \.Yind breaks t\\'igs off trees; ,,•alking is difficult
9 Strong gale 47- 54 41 -47 75-87 Slight structural dan13ge occurs (signs and antennas
b(0\\' 0 do\\' 0)
10 W hole gale 55- 63 48- 55 88- 10 1 Tree.Ci uprooted; considerable dan1age occun;
II Storm 64-74 56_,;4 10 2- 119 Winds produce widespread damage
12 Hurricane ~ 75 2 65 2 120 \.Yinds produce extensive danlage
A7
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M:.y ta>thc....,icd >........J,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;k o•in.,.... floe ..,
.bmcdfl ,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f •nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl ••,:!o .. •m om::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'" ....,.""'"·
Humidity and Dew-Point Tables
(Psychrometric Tables)
To obtain the dew point (or relative humidity), simply read wilh a wet-bulb depression of 3•c produces a dew-point
down the temperature column and then over to the wet-bulb temperature of 4•c. (Dew-point temperature and relative
depression. For example, in Table D. l, a temperature of 10•c humidity readin~are appropriate for pressures near JOOO mb.)
,, TABLE D.1 Dew-PolntTemperature (' C)
WET ·BULB OEP RESSJON !D RV· BULB TE~\PE RATURE MIN US WET·B UlB TEMPERATURE) !"Cl
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
O.S 1.0 l.S 2.0 2.S 3.0 3.S 4,0 4.S 5.0 7. S 10.0 12 S JS.O 17.S 20.0
- 20 - 25 - 33
- 17.5 - 21 - 27 - 38
- 15 - 19 - 23 - 28
- 12.5 - 15 - 18 - 22 - 29
- 10 - 12 - J4 - 18 - 21 - 27 - 36
- 7.5 - 9 - 11 - J4 - 17 - 20 - 26 - 34
- 5 - 7 -8 - JO - 13 - 16 - J9 - 24 - 3J
- 2.5 - 4 -6 -7 - 9 - 11 - J4 - J7 - 2s - 41
E
... 0 - I -3 - 4 - 6 - 8 - 10 - 12
- 22
- 15 - 19 - 24
f5 2.5 0 - I - 3 -4 -6 - 8 - 10 - 13 - 16
...~
5 4 3 2 0 - I - 3 -4 - 6 - 8 - 10 - 48
7.5 6 6 4 3 2 - I - 2 - 4 -6 - 22
"'::;; 10
12.5 12
9 8
11
7
10
6
9
5
8
4
7
2
6 4
I 0
3
-2
2
- 13
-7 - 28
"'""'
~
15 J4 13 J2 II 10 9 8 5 -2 - 14
~
12 7
17.5 17 16 15 J4 13 J2 J2 lI JO 8 2 - 7 - 35
:.lo 20 19 18 18 17 16 JS J4 14 13 J2 6 - I - JS
22.5 22 21 20 20 19 18 17 16 16 15 10 3 -6 -38
""
e. 25 24 24 23 22 21 21 20 19 18 18 13 7 0 - J4
el
< 27.5 27 26 26 25 24 23 23 22 21 20 16 11 5 -5 - 32
30 29 29 28 27 27 26 25 25 24 23 J9 14 9 2 - 11
32.5 32 31 31 30 29 29 2S 27 26 26 22 18 13 7 - 2
35 34 34 33 32 32 31 31 30 29 28 25 21 J6 II 4
37.5 37 36 36 35 34 34 33 32 32 31 28 24 20 15 9 0
40 39 39 38 38 37 36 36 35 34 34 30 27 23 J8 13 6
42.5 42 41 41 40 40 39 38 38 37 36 33 30 26 22 17 11
45 44 44 43 43 42 42 41 40 40 39 36 33 29 25 2J 15
47.5 47 46 46 45 45 44 44 43 42 42 39 35 32 28 24 19
50 49 49 48 48 47 47 46 45 45 44 41 38 35 31 28 23
A8
~ TABLE 0 .2 Relative Humidity (Percent)
WET·BULB DEPRESSION IORV·BULB TEMPERATURE MINUS WET·BULB TEMPERATURE) Ci
- 20 70 4l II
- 17.5 7S SJ 26 2
- JS 79 58 38 18
- 12.5 82 6S 47 3-0 13
- JO SS 69 54 39 24 JO
- 7.5 87 73 60 48 35 22 JO
-s 88 77 66 54 43 32 21 II
~ - 2.5 90 80 70 60 50 42 37 22 12 3
~
:::> 0 91 82 73 6S 56 47 39 31 23 JS
~ 2.5 92 84 76 68 61 53 46 38 31 24
"'
!i! 5
7.5
93
93
86
87
78
80
71
74
6S
68
58
62
SJ
56
4S
50
38
44
32
38 II
15.... JO 94 88 82 76 71 6S 60 54 49 44 19
12.S 94 89 84 78 73 68 63 58 S3 48 25 4
~ JS 9S 90 SS 80 7S 70 66 61 S7 S2 31 12
"' 77
~
I 7.S 95 90 86 81 72 68 64 60 SS 36 18 2
20 9S 91 87 82 78 74 70 66 62 58 40 24 8
22.S 96 92 87 83 80 76 n 68 64 61 44 28 14
~ 2S 96 92 88 84 81 77 73 70 66 63 47 32 19 7
27.S 96 92 89 8S 82 78 7S 71 68 6S 50 36 23 12 I
30 96 93 89 86 82 79 76 73 70 67 S2 39 27 16 6
32.5 97 93 90 86 83 80 77 74 71 68 54 42 3-0 20 II
35 97 93 90 87 84 81 78 7S 72 69 56 44 33 23 14 6
37.5 97 94 91 87 8S 82 79 76 73 70 58 46 36 26 18 JO 3
40 97 94 91 88 8S 82 79 77 74 72 S9 48 38 29 21 13 6
42.5 97 94 91 88 86 83 80 78 7S 72 61 so 40 31 23 16 9 2
4S 97 94 91 89 86 83 81 78 76 73 62 SJ 42 33 26 18 12 6
47.5 97 94 92 89 86 84 81 79 76 74 63 S3 44 3S 28 21 JS 9
50 97 9S 92 89 87 84 82 79 77 75 64 54 4S 37 3-0 23 17 II
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... ..i M:.y ta>thc ....,icd >........J ,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;ko• in .,.... floe .., ch<,....., ..... - 11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.h nfl LU;,,.,J\ o «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
.bmcdfl,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl ••,:!o .. •mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
-,.
0
,, TABLE D.3 Dew-Point Temperature (' f)
WET·BULB DEPRESSION IDRY·BULB TEMPERATURE MINUS WET·BUlB TEMPERATURE! l"FI

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 25 30 35 40
0 - 7 - 20
5 - J - 9 - 24
10 5 - 2 - JO - 27
15 ]] 6 0 - 9 - 26
20 16 12 8 2 - 7 - 21
25 22 J9 15 10 5 - 3 - 15 - SJ
30 27 25 21 JS 14 8 2 - 7 - 2S
35 33 30 28 25 21 17 13 7 0 - II
40 38 35 33 30 28 2S 21 18 13 7 - J - 14
45 43 4J 38 36 34 3J 28 2S 22 18 13 7 - J - 14
50 48 46 44 42 40 37 34 32 29 26 22 18 13 8 0 - 13
55 53 51 50 48 4S 43 41 38 36 33 30 27 24 20 IS 9 - 12
60 58 57 55 53 SJ 49 47 4S 43 40 38 3S 32 29 2S 21 17 II 4 -8
65 63 62 60 59 S7 SS S3 SJ 49 47 4S 42 40 37 34 31 27 24 19 J4
70 69 67 65 64 62 61 S9 S7 SS S3 SJ 49 47 44 42 39 36 33 30 26 - II
75 74 72 71 69 68 66 64 63 61 S9 S7 SS S4 SJ 49 47 44 42 39 36 JS
80 79 77 76 74 73 72 70 68 67 6S 63 62 60 58 56 54 S2 so 47 44 28 - 7
85 84 82 81 80 78 77 7S 74 72 71 69 68 66 64 62 61 S9 S7 54 S2 39 19
90 89 87 86 85 83 82 81 79 78 76 7S 73 72 70 69 67 6S 63 61 S9 48 32
95 94 93 91 90 89 87 86 SS 83 81 80 79 78 76 74 73 71 70 68 66 56 43
100 99 98 96 95 94 93 91 90 89 87 86 8S 83 82 80 79 77 76 74 72 63 S2 37 12
105 104 103 JOI JOO 99 98 96 9S 94 93 91 90 89 87 86 84 83 82 80 78 70 61 48 30
110 109 108 106 105 104 103 102 JOO 99 98 97 9S 94 93 91 90 89 87 86 84 n 68 S7 43
115 I 14 II 3 ll 2 II 0 Jo9 108 J07 106 104 103 102 101 99 98 97 96 94 93 92 90 83 7S 6S 54
120 119 118 117 115 ll4 113 ll2 Il l 110 J08 !07 106 JOS 104 102 JOI 100 98 97 96 89 81 73 63
.,,. TABLE 0.4 Relative Humidity (Percent)
WET·BULB DEPRESSION IORY·BULB TEf\.\PERATURE MINUS WET·BULB TEA\PERATURE) f" FI

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
' 2 l 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 it 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2S JO 3S 40
0 67 31
5 73 46 20
10 78 56 34 13
15 82 64 46 29 II
20 85 70 55 40 26 12
25 87 74 62 49 37 25 13 J
30 89 78 67 56 46 36 26 16 6
35 91 81 n 63 54 45 36 27 19 JO 2
40 92 83 75 68 60 52 45 37 29 22 15 7
45 93 86 78 71 64 57 SJ 44 38 31 25 18 12 6
50 93 87 so 74 67 61 55 49 43 38 32 27 21 16 10 5
55 94 88 82 76 70 65 59 54 49 43 38 33 28 23 19 14 9 5
60 94 89 83 78 73 68 63 58 53 48 43 39 34 30 26 2J 17 13 9 5
65 95 90 85 80 75 70 66 61 56 52 48 44 39 35 31 27 24 20 J6 12
70 95 90 86 SI 77 72 68 64 59 55 51 4S 44 40 36 33 29 25 22 J9 3
75 96 91 86 82 78 74 70 66 62 58 54 51 47 44 40 37 34 30 27 J7 7 J
80 96 91 87 83 79 75 72 68 64 6J 57 54 50 47 44 41 38 35 32 29 15 3
85 96 92 SS 84 80 79 73 69 66 62 59 56 52 4.9 46 43 41 38 35 32 20 8
90 96 92 89 85 SI 78 74 71 68 65 61 58 55 52 49 47 44 4J 39 36 24 J3 3
95 96 93 89 85 82 79 75 n 69 66 63 60 57 54 51 49 46 43 41 38 27 J7 7
100 96 93 89 86 83 so 77 73 70 68 65 62 59 56 54 51 49 46 44 4J 30 21 12 4
105 97 93 90 87 83 so 77 74 71 69 66 63 60 58 55 53 50 48 46 43 33 23 15 7
110 97 93 90 87 84 81 78 75 73 70 67 65 62 60 57 55 52 50 48 46 36 26 18 11
115 97 94 91 88 85 82 79 76 74 71 68 66 63 6J 58 56 54 52 49 47 37 28 2J 13
120 97 94 91 88 85 82 so 77 74 72 69 67 65 62 60 58 55 53 51 49 40 31 23 17
Instant Weather Forecast Chart
·1his chart is a guide to forecasting the weather.11 is applicable to most of the United Stares, especially theeastern two-thirds. JI
works best during the fall, winter, and spring. "'hen the weather systems are most active.
Instant Weather Forecast Chart
SEA-LEVEL PRESSURE IMB) SKY CONDITION
!023 or higher(30.21 in.) rising, stead)r, or anydirectit1n clear, high clouds, or Cu J, 18 (in \\inter, 14)
falling
J022 to 1016 rising or s teady sw; w. ~""'· N clear, high clouds or Cu I . IS

(30.20 in. to 30.00 in.) falling or s teady sw.s.sE dear, high clouds 1,3, 17. 5
fa lling sw; S.SE nliddle or lo'" cloud.; 6, 17
falling E.NE nliddle or lo\\t cloud'i 6, 14
falling or steady E.NE dear or high clouds 3,5,14
JOJ5 to 1009 rising SW.W,NW, N dear 1, 14

(29.99 in. to 29.80 in.) overe-ast 2.16
precipitation I I. 2, 16
fa lling anydirectit1n clear 3, I 7 (dry climate summer. I , I 5)
falling or steady sw.s.sE high clouds 3. 17. 5
fa lling SVV,S. SE nliddle or lo"' doud'i 7
falling E.NE nliddle or lo\\T cloud'i 7, 12,14
fa lling SE.E. NE overe-ast, precipitation 9
fa lling s.sw overcast, precipitation JO. 13
1008 or below rising SW.W.NW.N clear 1, )2

(29.79 in.) rising SW,W, NW,N overcast 2, I 2, 16
rising sw; w . Nw.N overcast \\'ith precipitation I I, 12, 16
rising NE overcast 4 , 12. 13, 14
rising NE m•erca.'it \\Tith precipitation 11. 12. 13.14
rising or steady· sw; s.sE dear 3.6, 8. 12, 15
fa lling SW.S.SE overe-ast 7, 8,12.13
fa lling SW,S.SE overcast \\Tith precipitation s. 10. 12. 13, 16
fa lling N overcast 4. 14
falling or steady E.NE overcast 7. 12. 14
fa lling E.NE m•erca.~t \\Tith precipitation 8.9. 12. 13
\i\'eather Foreca..st Code

J -= clear or scattered clouds 7 = precipitation possible ~\Tithin 8 hours I 3 = possible \\fod shit\ to W, Nl-V. or N
2 -= clearing 8 = possible period ofheavy precipitation 14 = continued cool or cold
3 =- increasing clouds 9 = precipitation continuing JS = continued nilld or \\larn1
4 -=- continued overca.i;t 10 =- pre<ipitation ending "'ithin 12 hours 16 = turning colder
S =- precipitation possible "'ithin 24 hours 11 = precipitation ending \Vithin 6 hours 17 = slO\\ll}' rising ten1peratures
6 = precipitation possible \\Tithio 12 hours l2 = windy J 8 = little te111perature change
A12
C...,-nf• )11~°"'"'°' ch<,....., .....
1->an•Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y oa>thuqo;...a. • ........i,,.. .i...,..w..i.... ,.f>;ko• in .,.... floe .., -11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al "'""h ~dl LU;,,.,,h•
.bmcdfl,....., "'\lf!1»<'luooo,.. ....,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.1le _.Jl~"'\l""~C~19c1.c:>t""ll(I'""'.._ fl o•,:!o .. ,mom: :JJo.,.,,...,,,,_
«It""""' 1 f!4".Wt.-,..•,. i.....
.,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii•• '""''"""*"'" ......""'"·
Changing GMT and UTC to Local Time
The system of time used in meteorology is Greenwich requires subtracting 5 hours from GMT. Conversely, to
Mean Time (GMT), which is also known as Coordinated change EST to GMT entail~ adding 5 hours to ES'!'. Figure F.l
Universal Time(UTC), and as Zulu (Z) Time. 'ibis is the lime shows how to convert to GMT in varioustimezonesofNorth
measured on the prime meridian(o•longitude) in Greenwich, America.Since in meteorology the time is given on a 24-dock,
Eng.land. &cause £astern Standard Time (EST) is 5 hours 1able F.l shows the relationship between the familiar two
slower than GM'!~ to convert from GMT to EST simply 12-hourperiodsof A.M.and P.M.and the 24-hour system .
.., -·-
-L
• FIGURE F.1 The time:zonesofNorthAmerica.
• TABLE F.1 Conversion ofA.M. and P.M. Time System to 24-Hour System
24-HR SYSTEM 24-HR SYSTEA\ 24·HR SYSTE.M 24-HR SYSTEM
TIME Tlt.\E TIME TIME TIME TIME TIME TIA1E
A.M, A.M. P.M. P.M.
12:00 (midnight) 0000 6:00 0600 12:00 (noon) 1200 6:00 1800
I :00 0100 7:00 0700 1:00 1300 7:00 1900
2:00 0200 8:00 0800 2:00 1400 8:00 2000
3:00 0300 9:00 0900 3:00 1500 9:00 2100
4:00 0400 JO:OO 1000 4:00 1600 10:00 2200
5:00 0500 11 :00 1100 5:00 I 700 11:00 2300
A13
Average Annual Global Precipitation
..
,.
_.. -_..
..
•
• ··~ -·-
"
,., ,., •• ·~ "'
•
"' -..
~-"~
,
·~·
~
A~~
U.-25
25-50
D
D
-
An:l\Ual P*lpftatkM1
~10
10.20
•
•
-·-
50-100
D 20"40
IQ0.150
D .oo.eo
•
1!0-200
0....200
-
D eo.eo
°'9190
"
•
I
I
•
.....
.-""'
0 1000 2000 "
0 1000
•
FIGURE G.1 -ldm.pol...,ageannualPft'Cipilat ion.
A14
("...... )11:c:-...,a-,.All.,.......... ..._!Jb/ ...11• ..,...............................11o,..., .. ,.._o.. ......._,...__ .,....,.,,..,_....,.....,.,. ........................oi\8'.C.1l......1l.........._ •
............_ ...P""""" ....- ........ ~ ..A~llw_.. .........,._... c.... ,.•._'"""l! __ ...,,........,._,......,.,,,...,..,.,.__ .. _,,,._"'j_,..;tto_....,, __...
• •
____..__ -·- - ~°""" ------~-
~ ~
• .,
"
A Western Paragraphic Projeclion deveioped at WeS1em Blinois University
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an• Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y ta>thc....,icd >........J,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;k o•in.,.... floe .., ch<,....., .....-11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.hnflLU;,,.,J\o «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
Standard Atmosphere
0 0 (59.0)
500 1,640 (53.2 ) 1.167
1,000 3,280 1.0 8.5 (47.3) 1.112
1,500 4,921 1.5 5.3 (41.5) 1.058
2,000 6,562 2.0 l.2 795.01 2.0 (35.6) 1.007
2.500 8,202 2.5 J.5 746.91 - 1.2 (29.8) 0.957
3,000 9.842 3.0 1.9 701 .21 - 45 (23.9) 0.909
3,500 I 1.483 3.5 2.2 657.80 - 7.7 (18.1) 0.863
4.000 13,123 4.0 2.5 616.60 -I 1.0 (12.2 ) 0.819
4,500 14,764 4.5 2.8 577.52 -14.2 (6.4) o.m
5,000 16,404 5.0 3.1 540.48 - 17.S (0.5) 0.736
5,500 18,045 5.5 3.4 505.39 - 20.7 (- 5.3) 0.697
6.000 19.685 6.0 3.7 472.17 - 24.0 (- IJ.2) 0.660
6,500 21,325 6.5 4.0 440.75 - 27.2 (-17.0 ) 0.624
7,000 22.965 7.0 4.3 41 J.05 - 30.4 (- 22.7 ) 0.590
7,500 24,606 7.5 4.7 382 .99 - 33.7 (- 28.7) 0.557
8,000 26,247 8.0 5.0 356.51 - 36.9 (-344) 0.526
8,500 27,887 8.5 5.3 331.54 - 40.2 (- 40.4) 0.496
9,000 29.528 9.0 5.6 308.00 - 43.4 (- 46.1) 0.467
9,500 31,168 9.5 5.9 285.84 - 46.6 (-51.9) 0.440
10.000 32,808 10.0 6.2 264.99 - 49.9 (- 57.8) 0.413
11,000 36.089 I 1.0 6.8 226.99 - 56.4 (- 69.5) 0.365
12,000 39,370 12.0 7.5 193.99 - 56.S (-69.7) 0.312
13,000 42,651 13.0 8.1 165.79 - 56.S (- 69.7) 0.267
14,000 45,932 14.0 8.7 141.70 - 56.S (- 69.7) 0.228
15,000 49213 15.0 9.3 121.11 - 56.S (- 69.7) 0.195
16,000 52,493 16.0 9.9 103.52 - 56.S (- 69.7) 0.166
17,000 55,774 17.0 10.6 88.497 - 56.S (- 69.7) 0.142
18,000 59,055 18.0 11.2 75.652 - 56.S (-69.7) 0.122
19.000 62J36 19.0 I 1.8 64.674 - 56.S (-69.7) Q.104
20,000 65,617 20.0 12.4 55.293 - 56.S ( - 69.7) 0.089
25,000 82,021 25.0 15.S 25.492 - 51.6 (-60.9) 0.040
30,000 98,425 30.0 18.6 I 1.970 - 46.6 ( - 51.9) O.oJ8
35,000 114.829 35.0 21.7 5.746 - 36.6 ( - 33.9) 0.008
40,000 131,2..l4 40.0 24.9 2.871 - 22.8 ( - 9.0) 0.004
45,000 147,638 45.0 28.0 J.491 - 9.0 (1 5.8) 0.002
50,000 164,042 50.0 31.1 0 .798 - 2.S (27.5) 0.001
60,000 196,850 60.0 37.3 0 .220 - 26.1 ( - 15.0) 0.0003
70,000 229,659 70.0 43.S 0.052 - 53.6 (- 64.S) 0.00008
80.000 262.467 80.0 49.7 0.0 10 - 74.S (- 102.1) 0.00002
A16
Hurricane Tracking Chart
..
.. . • •
PIOCWIQ A Storm
HLtrlcSle cenl6r poadlont n ~'*' by '*11!ud!t 8tld Ion·
• gi\l,Qi, F0t ~It: •it. mrm• ~lei it lr;Q;lfd ""91 •
00.0 cfegree9 Notlh Md 63.0 degteeJ w.t.• On ll'le
0 500
I N;UO&JjlfiM'. I ctllllt rea1 Nm'll tr> 30.0 dev.•1 Bild lhltn WHI IC> 63.0
~,-~btkiw,
0 500
•••
•
•• • •• ••
• • • •
• •• • •
••
100" ... ,.. ... ..•.

e FI GURE 1.1
A17
ch<,....., .....-11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.hnflLU;,,.,J\o «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
C...,-nfo )1 1 ~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y ta>thc....,icd >........J ,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;ko•in.,.... floe ..,
Adiabatic Chart
"" I·
"'"
' I
I
I
I
\1
700
BOO
900
1000
-40 · 25 15 10 ·S 0 s 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
FIGURE J.1 Adl>bo1kchan.
A18
("...... )11:c:-...,a-,.All.,.......... ..._!Jb/ ...11• ..,...............................11o,..., .. ,.._o.. ......._,...__ .,....,.,,..,_...., .....,.,. ........................oi\8'.C.1l...... 1l.........._ •
............_ ...P""""" ....- ........ ~ ..A~llw_.. .........,._... c.... ,.•._'"""l! __ ...,,........,._,......,.,,,...,..,.,.__ .. _,,,._"'j_,..;tto_....,, _ _...
Absolute hunlidity 1lx> nus.-; of'''ater vapor in a given volun1e of Air pollutants Solid, liquid, or gaseous airborne substances
air. Jt represents the densit)' of \\1ater vapor in the air. that occur in concentrations high enough to threaten the health of
1\bsolute vorticity See Vorticity. people and anirnals. to harn\ vegetation and structures, or to toxit)•
Absolute zero A ten\perature reading of - 273°C, - 46<rF.orOK. a given environn1ent.
111eoretic.all)•, there i.-; no 111olecular n1otion at this te111per.iture. Air pres..;;ure (atn10.-.pheric pressure) 11\e pressure exerted by the
Absolutely stable atntosphere .>\n atmospheric condition that n1a..;;..;; ofair abc)\1e a gi\1en point, usuall>' e.'Cpressed in n1i1Ubars (nth),
exists \\•hen the environnt ental lapse rate is less than the n\oist adia· inches of mercury (Hg) or in hectopascal< (hPa).
batic rate. 1 his re..;;ults in a lifted parcel of air being colder than the Air Quality Index (AQI) An index of air quality that provides
air around it. daily air polluti<>n concentrations. Jnten<als on the scale relate to
Ahsolotdy unstable atrnosphere An annospheric co11ditio11 that potential health effects.
exi.sl'i \\1hen the environn1enta1 lapse rate i.s greater than the dry Aitken nuclei See C'. .ondensation nuclei.
adiabatic rate. ·1hL.;; results in a lifted parcel of air being \\1arn1er Albedo 11\e percent of radi.ation returning front a surface coin·
than the air around it. pared to that \,•hi.ch strikes it.
,\ccretion ·11x> gro\,'th of a precipitation particle by thecoll i.sion Aleutian low ·111e subpolar lo,,,•..pressure area that is centerro near
ofan ice crystal or sno\\•tlake \\'ith a supercooled liquid droplet that the Aleutian lsland.;; on charts thatsho\'' nlean sea.. level pres..;;ure.
freeze..;; upon i n1pact. ..\ltinlt'ter An instru1nent that indicates the altitude of an object
Acid deposition 11>< depositing of acidic particles (usually sulfu. above a ti."ted le-;•eL Pressure aJti111eters ll'ie an aneroid baron1eter
ric acid and nitric acid}at the earth's surface. .l\.cid deposition occurs "'ith a scale graduated in altitude instead of pressure.
in dry tom\ (drydeposu;ou) or \\'et forn1 ('wet depositiou). Acid rain Altocwnulus A ntiddle cloud, ll<iuall>• \\'hite or gray. Often occurs
and acid pre<:ipitation often denote "''et deposition. (See Acid rain.) in la)1ers or patches \\'ith \\'a\')~ rounded na.;;se.s or rolls.
Acid fog &. Acid rain. Altocwnu.lus ca-.te.Danus An aJtocun1ulus cloud sho\\'iog vertical
Acid rain Cloud droplets or raindrops con1bining"'ith ga..;;eous develop111ent. Individual cloud elen1ents have t0\\1erlike tops, often
pollutants, such as oxide..;; of sulfur and nitrogen, to n1ake falling in tbeshape of tinyca.;;tles.
rain (or snow) acidic- pH less than ~.O. If fog droplets combine Altostratus A middle cloud composed of gray or blui<h s heets or
\ \ ith such pollutants it bec:ornes acidfog . la)•ers of unifonn appearance. Jn the thinner regions. the sun or
1
,\ctual Vapor Pres..;;ure See Vapor pre..;;sure. nloon usually appears dintly visible.
1\diahatic process A process that takes place '''ithout a tran.'>fer of Analogue forecasting 1nethod A forecast n1ade by con1pari.sor1 of
heat beC'\,1een the S)'&te1n (such as an air parcel) and its surround· past largewscale synopric ~\!father patterns that tese111ble a given
ings. Jn an adiabatic process. compression al\\1ays results in \\'a.m t· ( ll4iually current) situation in i Lo; essential characteri..srlc..4i.
i ng, and e.xparaion results in cooling. A11a1ysis 1be dra\,•ingand interpretation of the patterns ofvarious
Advection 1 he horizontal transfer of an)' atmospheric property ~'1eath er elen1ents on a surl'ac:e or upper. air chart.
by the \\'ind. Ane1no1neter An instrun1ent designed to n1easure \\'ind speed
1\dvection fog Occurs \\•hen '''arm, nloi.st air 111oves over a cold Aneroid baro1neter An i11strun\ent designed to n1easure atmo.
sutface and d1e aircooL.;; to belo''' illy "rar111 n1oist Angular momenturn 111e product of an o bject:.;; nla.'is,speed, and
air n1oves over a colder surface that cooled n1ain! y by radiational radial distance of rotation.
cooling. Annual range of te1nperature 1 he difference beh,1een the '''arme..;;t
,\erosol.;; 11ny su..;;pended solid particles (dust, s111oke, e tc.) or and colde..;;t months at a11y gh~n location.
liquid droplets that enter the atn10..;;phere front either natural or hu· Anticyclone An area of high aouo..;;pheric pre.4i.4iure around '''hic h
ntan (anthropogenic) sources. such as the burning of fossil fuels. the \\ti!ld blo\''S clock\\,ise in the Northern He111L.;;phere and coun·
Sulfur-c-0ntaini11g fo..;;siJ fuels, such as coal, produce sulfate aerosols. terclock\,'ise in the Soutbero Hen1i..;;phete. AL'IO called a h;gh.
Aerovane A "'ind instrun1ent that iodicate.s or record.;; bolh \\1nd Apparent ten1perature VI/hat the air teo1peraLure ··reels like'• fbr
speed and \\•ind direction. Also called a skyvane. various con)binations of air tentperature and relative huntidity
,\ggregation 11\e clustering Logether of ice crystals to fornl Arctic front Jn norlhem latitudes. the sen1i..pem1anenr front
sno,,rf1akes. that separates deep cold arctic air fmn1 the n1ore shallO\\'i les..;;-cold
Air density See Density. polar air.
Air gkl\\• A faint glo\'' of light en\itted by excited gases in the Arctic OscilJation (AO) A re\•ersal of annospheric pre..;;sure over
upper attn osphere. Air glo''' is much fain ter than the aurora. the Arctic that produces <:hanges in the upper· level \\'t'Sterly \\<inds
Air n\a,S.<i A Large bod)' ofair that has sifnilar horizontal tentpera· over northern latirudes. 'll1e.se changes in upper. Je\1el \\rinds in6u·
tu re a11d n1oisture characteristics. ence \\tinter "'eather patterns O\~r North ..\n1erica, Greenland, and
1\ir·1nas.-. thwtderstornl: &it Ordinary thunderstorn1. Europe.
Air..1na.~-. Vt'eather A persL~ellt type of '''eatber that Ota)' last fbr Arcu.s cloud &~Sh elf d oud
Se\'eral days (up ro a ~'~ek or n\ore). Jt occurs "'hen an area con1es Arid clintate Anexrre111elydry clin1at~rier than the se111i..arid
under the influence of a particular air nta.4is. cliniate. Often referred to as a ••true desert.. cliniate.
Air parcel See Parcel of air. Asbestos A general nan1e for the fibrous variety of silicate 1niner·
als that are i11coo1bustible and resist chen1icals and heat Once ll'ied
G1
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y ,.,,bc ....,icd >........J,,.. .i...,..wod."' ,.f>;k o•in.,.... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dlLU;,,.,J\o «It""""' I f!4u.Wt_.,...,,t.....
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,..,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl ~"'\l""~ C~19ct.c:>r""'lll '""'.._ fl••,:l•.,•mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
for 6repmofing. elecLrlcal insulation, building niaterials, chen1ical Barotropic (at1nosphere} A condition in the atn10.<tphere "'here
filters, and btake linings. surf.lees of constant density parallel surfaces ofconstant pressure.
ASOS Acron)'m for Automated Surface ObserYing Systems. A Bead lightning Lightning that appea" as a series of beads tied to
S)'Stent designed to provide continuous inforniation of \\•ind, a string.
ten\perature, pees.sure, cloud base height, and cun\\1ayvisibility at Bergeron process See Jee.crystal proce.'ls.
selected airports. Bermuda high &~Subtropical high.
Atn1osphere 11\e envelope of gases that surround a planet and Billov.• cloud(j Broadi nearly parallel lines of \\'<lVelike clouds Ori·
are held to it b}' the planers gravitario11al attraction. 1 he earth's at- ented at right angles to the \\•ind Also called Keh1in- Heltnholt7
n10..<tphere is n1ainl)' nitrogen and oxygen. \\•ave clouds.
At1uospheric bow\dary layer 1he la)'er of air fro1n the earth's Bi1netalUc therrnoJneter A ten1perat1Jre. 1neasuring device usually
surtace usually up to about I km (3300 ft) where the \\ind is iuftu- co11si.<tting of tv.'O di.<t.<titltilar 1netals thal expand and contract difkr.
enced by friction of the e.arth's surface and objects on it AL'lo called entially as the te111perature changes.
d\e planetary boundary layer and Lhe friction la,1er. Blackbody A hypod..,tical object that absorbs all of the radiation
Atlnospheric greenhouse effect 111e v.'ilm1ing of an attnosphere that strikes it. It also en1ics radiation at a n1a.xin1un1 rate for ics given
by its absorbing and en1itting infrared radiation \\•hile allo,,'i.ng ten1perature.
shom\1ave radiation to pass on through. 11\e gases n\ainly re~<tpon . Black ke A d)in sheet of ice d1at appears relative()• dark and n1ay
sible for tbe earthS atn1ospheric greenhouse effect are \\later vapor forn1 a.<t supen:ooled droplets, drizzle, or light rain co111e in contact
and carb<>n dioxide. Also called the grw1ho11se effect. \\'ilh a road surface that is bel0\\1 freezing. Also, thin dark.appearing
Atn1ospheric models Sin1ulatioo of the annosphereS behavior ice Lhat fornis on fres h\\•ater or safn,1ater ponds, or Lakes.
by 1nathe1natical equations or by physical n1odels. Blizzard Asevere\\1e.athercondition characterized by I0\\1 te1npera.
At1no.spheric stagnation /\ condition of light \\'i:nds and poor tu res andscrong"•ind<t (greater tl..an 35 n1ilhr) bearing a greal an1ount
vertical n1b:ing that can lead to a high concentration of pollutants. of sno\v eid1er falling or blO\\•ing. When the.<te conditions c-011tinue
Air stagnations are mosl often associated \\ii.th fair \\ eather, an 1
after the falling S00\\1 ha.<t ended it is ter1ned agrotuuf bUzzarrl.
in,~rsion, and the sinking air of a high· pressure are.a. Boulder \\•Uids fast· &\\ring, local do\\'llslope \\rinds that ttiay
Atn1ospheric wi11dO\\' 1be \\1avelength range ber.,•een 8 and attain speeds of 100 knots or n1ore. 11x>>' are especially strong along
l l µn1 in which little absorptlon of infrared radiation takes place. theea...ten1 foothills of the Rocky Mountains near Boulder, Colorado.
Attenuation Any process in v.1hich the rate of Ro\\1 of a bean1 Boundary layer See Atmospheric boundary layer.
of enerm' decrea.<tes (niainl)' due to ah<torption or scattering) \\•ilh Bo'"'"echo A Lineofthunderstonns on a radar screen that appears
increasingdio;tance fro111 the enermr soun:e. in tl1e .shape of a b0\\1, B0\\1 echoes are often associated \\1ith dan1ag.
Aurora Glo\\'i.ng light display in the nightti1ne sky caused b)' ing straight. line \\'inds and sn1all tornadoes.
excited gases in the upper atniosphere giving off light. Jn the Brockert bO\\' A bright ring of light seen around the .shado''' of an
Northern Hen1isphere it L'I called the aurora borealis (northern obser\oer's head as the o bserver peers into a cloud or fog bank.
light.<t); in the Southern Hen1isphere, the tturom austmlis (southern f'f>rmed by diffmctio11 oflight.
lights). Buoyant force (buoyancy} 1lle UP\\'ard force exerted upon an air
Autun1naJ equinox 111e equinox at v.•hich the sun approaches the parcel (or any object) by virtue of d>e density (main!)' temperature)
Sou them Hen\isphere and passes directly over d1e equator. Occurs differe11c:e be11veen the parcel a11d that of the surrounding air.
around September 23. Buys·Ballot's law A la\\' describing the relationship bet\\ieen the
A\VlPS Acmnyn1 fOr Advanced Weather Jnteracli\1e Processing \\'ind direcrio11 and t1)t> pre.(jsure distributio11. Jn the Northern
System. Ne\\1 con1puteri.zed S)'.Stem that integrate.(I and proce.<tses Hen1isphere, if you stand \'.1ith )\:>Ur back Lo the surface v.1ind, then
data received ata \\ eather forecasting office front N£XRAD, ASOS,
1 turn clock\\•ise about 30'°, I0\\1er pressure v.1ilI be to your left. ln the
and analysis and guidance products prepared by NMC. Soutbem Hen1L~here, stand \\•ith your back tQ tl)t> surface \\find,
d1en turn counterclockwise about 30'°; I0\\1er pre.<tsure \\•ill be to
Back· door cold front A cold &onl mo\ting south or south\\•est l""' right
along the A.t1antic seaboard of d1e United States.
Backil1g wind A. v.1ind that changes direction in a counte~lock California current 111eocean current that tlo\\'Ssoutl'rA ard along 1
\\ise sense (e.g., north to northv.-est to \\•est). d1e \\•e.o;t c-0ast of d1e United States fm111 about \Vashington to Baja,
Ball lightning A rare forn1 of lightning t1..at n1ay co11sistof a red· C'..a liforn ia.
dish, lw11inous ball of electricity or charged air. California norther A strong, dry, nortberly-v.•ind that blO\\'S in
Banner cloud A cloud extending d0\\'0\\1ind froni an isolated late spring, sun1n1er, and early fall in oorthern and cenlral C..alifor·
niountain peak, often on a11 othen\1..se cloud.free da)~ nia. Its '\•am1th and dryness are due to do\\•nslope contpressional
Baroclinic (at1nosphere) 1'he stale of the atn1osphere \'.here sur· heating.
faces of constant pres.<ture intersect.surface." ofconstant density. On Cap cloud See l'ileus cloud
an isobaric chart, isothern'l..<t cro.i;s the contour linesj and te1npera· CAPE $.eeC011vecli\te A\ ailable Potential Energy.1
cure advection exists. Carbon dioxide (C01) A colorles.s, odorless gas \\•hose concen.
Baroclinic instability A t)ipeofinstability arising from a n1eridi· tration is about 0.038 pen:ent (385 ppm) in a \'Qlume of air near sea
011al (north to south} ten\perature gradient, a strong vertical \\•ind level Jt i.s a selecti\1e absorber of infrared radiation and, conse.
speed she.ar, ten1perature advection, and di\oerge11ce in the Ro,,, aloft. quently. it is in1portant in the earthS atn\o..<tpheric greenhou.<te
Matl)' n1id ~ latitude C)\;lone.<t de\oelop as a result of thi.s instability. effect.Solid CO, is called dry ice.
Barograph A recordingbaro1neter. Carbon monoXide (CO) A colorless, odorles<. toxic gas that
Barometer Ao instrun1ent that n1e.asure.<t atn1ospheric pres.'lure. forins during d1e incontplere 'on1 bu.<ttion of carbo11..contai ni ng fuels.
'l'he l\\•O n10.<tt con1n1on bamnieters are the n1era1ry baron1eterand Ceiling ·lhe height of the lo''' est layer of clouds v.1hen the\\•eatber
the aneroid barorneter. reports describe the sky as broken or overcast.
C...,.nf• )11~ °"'"'°'1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... ..i M:.y ta>thuq1icd • ........i,,.. .i...,..w..i.... ,..._,"'"'in.,.... floe .., ch<......,. .... - 11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. ..,i,.-.,..al "'""h ~dl LU;.,.,J\o «It""""' 1 f!4u.Wt.-,...,.i.....
,._,.,..,,....,"'\'f11»<'1 "''""" ..,.,,,,,,. -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l""~C~19c1-mll(lfD.._ fl ••,:!o .. •mo"":JJ'" *',...,,,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
Ceiling balloon A smal I baUoon used to determine the height of Ooud streets Lines or ro\\'S of cuo1ulifornt clouds.
the cloud base. The height i.s co1nputed fro1n the balloons a.o;cent Coalescence 11X' 1nerging of cloud droplets into a single Larger
rate and the ti111e tequired for it..'i dL.;;appearance into the cloud. droplet.
c.e:Uonlt'ter An instrun1ent that autoniaticaUy record'> cloud height. Cold advection (cold air advection) 11le transporl of cold air by
Cel.;ius scale A ten1pemture scale \\1here zero is as.o;igned to the tlle '''ind front a region of lo\\1er Len1perarures to a region of biglX'r
ten1perature \\1here ,,,iater freezes and 100 to the ten1perature "•here ten1peratures.
\\'ater boils (at sea level). Cold air damming A shaUow layer of cold air that is trapped
Centripetal acceleration 1 he in\,•ard.Jirected acceleration on a ben, een dle Atlantic coast and the Appalachian 1\1.ountains.
1
particle n1oving in a curved path. Cold fog See Supercooled cloud

Centripetal force 1 he radial force required to keep an obj ect Cold front A transition zone "'here a cold air n1a.o;s advances and
1noving in a cin:ul ar path. Jt L'i directed t0\\1atd the center of that replaces a '''amt air 111as..'i .
curved pad). Cold occlusion See Occluded front
Chaos The property describing a systen1 that e.xhibirs erratic Cold wa'<e A rapid fall in ten1perature \\ritl\in 24 hours that often
be()a\•ior in that very sn\aUd1anges in the initial state of the S)'Stent requires increa.o;ed protection for agriculture, in dustr)~ con11nerce,
rapidl )' lead to large and apparent()' unpredictable changes son\e· and hunt.an activitie.'i.
tin1e in the fu ture. Collision..coalescence process 1.he pmce.'is of producing precipi·
Chemical weathering-CO, feedback A negative feedback in tation by liquid particles (cloud dtopleLs and raindrops) <oLUding
earth's cliniate syste1n. As che1nical '''e.athering of rocko; increase.o;, and joining ('oalescing).
C01 is ren1oved frotn Lhe atn1osphere ll\Ore quickly, \\•bich in turn Conuna cloud A band of organized cun1uliforn1 clouds that
\ \ eakens Lhe greenh ouse effect, causing Lhe atn1osphere to cool.
1 looko; like a con1nia on a satellite photograph.
11lus, an increa.o;e in global chen1ical \\\>athering tends to lo,,\>r at- Co1nputer e11hance1nent A proce..'is " 'here the ten1perarure.'i of
n\ospheric te1nperatures. radiating surfaces are assigned d ifferent shades ofgray (or different
CbjJ1ook '\\'all cloud A bank ofcloudo; over the Rocky Mountains colot'S) on an infrared picture. 11lis allo\\'S specific features to be
that signifies the approach of a c hi nook. n1ore clearly delineated.
Chinook wind A \\'artn, dry "rind on the eastern side of the Co11de11sation TJX' process by ~'·hich "oater vapor beco1nesa liquid.
Roclq• Mountaira. ln the Alps, the ''rind is called a f'oehu . Condensation level The level above the surface nlarking the base
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Con1poundsconsi.sting of n1eth- ofa cun1ulitOm1 cloud.
ane (CH.) or ethane (C,HJ with som e or all of the hydrogen Condensation. nuclei AL'iocal.led dotl<I coudensatim1 nuclei. Tiny
replaced by chlorine or Huorine. Used in 6re ertinguishet'S, as particles upon '''hosesutfaces condeo.'iarion of \\1ater vapor hegira in
refrigerants, as solvents for cleaning electronic n\icrocircuits, and tl'le atntosphere. Srnall nuclei le.o;s than 0.2 µ.01 in radius are called
a.o; propellants. CJ::Cs contribute to tbe a unospheric greenhouse Aitkert ut"lei; th t).~e \\~th radii ben,•een 0.2and I µnl are large uudei,
effect and destm)' ozone in the strato.'iphere. ' ' hi.le g;aut 11t1Clei ha\'e radii L
1
arger tllan I µn1.
Cirrocu1nulus A high cloud that appe.ars as a ,,•hite patch of Conditionally unstable atn.lOsphere An atn1ospherk condition
clouds \\'ithout shado,,'S . Jt consists of very sniall ele1nents in tlle tllat exists \\•hen the environn1ental lapse rate is les.o; than the dry
fornt ofgrains or ripples. adiabatic rate but greater than the n1oisl adiabatic rate. Also called
Cirrostratus High, thin, sheetlike clouds, con1posed of ice crys · rottditioual h1st(lbiUty.
tals. 11X'y frequently cover the entire slq• and often produce a halo. Co11duction ·1he rransfer of he.at by molecular activity fron1 one
Cirru..'i A high cloud co1nposed of ice crystal'i in the for1n of thin, substance to another, or through a substance. Transfer is ah,1a)'S
\\'hite, fea tl'lerlike clouds in patches, fi lan1ent.~ or narro,,• bands. fron1 \\1am1er to colder regions.
Oear air tnrbulence (CA11 Turb1llence encountered by aircraft Constant height chart (oon-Stant·level chart) A chart sho\\ing
flying through cloudless skies. 11X'nnals, ''1ind shear, and jet \oariables, such as pressure, ten\perature, and '''ind, al a specific alti·
streams can e.ach be a factor in producing CA'r. tude above se.a level. Variation in hor'izontal pre.o;sure i.'i depicted by
Oear ice A la)•er of ice that appears rransparent because of its isobars. ·nle 1110.o;t con1nion coratant.height c hart is the surface
ho1nog:eneous structure and snlall nu1nber and size of air pockets. chart. \\•hich i.~ also called the sea. /e\icl d?art or surface weather tnap.
Oi1nate ~I he accun1ulation of dail}' and seasonal \\•eather events Constant pres.c:;ure chart (isobaric chart) /\ chartsl)()''' ingvari--
over a long period of ti n1e. ables, such as ten1perature and ,,•ind, 0 11 a constant pressure surface.
Cllinate change A change in the long.tern1 statistical a\~rage of Variatior1s in height ate u.suall)' sho\\•n by lines of equal height (con.
\\ie.ather e:le111ent.'i- such as te111perature and precipitation-sll'itained tour lines).
O\~r Se\'eral decades or longer. ('.lin1ate ch an~ is alo;o called rNn1at;c Cont-act freezing TJX' process by '''hich contact \\rilh a nucleus
dtaugc. such as an ice crystal causes supercooled liquid droplets to change
Oi1natic controls 'fhe relatively pern1anent factors that w:)\~rn into ice.
tl'le general narure of the clin1ate of a region. Continental arctic air 1nass An air nta.'iS characterized by
Oi1natic optilnuin See Mid·Holocene nta.'<i111u1n. extremel)' lo\'' te111perarures and ver)rdry air.
OimatoJogical forecast A "'e.ather forecas t, usuall>• a nlontb or Continental polar air mass An air nt.as.'i characterized b)' lo\''
niore io the future, ,,,,hich is ba.o;ed upon the c:lintate of a region ten1perarures and dry air. Not a.o; (Old as arctic air nias.o;e.c:;.
r.itl'ler than upon current \\\"ather conditions. ContinentaJ tropical air n\ass An air nia.s.'i characterized b)' high
Ooud /\ vL'iible aggregate of tin)' \\'ater droplets and/or ice ten1peratures and lo,,• hu1nidit)'.
crystals in the atn1osphere above the earth's surface. Contour line A line that connects points of equal elevation above
Ooudburst Any sudden and heavy rain sho,,ier. a reference level, n1ost often sea level.
Cloud seeding The introduction of artificial subs tances (11sually Contrail (condensation trail) A cloucllike strea1ner frequen tl}'
silver iodide or dry i(e) into a cloud for d\e purpose of either n1odify- seen fornti.ng behind aitc:raft t1ying in clear, cold, hun1id air.
ing its develop1nent or incr~ing its precipitation.
C...,-nf• 1111~ °"'"'°' ...,.....,,.i..., ,.....,"'"'in.,....

t-..n•Allibt!t.tt_... ..i M:.y oa>thu q oi....a. • ........i,,.. .. ti... .., ch<,....., .....
- 11...i 1-'1 '"..-"RY
i . ..,i,.-.,..aa "'""" ~dlLU;,,.,,h•
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf!1»<'l uooo,.. ....,,,,.,. -...J4f•nt.1le _.Jl~"'\l ""~ C~19cl.c:>r""ll(I'""'.._ fl o•,:!o "'1mom: :JJ1.,.,,...,,,,_
«It""""' 1f!"1o.Wt ..,...,.i.....
.,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'" ......""'"·
C.Ontrol" of ten1perature The r11ain &c.-rors that cause \'ari.ations Daily range of ternperature 'l'he difference ber.\•ttn the ntaXi·
in te1nperature fro1n one place to another. n1un1 and nlinin\un\ tentpe:ratures for any given day.
Convection Motions in a 8uid Lhat result in Lhe transport and Dart leader 'l he discharge of electrons that proceed<; intermit·
n1b:ing of Lhe f1uidS properties. In 1neteorolomt, con\~Ction usually telltl)• t0\\1ard the ground along the sa111e ionized c hannel caken by
refers to atn1ospheric 01otions that are predo1ninantlyverrical, such dte initial lightning scroke.
a.'> rising air currents due to surface heating. 111e ri'>ing of heated Dendrochronology 11>< analysis of the annual growth rings of
surface air and the sinking of cooler air aloft is often cal led free trees as a n1eans of interpreting pastclintatic conditions.
0011\'l?Ction. (Con1pare \\1ithforred convection.} Density 1lle ratio of the ntas.~ of a substaoce to the volunte occu-
Convective Available Potential Energy (CA.PC) 1lte niaxin1un1 pied by it. Air densit)r is usually expre.~.sed as g/cn1l or kg/1nl.
enerm•available to a rising air pateel. It is a rneasure of ho\\' fa.'>t the Deposition A process that occurs in subfreezing air \\•hen \\'ater
air parcel \\•ill ri.se inside a curnuliforin cloud. vapor c hanges ditectly to lc.e \\ltbout becorning a liquid 6rst.
Convective instability Instability arising in the a nnosphere Deposition nuclei Tin)' particle.~ ( ice nuclei) upon \\•hich an ice
\\1ten a cQlun10 of air exhibits \\1arn1, 1noist. nearly saturated air crystal n1ay gro\\• by the process of deposition.
near the surface and cold, dry air aloft. \Vhen the lo\\1er part of the Oerecho Strong, dan1aging, straight-line winds as.o;ociated \\1ith a
layer L<i lifted and saturation occurs, it becontes unstable. cluster ofsevere thunderstornlS that n1ost often forn1 in the evening
Convergence An atn1ospheric condition that e.xists \\•hen dte or at night
\\1ttd'> cause a horiiontal net i.nHo\\1 of air into a specified region. Desertification A general increase in the desert conditions of a
Conve)ror belt model (for ntid· latitude storms} A three. region.
dimensional picture of a n1id.-latitude cyclone and the various air Desert paven1ent An arrangen1ent of pebbles and large stones
strean1s (called conveyor belts) that interact to produce the dtat reniains behind as finer dust and sand particles are blO\\'n a\\'a)'
\\<eather associated \\•ith the storn1. by the \\•ind.
Cooling degree-day A f0m1 of degree-day used in estimating the Dew \¥ater that has condensed onto objects near the ground
an1ount of energy necessary to reduce the effective ten1perature \ \ hen tbeir ten\perarur es have talle11 belo\\' the de\\' point of thesur-
1
of \\iarn1 air. A cooling degree-day is a day on \\•hich the average tice air.
ten1perarure is one degree above a desired base ten1pemture. De\\• cell An instrun1ent used to detem1ine the de\\'· pt)int tent-
Corioli.s force effects An apparent force obsen~d 0 11 any free. peranire.
n1oving object in a rotating S)'stent. On the earth, thL<i deflective Dew point (de\\•...point ten1perature} ·nte te1nperature to \\1tich
force resulti;; front the earth's rotation and cau.<;es 111oving particles air n1ust be cooled (.at constant pre.<;sure and constant \\'ater \'<lpor
(including the "ind) to deHect to tl1e right in the Nortbern co11te11t) for saturation co occuc
He111isphere and to the left in the Southern Hern isphere. Oe\\' point hygrometer An instrwnent that detern1in e.~ the de\\1•
C.Oron a (optic) A seri es of colored rings concentrically sur· point ten\perature of the air.
rounding the di'>k of the sun or 1noon. Sn1aller dtan the halo, the Diffraction 11ie bending of light around obje<:IS, such as cloud
corona is often caused by the diffraction of light around sniall \\'ater and fog droplets, producing fringes of light and dark or colored
droplets of unifOnn size. bands.
Country breeze A light breeze tbat blO\\'S into a city front the Dispersion (of light) '11le separation of \\1hite light into its
surrounding countryside. Jt L'> besr ob.'>en•ed 011 cle.ar nights \\ihen different con1ponent \\'a\\>lengths.
d1e ur ban heat i.sland is niost pronounced Dispersion (of pollution) 1hespreadiogof atmospheric pollutants.
Crepu.<eular rays Alternating light and dark bands of lig ht that Dissipating stage 1 he final stage in the developrnenl of an
appear to tan out front the sun's position, usuallt at mi light ordinary cell thunderstomt \\•hen downdraft.'> exist dtroughout the
Cu1nu1onhnhus An exceptio llally dense and vertically de\'ela cun1ulo11in1bus cloud
oped cloud, often \\1ith a top in the shape of an anvil. 11te cloud is Divergence An at1nospheric condition tbat exists \\1hen the
frequen tly accon1pa11ied by heavy shO\\'t':tS, lightning, thunder, and \\inds cause a horizontal net outfto\\1 of air front a ~~ecific region.
00111etimes hail. Jt i.s aloo kno\\'n as a thu,Kferstorru doud. Doldrunt.~ ·nle region near the equator that is characterized by
Cuntulus A cloud in the f0rn1 of individual, det ached don1es lo\'. pressure and light,shifting \\'inds.
1
or tO\\•ers that are usually dense and \\'ell defined. Jt ha.s a flat ba.'>e Doppler lidar 1 he use of light bea111s to detennine the velocity
\\ith a bulging upper part that often rese111bles caulif1o\\•er. of objects such as dust and fal ling rain by taking into account the
Cuntulus clouds of fair \\'eather are called cuu1t,/us hu1u;Us. 11tose Doppler shift.
that exhibit 111uch vertical £JO\\•th are called cu111ulus mngestus or Doppler radar A radar that determines the ''eiocity of lillling
toweri11g ct1tu1, /u s. precipitation either tO~\·ard or a\\1ay fmn1 the radar unit b}' ta king
CuntuJlS stage 111e initial stage in the de\lelop1nent of an ordinary into account the Doppler shift.
cell thunderstom1 in \\•hich rising, \\'amt, hu1nid air develop.<i into a Doppler shift (effect) The change in the frequency of \\1a\re.<; that
cwnulus cloud occurs \\•hen the e1nitter or the ob.<;erver is n1oving to\\•ard or a\'"'Y
Cur,ia.lure effect Jn cloud ph)•sics. as cloud drop lets decrease in front the o rher.
size, they e.-.:hibit a greater surface curvature that causes a ntore Oo\\•nburst A severe localiied do,\•ndraft that can be experi·
rapid rate of evaporation. enced beneath a se\1«.>re thundersrornt. (Con1pare M;crobursl and
Cut· off lol'tr A cold upper· level IO\\' that has becon1e di.'>placed Macrob11rst.)
out of the basic "'esterly tlo\\ and Lies to the south of this tlo\\•.
1 Drizzle SntaU \\•ater drops ben\1«.>en 02 and 0.5 n1nt in dian\ecer
<.'yclogenesl< 11ie development or strengthening of middle-latitude dtat fall slo\\•ly and reduce visibilit}' n1ore than light rain.
(e.,'tratropical) cidone.<. Drought A period of abnorntall)• dry \\'t':ather sufficient!}' long
Cyclone ..\n area of lo\\' pressure around \\•hich the \\•indo; blO\\' enough to cause serious effects on agriculture and other activities
counterclock\\rise in the Northern Hen1isphere and clocl.."\\'L'>e in in the affected area.
dte Soudten1 He111isphere.
C...,-nfo )11~ °"'"'°'1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... .al M:.y ta>thu•• icd >........J,,.. .l....Wod."' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" . .... - 11...t fW'1 '",._"RY t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dlLU;,,..,h• «lo""""' I f!4u.Wt.-,...,.t.....
.._,.,..,,.....,"'\lf11»<'1 "''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l""~ C~19ctr..t""'lll'""'.._ ft ••t:l""''"'""":JJ'"*',...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_.....,.,.,..,,
Dry adiabatic rate 11\e rate of change of ten1perature in a rising Enhanced Fujita (£f) scale A n1odification of the original Fujita
or descending unsaturated air parcel. 1l1e rate of adiabatic cooling Satle d1at describes to rnado intensity by obsen•ing drunage caused
orwam1ing L< about IO"C per IOOO m (s.s•f per 1000 fi). by the Lornado.
Ory adiabats Lines o n an adiabatic chart that sho't\• the dry En.«:ntble forecasting A forecas ting technique that entail.:; run-
adiabatic rate for rising or descending air. •111ey repre.senl Lin e.~ of ning se\~ral forec.a.o;t n1odel.s (ordifferentversioru: of a single n\odel},
coostant potential ten1perature. each beginning "''ith slightly different "'~ther infom1ation. The
Dry--bulb ten1perature 11\e air re1nperarure n1easured by the forecaster's level of confidence is based on ho'\' \\tell the n1odels agree
dty~ bu lb thern101neter of a ps)i-hroo1eter. (or di.~agree) at d1e end of son\e specified ti111e.
Dr y cli1nate /\ clin1ate deficie nt in precipitation \\•here annual ENSO (El Nii10/Southern Oscillation} Aconditi-On in the tropi·
potential evaporation and transpiratio n exceed precipitation. cal Pacific \\1hereby the reversal of surface air pressure at o pposite
Ory hau Se<> Haz.e. e nds of tbe Pacific Ocean induces \\te.~terly \\ti.nds. a screnglhening of
Ory lightning Lightning that occurs \\'ilh thunderstornts that pro· the equatorial counten:urrent, and e.xtensive ocean \\'<lnning.
duce litde, if an ~ appreciable precipitation that re.aches the surface. Entrainment 'l'he n\ixingofeovironn1ental air into a pre-existing
Dryline A bow1dary that separ.ltes \\'arn1, dry air &001 \\1arn1, air current or cloud so that the enviro11n1ental air beco1nes part of
n1oi.~ t air. Jt usually represents a zone of instability along "1,kh the current or cloud.
d1understonns fOrm. Environ1n ental lapse rate 1.he rate of decrease of air ten1perature
Ory slot On a satellite intage the dry slot represents the relatively \\rith elevation. lt is n10st often n1ea.~ured \\tith a radiosonde.
cle.ar region (or clear \\ffdge) that appears just to the \\test Qf the tail Equilibrium \'a.por pres..~ure 11le necessar)' vapor pres.~ure
of a con1oia cloud of a n1id ~la titude cyclonic stom1. around liquid \\fater that allo\\fSthe \\1ater to ren1ain in equilibriun\
Ory-..swnn1er subtropical clin1ate A clin1ate characterized b)' \ \ 1 ith its enviro1 1n\ent. Also called saturation vapor pressure.
n1ild, "'tet \\1inters and \\'arm to hot,dr>' sununers. 'l)rpicall)' located Evaporation 'l he process b)'\\1hic h a liquid c hanges into a gas.
bet\\•een 30 and 45 degrees latitude on the \Vestern side of conti· Evaporation (1n ixi11g) fog Fog produced \\1hen sufficient v.iater
nents. AL'iO called Mediterranea11 d;,nate. vapor is added to the air by evaporation, and tl1e 1noist air ntixes
Oust devil (\\•birlwind) A sn1aU but rapid!)' rotating 't\ti.nd n1ade ~\rith relativel y drier air. 1he t\\IO con1n1on t)'p e.~ are steat1' fag,
"1sible by the du.o;t, sand, and debris it pick.-; up fron\ tbe surface. Jt ~\· hic h forn:i..~ 't\•hen cold air n1oves over \\1arn1 \\1ater, andjroutal fog,
de\t>lops best on clear, dry, hot afternoons. \ \1 hic h fornts a.:; \\•arm raindrops evaporate in a cool air n1ass.
Exosphere ·n1e outermost portion of the atn\osphere.

Eart h vorticity ·nle rotation (spin) of an object about its vertical ExtratropicaJ cyclone A cyclonic storiu that n1ost often fo rms
a.xis brought on by the rotation of the earth on its a.xis. ·nx> eard1'~ along a front in middle and high latitudes. AL<o called a middle·
vortic:ity is a n1a.ximun1 at the pole.~ and zero at the equator. latitude cyclonic stor111, a depre.ssiou, and a lo»•. Jt is not a tropical
Easter ly "iave A. ll\igratOt)' \\'3\t>like di.scurban ce in the tropical storm or hurricane.
ea.~terlies. Easterly \\•aves occasio nal(>' in tens it)• into tropical Eye A region in the center of a hurricane (tropic.al storn1) \\!here
q •clones. 'I hey are also called trop;cal »'tlves. the "•inds are light and skies are clear to partly cloudy.
&centricil)1 (of the earth~.. orbit} 111e deviatio n of the earth's Eyewall A \\•all of dense thunderstonns that surrounds the eye of
orbit from ell iptica.1to ne.arly circular. a hurricane.
Eddy A sma U\'Olume of air (or an)' Ou id) that behaves differently Eyn,•aJJ replacement A sicuation \\1d1in a hurricane (tropical
&on1 the larger t1o'\' io \\•hich it exist.~. crctone} 't\•here tl1e storn1's original eye"''<lll dissipates and a ne~\'
Eddy viscosity 11ie internal fric tion produced by turbulent Row. eye\\1all fOrn:i. o; Ouh\•ard, farther a\\la)' fro nt the center of tl'le .stor1n.
Ekln attspiral .A.n idealized description of tlx> "'aY d'le "'ind-drhien
ocean currents vary \\ ith depth. ln d1e atmosphere it repres.ents tbe
1
Fahren.heit scale A ten1perature scale \\•here 32 is assigned to the
\\'<\)' tbe \\fin d~ vary front lhe surface up through the friction layer or te n1perature \\1here \\'ater freezes and 212 to the ten1perarure \\1here
planetar)' boundary la)'er. ~\•at er boils (at sea level).
Ekn.wt transport Net surface \\1ater transport due to the Ekntan Fall streaks Falling ice crystals that evaporate before reaching the
spiral. Jn the Northern Hen1isphere 1.he transport is 90° to the right ground.
of the surface " 'ind direction. Fall wind A strong, cold katabatic wind that blows downslope off
£Jectrical hygron1eter See Hygron\eter. snO\\'-Covered plate.aus .
.Electric.al tber1no1neters ·nlen11on1eters that ase elen1ents that Fata Morgana A complex ntirage that i.~ c haracteri:zed by objects
coovert energy front one forn1 to another (transducers). r..0111n1on being dis[orted in such a\\'<\)' as to appear as castlelike features.
electrical ther1non1eters include the electrical resistance thern1on1- Feedback 1nechanisn.1 A process 't\•hereby an initial change in
eter, thern1ocouple, and thern1istor. an atmospheric process \\1lll tend to either reinforce the process
Electro1nagnetic waves See Radiant energy. (positive feedback) or weaken the process (11egative feedback).
El Niilo An extensi\te ocean \\rarn1ing that begins along the coast Ferrel celJ 1.he narne given to the n\iddle-latitude cell in the 3-cell
of Peru and Ecuador and ertends \\1e..st\,1atd O\'er the Tropical ntodel of the general circulation.
Vacifie. 1\.tajor El Nino e-.•ents, or strong El Ninos~ occur once e-.•er)' Fetch 1l1e distance that the \\•ind tra\•els over open "''ater.
2 to 7 years as a current of nutrient-poor rropical \\1ater 010,-es Flash flood A flood that rlses and falls quite rapidly with little or
south\\•ard along the \\'fSt coast of South Arnerica. (See also ENSO.) no advance \\'aming, u.~ually a~ the result of intense rainfall over a
En.1bryo Jn cloud ph)'Sics, a tiny ice crystal that gro\\'S in size and relativelr sntall are.a.
becon\es an ice nucleus. Flurries of snow See Sn0\\ Hurries. 1
Energy 111e property of a S)'Ste1n that generally enables it to do Foehn S.e.e Chinook \\find.
't\'l)rk. Son1e fornts ofenerg)' are kinetic, radiant, potential, cl1en1ical, Fog A cloud 't\1th its base at the earth's surface.
electric, and n1agnetic. Forced .;:onvection On a sntall ..scale, a f0rn1 of n1echanical
stirring taking place \\i'len t\\risting eddies ofair are able to n1ix hot
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... .al M:.y ta>thu•• icd >........J,,.. .l....Wod."' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" . .... - 11...t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al "'""h ~dl LU;,,.,,h• «lo""""' I f!4u.Wt_.,...,.t.....
.bmcdfo,.....,"'\lf11»<'1 "''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l""~C~19ctr..t""'lll'""'.._ fl ••,:!o .. 1mom::JJ1.,.,,...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
surface air \\ith the c-0oler air abo\~. On a larger scale, it can be Geoengineering 1be use ofglobal scale technology fixes to n\iti·
induced b)• the lifting of \\1arn1 air along a front (jroutal uplift) or gate clinute changes.
along a topographic barrier (orogrophic uplift). Geostationat')' satellite A satellite that orbits the earth at the
Forked lightning Cloud-to-ground lightning that exhibils sa1ne rate that lhe earth rotates and thu.co ren\ain.s O\~r a 6xed place
d0\\10\\'llnl·directed crooked branches. above the equacor.
Formaldehyde A colorless gaseous compound (HCHO) used in Geo.cotrophic \\'ind A d1eoretical horizQntal \\ind bl0\\ ing in a 1
the nianufactare of resins. fertilizers, and d)1es. ALcoo used as an en1- straight path, parallel to the isobars or contours, ata constant speed.
baln1ing tluid, a preservative, and a di..coinfectant. 11M:' grostrophic \\rind results \\•hen the C...oriolis force exactl)•
Free convection Se~ Convection. balances the horizontal pre.cosure gradient fOrce.
Freeze A condition occurring over a \\•idespread area \\•hen d)e Giant nuclei &~Condensation nuclei.
surflce air te111perature remains belo\'' freezing for a sufficient ti111e Glaciated cloud A clt)od or portion of a cloud \\•here only ice
to daniage certain agriculcural crops. A freeu n\o.cor often occurs as cr)1stals ex:isr.
cold air is advected into a region, causing freezing conditions to Glaze A coating of ice, often clear and sn1ooth, that fornt.co on
exi.sr in a deep la)'er ofsurface air. Also called advecaon frost. e.xp osed surfaces by the freezing of a film of supercooled \\'ater
Freezing nuclei Particles that promote the freezing of super· deposited by rain, drizzle, or fog. As a type of aircraft icing. glaze
cooled liquid droplets. is called clear ;a~
Freezing rain and fretting drl12-le Rain or drinle that falls in Global climate Climate of tl>e entire globe.
liquid forn\ and then freezes upon str-iking a cold object or ground. Global scale The lar@'st scale of atmospheric motion. AL<o called
Bodi can produce a coating of ice on objects "'bich is calledglaz.r. lhe pJauetar)' salle.
Friction layer 111e ato\ospheric layer near the surface usuall)• e.x- Global ~>ar1ning lncreacoing global surface air ten\peratures that
iending up 10 about I km (33-00ft) where the wind is influenced by sho\\• up in the clinute record.1 1lt term global »10rn1;,rgis u.coually
friction of the earth's surface and o bjects on it. Also cal led the attnt>· attributed to hwuan activities, such as increacoing concentratiQns of
spher;c botuufary layer and plauetary botuufar)' la)~r. greenhouse gases frorn auton1obiles and industrial proce.coses, fbr
front 11lt Lransition zone bet\,1een l\\\) dL.;tinct air n1as.coes. e.xample.
frontal fog Se~ Evaporation fog. Glory Colored rings that appear around lhe shadow of an object.
Frontal in,rersion A ten1per.iture ill\ifrsion encountered upon Gradient wind A theoretical \\tifld that blo\vs parallel to cunifd
ascending through a sloping front. usually a \\•arn1 fron t. i.coobar.s or contours.
Frontal thw1derstor1ns 'TI1understonns that fom1 in response to Graupel Ice particles bel\,•een 2 and 5 1nn1 iJ1 diarneter that fonn
forced convection (fon:ed lifting) along a frool. Mosl go through a in a cloud often b)r the process of accretion. Sno\,tf)akes that beco111e
C)1cle sin1ilar to those of ordinary thunderstorms. rounded pellets due to rio\ingare calledgmupd orsuow pelli'ts.
frontal v.-ave A ~'1avelike deforn1ation along a front in the lo\,ier Green flash A sniall green color that occ.asionall)• appears on d\e
levels of the aunosphere.1ll0se d1at develop intostornis are ter1ned upper patt of the sun aco it rises or sets.
tJrtstable v.wves, \\1hile those thal do 11ot are called stable t\Y/Ves. Gree11house effect See Atmospheric greenhouse effect.
Frontogenesls 111e fom\ation, strenglhening, or regeneration of Greenhouse ga..'i-eS Gacoes in the earth's atn1osphere, such a.co \\'llter
a froot. vapor and carbon dio.xide (CO.), that allow much of tl>e sunlight to
Frontolysis 111e \\'eakening or dis.liipation of a fron t pas.~ through but are stroogabs.orbers of infrared enerm•emirted b)1
Frost (also called hoarfrost) A covering of ice produced by d\e earth and the alr\lt).cophere. {)Lher greenh ouse gases include
deposirion on exposed surfaces \\ hen the air ten1perature falls
1
methane (CH). ni1rous oxide (N,O), fluorocarbons (CFC.s), and
belo\,1 Lhe fros t point. ozone (0,).
Frostbite 1l>e partial freezing of exposed parts of tl>e body, cau.<· Ground fog See Radiation fog.
ing injury to the skin and sontetiJnes to deeper ti..cosue.s. Growing degree-day A form of the degree-day used as a guide
Frost point 11le ten1perature at \\1hich tbe air beco1nes saturated for crop planting and for e.~tin\ating crop niaturity dates.
~'·ith respect to ice "'hen cooled at constant pressure and constant Gulf strea111 A ~'·am1, S\\ ift, narro\\• ocean current 80-..,•ing along
1
\ \1 atervapot content. the east ooacot of the United States.

Frozen de\\• ·nlt transforn1ation of liquid de''' into tiny beadco of Gu,st front A boundary that separates a cold do\,'ttdraft of a
ice \\1hen the air ten\perature drop..; belO\\' freezing. thunderstorm fmn\ \\'arm, hun1id surface air. On the surface its
Fujita scale A scale developed by T. 111eodore l'ujila for cla«ify- passage ref.fn\bles that of a cold front
ing tornadoes :k'c:ording to the da1nage they caa.coe and their rota· Gustnado A relative(}' \\1e.ak romado a.cosoci.ated \\rilh a thunder.
tional "ind speed (See also EnhancedFuj ita Scale.) storm's outflo'''· Jt n10.cotoften fornts along the gust front.
Fulgurite A rootHke tube (or several tubes) that fornt.co \\'hen a (;yre A large circular, surface ocean current pattern.
Iightning stroke fuses sand particle.co together.
Fwu1cl cloud A fun nel~shaped cloud of condensed "'ater, usually Haboob A dust or sandstorn1 that fonns as cold do\\1ndraft..; front
extend£ng front the ba.'ie of a cun1ulit'Onn cloud. •111e rapidly a thunderstoro\ turbulently lift dust and sand into tbe aic
rotating air of the funnel is not in c:ontact -\\•ith the ground; hence, Hadley cell A thermal circulation proposed by George Hadley to
it is not a tornado. explain Lhe n1oven1ent of the trade \\i.ndco. It consi..cots of ri.'iing air
near the equator and sinking air ne.ar 30° latitude.
Galaxy A huge assembly of stars (between millions and hundreds Hailo;tones ·rransparent or partially opaque particles of ice that
ofmUlion.s) held together by gravity. range in siie. front that of a pea to that of golf ballco.
Gas law 1l>e tl>em1odynantic law applied to a perfect i:iis that re- Hail.streak 1l1e accun1ulation of hail at the eartll's surface along a
lates the pressure of the gas to its density and absolute te1nperarure. relati\'el)' long (10 km), narrow (2 km) band.
General circulation of the atn1osphere Large.....c;cale atmospheric Hair hygron1eter See Hygmn1eter.
n\otions over the entire earth.
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.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,..,,,,... -...Joltf•nt.•le_.Jl ~"'\l""~ C~19cl.c:>rmll(l fD.._ fl••,:!o .. •m•m::J.io.,.,,...,.,,_
«It""""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.
,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_.....,.,.,..,,
t....
HaJons A group of organ ic conlpound'i used as tire retardants. In precipitatio n. 1)rpically located over large continental areas in the
the stratosphere, these co1npounds release bro1nine atorns that rap. Northern He n1isphete bet\,<een about 40° and 70° latitude.
idl)' destroy 02.0ne. ·nlf production of halons is no"• ba nned by the Hurnidity A general tertn that refers to the air's \\1ater vapor con·
Montreal Protocol. te nt. (S.e.e Relative hu1nidity.)
Halo..; Rings or arcs that encircle the sun or n1oon \\1hen seen Hu1nid subtropical clirnate A clintate characterized by hot
d>rough an ice crystal cloud or ask)' filled with fal Ling ice crystals. n1uggy sun11ners, cool to cold \\1it1ters, and abundant precipitation
Halos are produced by refraction of light. throughout the )'ear.
Haz.e Fine dry or \\'et du.st or salt particles dlspersed through a Hurricane A tropical cyclone having \\inds in excess of64 knots
portion of the atnlosphere. Jndividually these are not vL'lible but (74 mi~>r) .
cun1ulatively they \\•ill dinlinish visibility. Dry hau particles are Hurricane -h unters A popular tenn fOr aircraft and/or personnel
\'er')' sniall, on the order of 0.1 µn1. \Vet haze particles are larger. e ngaged in tl1e reconnaissance of hurricanes (tropical cyclones).
Heat A fo ml of energy trarlsferred ben\•een syste1ns by \1i:rtue of Hurricane ¥.--arning A v.'ilming gi\'en \\•hen it is likely that a
d\eir ten1perature differences. hurricane \\111 strike a n are.a ~\· ithi n24 hours.
Heat burst A. sudden increase in surface air tentperature often Hurricane watch A hurricane \\'<ltch indicates that a hurrkane
accon1panied bye.xt rerne drying. A heat burst is associated "'ith the poses a threat to an are.a (often ¥.•ithin se\\>ral days} and residents of
do\\•ndraftof a thunderstorn1, or a cluster of thunderstorn1s. the \\1atch area should be prepared.
Heat capacity The ratio of the heat absorbed (or released) b)' a Hydrocarbon..~ Cheo1ical conlpounds conlposed of only hydro-
systenl to the corresponding te1nperature ri.se (or tall). gen and carbon- they are included under the general tern1 volatile
Heat l ndex (HI) .>\n inde.x that con1bioes air temperarure and organic compounds (VOCs).
relative hun1idity to detemline an apparent te1nperature- ho\\,.. hot Hydrologic cycle A 1nodel that illll'itrates the n1ove1nent and
ii actually feel<. exchange of ' ''ater an1ong the earth, atn1osphere, and oceans.
Heatin g degree--day A fornl of the degree. clay used as an index Hydrophobic 1l1e ability to resist the condensation of v.iater
fof fuel coo.'iumption. vapor. U.;ually wed to describe "\\'<lter-repelling,. condensarion
Heat lightn ing Discant lightning tbat illu111inates the sky but L'i nuclei.
too far a\\1ay for its thunder to be heard. Hydrostat ic equation An equation that states that the rate at
Heat.~troke A physic: al condition induced b)• a person's overexp o· \ \ hic h the air pressure decreases \\ ith heighL i.'O equal to the air
1 1
sure to high air ten1peratures, e.'lpeciall),. ¥.tien accon\panied b)' den<;ity ti111es the -acceleration of gra\•ity. The equatio n relate.'i to
high hunlidity. ho\\1 quic kly the air pres.o;ure decreases in a colu1un of air.
Hectopasca.1 Abbreviated hPa. One hectopa.<eal is equal to H ydro.~tatic equilibriu1n 111e state of the atmosphere \\1 hen d1ere
100 Ne\\'tQns/1111 , or 1 nlillibar. is a balance bet\\1een the vertical pres.'Oure gradient fOrce and d1e
Heiligenschein A faint "'hite ringsurroundiog the shado\\rof an dO\\'ll\\'ard pull of gravity.
ob.'ier\'er's head on a de\\1· coveted la\\'n. Hygronleter An instru1nent de.'ligned to 1ue.asure the airS \\'ater
HeUcity A n1e.asure of the potential of the \\•ind for helical ''apor content. 'fhe sensing part of the inslrun1entcan be hair (hn;r
(c-0rkscre\\•·like) f10¥.1• Helicil)• L'i related to the strength of the \\i nd hygronJeter), a plate coated \\•ith carbon (electrical hygrrnneter), or
Ro\\\ the a1nount of \'ertica.I \\ind shear, and the an1ou11t of turning an infrared sensor (infrared hygron1eter).
in the \\1ind RO\\', its spin Qr vorticity. Th e updraft and d1e rotation H)rgroscopk Th e ability to accelerate the condensatio11 of \\':lter
inside a thunderstornl con1bioe to produce helical tlo,\1• 11lf higber vapor. U'lually used to describe conden'lation nuclei that have an
the value ofhelicity, the ntore likel)• tOr the de\'elop1nent of rotating affinity for \\1ater vapor.
thunderstornts (supercell.s) and severe \\\>ather. H ypot hern.1 ia ·nle deterioratio n in one's me nta I and phys ica I con·
Heterosphere ·n1e region of the atn1osphere above ab out 85 kn1 d itio n brought on by a rapid IO\\•ering of hunlan bod)• ten1perature.
\ \1 here the co1nposition of the air varies \\rith heighL Hypoxia A condition experienced by hunt.ans "'hen d1e brain
High &e Anticyclone. does not recei\~ sufficient ox·ygen.
High inversion fog A fOg that lifts above thesurface but does not
con1pletel)' dissipate because of a strong inversion (usuaU)' subs id· Jee Age See Plei.qocene epoch.
e nce} that exi.'lts above the fog layer. l ee-crystal (Bergeron} proces..~ A process that produces precipi--
Highland cliJnate 1lle clin1ate of high elevations. Also called tation. 111e process involves tiny ice crystals in a supercooled cloud
t110tu1tain cli,uate. 111ere is no single clhn atic typ e but a variety gro\\1ing larger at the expense of the surrounding liquid droplets.
of different clio1ate zones often characteriied by a rapid c hange Also called the &rgero11 process.
in te n1perarure and precipitation as o ne ascends or descends Ice fog A type of fog that foml s at \~ry lo\\' ten1peratures, con1-
in elevation. posed of tiny suspended ice particles.
Hon.lOgeneous (spontaneous) freezing 111e freezing of pure l celaudic low 'rhe subpolar lo"'·pressure are.a that is centered
"'ater. J~r tiny cloud dmplet.'i, homogc>neous freezing doe.'i not near Iceland on charts that sho'"• n1ean sea. level pre.'l.o;ure.
occur until the air te n1perature reaches ab oul - 4<f'C. Ice nuclei Part icle$ that act a.<; nuclei for the forniation of ice
Homo.sphere 111e region of the atn1osphere belo\'' about 85 kn1 cr)1stals in tbe atmosphere.
~\·here the coniposition of the air rentains fairly constant. Ice pellets See Sleet.
Hook echo 1l>e shape of an echo o n a Doppler radar screen that Jee stornt A \\1inter storn1 characterized by a substantial a1nount of
indicates the possible presence of a tornado. precipitation in tile forn1 of freezi ng rain, freezing drizzle, or sleet.
Horse latitudes 111e belt of latiTUde at aboul 30"' to 35° \\•here t ndian sw11n.ler An unseasonabl)' \\'3Cm spell \\1th clear skies
\ \ inds are predo1ninantl)' lig ht and the \\!father is hot and dt)•. near tl1e ntiddle of autun1n. Usually follO\\'S a substantial period of
1
Humid contin ental climate A cliniate characterized by .se\•ere cool \\tealher.

~\· inters and n1ild to v.iarn1 sunlnters -~\·ith adequate ann ual ln.ferior 1nirage See 1\iirage.
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thu••icd >........J,,.. .l....Wod."' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11...i fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dl LU;,,.,,h•
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«It""""' I f!4u.Wt_.,...,.t.....
lnfrared hygroJneter See Hygron\eter. Lake breeze l\ \\'ind blO\\ri.ngonshore from the surface of a Lake.
Infrared radiation Electroniagnetic radi:atlon \\1ith \\'ilVeJengths Lake--effect .SrtOl\'S Localized Sll0\\1Stom\S that fornl on thedO\\fn.
bet\,•eeo about 0.7 and 1000 µm . 11\is radiation Is longer than \\'ind side of a lake. Such stonns are contn\on in late fall and e.arly
visible radiation but shorter than n1icrO\\'ave radiation. \\'inter near the Great Lake.-; as cold, dry air picks up 1110Lo;ture and
lnfrared radiorneter An instrun1ent designed co nteasure the \\•annlh from the unfrozen bodies of \\•ater.
intensity of infrared radiation e111itted b)' an object Also called La1uinar flow A nonturbulent tlo\\1 in \\•hich the Huid nto\oes
hifmred sensor. sn1oothly in parallel layers or sheets.
lnsolation 1he ;uconting solar radiatiou that reaches the earth Land breeze A coastal breeze that blo"'S fro1n land to sea, ll<;uall)'
and the atmo.o;phere. ac night
lnstru1nentsheJter A boxlike (often \\1ooden)structuredesigned to Land.spout Relatively \\~ak nonsupercell tornado that origi·
prot&..'1 ''1eather lnstnuneot~ fro1n direct sunshine and precipitation. nates \\'ith a cun1iliforin cloud in its gro\vth stage and \\'ith a
lnterglaciaJ period A tinte interval of relativel>• ntild cliniate cloud that doe.-; not (Ontain a 1nid.(evel n1e.-;ocyclo11e. 1ts spin
during the Jee Age \\1hen continental ke sheets \\~re ab.o;ent or lint- originales near the surface. Landspouts often look like \\'ater·
ited in e.\'tent to Greenland and the Antarctic. spouts over land
lntertropical convergence zone (ffCZ) 1lle boundary zone La Niiia A. condition \\•here che central and e.astem tropical
separating the northeast trade \\'inds of the Northern Henlisphere Pacific Ocean turns cooler than norn1aL
front the southe.ast trade \\•inds of the Souchern Hen1isphere. Lapse rate 11\e rate at ~\·hich an atmospheric variable (usually
lnver.sion An increase in air ten1perature \\1ith height. ten1perature) decrea.o;es \\'ith height (Se.e £nviron1nental Lapse rate.)
lon An electrically charged aton\, ntQlecule, or particle. Lalent heat ·nle heat that is either released or absorbed by a unit
Ionosphere An electrified region of the upper atntosphere \\!here n1ass of a substance \\!hen it undergoes a change of state. such as
fairly large concentrations of ions and free electrons exist. during evaporation, conde11sation, or sublintation.
Iridescence Brilliant spots or borders of colors, n1ost often red Laterite A soil formed under tropical conditions "'here hea\')'
and green, observed in clouds up to about 300 front the sun. ralnfall leochessoluble n1ineralo; front the soil. 1ll:is leaching lea\'fS
lWlobar A line of equal chan~ in atn1ospheric pressure during d"le soil hard and poor for gm"'ingcrops.
a specified tin\e intenral Lee...side low Storn1 systen1.o; (a'lratropical C)\"lones) thal forn1 on
Isobar A Line connecting points of equal pres.o;ure. d"le dO\\'l'l\\1ind (lee) side of a n1ountain chain. In the United States
Isobaric chart (1nap) See C..on<>tant pressure chart. lee-·s ide lO\\'S frequently fotnt on thee.astern side of the Rockies and
lo;obaric surface A surface along\\•hich the atn1ospheric pres.o;ure Sierra Nevada n\ountains.
is ever)l'\\•here equal Lenticular cloud A cloud in the shape of a lens.
lo;otach A lineconnectingpointo; of equal \\'ind speed. Le'iel of free convection The Le,~ I in the annosphere at \\thich a
l.o;other1n A lineconnec..'tingpoints of equal teniperatu.re. Lifted air parcel becon\e..o; \\1atn1er than its surroundings in a condi·
lsotherrual layer A layer ~\·here the air ten\perature is constant tionaUy unstable atn\osphere.
\\'irh increasing altitude. 1nan isochermal layer, che air te1nperature Lidar ..\n instrun1ent that use.-; a laser to generate intense pulses
lapse rate is zero. d"lat are reflected &-01n atnlo.o;pheric particles of dust and sn1oke.
Lldars Ila'~ been wed to detern1ine the an\ount of particles in the
Jet 1naxilnurn Se.c Jet streak. atn1osphere as \\•ell as particle n1oven1ent that has been con\oerted
Jet streak A region of high \\'ind speed that 1noves dlrough the inro \\i.ndspeed. Lidar o\eans light detection and ranging.
a.xi.-; of a jet strean1. Alo;o caUed jet tlJaXfruutu. Lifting condensation le,,el (LCL) The level at \\1hic h a parcel of
Jet streain Relatively strong \\1inds concentraced "'ithin a narrO\\' ai.r, \\1hen Lifted dry adiabatically, \,•ould be<:on\e saturated
band in the atnlosphere. Light1ting A vL<ible electrical discharge produced by thunder-
storni.o;.
Liquid·in...glas..s lhermon\eter See 1 hern\01neter.
Katabatic (fall) wind All)' "'ind blo\\•ing downslope. Jt is ll~ual I>• Little lee Age 'Tile period front about 1550 to 1850 \\•hen average
cold.
te1nperature.s over Europe \\•ere IO\\•er, and alpine glaciers increased
Kek•in A unitof ten1per.iture. A Kelvin is denoted b)• Kand J K
in size and ad.,.anced do\\•n 111ountain <:all)()n.o;.
equals l"C. Zero Kelvin is absolute zero, or - 273.15(,C. Local winds \Vind-; that tend to blO\\' over a relative(>• s1nal I area;
Kelvin sea.le A tentperature scale \\•ith zero degrees equal to the
often due tQ regional effects, such as n1ountain barrie~. large
theoretical ten1perature al \\1hich al I ntolecular mocion ceases. bodie.-; of "<ater, local pres.o;ure differences, and other influences.
Also called the absolute scale. The units are son1etin1es called Long·range forecast Generally used lO describe a -~\·eather
..degrees Kel\•in..; hO\\•ever, the correct SJ ternlinologyis .. Kelvins;•
forecast that extend-; be)'Olld about 8.5 days into the fu ture.
abbreviated K.
Longwave radiation A tenn 010.o;t often llo;ed to describe the
Kinetic energy ·nle energy \\'ithin a body that is a result of its
infrared energy en1itted by lhe earth and the atn1osphere.
n1otion. Longwaves in the \\•ester lies A \\1ave in the upper level of \\'ester.
Kirchhoff's la\\' A la\\' that states: Good absorbers of a gi\~n Lies characteriied by a long length (thou..o;ands of kilometers) and
"'avelength of radiation are al~ good emitters of that \\'a\~Length. significant amplitude. Also called Rossby Mrves.
Knol A unit of speed equal lO 1 oauticaJ n1ile per hour. One knot Lo\'... See E.xtratropical cyclone.
«JUals 1.15 mi/hr.
Lo\,•·level jet stre.uus Jet strean1s thac typically forn1 near che
KOppen clas..~ification .systen.\ A S)'Sten1 (or classif)ring cliniates
earth's surface belO\\' an altitude of a bout 2 kn1 and usuall>• attain
de'"loped by W. Koppen that is ba,;ed mainly on annual and
speeds of less tl1an 60 knoL<.
1nonthly averages of ten\perature and precipitation.
c...,..,.. 1111~ °"'"'°' t-..n•Allibt!t.tt_... ..i M:.y ta>thc....,o.u •........i,,.. ,....,...,.,.i..., ,....,"'"'in ...... ti... .., ch<......,. .... - 11...i 1-'1 '" ..- "R'f i . "'1¥.,..aa "'""" ~dlLU;.,.,J\• «lo""""' 1 f!4".Wt.-,...,.i....
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1 "''""" ..,.,.,,,. -...J4f•nt.1le _.Jl~"'\l""~ C~19c1-mll(lfD.._ f1 01,:!• "''mom: :JJo.,.,,...,.,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_ .....,.,.,..,,
Macroburst A strong do..,\•ndraft (dowuburst} greater than 4 kn\ Mesoscale Convective System (MCS) A large cloud system that
\\tide that can occur beneath thunderstom1s. A dO\\tnburst les.~ than represents an ensen1ble of thw1derstonns thal forin by convection,
4 kn1 across is called a 111;croburst. and produce precipitation O\~r a "'ide area.
Macrocli1nate ·nlegeneral climate of a large area.such as a country. t\itesoS-1..--ale con\iective vortex A counterclock\\•ise circulation
t\ilacroscaJe '11le norntal oteteorologkal synopric scale fbr about an area of lo\\' pressure dlat fornt.~ in the ntid· levels of the
o btaining wreath.er info m\ation. Jt can co\~r an area ranging fron1 atn1osphere, and is usually less than 240 km (150 nti) in dia1neter.
the si:ze of a continent to the entire globe. ~lesospbere 'Tile attnospherk la)1er ben,-een the stratosphere and
~tagnetic storn1 A \\1ortd ...,1c1e di..;turbanc:e of the earth's niagnetic d1e them\ osphere. Located at an a'~rage e levation bel\\1een SO and
tie Id caused by solar di...;rurbances. 00 Ion above tile earth's surface.
Magnetosphere 11lf region around the earth in \\•hich the earth's t\iteteogra1n A c hart that sho..,,is ho\\1 011e or 1nore "'eather
ntagnetic field plays a do111inant part in controlling the physkal variable$ has c hanged at a station over a given period of tin\e or
processes that take place. ho\'' the variables are like!)' to change "'ith tin1e.
Mammatus cloud< Cloud< that look like pouches hanging from Meteorology 1l1e s tudy of the atn1osphere and atmospheric
tl>e underside of a cloud. phenon\ena as "'ell as the atn10..;phereS interaction \\ii.th tile earth's
Marine clhnate A cliniate controlled largely by the ocean. 1lle surfuce,oceans, and life in general.
ocecu1's inf!uence keeps "'inters relative()• n\ild and su1n111ers cool. Microburst A strong locali2ed downdraft (downburst) le~< than
t\ilaritiine alr Moi..~ t air \\1hose c haracteristic..; \\\>re developed 4 kn1 \\•ide that occurs bene.ath thunderstornis. A s trong do\,•nburst
O\•er an e.xtensive bodyof" 1atec greater tban 4 knt across is called a 'nacroburst.
Maritilue polar air n\a.ss An air nia.ss characterized by lo'\' MicrodiJnate ·n1e clin1ate structure of the air spac:e near the
te111perarures and high huntidity. surface of the earth.
Maritilne tropical air 1na~~ ..\n air niass characterized by high Micro1neter (µ.in } A unit of leogth equal to one· ntillionth of
te mperatures and high hurnidity. a n1eter.
t\ilatu.re thunderstorm ·111e second s tage i.n the three.stage cycle i\iticroscaJe ·nle s1nallest scale of atn\ospllfric m otion~ .
of an ordinary thunder.stornt. Th is n\ature s tage is characterized Middle latitudes The region of the world ty pically described as
by beavy s ho"<ers, lightning, thunder, and vio lent vertical n1otions being between 3-0" and 5-0" latitude.
inside cu1nulonin1busclouds. Middle-latitude cyclone See E.xtratropical cyclone.
Maunder 1nin.ilnu1n ...\ period front about 1645 to 171 5 \\•hen Mid·Holocene maxilnu1n ...\ \\'llmt period In geologic histOr)'
fe\\'. if any, sunspots \\1ere obs.erved. about 5000 to 6000 )'•ats ago that !inured the de''-"opment of plant<.
t\ilaxiinwn thernto1neter A thern1onteter \\1ith a s1nall constric· Milankovitch theory A tl100rr proposed by Milutin Milankovitch
ti on ju.~t abo\~ the bulb. Jt i..~ designed to n1easure the n\axin1un1 air in the 1930s sugwsting that changes in the eardl's orbit \\•ere respon-
tentperarure. sible fb r variation.~ in solar energy reaching the earthS surface and
~tean an.nuaJ te1nperature 1 he average ten1perature at any given cliniati.c changes.
location for the en lire ye.ar. Millibar (1nb} A unit for expre.~sing atn\ospherk pressure.
Mean daily te1nperature 11le average of the highe..;t and lo\\•est $.ea-level pressure is normally close to 1013 n1b.
te11\perature for a 24-hour period. i\ilinirt1u1n ther111onleter A ther1nometer designed to n1easure
M«hanicaJ turbulence Turbulent edd)' n1otion~ caused b)' d'le tninin1un1 air ten1perarure during a desired tin1e period
ob.~truc tions, such a.~ trees, buildings, 1nountains. and so on. Mini •sl\•i.rl~ S niall '''hirling eddies perhaps 30 to 100 n\ in
1\rtediterranean cUntate Se.e Dry....~w1\1ner subtropical clin1ate. dian\ eter that forn1 in a region of strong \\•ind she at of a hurricane's
Mediun1~ra11ge foreca.;t Generally used to de.~crib e a '''e.ather eye.. \\•all. 1 hey are believed to be s1n all tornadoes.
foreca~t that extends fro m about 3 to 8.5 days into the fu ture. t\itirage A refraction phenon\enon that niakes cu1objet.1: appear to
i\ilercury baro1neter A typ e of baro1neter lhat uses n1ercury to be displaced front ics true position. When an object appears higher
nte.asure atn1ospheric pressure. 11lf height of the 1nercury <:olu111n d'lan it acruaUy is, it is called a superior rn;rage. \Vh en an object
is a n1ea~ure of atn1ospheric pressure. appears lo"<er than it actually is, it is an ;11jerior rumige.
1\rleridional tlo\\' A type of atn10spheric c irculation pattern in 1\rlixed cloud A cloud containing both \\•ater drops and iceCr)'Stals.
"'hich the north ~outh c-0n1ponent of the \\1ind is pronounced. Mixing depth 'l he \~rtical e.xtent of tile n\ixing la)•er.
~tesodilnate 1l1e clin1ate of an area ratlging in size fro1u a fe" ' t\ilixing layer 1Jle unstable atiuo.~ph eric layer that e.xtends front
acres to several square kilon1eters. d'le surfac.e up to the b ~e of an inversion. \\lithin this layer, the air
~tesocyclone A vertical colun1n of t.)'Clonic.all>' rotating air i...; \\•ell stirred.
\\ii.thin a supercell thunderstornt. Mixing ratio ·1he ratio of the nta.~sof\\1atervapot in a given \t>lun1e
1\rlesohigh A relatively sn1all area of high atn\ospheric pre.s.~ure of air to the oiass of dry a ir.
d'lat forms beneath a thunderstorn1. Moist adiabatic rate 11X' rate ofchange often1perature in a rising or
~tesopause ·nle top of the 1nesosphere. 1.he boundary bet\,•een descendi ngsaturated air parcel. ·n\e
rate ofcooling or \\•arn\ing varies
d'le n\e.sosphere and the therniosphere, u.~u al ly near 85 kn1. but a common '"'"' of 6•C per 1000 m (3.3°1' per 1000 ft) is used.
~tesoscale 11lf scale of 1neteorologic.al phenon1ena that range in ~loist adiabats Lines o n an adiabatic chart that s ho'\' the 111oi.st
size front a fe\\' kn\ to about 100 km. It includes local \\ii.nds, thun. adiabatic rate for rising an d descending air.
derstornis, and tornadoes. 1\rtolecular viscosity 1l1e sn1all-scale inten1al fluid friction that
Mesoscale Convective Complex (MCC) A large organi2ed i.~ due to the randon\ n1otion of the n1ole<:ule.~ -" •ithin a s1nooth-
convecti \~ \\•eather syste1u c-0111prised of a 11u1nber of individual tk'>\\'i.ng Hu id, such as air.
dlunderstornis. 11le size of an MCC can be I 000 tint es larger than i\itolecule A collection of aton\S held toged'ler by chen1ical fon:es.
an individual on.:lioary cell thunderstorm. ~lonsoo n A nante given to se.asonal \\rinds that typic.all)• blo~\'
&on1 different directions during different tin1es of the )~ar, n1ost
often duringsun1n\er and "'inter.
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... .al M:.y ta>thu••icd >........J,,.. .l....Wod."' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... - 11...t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dlLU;,,.,,h• «It""""' I f!4u.Wt_.,...,.t.....
.bmcdfl,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~ C~19ct.c:>r""'lll'""'.._ fl ••,:lo.,,..,•...,:JJ,.,.,,...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
Mons-0011 depressions \Veak lo-.,\•-pressure area.co that tend to NO\\•c.asting Short.tern\ v.'father forecasts vat)'iog from n1inures
f0r1n in response to divergence in an upper·lt>\'el jet SL.ream. 1lle up to a fe\\• hours.
circulation around the lo"' strengthens the n1onsoon \\'ind systen1 Nuclear \\inter 11le dark, cold, and gloon1y conditions that
and enhances precipitation during the su1un1er. presu111ably "'ould be brought on by nuclear \\rar.
i\ilonsoon \\ind syste1n .r\ \\•ind syste1n that re\•er.ses direction Nucleation Any process in \\'hich the phase change o( a
beh\•een \\•inter and sumn1er. UsuaUy the \\•ind blO\\'S fron1 land to substance to a 111ore co11densed state (such as co11densation, depo-
sea in \\'inter and front sea to Jand in sun1111er. sition, and freezing) is initiated about a particle (nucleus).
~fountain and valley breeze A local \\•ind systen1 of a 1nountain Nunleric.al \\'eather prediction (N\.VP) J-1>recasting the \\1eather
valler that blo\\•s do\\•nhill (tuountain breeze.) al night and uphill based upon the solutio11s of niathe1natical equations by high-speed
(valley bre$U) during tl>e day. con1putets.
i\ilulticeU thunderstor1n A convective stornt .S)1Sten1 con1posed
of a cluster of convee:ti\'e cells, each one in a diffetent sta~ of its Obliquity (of the earth's axis) 'The tilt of the eartll's axis. It repre-
lifeqcle. sents the angle fron1 the perpendicular to the plane of the earth's
orbit.
Occluded front (occlusion) A c-0mplex fron tal S)'Stem that
Nacreous clouds Clouds of unkno\\'ll composition tbat have a idea II)• fornts \\1hen a cold front overtakes a \\•am1 fmnt. \\!hen the
ooli., pearly luster and that fonn at altirudes about 25 to 30 kn1 air behind the front i.s colder than the air ahead of it, the front is
above the earth's surface. They are also called niother~of-pearl called a ccld ocr lus;ou. \Vhen the air behind the front is ntilder than
dorufs. d1e air altead of it, il is called a watr11 occJusiou.
Negative feedback mechani~n1 See feedback n1echanis1n. Ocean conveyor beh 'fhe global circulation of ocean \\•aler that
Neutralstability (neutrally stable atmosphere) An atmospheric i. o; driven by the sinking of cold, dense v.oater near Greenland and
condition that exists in dry air \\1he11 the environn1ental lapser-ate Labrador in the Nonh Atlantic.
equals the dry adiabatic rate. ln saturated air the envimnn1ental Ocean~ effecl sn-O\\' Localized bands of sno\\r that occur \\1hen
Lapse rateequal4i the nioisl adiabatic rate. relatively cold air ftO\\'S over a v.iarn1er oce.an.
N£.XR,\O ..\11 acrony1n for Next Generation \'Y'eatl:1er Radar. 'Ille Otf.~hore wind A breeze that blov.is (tom the land our over the
main c-0mponent of NEXRAD L< the WSR 88-0, Doppler radar. .,,oater. Opposite ofan onshore \\find.
Nintbostratus A dark. gray cloud characterized by 111ore or 01nega high /\ridge in the n1iddleor upper troposphere that has
le.ss continuously falling precipitation. ll is rarel)' acco1npanied by tl>eshape of a Greek letter omega (H).
lightning, thunder, or hail. Oit..~hore \\1ind .r\ breeze that bJo,,•s fro111 the \\later onto the land.
Nitric oxide (NO) A colorless gas produced by natural bacterial Opposite of a11 offshore \\ind
action in soil and by con1bustlon proces.~e.'i at high te1nperatures. In Open \\'a'ie ·nle stage of developn1ent of a \\'3Ve C)'Clone (n1id·
polluted air, nitric on de can react \\'ith ozone and hydrocarbons to latitude q 1clonic stonn) \\•here a cold front and a v.oar1n fron t exi.sl,
fOriu other sub.stances. ln this n1anner, it acts a.~ an agent in d'e but no occluded front 1he center of lov.-est pres.c;ure in the \\1a\re i. o;
production of photoc.he1nical s1nog. located at the junction of the 1:\\10 fronts.
Nitrogen (N.) A colorless and odorles.~ gas that occupies about Orchard beaters Oil heaters placed in orchardo; that generate
78 percent ofdf)r air in the lov.-et atmosphere. heat and pr-0n1otecon,iecti\'e circulations to protec:t fruit tree.~ front
Nitrogen dioxide (NO,) A reddish-brown gas, produced by nat- dantaging I0\\1 te1nperarures. A.l<;0 called sruudge pots.
ural bacterial action in-soil and by con1bu.stion processes at high Ordinary cell thunderstorn1 (also called a;r.rrutss thu11derstor111 )
ternperature.s. ln the presence of sunlight, it breaks dO\\'n into nitric A thunderstorn\ produced by local convection \\ ithin a condition- 1
oxide and acon1ic oxygen. In polluted air, 11itrogen dioxide acts as all)• w1stable air 1nas.4i. Jt often forms in a region of lo\\' \\'ind shear
an agent in the production of photoche111ical .s1nog. and does not reach the intensity of a .severe thunderstorn1.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx> Gases produced by natural processes Orographic clouds Clouds produced by lifting along rising
and by coo)bustion processes at high te1nperatures. Jn polluted terrain, usual I)' n1ountains.
air, nitrk oxide (NO) and nilrogen dioxide (NO:) are the n1ost Orographic uplift 1lx> lifting of air over a topographic barrier.
abundant oxides of nitrogen, and both act as agents for the produc· Ooud.s d1al f0rn1 in this Lifting process: are called orogmphic douds.
lion of photoche1nical smog. Outflo\\' boundary A surface boundary fOnued by the horizon.
NoctiJucent doud.s \Va\')'. thin, blui..dt ~\\•hitecl oudc; that are be.sr tal spreading ofcool air that originated i11side a thunderstorn1.
seen at l:\\•ilight in polar latitudes. ·nley fOrm at altitudes about SO to Outga.4i.sing 1 he release of ga.4ies di..4iSohied in hot, 111olten rock.
90 knt above the surface. Overrunning A condition that occurs \\•hen air n1oves up and
Nocturnal in\tersion Se~ Radiation inversion. over another layer of air.
NonsupereeJJ tornado A tornado that occurs \\ith a cloud that is Overshooting top A siruation in a n1ature thunderstorn1 \\•here
often in its gro\\'ing stage, and one that does not contain a ntid· rising air, ao;sociated ,,1d1 strong convection, penettate.4i into a sta-
level 111esoq1clone, or .,,'<\U cloud. Landspout.s and gusrnadoes are ble la)'er (usually the stratosphere), forcing ct., upper part of the
exan\ples of nonsuperceUtornadoe.4i. cloud to rise above it.~ relatively flat an\lil top.
North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) A reversal of atmospheric Oxygen (0,) A colorless and odorless gas that occupies about
the Atlantic Oce,an thal influences the \\!father O\~r
pre.~o;ure ()\~r 21 percent Of dry air in the lo\\<er atmosphere.
furope and over easten\ North An1erica. Orone (0) An almost colorles.~ gaseous forn1 of O:\')gen v.•ith an
Northeaster A na1ne given lo a strong. stead)' \\1ind fro1n d)e odor sin1ilar to \\•eak chlorine. 1lle highest natural conce11tratio11 is
nord1ea.sr that is ac:t.X>n1panied by rain and inclen1ent weather. 1t f0w1d in the stratosphere \\'Ile re it is knO\\lfl as stratospheric ozone.
often develops \\1hen a storn1 system lllO\'eS nor1heast\\1ard along Jl aL'io forms in polluted air 11e,ar Lhe surface v.1here it is the n1ain
the coasl of North An1erka Also called Noreaster. ingredient of photochen1ical sn1og. H'erej it is called tropospheric
Northern light~ &e .A.urora. ozone.
C...,.nfo )11~ °"'"'°'1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... .al M:.y oa>thc ...icd >........J,,.. .l....Wod."' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" . .... - 11...t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dl lU;""''h•
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1 "''""" ..,..,,,,... -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>tmll(lfD.._ fl ••,:lo.,•mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_ .....,.,.,..,,
«lo""""' I f!4u.Wt_.,...,. t....
Oz.one hole A sharp drop in stratt)spheric ozone concentration Polar ice cap din\3.te A clin1ate characteri:zed byextren1e cold, as
obser,~d over the Antarctic during Lhe spring. every 1no11th has 31'1 a\•erage ten1perarure belo\'' freezing.
Polar lo''' A.n area of lo''' pressure that forni.~ O\~r polar \\'ater
Pacific air Cool, n1oisl air d1at originates O\\>r the Pacific Ocean, behind (poleward of) the main polar front.
1noves easl\,1ard, then desc.ends the Rock)r Mountains and nto\~S Polar orbiting satellite A sateltite '''hose orbit closely parallels the
over the plains as dry, stable, relative!>• cool air. eardlS n1eridian lines and thus cro.~ses the polar region..; on each orbit
Pacific Decadal Osctllation (POO) A revernal in ocean surface Polar twidra clin\ate A cli1nate charactel"ized by extren1el)1
te1nperarures that occucs every 20 to 30 years over the tlorthern cold \\•inters and cool sun1n1ers. as the a\•erage te111perature of
Pacific Ocean. the '''anne.o;t n1onth clin1b.~ above freezing but remains belO\\'
Pacific high See Subtropical l~glt IO"C (50"1').
Parcel of air An iniaginary sniaU bod)' of air a fe\'' n1eters '''ide Pollutant..; Any gaseous. che1nical, or organic matter that con.
d1at is used ro explain the behavior of air. tan1inate.'; the atn1osphere, soil, or \\>ater.
Parhelia See Sundog. Positive feedback 1nechanL~m Se~ feedback n1echanisn1.
Particulate 1natter Solid particles or liquid droplel<i that are Potential energy 1heenerm1 that a bod)• posse.o;ses by virtue of its
s1nall enough to ren1ain su.~pended in the air. Also called aerosols. position \\'ith respect to other bodie.o; in the field of gra\ity.
Pattern recognition An analogue 111ethod of forecasting '''here Potential evapotranspiration (PE} 11lC a1nount of n1oisture that,
d1e forecaster ust'3 prior \\1eather events (or sin1Uar \\!father n1ap if it \\1ere: available, \\'OUld be rert1oved fron1 a gi\~n land area by
cortditions) ro ntake a forecast evaporation and tran.~piration .
P/E index (precipitation· eo.1aporation index) An inde.x that Potential tentperature 1be ten1peracure that a parc:el of dt)• air
~ves the long.range e:tfecrivenes.'; of pt"ecipitation in pmn1oting ''uuld ha'~ if it \\iere brought dry adiabatically fmn1 its original
plant gro\\rth. position to a pressure of 1000 n1b.
P/E ratio (precipitation. evaporation ratio) An expression Preces.o;ion (of the earth~.; a~io; of rotation} 1.he \\'Obble of the
devised for the purpose of cl a~ifying cliniates; based 0111no11thly earth's axL'; of rotation that tract'3 our the path of a cone over a pew
totals of precipitation and e\•aporation. riod of about 23,000 l"•rs.
1-\!rmafrost A layer of soil beneath the earth's surface that ren\aios Precipitation An)' f0rn1 of \\1ater particles- liquid or $Olid - that
frozen throughout the year. falls fro1n tile atn1osphere and reaches the ground.
Persistence forecast A forecast that the furure \\\'ather condition Pressure ~lhe force per unit area. See also Air pressure.
''ill be the sante as the presentcortdirio1'l. Pressure gradient 1lle rate of decrease of pre.~sure per unit of
Photoche1nical s1nog S.eeSn1og. horiionta.I di.';tance, On the sa1nechart, '''hen the isobars arec(o.';e
Photodissociation The splitting of a molecule b)ra photon. together, the pres.~ure gradient is steep. When the isobars are far
Photon A discrete quantity of energ)' that can be thought of as a apart, the pressure gradient is .,,,eak.
packet ofelectmn1agnetic radiation traveling at the speed of light. Pressure gradient force (PGF) 1 he fon:e due to differences in
Photosphere 11X> visible surface of the sun fmn1 \\ hich nto.~t of 1 pres.';ure \\'ithin the atmosphere that causes air to o\ove artd, hence,
its energy is en1itted. the ''•ind to blo\\1• ft i.o; directly proportional to the pres.';ure gradient.
Pile us cloud A stnootb cloud in the forn1of a c.ap. Occurs above, or Pre.o;;sure tendency ·nX> rate: of c hange of atn1ospheric ptes.';ure
is attached to. the top Qf a cumulifonn cloud Also called a rap cloud. \\1thin a ~~ecified period of ti111e, n10.o;t often three hours. Saine as
Pilot balloon A sn1al I baU oon that rL~es at a constant rate and is barou1etric teruferzcy.
tracked by a theodolite in order to obtain \\1ind speed and \\•ind Prevailing '\'~terlies 11le dontinant \\<esterly ''inds that blo'''
direction at various levels above the earth's surface. in ntidd.le latitude.'; on the pole\\•ard side of the subtropical high·
Planetary boundary layer SeeAtn10.~pheric boundat)' layer. pre.~sure ateas. Al~o called tmterlies.
Planetary scale The largest sea.le of atn10spheric motion. So1new Prevailing wind ·nx> \\1ind direction most frequen tly obsen~d
times called tl>e global scale. during a given period.
Plilinla SeeSolar\\ri.nd. Prinlar)' air pollutants Air pollutants that enter the atn1osphere
Plate tecton.ics ·rhe theory that the earth:.t surface do\,rn to about directly.
100 kin i.~ divided into a nwnber of plates that move re lati\~ to Probability foreca..~t A. fOrecasl of the pmbabil ity o( occurrence
one another acros.'; the surface of the earth. Once referred to as of one or n1ore of a n1utually exclusi'1e set of ''ieather cortdirioos.
continental drift. Prognostic chart (prog} A chart shcrningexl'ected or forecasted
Pleistocene Epoch (or Ice Age) The 111osr recent period of cortdition~. such a.~ pres.~ure patterns, frontal po.~itions. corttour
extensive continental glaciation that Sa\\' large portiorts of North height patterns, and so on.
An1erka and Europe e<n~red \\'ith Ice. It began about 2 ntillion Pronlineuce See So lat Hare.
l"ars ago and ended about 10,000 )'ears ago. Vs1•chro1neter ..\n inslrun1ent used to n1easure the \\'<lter \"apor
Polar ea.o;terlies A shaUO\\' body of e.asterly \\'ind.~ located at high content of the air. ft cortsists of h\10 thermon1eters (dry bulb and
latitudes pole\\1ard of the subpolar lo\\~ ''~t bulb). After \\ihirling the instrun1e11t, the de\\1 point and relative
Polar front A .se111ipermanent, se1nicontinuous front that sepa· hun1idity can be obtained \\'ith Lhe aid of tables.
rates rropical air n1a.o;ses from polar air n1a.o;ses.
Polar front jet stream (polar jet) 1'he jet strean1 that L'; associated Radar An electronic instrun1ent used to detect objects (such as
"ith the polar front in middle and high latitudes. k L< usually located fulling precipitation} b)' their ability to reflect and scatter n1icro.
at altitudes ber.,,een 9 and 12 kn1. \\'<l\!fS back to a receiver. (&-e. also Doppler radar.)
Polar front theory A tl1eory developed by a group of Scandina- Radiant energy (radiation) Energy propagated in the rom1 of
\ian n1eteomlogi.o;ts tbar explains the foro1ation. de-.•elopn1ent, and electrontagnetic \''a,•es. These \\1aves do not need n1olecules to
overall life histOr)' of cyclonic storn1S that forn1 along Lhe polar propagate then1, and in a vacuun1 they tra\•el at ne.arly 300,000 kn1
fron t. per sec (186.000 mi per sec).
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Rad.iational cooling ·1he proces.., by,,,1hich the earth's surface and Ro.ssby"•aves See Long\'' aves in the \\\>Sterlies.
adjacent air cool byeniitting infrared radi:ation. Rotor cloud A turbulent cwnulifom1 type of cloud that fonns
Radiation fog Fog produced over land \\'hen radi.arional cooling on the lee">ar<I side of large n1ountain ranges. ·n1e air in the cloud
reduces the air tetnperature to or belo\'' its de\,. point Jt is also rotates about an axis paraUel to the range.
kno"n as grormd fog and valley fag. Rotors Turbulent eddies that tom1 do\,•n\\find of a n1ountain
Radiation inversion Ao increa.,e in te1nperature \\1ith height due chain, creating hazardous H)1ing conditions.
to radiational cooling of the earthS surface. Also called a uocturr1<1:I
invers.;on. Saffir-Sin)p:son scale A scale relating a hurricane's central pres·
Radiative equilibriu1n ternperatore ·nle ten1perature achieved sure and \\inds to tile possible dan1age it is capable of inHkting.
,,,1hen an object, behaving as a blackbody, i.s absorbing and eniitting St. Elmo's fire A bright electric discharge that ls projected from
radiation at equal rate..,. objects (usual!)' pointed) when the)' are in a strong electric field,
Radiative forcing An incre.a.se (positive) or a decrease (ne~tive) such a.~ during a tllunderstonn.
in net mdi:ant energy obsen1ed O\t>r an area at dle tropopause. An Sand dune A hill or ridge of loose sand shaped by the winds.
increase in radi.ati\1e torcing ntay induce surface \\far1ning. ,,,1hereas Santa ,\na wind A \\•arn1, dry \\•ind that blo\\'S into southern
a decrease n1ayinducesurfacecooling. California front the ea..,t off the elevated de.~ert plateall Jts \\'llrntth
Radiative forci11g agent Any factor (such as increasing green. i.s deri\\>d fro1n con1pressiotlal heating.
hoose ga..,es and vari.ations in solar output} that can change the bal· Saturation (of air) An atn1ospheric condition '''hereby the le\•el
ance beh,\>en incon1ing energy front the san and outgoing energy of,,•ater o,iapor is the niaxin1u111 possible at the e.xisting temperature
&on1 the earth and the atn1osphere. and pres..,ure.
Radion1eter See lnfmred radiometer. Saturation '>apor pressure 1he nia.xin\u111 a.n1ount of \''ater
Radio.-wnde A balloon.borne in.,tru1nent that n1easures and vapor necessary to keep n1oist air in equilibriun1 \\ith a surface of
cransntits pressure, ten1per-ature. and hun1idity to a ground-based pure \\•ater or ice. It repre•.,ent.., lhe 111axin1unt antount of \\'llter
recei,1ngstation. vapor that the air can hold at any gi\\>n te111perarure and pres..,ure.
Radon A colorless, odorless, radioacti\t> ga.o; that fomts natural I>• (See Equilibrium vapor pre.<.<ure.)
a.., uraniun1 in soil and rock breaks do\''"· Sa\anna A tropical or subtropical region of gra..,Sland and
Rain Precipitation in the for1n of liquid \\'llter dro~ that have drought..resi.stant vegetation. 1)ipkally round in tropical \\1et~and ·
dian1eters gre.ater than that of drizzle. dry clin1ates.
Raiubo'" An arc ofconcentric colored bands that spans a section Scales of 1notion ·nle hierarchy of at1nospheric circulations front
of the sk)' ,,,,hen rain is presenl and the sun is positioned at the tiny gusts to giant stornts.
obserwr's back. Scattering The proce..,s by \\1hich sn\aU particles in the atnto·
Ra.iJl gauge An instrun1enr designed to n1ea.sure the an1ounr of sphere deflect radi.ation fron1 its path into different directions.
rain that faU.s during agi,\>n rin1e interval. ScintiJlatiou 11..e apparent £\\inkling of a star due to its Lig ht
Rain shado\\• 'lhe region on the leeskle of a 1nountain \\•here passing through regions of differing air den,sities in the atmosphere.
d)e precipitation is noticeably le..,s than on the ,,,,i1ld,,,•ard side. Sea breeze A coastal local ,,,•ind that blO\\'S fro1n dle ocean onto
Rawi.nsonde observation A radiosonde obsen1ation that includes d>e land ·n,. leadingedge of the breeze L< temied a sea-breeze fnmt.
\\ind data. Sea·breez.e convergence zone A region \\•here sea breer...es, h av~
Reflected light See Reflection. ingstarted indifferent regions, flo''' together and converge.
Reflection 1 he process '''hereby a surface turns back a portion of Sea~breez.e front The horizontal boundary tllal ntark.., the lead·
d)e radiatio11 that strikes it. \Vhen the radi.ation that i.., turned back ing edge of cooler marine air associated \'l'ith a sea breeze.
(reflected} front the surface is vi..,ible light, the radialion is referred Sea·level pre..,,.~ure 111e atinospheric pressure at n1ea.n sea level.
co as reflected light Secondary air pollutants Pollutants d)at forn1 '''hen a che1nical
Refraction 1lle bending of light a.., it pa.o;.se.., fro111 one n1ediunt to reaction occurs bet\\•een a prin1at')• air poUutant and son1e o ther
another. con1ponent of air. ·rropospheric ozone is a secondary air poUutant
Rdative hunUdity 11lf' mtio of the an1ount of '"ater vapor in the Secondary lo\\' A IO\\t·pre..,sure area (often an open \\'3\<e) that
air cotnpared to the amount required for saturation (at a particular forn1s ne.ar, or in association v.1th, a n1ain l o\,•~pre..,sure area.
temperature and pressure). 1lle ratio of the air-:., actual vapor pres· Seiches Standiog,,,1aves that oscillate back and forth over an open
sure co its .saturation vapor pres.~ure. bod)' of water.
Relative 't0rticity See Vorticity. Selective absorbers Substance.-; such a.-; "rarer vapor. carbon
Return stroke 'l'he lun1inous lightning strQke that propagates dioxide, clouds. and sno\'' thal absorb radiation only at particular
up\,<ard front the earth to the base of a cloud. \\'a\\>lengths.
Ribbon lightn.ing Lightning dlat appears to spread hori'zontally Senli ...arid cli1nate /\ drr cli1nate \\•here potential evaporation
into a ribbon of paraUel lu1ninous streaks ,,,•hen strong v.-inds are and transpiration e.xceed precipitation. Not as dry as the arid
blo\,ring paraUel to d)e observer's line of sight clin1ate. ·rypical \t>getation is shorl grass.
Ridge An elongated area of high atnt ospheric pressure. Se1nipern1anent highs and lows Areas of high pres..,ure (anticy·
Rin..e A \\1hite or niillqr granular deposit of ice tom1ed by d\e clones) and lo''' pressure (a'lratropical cyclones) that Lend to per·
rapid freezing of .supercooled ,,,,..ter drops as the)' co1ne in contact sist ar a particular latirude bdt throughout the year. Jn tl1e Northern
\\ith an object in below-freezing air. He111isphere, typically tht)' shift slightly 11orth,,,•ard in sun1n1erand
Ri1ning See Accretion. slight!)' soulh\\•ard in \\•inter.
Roll cloud A dense, roU-shaped, elongated cloud that appears to Sensible heat ·11..e he.at \\'e can feel and n1easure •Ni:tll a d1em1ometer.
.slo\,•ly .spin about a horizontal axis behind the leading edge of a Sen.sible ten1perature 11le sensation of ten1perature that the
dlunderstorn1's gust front hunian body feels in contrast to the actual ten1perature of the en vi.
mnnienr as 1neasured ,,,rith a thennon1eter.
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$e\lere thwtderstornl.'i Intense thunder'$torn\S capable of pro- Solar constant 1lle rare at \\•hich solar energy is recei\<ed on a sur·
ducing heavy showers, Rash Roods, hail, strong and gusty surface flee at the outer edge of the allnosphere perpendicular to the sw1's
'Aiods, and Lornadoe.'i. 'l'he U.S. Natio11al Wealher Ser\•ice describes ra)'S \\•hen the earth L'i at a mean di.~ tance fron1 the sun. lhe value of
a severe thunderstorn1 as having at least one of the follO\\'ing: hail d1e solar constant is about tv.10 calories per square centilueter per
\\'ith a diarneter of at leasl ~ in., surface \\•ind gusts of SO knots Of' ntinuteor about 1376 W/n1~ in the SJ syste1u ofn1easuren1ent
greater; or produces a tornado. Solar flare A rapid eruption front the suns surface that e111its
Sferics Radio \\1aves produced by lightning. A contraction of high energy radiation and energized c harged particles.
atruospherics. Solar wind An outHo\\•of charged particles front the sun that ts·
Shear &e Wind shear. capes the sun's outer atmosphere at high speed.
Sheet lightning Occurs \\1hen the Lightning flash L'i not seen Solute effect 111e dissolving of h)•gmscopic particles.such as salt,
but the !lash causes the cloud (or clouds) to appear as a diffuse in pure \\1ater, thus reducing tlle relative huntidity required for the
lmninous \\•hitesheet. onset of condensario11.
Shelf cloud A dense, arch.shaped, on\inouswlookiog cloud that Sonic boo1n A loud explosh-e-like sound caused by a shock '\'ave
often fornt.'i along the leading edge of a thunderstorn1's gust fron t, e1nanating fro111 an aircraft (or an)' obj ect) traveling at or abo'~ the
especially \\•hen stable air rises up and over cooler air at the surface. speed ofsound.
Also c.alled an arcus doud. Sowtding An upper-air observation, such as a radiosonde
Shelterbelt A belt of trees or shrubs arranged as .a protection o~er,-a tio11 . A vertical profile of an atn1ospheric variable such as
against strong \\1inds. te111perature or \\•inds.
Short•range forecast Generall)r used to describe a ~'-eather fore· Source regions Regions \\•here air masses origioare and acquire
cast that e~1ends front about 6 hours to a fe\\1 days into the fu ture. their properties of ten1perature and 1noisture.
Shortwave (in the at1nosphere) /\ sntaU\\•ave that n1oves around Southern Oscillation (SO) 'file reversal ofsurface air pres.-;ure at
lon~\·ave.-; in the sar.ne direction as the air 80\\1 in the n1iddle and opposite ends of the tropical Pacific Ocean that occur during n1ajor
upper troposphere. Short\,-ave.-; are also c.aUed short wan? troughs. El Nifio events.
Short\\<a\le radiation A terin n1ost often used to de.~cribe the S~cific heat The ratio ofthe heat absorbed (or released) by the unit
radiant energy emitted &on\ the sun, io the visible and near ultra- 1na'iS of thesysten1 to the correspondingte1nperarure rise(or fall).
violet \\'a\~ lengths. Specific hun1idity Tile ratio of tl1e n1ass of \\'<lter vapor in a given
Shower Jntern1ittent precipitation fmn1 a cun1uliforn1 cloud, parcel Lo the Lota! nias..; of air in the parcel.
usuall}'ofshortduration but often heavy. Spin· up vortices Snull "'hirling tortladoe.-; perhap.-; 30 to JOO n1
Siberian high A st rong, shallO\\r area of high pressure that forn\S in di.an1eter that forn1 in a region of strong \''ind shear in a hurri·
over Siberia in \\inter. canes eye\\-alL
Simoon A strong, e.'«ren\ely hot, dry, dust..laden \\•ind that blo\,'S Squall line A line of thu11dersrorni.-; tl1at forn1 along a cold fron t
O\ifr the Sah ara. Its nan1e nleans "poison '''ind.. because its e.xtren\e:I)' or otU ahead of it.
high tentperature (.son1eti111es e.xceeding I 2.S°F) and lo\\• relative hu· Stable air &e Absolute!)' stable atmosphere.
n1idity (often less thar.1 10 percent) can c.ause heat stroke attd death. Standard at1nospbere A h)'pothetic.al \<ertic.aJ distribution of at·
Sleet A type of precipitation consisting of transparent pellets of n1ospheric te111perature. pressure, and den.-;ity in \\1hich the air is as .
ice S 111n1 or less in di.an1eter. Sa111e as ire pellets. sun1ed to ob ey the ga.-; la\\' .and the hydro.-;tatic equatioo. 1 he lapse
SnlOg Originallys111og n1eant a n1ix1ure ofs111okeand fog. 'lbday, rate of te1nperature in the troposphere is ta ken as 6.5°\JI 000 n\ or
s111og n\e.ans air that has resrrkted vi.-;ibility due to pollution, or 3 .6°1'/1000 ft.
pollution forn1ed in the pre.~nce ofsunlight- photoche1uical s1nog. Standard atmospheric pressure A pressure of 1013.25millibars (mb),
Smog front (also smoke front) 1l>e leading edge of a sea breeze 29.9 2 inches of mercury (Hg), 760 millimeteri; (mm) cl mercury.
d1at is contantinated \\ii.th s1noke or pollutants. 14.7 pounds per square inch (lb/in.'), or 1013.25 hectopascals O>P.I).
Smudge pots Se~ Orchard heaters. Standard rain gauge A nonreoording rain gauge \\'ith an
Sno\\' A solid fornt of precipitation con1p t).~ed of ice crystal-; in 8·inch dian1eter collector funnel and a rube tl1at .an1plifies rainfall
con1ple.x he.xagonal fOmt. by tenfold.
Sno\\"'albedo feedback A positive feed back \\'hereb)' increasing Station ary front A fron t that is nearly starionar)' \\•ith \\•inds
surface air tetnperatures enhance the 111elting of 5110\\' and ice in blo\\1ing alinost parallel and fronl o pposite directions on each side
polar latitude.-;. 111is reduces the eard1's albedo and allo\''S nlore oftlle front.
sunlight Lo re.ach the surfuce, \\1hk h call'ie.'i the air ren1per.ature to Station pres..'iure 111e acrual air pressure co111puted at the observ~
rise e\'en n\ore. ing station.
Snowflake An aggregate of ice crystals that fa Us from a cloud Statistical forecast A forecast based on a 111athe111atical/
Snow flurries Light sho\\•ers of sno\'' that fall intem1ittently. statistical exa1nination of data that represents the past observed
Snow grains Precipitation in the forn1 of very sn1all, opaque behavior of d1e forecas ted \\'eather elen1ent.
grains of ice. •111e solid equivalent of drizzle. Steady..state forecast A \'<eather prediction ba-;ed on the pa.'it
Snow pellets \Vhite, opaque, approxintately round ice particles n1ove1nent of surface \\•e.ather S)'Stent.'i. Jt a-;swne.'i that the systent.'i
bet\\1een 2 and 5 n111\ in dian1eter thar forn1 in a cloud either fron\ ''ill ntO\'e in the san1e direction and at approximately the san1e
tl1e sticking together of ice crystals or front the pmces.-; ofaccretion. speed as they have been n1oving. Also called trend forecastit1g.
Also called graupd. Steatn fog See Evaporation (n1ixing) f-Og.
Sno\\• rollers A C)'lindricalspiral of snO\\' shaped so1ne\\1hat like a Stefat1-.Boltz1nan.n lal\' A la\\' of radiation "'hich state.-; that the
childs muff and produced by the wind. an1ount of radiant energ)' en1itted fro111 a unit surface area of an
Snow squall (shO\\•e:r) An intern1ittent hea\')' shov.•er of snO\\' object (ideally a blackbody) is proportional to the fourth power of
tl1at gre.ad )'reduces visibilit)'· the objects absolute teniperarure.
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Steppe An area of gras.o;.covered, treeless plains thal has a sen\i· Supercooled cloud (or cloud droplets) A cloud composed ofli q-
arid clin\cUe. uid droplets at temperatures below O'C (32°1' ). When the cloud L<
Stepped leader An initial discharge of electrons that proceeds on the ground it is called supercooledfog or cold fog.
interniit tenlly to\\•atd the ground in a series of steps in a cloud· Superior nlirage See i\.1irage.
co-ground lightning st roke. Supersaturation A condition \\•hereb)' the atn1osphere contains
Storm surge An abnornia1 rise of the sea along a shore; print.aril>• n1ore\,•ater \iapor than is needed to produce saturation \\~th respect
due to the \\rinds of a storn\, especially a hurricane. to a Hat surface of pure '''ater or icej and the relati\t> humidity is
Stratocun1ulus A IO\\tcloud, pt"edon1inand)' stratiforn1, \\•ith IO\\', greater d'an 100 percent.
lump)~ rounded niasse.o;, often ''1ilh blue s ky bet,,ieen then1. Super typhoon A tropical cyclone (typhoon) in the western
Stratosphere 1 h e layer of the atn1osphere above the troposphere Pacific that has sustained ''i.nds of 130 knots or greater.
and below the mesosphere (between JO km and 50 km), generally Surface invers ion See Radiation inversion.
characterized b)ran increase in ten1perature \\ilh height. Surface map A oiap that shO\\'S d1e distribution of sea-level pres-
Stratospheric polar n.igbt jet A je t strea.n1 that forn\S near the top sure"\\•itb isobars and \\teatber phenon1ena. Alsocalled a st1rja<r dlart.
of the stratosphere over polar latitudes during the \\linter n1onths. Synoptic scale 1lk' typical \\!father ntap scale that s h0\\1S features
Stratus A lo'''· gra}•cloud la}•er '''ith a rather unitOnn base \\•hose such a.o; high· and low-pre.'>sure areas and fro nts over a distance
precipitation is 1nost co1nn1only dri-zzle. spanning a continent. Also called the cydor1ic scale.
Streau1Jine A tine thal s ()()\\'S the '''ind Ro\\• pattern.
Sublinl3tion The process \\1hereby ice changes direct!)' intO'\\':lter Tu.ig-.i (boreal forest) 111e open northen1 part of the coniferous
va por '''ithout melting. fores t. "faiga also refers to subpolar c lin\ate.
Subpolardin1ate Acliniateobsenied in the Nord1ern Henti.'iphere Tu.ngent arc An arc of light tan~nt to a halo. It fornts by refrac·
that borders the polar cliniate. Jt i.'i characterired by severely cold tion of light through ice crystals.
\\'inters and short, cool swnmers. Also kno\\•n as taiga clinune and Tcu An abbreviation son1etin1e.o; used to denote a tO\\'fring
OOreal cNuJate. cun1ulu..:; clt)od (cunntlus co11ge.'>tu.<;).
Subpolar low A belt of low pressure located bet""en 50" a nd 1tleoonnections A linkage bet\,•een "'eat.her changes occurring
7if latitude. Jn the Northern Hen1isphere, this "betr• consists of in ' 'idely separated regions of the \\Ut'ld.
d1e A le11tiau low in the North Pacific and the Icelandic Jo1v in the ·1e1uperature 111e degree of hotness or coldness of a substance as
North :\tlantic. Jn the Southern He111isphere, it e.xists around n1easur-ed b)' a them1on1e ter. Jt is also a n1easure of the average
tl'e periphery of the Antarctic continent. speed or kinetic enerm• of the aton\s and n\olecules in a substance.
Subsidence 111e slo\'' sinking of air, u.suall)• associated ''1th high· 1e1nperature inversion An increase in ait' temperature \\'ith
pressure are.as. height. often s iotplycaUed an ;uversiou.
Subsidence inversion A te1nperature inversion produced by com- ·ierminal velocity The constant s peed obtained by a fa lling obj ect
pres.'iional \\'arn\ing- the adi.abatic \\iamiingof a la)1er of sinking air. ,,11en the up\\1at'd drag on the object balances the do\\trl\\'ilrd force
Subtropical front A zone of ten1perarure transition in the upper of gravit)~
troposphere over subtropical latitudes, '' 1here '''arn1 air carried pole- Tuxas norther A strong. cold \\ind front bet\,\?en the northeast
\\':lrd by d'e Hadley cell n1eets the cooler air of tbe n1iddle latitudes. and north\\1e.o;t as.'iociated " rith a cold outbt'eak of polar air tl1at brings
Subtropical high A semipenn anent high in the subtropic al a sudden drop in ten1perature. Son1etin1es called a blt1t uorther.
bigh#pressure belt centered near 300 latitude. 1l1e Beruuufa high is 1'heodolite An instrun1ent used to track d1e n10\ien1ents of a pilot
located O\~r the A.ti antic Ocean off the east coast of North ..\merica. balloon.
·nle Pacific h;gh is located off the '''e.'it coast of North An1erica. 1'heory of plate tectonics &e Plate tectonics.
Subtropiral jet strea1n 1lle jet s trerun ty pically fow1d bet\,•een 1'.her1nal A sn1al1, rising parcel of \\'arm air produced \\1hen the
20' and 30' la titude at altitudes between 12 and 14 knc earth's surface is he.ated u n evenl )~
Suction \'Ortices $niall, rapidl)' rotating \\1hirls perhaps 10 n1 in 1bermaJ belts Horizontal 1.ones of \t>getation fou nd along hill#
dian1eter d1at are foun d \\'ithin large tornadoes. sides that are prin1arily the result of vertical tentperature variations.
Sulfate aerosols Se..e A.erosols. 'lhern1al cir,ulations Air Ho\'' resulting prirnarily fro1n the heat·
Sulfur dioxide (SO!) A colorless gas that forms prinurily in the ing and cooling of air.
burning ofs ulfur.containing foss il fuels. 1'.herntal lo\\•s and ther1nal highs Areas of lo" ' and high pres.o;ure
Su1n1ner solstice Approxintate ly June 2J in the Northern tl1al are shall0\\1 in vertic al extent and are produced pt'io1arily by
Hen1isphere \\ hen the sun is highest in the sky and d irectly
1 surfllce temperature..;;.
overhead at latitude 231/,0 N, tbe Tropic of Cancer. 1'hermaJ tides Atn1ospheric pressure variatio ns due to the
Sundog A colored luniinous s pot produced by refractio n of light Wleven heating of the atn1osphere by the sun.
through ice cr)'Stals that appe,ars on e ither s ide of the sun. Also l~her1na1 turbulence ~IUrbule nt \~rtica l mo tions that re.o;ult front
caUed pnrhe/ia. surface heating and the subsequent rising and s inking of air.
Sun pillar A Yertical s treak of light extending above (or below) n.er111ograph An inscru1nent that 1nea.'iures and records air
tl'e sun. Jt is produced by the reHection Qf sunlight off ice crystal'> . te111perature.
Swtspots Relatively cooler areas on d)e sun's surface. 1114?)' re pre· 1'hermon1eter An ins trun1ent for n1easuring teniperarure. 11\t'
sent regions of an extren1ely high niagneLk field. n1ost con1n1on is li quid·in.glass. ,,1, ich ha.'i a sealed glass tube
Supercell stornt A se\iere thunderstorn1 that consists printarily at1ached to a glass bulb filled with liquid.
of a single rotating updraft. Jts organized inten1al structure allo\\'S 1'.her1uosphere 1 he allnospheric layer above the me.o;osphere
tl1e stor1n to maintain iLo;elffor .several hours. Supen:ell s tornis can (abo\'e about 85 kn1) '''here the te1nperature increase..:; rapidly \\'ith
produce large hail and dangerous tornadoes. height.
SuperceU tornadoes Tornadoes thar occur "'ithin superceU thun· Thw1der TI>e sound due to rapid!)• expanding gases along the
derstornt.'> that cootain ''1ell-develop ed 1 1nid ~level n1esocyclones. channel of a lightning discharge.
C...,.nfo )11~ °"'"'°'1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... .al M:.y ta>thu•• icd •........J,,.. .l....Wod."' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" . .... - 11...i fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dl LU;,,.,,h• «lf"I'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
.bmcdfl,....,"'\'f11»<'1 "''""" ,..,,,,,,. -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l""~C~19ct.c:>r""'lll'""'.._ fl ••,:!• "''mom::JJo.,.,,...,.,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
1'hw1derstor1n A convecti\<e storn1 (cun1ulonin1bus cloud) "'ith 1"rough An elongated area of lo\'' atntt).4ipheric pressure.
lightning and thunder. 1hunderstornts can be cont posed of an 1\ubulence Any irregular or di.o;rurbed 80\\' in the auno..:;phere
ordinary cell, n1ulticells, or a rapidly rotating supercell. that produces gusts and eddies.
Tipping bucket rain gauge A rain gauge that records rainfall by Turilight 'l he tiJne at the beginning of the day itn1nedi.ately bet-Ore
collecting rain in a chan1ber (bucket) thaL tips \\1hen the chatnber sunrise and at the end of the day after sunset \\1hen the sky reniaU1s
fills with 0.01 in. (0.025 cm) of rain. illuntinated.
'lhrnado An intense, rotatingcQlun1n of air that often protrudes Typhoon A. hurricane (tropical cyclone) that f0m1s in the \\'eSt-
fro1n a cun1uliforn1cloud in the shape of a funnel or a rope \\1ho.4ie ern Pacific Ocean.
circulation is pre.4ient on the ground. (&e t:unnel cloud.)
'lbrnado alley A region in d1e Great Plains of the United States Ultraviolet (UV) radiation Electroniagnetic radiation \\'ilh
extend£ng fro111 Texas and Oklahonta oorth\\'ard into Kan.~s and \\'3\<elengths longer than X-rays but shorter than ''isible tight.
Nebrad<.a \.\•here tornadoes are tnost ·frequent. Same as tor1uufo belt. Unstable air See Absolutely unstable aunosphere.
'lhrnado outbreak A series oftontadoes that fornts ''ilhin a par· Upper..air front A front that is present aloft but uswUy does not
ticular region- a region that n1ay include se,-eml states. Often ~· e.xtend do\''n to the ground. AL~ called an upper frorJt and an
sociated "'ith'\\•idespread daniage and destruction. tlpper-tropospherii:frot1t.
1brnado vortex .signature (TVS} An Unage of a tornado on the Up.slope fog 1:og forn1ed a.o; n\oi.st, stable air flows up\,•ard over a
Doppler radar screen that sho,,•s up as a .sntall region of rapidly topographic barrier.
cl1anging ....1ind directions inside a n1e.-;0C)1clone. Upslope precipitation Precipitation that forms due to n1oi..4it,
'lhrnado "'a.tiling A "'arning issued \\1hen a tornado has actually stable air gradually rL<iog along an elevated plain. Upslope precipi-
been obsen1ed either visually or on a radat screen. Jt L4i also i.4isued tation i.o; con1mo11 O\<er the v.<estern Great Plains, especially e~ t of
\\
1
he11 the forniation of tornadoes is inl.1nine11t. dte Rocky 1\i!ountain.4i.
Tornado '''atch A fOrec.ast is.sued ro alert the public that torna- Upwelling l l1e rL<ing of water (usually cold) toward the surface
does may de'i•elop \\1ithin a specified area. front the deeper regions of a body of \,•ater.
1br11adogenesis 1l ie process by·...,·hich a tornado fornt.4i. Urban heat island 11lf increased air ten1peratures in urban areas
1"race (of precipitation) An an1ou11t of precipitation Je.o;s than as contra.4ited to the cooler surrounding rural a.rea.4i.
0.01 in. (0.025 cm).
·rrade wind inversion A ten1perature inversion freque ntly found Valley breeze &e 1\i!ountain bteeze.
in the subtropic..:; over thee.a.stern portions of the tropical oceans. valley fog &e Radiation fog.
Trade \\'iJtd4i The \\inds that OCCUp)' n\ost of the tropics and blo''' Vapor pressure The pressute exerted by the \\oater vapor n10lew
fron1 the subtropical highs to the equatorial lo\''· cule.-; in a gi \•en \•olu1ne of air. (See alsoSaruration vapor pres.4iure.)
1"ranspiration The proce.o;s by \\1hic h \\'ater in plants is trans· \'eering \.\ind 11\e \\ti.nd that changes direction in a clock\\rise
ferred ~ \\•ater vapor to the aunosphere. f.ense--north to northeast to ea.o;t, and so on.
'l'ropiC'.tl cyclone 1 he general tenn for stornis (cyclones) that \'ern_aJ equinox 11lf equinox at \\lhich the sun approache.4i the
foriu O\'er\\•am1 tropical oceans. Northern He1nisphere and pas.4ies directly over the equator. Occurs
Tropical depression A niass of thunderstonn s and clouds gener. around !\!arch 20.
ally·\,'ith a C}~ lonic \\'ind circulation of bel'\\'een 20 and 34 knots. Very short range forecast Generally a.4ied to describe a \\•eather
'l"ropicaJ disturbance An organized nw.s of thunderstornt.4i "'ith foreca.4it that is r11ade for up to a fe\\' hours (asuall)' le.o;s than
a .slight cyclonic \\•ind circulation of less than 20 knots. 6 hours) into the future.
1'ropiC'.tl easterly jet A jet streant that fornis on the equator\,•atd Virga Precipitation that tall.:; front a cloud but evaporates before
side of the subtropical l~ghs near 15 km. reaching the ground (•.,,,. J'al I streaks.)
Tropical 1nonsoon clintate A tropical cliniate \\1ith a brief dry Viscosity i he resistance of Huid Ro\\~ (See i\1olecular vi..~cosit)'
period of perhap.4i one or r....•o n1onth.s. mid Eddy v<scosity.)
1"ropicaJ rain forest A Lype of fore.st consisting niainly of lofty \'isible radiation (light) Radi.ation \\ti.th a \\'3\<elength bet\,•een
ttees and a dense undergro\\th near the ground. 0.4 and 0.7 µnL This region of the electron1agnetic spectrun1 is
'l'ropiC'.tl stornt Organized thunderstonns \\'ith a cyclonic "'ind called the visible rtgiou.
circulati-on beh\-een 35 and 64 knots. Visible region Se-e Visible radiation.
Tropical " 'ave A n\igratory \\'3\<elike disturbance in the tropical Visibility The greate.4it distance at \\'hich an ob.-;erver can .see and
easterlies. ·rmpical ...,rave.-; occasionally intensify into tropical identif)• prontinent objects.
C)'Clones. ·rhey are alo;o caUed eajterly \l't'lves. \'olatile organic co1upounds (\10Cs) A cla.o;s of organic cont-
1'ropic.aJ wet ..and-dry clintate A tropical cli1nate pole\,1ardofthe pounds that are released into the atntosphere fron1 source.4i such as
tropical \\•et clin1ate \,•hert> a distinct dry season occurs, often nlotor vehicles, paints. and solvents. VOC4i (l\lhich include hydro.
lasting tor rn•o 111onths or n1ore. carbons) contribute to the production of secondary pollutants,
Tropical wet clitnate .r\ tropical cliniate \\ith .sufficient rainfull to such a.4i 020ne.
produce a dense tropical rain fores t. Vorticity A n1e.asure of the spin of .a fluid, usually sntall air par.
1"ropo·pao.«> ·nle: boundat)' betl\'een the troposphere and the eels. Absolute l'Orticity is the con\bined vorticity due to the earth's
stratosphere. rotation (earthS vortidty) and the \Urticity due to the air's circula·
'f'ropopause jets Jet streants found near the tropopause, such as tion relative to the earth. Relath'C vortit.·ity is due to the cunringof
dte polar front and subtropic.al jet .stre.ants. dte air HO\\' and \\•ind shear.
Troposphere 111e layer of the atmosphere extending fro1n the \'orticity ad\lection The transport of vorticity by the \\'ind.
earth's surfuce up to the tropopau.se (about JO kin above the Positi1't lUrHcity advectiou occurs \\•hen the \\•ind blO\\'S fron1 high
ground). \Urticity to\,1ard I0\\1 vorticity, resulting in an increase io vorticit)'
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... .al M:.y ta>thu•• icd >........J,,.. .l....Wod."' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" . .... - 11...t fW'1 '" ,._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dlLU;.,.,,h• «lo""""' I f!4u.Wt_.,...,. t....
.bmcdfl,.....,"'\>f11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,,. -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l ""~ C~19cl.c:>t""'lll'""'.._ fl ••,:!• "''mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
0\1er tin\ eat a location. Negnthre vortidt)1advectim1 occurs "'hen the \Vesterlies 11X' don1inant \\1 e.sterly \\1 ind4i that blo''' in the n1iddle
\\rind blo\vs froo\ IO\\' \'Orticity to\,•atd high vorlkit)~ (esulting in a latitudes on the pole\'' ard side of the subtropical high-pre.4i.';ure areas.
decrease in \Urticity over lin\e at a location. \ Yet ..bulb depres.4iion ·nle difference in degree.~ betv.ieen the air
temperature (dry-bulb ten1perature) and the \\'et~ bu lb ten1perature.
\ Vall cloud An area of rotating clouds that extenru beneath a SU· Wet· buJb ten1perature 11>.e lo\,'est ten1perature that can be
pen.;ell lhunderstonn and &on1 \\•hich a funnel cloud llta)' appe.ar. obtained by evapotating \\•ater into the air.
Al<o called a collar doud and pedestal dowl. Wet hau See Haze.
\ Varn1 advection (or ttlfltt11 air advectior1) "lhe transport of \\•arn1 \\'hi.rh\Tinds See Dust devils.
air by the ¥.'ind fron\ a region of higher ten1peratures to a region of \Yien~s la\\• A la\'' of radiation "'hich states that the \\'a\ielength of
lo\\•er ten1perature.';. n:ia.xin1u1n entitled radiation b)• an object (ideal ly a blackbod)r) is
\ Var1n•core lo"' A lo\\1.. pressure area that is \\'llrn1er at its center in\<etsely proportional to the object's ab.4iolute te111peratute.
than at its periphery. Tropical cyclones e.xhibil this tetnperature \ Yind Air in n1otion relati\i> to the earth's surface.
pattern. \Vi11d chill ·1he cooling effect of any con1bination of re111perarure
\ Varn1 f.rout A front that 1no,~s in such a \,•ay thal \\'llrn1 air and wind, expressed as the loss of body heat. Also caUed wind-chill
replaces cold air. hidex.
\ Varn.1 occlusion See Occluded fmot. Wind direction 1l>.edirectionfror11 whidt the \\'ind is blo\\•ing.
\ Varn1sector '11le: region of\,1arm air \\1lhin a \\'ll\'e C)IC:looe that Wind machines Fans placed in orchard'; fot the purpose of
lies bet\,'een a (etreating \\'llmt froot and an advaociog cold front mixing cold surface air..,..•ith ¥.iarn1er air abcni-.
\ Vat.er equhraJent Th~ depth of \\1ater that \\'Ould result front the Wind profiler A Doppler radar capable of measuring the turbu-
n1elting of a sno\'' san1ple. 1)rpic.aU)' about 10 inches of Sll0\\1 \,•Ul lenl eddies thal n1ove \\•ith the wind. Because of this, it is able to
n1elt lo I inch of"•ater, producing a \\"aterequivalent of 10 to I. provide a \1ertical picture of \''ind spe<..~ and \\ind direction.
\ Vaterspout A colu1nn of rotating \\ind over \\•ater that has char- Wind rose A diagra111 that shows the percent of tilne that tile \\•ind
acteristics of a dust devil and tornado. blO\\'S front different directions at a gi\<en location over a gi\'ell ti.Jue.
Water vapor Water in avapor(gaseoll4i) fonn. Also called u1oi.Shlrt. \ Yind·scuJptured trees Trees \\those branche.4i are bent. t\\'isted,
Water vapor·greenhou.'"' effi!ct feedback A positive feedback and broken off on one side by strong prevailing \\<inds. Al4io called
\ \ hereby increasing surface air te111peratutes cause an increase in
1
flag trees.
the e\<aporati<>n of \\1ater front the oceans. lncr-easing concentra· \ rVind shear 1 he rate of change of \\•ind speed or \\'ind direction
tions of atntospheric \\'lller vapor enhance the greenhouse effect, over a given dL4itance.
\ \1 hich causes the surface air ten1perature to rlse e\~ll niore. Also Windsock A tapered fabric shaped like a co11e that indicate.4i '''ind
called the "titer 1~p<>r-tentperature rise fetdback. dire<tion by pointing a\\•ay fro111 the ¥.•ind Al4io called a wiud rone.
\ Vatt (\V) 1lie unit of po\,'er in SJ units \\1here 1 \\•att is equivalent \ Vind speed The rate ar \\•hich d>.e air mo\tes by a stationary
to J joule per second. object, usuaU)' n1easured in statute n1Ues per hour (mi/hr),
\ Vave cyclone ..\n e.xtratropic.al C)•clone thal forni.4i and nto\ies nautical n1iles per hour (knots), kilo1neters per hour (kntfhr), or
along a front 1.he circulation of "'inds about lhe cyclone tends to n1eters per second (n\/sec).
produce a \\1avelike defomtation on the front. Wind vane An instrun1ent used to i.J1dic.ate \\tinddirection.
Wavelengtb 111e dL4itance bet,,1een succe.4isi\i> crests, troughs, or \ Yindwardside The side of a11 object facing into the \\ind
identical parts of a ""'ve. \Vi11d v.>aves \Vater \\'3\'eS thar forn1 due to Lhe Ho''' of air over d1e
\"leather The condition of the atn1osphere at any particular tin1e ''iater's surface.
and place. \ rVinter chilling 1l1e an\ount of tintf the air ten1perature during
\ Veather ele1nent..; ·nle elen\ents of air tenipemtur~ air pressure, d1e "inter n\ust ren1ain belo\'' a certain value so that fruit and nut
htuuidit)~ clcud5> precipitntiou, i1i.sibility, and wind that detemtine trees \'1ill gro\'' properly during the spring and sun1met.
the present state of the atn1osphere. the \\teather. \ \tinter sol.;tice Approxintately Deceotber 21 in the Northern
\ Vf'.itber t)tpe forecasting A forecasting n1ethtxl \\•here 'Neatber H·en1isphere\,1hen the sun is lo\\1est in the sky and directlyovethead
patterns are c.ategori2ed into sin1ilar groups or types. at latitude 23Y1°S, the Tropic of C.apricorn.
\'\feather types Certain ¥.ieather pattern'; categorized intosln1ilar
groups. Used as an aid in \''eather prediction. Xeroph}rtes Drought· resistant vegetation.
\"leather \\'a.ruing A forecast indicating thal hazardous \\feather
is either i111minent or actually occurring \\'ithin the specified Yow1ger..Orya-s event A (Old episode that cook place about
foreca.4it area. 11,000 )'e,ars ago, \\1hen average temperatures dropped suddenly
\ Veather '''atch A forecast indkatin,g that atn\ospherk condi- and portions of the Northern Hentisphere reverted back to glacial
tions are favorable for hazardous \\!father to occur over a particular conditi<>11s.
region during a specified tin1e period
\ Veighing rain gauge A rain gauge that records rainfall b)'\\<eigh· ZonaJ wind tlo"' A \\find that has a predo111inare \''e.';t-to..ea.4it
ing the collected \\ratero\'eragi \~n ti111e and con\'erting the a111ount con1ponent.
of \\1ater to rainfalJ depth.
C...,-nf• )11~ °"'"'°'1->an•Allibt!t.tt_... ..i M:.y oa>thu q o;.,.a. • ........i,,.. .i...,..w..i.... ,.f>;ko• in .,.... floe .., ch<,....., .....- 11...i 1-'1 '" ,._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al "'""h ~dlLU;,,.,,h• «It""""' 1 f!4u.Wt ..,...,.i.....
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1 "''""" ..,.,,,,,,. -...J4f•nt.•le _.Jl~"'\l""~ C~19ct.c:>r""'lll'""'.._ fl ••,:l•.,•mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
PERIODICALS - -· Syuoptk..-D)1,,a1uic Meteorology ;n Midlatitudes. Vol. II: Ob·
serniOous and ·n1e.ory of \•\leather' Systerns. Oxford University
Selected nontechnical periodicals d"lat contain articles on \\ eather 1
and di mate. Pre.o;s, Ne\'' York, 1993.

- -· 'IOruado Alley: Monster Stortus of the Great PJa;us. Oxford
Btdletiu ef the A1uer;cau Meteorological Society. 1\1onthl)1• 1 he Uni,'t'rsity Pre.ss, Ne\\1 York. 1999.
An1erican 1\1eteorological Society, 45 Beacon St., Boston, 1\.1 A Bohren, Craig F. Clouds ;11 a Glflss of Beer: Sirt1ple E.xperhuents ;n
02108. Att11ospheric Phys;cs, Vi/iley, Ne"' York, 1987.
/lllete.orological !vlagflzir1e. Monthl )~ British Meteorological Office. - -· What Light 111rouglt Yotkfer l.Vi11d0»• Breaks?) Wiley,
British Jnforinalion Services, 84511\ird A\•enue, Ne\'' York. NY. Ne\'' York~ 1991.
Natiou(l} W'et11her Digest. Ciuarted)~ National \Ve.ather Aqsociation, lloubel, Richard W., et al., F111ufame11tals of .4ir Poll11tior1 (3rd ed.),
4400 Stamp Road, Room 404, Marlow Heights, MD 20031. Ac.aden1ic Press, Ne\,r York, 1994.
(Deals n1ainly \\id\ \\'eather forecasting.) Brunner, Ronald 0 .. and A1nanda H. Lynch. Adapth•e Goveruaua
lr\\>ather. Monthl)•. Royal Meteorologic.al Society, Jan1e.~ Glaisher and CUu1ate Chm-1ge.. Arnerican i\1eteorological Society, Bo.o;ton.
House, GremHle Place, Bracknell, Berkshire, England t\1.A1 2010.
\11'<1therwise. Bimonthly. Heldref Publication~ 4000 Albermarle Hurge.o;s, Eric, and Dougla.o;s Turr. Into the 111ennosrJtere.: ·111e AttllO·
St., N.W.. \Vashington, DC20016. sphere Explorers. National Aeronautics and Space Adn1ini.«rarion.
\\\lshington, DC, 1987.
SELECTED TECHNICAL PERIODICALS Burroughs. VYillian1 j. Watch;ng the WorldS Weather, \ ..cunbridge
EOS- '/'ranS11ctio11 of the A111erica11 Geophysical Uuion. A111erican Uni\'t'rsity Press, Ne\\' \'Ork, 1991.
Geophysical Vnion (AGU), Washington, DC. - -· Clirnate Uel1ealed, Can\ bridge University Pr'ess, Can\bridge,
fotmial ef Applied Mete-0rolog1< American Metoorological Society England, 1999.
(AMS), Boston, MA. Hurt, 0'1ristopher C. Extre111e lVeather, A Guide and Record Book.
}ot1nu1I ofAttnospheric atllf Oceat1ic ·rech11ology. A1\1S. Boston, MA. W.W. Norton & Company, New York, 2007.
Journal of Atnwspheric Scieuce. .r\MS, Boston, MA.. C'..arlson, 1bby N. :W;d.Latitude Wet1ther Syste1us, An1erican Meteo·
journal of Clitnate. At\.tS, Boston, MA. mlogical Society, Boston, MA, 1998.
}t>un1al of Geophys;cal Researt'h. Anterican Geophysical Union, Changnon, Stanley A. Railroad a11d Weather: f:ro111 Fogs to Floods
Washington, DC. aud Heat to Hurricanes, An1erican 1\.1eteorological Socie ty.
Monthly \'\feather Rev;ew. A1\1S, Bo.c:oton, 1\1-A. Boston, MA, 2006.
lr\\>ather nt1d f'orrcastiug. A~1$, Boston, MA. CUruate Change 2007. 11te Ph)'Sical Science Basis.. Working \Koup I
Additional periodicals that frequend )' contain articles of meteoro- cootribuLion to d1e J~urth Assessn1ent Reporr of the I PCC.
logical interest. \...ant bridge Universit)' Pres.'>, Ne\'' York, 2007.
Anwr;mu Scientist. Bin\onthl)'· Sig1na Xi, the Scientific Research ""C'..otton, \V. R., and R. A. Anthes. Stortn and Cloud Dy,1<1r11;cs,
Society. Jnc .. Ne\\1 Ha\~O. er. Acaden1ic Pre."s. Ne\,. York, 1989.
Scicuce. Weekly. Anteric.an Association for the Advaocen1ent of C'.otton, WiUiam R. Storms, AS.leR Press, !'<>rt Collins, CO, 1990.
Science, \Vashi.tlgton, OC. (...otton, Vt/illian1 R., and Roger A. Pielke. Hun1an In1pacts ou 1t~ather
Scientific Anaerhxrn. Monthly. Scientific An1erican, Inc., Ne\\•\'ork, NY. atul Cl;,uate, Can\bridge University Press, Ne\\1 York. 1995.
Stnithsmiiau. ~tonthl)~ 1heSntidlsonian Association, Wa.c:ohington. DC. Crowley, 1homas ). and Gerald R. North. Paleoc/i111atologi1 Oxford
Uni\'t'rsity Press. Ne"' York, J 991.
BOOKS De Blij, H . J. Nature ou the Ra111page1 Smithsonian Books,
Washington, DC, 1994.
'11le titles Usted belt)\\' 1nay be drawn upon for additional i.nfornta·
Do.o;\\'t'U, Charles A. lU,editot: Severe Cottvection Storn1s, Arnerican
lion. 1\.1.any are ~'·ritten at the introductor)' level. i ho.o;e that are
n1ore advanced are niarked \\ii.th an asterisk. Meteorological Societ)'• Bo.o;too, MA, 2001.
Elsner:; Jatnes B., and A . Biral Kara. Hurricaues of the North Adatttic,
Ahrens. C. Donald, and Perr)' Sanl.Son. £.ttre111e Weather flt1d OxfOrd Uni\~tsity Press. Ne\\• York, 1999.
Climate, Cengage Leaming/Brooks/Cole, Belmont, CA, 2011 . EL<0m, Derek M. Atmospheric PolhlliDft: A Global Prcble111 (2nd ed.),
•Andre,,'S, David G. An lr1troductlm1 to Ahnosµter;c Phys;cs (2nd ed.), BlackweUPublishers, Ox!Ord, England 1992.
Can1bridge Unh-ersil)' Press. Ne\'' Y'ork, 2010. Enianuel, Kerry. D;,.;ue Wiud- 111e History aud Science of Ht1rri·
Anthes. R. A. "f(op;cal Cydoues: 111eir El-r>lutiou, Stn,cture, and arues~ Oxford University Pre.~s. Oxford, Ne\'' York, 2005.
£ffect, ..\n1ericao 1\.1eteorological Socie ty, Boston, MA. 1982. Eucydopedia of Climate mtd \'Wiither. Vol. I and Vol. 2, Stephen H.
Arya, Pal S. Air Po/luH011 /vleteorolog)~ OxfOrd Universiry Pre..,-S, Sch11eider1 Ed., Oxford University Pre.ss, Ne\'' York. 1996.
Ne\'' York, 1998. Eucydopedia of We<11her and Climate Change, Juliane L. fry et a l.,
Bigg, Grant R. ·111e Ocmus atJd Clituate., Can1bridge University University of C',alifornia Pre.ss. Berkele)', Los Angele.s, CA, 2010.
Pre.'>S, Ne\\' York. 1996. f.ttergi•a11d Climate Cha11ge. Report of tbe DOE Multi-Laboratory
--Bluestein, Ho\,•ard B. Synopac~ DytJatnic !vleteorology in M;dfati· Oiniate Change Con11nittee, Le\\1is Publi.o;her:s~ Chelsea. 1\11,
ltufes. Vol. 1: Priuciples of Kiue11u1Hcs aud Dy1uu11ics. Oxford 1991.
University Press. Ne''' York. 1992.
C...,-nf• )11~ °"'"'°' ...,....,...i,..,

1->an•Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y oa>thuqo;...a. • ........i,,.. .. ch<,..,.., .....
,.f>;ko• in.,.... floe .., -11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.hnflLU;,,.,J\•
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,.,,,. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19c1-mll(lfD.._ fl••,:lo .,,..,•
«lo""""' 1 f!4".Wt.-,...,.i.....
...,:Jj,.,.,,...,,,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_.....,.,.,..,,
England, Gary A. Wtathering the Ston-u, Universit)' of Oklahon1a L)'nch, David K.• and \ViUiam Livingston. Color and Light ;,,
Press, Nornun, OK, 1996. Nature~ Cainbridge University Press, Ne\\• York, 1995.
Hmr, john. 11ie Changing Atmosphere: A Global CJiallenge, Yale Mason, B. J. Acid Rain: Its Causes a11d lt.s Effeds 011 JnlarJd \Vaters.
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C...,-nf• )11~ °"'"'°'1->an•Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y ,.,,buqoi....a. • ........i,,.. .i...,..w..i.... ,.f>;ko• in.,..._ floe .., ch<,....., .....-11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al "'""h~dlLU;,,.,,h• «It""""' 1 f!4".Wt.-,...,.i....
,._,.,..,,...,.,"'\lf11'»'<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,,. -...'°"•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19c1-mll(lfD.._ fl••,:l•.,•mo"":JJ'"*',...,,,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
Air ma..,~. 294.304 Ahocumulus clouds, 127, 129, 132, 178. 264
A all«ling Norlh America, 295·304 ta."lt Jlanus, 129, 134, 164
Abertromby and HU<lebrandeson, 127 e:haraclt:ri.stlc..~ o(, 295 1\hoslraluscloucl.,, 127, 129, 132
Absolule humid h)', 97, 99, 104 classi(Kalion, 294·295 c:.hanging inl<> altocwnulus, 164
Absolute inslabiJil )'. 149· I 50 defincd.294 1\mbitnl alr qualil)' SlandardS, 532, 538
Absolule st.ale, 33 mo<lif.calion, 295, 298·299 1\me:rican ~·f eteorol ogical Sociely (:\~<lS ) , 26
Absolulc.stabilily, 147-149 source regions, 294, 295 Analysis charl, 351
.Absolule lc:mpe:ralure scale.', 33. 34 Airnl<lSS weather. 304 Anemomelt r, 257, 258
Absolule \'C.)rlicily, 336. 337, 338 Air pared, 37, 38, 97, 146 1\neroid barotnetcr (see Baromelers)
r\bsolule zer<,, 33 Air pockets, 235 1\neroi<l cell, 204. 205
t\ccrelion, 175. 171, 189 Air pollulanl.S, defined, 9, 521 1\ngular .mome:nlum
Acid<lepo..,ilion, 542-545 (.set also 1\ir pollulion) coo.~ervation o(, 217, 414, 430
Acid fog. 118, 542, 545 Air poUuliOn, 9, 518·547 defined, 277
Acid rain, 9, 180, 542-545 (see•Uti Add and acid deposilion, 542·545 in hurricanes, 430
deposilion) and cl.irnale, 472.473, 541 ·545 and jet s tream, 277
At'lual mh:ing ratio, 99, 124. 162 dL.,pcrsion or.
535, 539, 541 and 1ntSOC')'Clone, 382
M iabat in Donor.a, P1\, 521. 540 1\nticydooes, 209. 268
dry and moLsL, 162-163 ~missions of, 532 blocking, 285, 361, 370
Adiabalitcharts, 162-l63, 1\18 episod.s, 521, 540 and drydimates, 502-504, 505
and doud dt'\itlopment, 162-163 fae:lo rs tn, 535.540 formalion of. 269, 324·326, 327
Adiabatit process and fog, 118,521-522. 542-544 tllO\'emenl ol. 324--325, 327
defined, 146 fun1igalion, 537 and pullulion, 536
d r)' and moL'>l rate, 146-147 and l'M!'at .,.;aves, 543 semipern1aoenl, 269
rt'\t-rsible and irre\t-rsible, 146 history o(, 520-521 Strurlureof, 32+329
Ad\'anted \\teatl~r lnter.ttlh't!' Processing images of. 518 sublropit."al, 294
System (AWIPS), 348 indoor, 522 typical winler paLhs, 323
Ad\eclion and lo\'e rsions. 535·538 and vt""rlical air rn0\1:'menL, 21. 222-223,
cold. 327, 328. 364 porenli.al, 539 325
defined, 38 primary, 52 I ·523·-526 winds around, 2l, 209, 216-218, 219, 222
fog, 120-122 and stabilit)" 535-538 1\nlicytlonic Rov.·, 216i 218
lemperalure, 327 secondary, 521 Auvil, o(thun<lcrslortn.s, 131, J3Z 158. 381,
tcnlperalur<- iortasliog b)' watching severe potential, 539 383, 384, 388, 391
cloud.<, 364 standards. 530-534 Aphelion,60
and \'t'"rlical air rnolions. 328-329 and topograph)'. 538-539 Apparent lemperalurt:, 108
warm, 328 1 364 trends and pauerns, 530·534 1\rLic fronL(stt Fronts)
vorlicil)', 339 trpes and sources of, 8-9. 521-534 1\rlic haze!', 524
Ad\'isoriesand wamiogs. 347 unht"ahhful <la)'s. 533 Arclic OsciUalion (AO). 289, 360
Aerod)•namie: C:Onlr'.til (sct!COnlr.til) in valleys. 538-539 An-lie sea snlOke, 122
Aerosol<, 8, 523 weather, 535-538, 541 1\«us cloud, 384, 385
and clitnalc <hange, 470-475 and \Vlnd, 535 ,\rid climate, 502, 503, 505
sulfate, 471, 473, 475 and urban environrnenl, 541 --545 1\rl•HOlle, 18, 362
Acro\'ane. 257, 2588 and \'i.sibilil)'. 524 1\SbeslOS, 522
1\ggrt-galion, 176, 177 1\ir pressure (.s« Pressure!') A.~h \.Vednesday Fire, 286
Agung, \•Olcanie:, eruption, 477 Air qualily index, 532. 534 Asian dusl, 524, 525
Alr Air lemperalure (stt> Temperalure) Attno.~phere
.saluraled. 96, 99 1\i1ken nudci (set ('..ondt.nsalion nuclei) composilion o(, 4.9
weight of. I0-11, 109 1\lbetto cornprt"s..,ibilil)'. 10
(sec a/u, Altnosphere) and clitnale change, 465 definM, 4
1\ir deosily <l<fined, 48, 541 earl)'. 9· 10
c hani:,oes "'ith heighl, 10. ti cl various subslances, 48-49, 50, 465 electrical phenomenon in,400
comparing moi.."l air ·wilh dry air, 109 Alberta Clipper, 323 and lhe gas lav.·s, 202
defined, 10 AJeutian low, 269, 270 l)~neral c:irculalion 266-214 or.
inga.., lav.•, 202. A4 Algorithms. 193, 348, 386. 419 heated from be.lo'"· 47-48
1nolecular. 10 J\lpha Ce.nrauri. 52 itnpurities in.8-10, 521·530
1\irgJo...... 54 AJlimeler. 204, 210, 283 la)~rso(. 12-17
11
°"'"'°'1->an• Allibt!t.tt_.....i ta>thu••icd •........i,,.. .....,....,...i,,.. ,.f>;k o•in.,.... floe ..,
C...,-nf• )11~ M:.y
,._,.,..,,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,..
-...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19ct.c:>r""'lll'""'.._
ch<......, ..... -11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. ..,i,.-.,..al "'""h~dlLU;.,.,J\o «It""""' 1 f!4".Wt.-,...,.i.....
fl••,:l•.,•mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii•• ...,,..um •...,.,.,..,,
(Atmosphere, 'o"ti"taxi) Bering Land bridge, 461 and dou<lseeding (dr)' ice), 177, 178
and «ean Interactions, 278·289 ll<'rmuJa (Nwre.<) high, 269, 270, 271 C)l(:le, 7
origln or. 9· 10 Billow clouds, 164, 165, 235 a.~ a greenhouse ga...:;, 7, 44-47, 475
cL oLher planets. 14-15 Bi.sho p's rlng. 566 in earl)·alnlOSphere, 10
SLandard, Al6 Bjerknes, Jakob, 320 in polar ice. 469
LratlSfer o( \VAler in, 94 Bjerknes. Vllhelm, 320 role in absorbing infr-i1.rc!'d radiatioo,
\'c:'rlical slrlK'lure of. 10· 17 Blackbod)'. 43 44-45, 473
\varmed nc:"ar Lhe ground, 47-48, 67-69 Black fros t, 116 YaJueS O(, 8, 481
Altnospheric boundar)' l.a)'tr (s.te Planelar)' Black ice, 116, 186 Carbon mono:<ide, 9, 525, 532
boundary la)-tr) Bli'a.ar<l, 183-184,237 C..arc:lnogetlS, 526
Atnu'lSpl\eric chaos, 354 Childreris. 332 Q1.s1eJlanus. clouds, 129, 134, 164, 165
Atmospheric densil)' (stt 1\ir densil)') ground, 184 Ceiling bal.looos, I '57
Atmo..'\pheric greenhouse <"ffeel. 44-47, 475, of 1983, 339-340 Ceiling. Jefioed, 137
481 or 1988, 319, 320 C...e-Uonu~t er, 13?
(S« fllstJ Greenhouse t(~cl) warning, 347 Cell
tnhancernenl or, 45-47' 475-471 Blocking high. 285, 361, 370 Ferrel, 267, 261!
Atn1ospl\eric optics, 48, ..J9, 50, 548-569 Blue haze, 552. 553 Hadler. 266-267
Atmospheric pressure (set! Pressur(') Blue j et.:;, 400 Polar. 267, 269
Atmo..'\pheric .slabUil)' (stt! Stability) Blue 1uoon, 553-554 thermally di.reel. 3?, 38, 267
Atmospheric stagnation, 539 Blue norther (ste 1exas norther) lhermally indirect, 268
Altnospheric win<lov.-, 45 Blue sk)·· cause of, 48, 49, 50, 551-553 1.hunders1or1n, 380. 393
Atoms, 6 Boil.ing and pressure relationship, 100 Celsius temperature .soale,4, 33, 34
e.ttiled, 53 BOl ling-AJler&l period. 461 Cenlrifugal (orce, 21 7
\~-eight of, 109 Bohnnann, Ludwig, 40 Centripetal a<."celeration, 2 l 7
Aurora. 13, 15, 53-54 Book o(Signs, 362 C..enlripetal force, 217
auslra Us, 54 Bora, 245 (sec Afs.o Katabatic \ 'I ind) Chaparral, 247, 507, 508, 514
bell, 54 Bore-al climate, 511 CharlS c~especifK l)'pe.s)
boreal is, 53-54 Bore.al (orcsl. 482 Chinook wal I cloud, 246-247
AulOC:Qn\'t tlive lapse r.i.le, 150 Boulcneck ea«t, 330 Chinook winds, 23, 245·247
Aulomattd Surface Observing S)'Slem Boulder .,.,incl.:;, 24? and human behavior, 246
(,\SOS). 87, 110, 135, 137, 348 Bounded weak edi<> region (BWER), 414 Chlorine.- in s tratosphere, 8, 529
Aulun1nal Equinox, 61, 63, 468 &>w echo, 388, 389 ChloroOuoroc:arbons (CFCs)
Bree>e atnounl in altno...:;phere, 5, 526
B count')'• 541-542
lake, 241, 244, 255
and climalt' change, 473, 480
and greenhousedrect, 7, 8. 46,473,480
Back Joor colJ (ronl, 308, 309
mountain and vallt)'• 243·244 and <>tooe destruction, 8, 529
Batking \Vind and <:old a<h·ection, 364 ocr.shore and on s hore, 255 Chroma k t)'. 356
Ball lightning. 402 sea and land, 241 · 243, 255 Chromo..'\phere, 52
Bangladesh, killer cyclone, 448 Orcumze-nilha l arc, 548, 562, 565
Brocl"'n bow, 566
Bannc.-rcloud-, 133, IYt Brornine and OZ-One deslrOCLio n, S29 Orrocwnulus clou<ls. 12'\ 128, 132
Ba" defined, 11, 203 Bubonic plaque, 475 castellanus, 165
Baroc.Hnic or
Bui lelin lhe American ~,ltl e<>ral og ica l OrroslrcllU.Scloutb, 121, 128, 132
altnosphere, 327 Sociel)'• 475 Grrus clouds. 127, 128, 132, 174, 177, 178
instability, 328, 341, 371 Buo)·anl force, 150, 380 0 1.ies, cHtnate (StYClimale, urban)
thoory of <leYcluping cyclones, 328 Buys-Ballot, Christoph. 222 Clean Air Atl
Barograph, 204. 205 Buys. &Jlol's law, 222 in Great Brilain. 520
Barometers, 11, 18, 203-204 in UniLM S t ale.~. 521, 530, 532
aneroid, 204, 205
correction Lo sea level, 206 c CJe.ar air LurbulenCt' (CAT), 234, 235
Clear ice, 188
and instrument errors, 205 C...aUi"ornia Current, 279, 280 0.IMAP, 458, 459, 468
mercury, 204 ('..alifor-nia oorlhcr, 249 Climate
Barometric pressure, 11, 204 Calorie, defined, 34, 36, 393, 416 boreal. 511
(Stt '11SIJ Pressure) C..ana<lian high, 269, 270, 271 da.~.:;itlcation o(, 495-496
Bar0tropic almo...:;phere. 327 canar)' Currenl, 2?9·280 con1ioen1al. 488, 509, 511
Bat.hrLherrnograph, 432 C.ap cloud (s.te PUeus t.loud) c:onlioenlal, humid, 509, 511
Beauforl wind sale, 255, A? C1\PE. (ue C..onv«Li\-e 1\\'ailable Polenlial controls, 490.494
Bel-Air fire, 247 Energr) defined, 18, 358,490
Be.nttne, 526 Carbon dioxide (CO,) determining past, 461-464
Benw-a·p)·rene, 526 amount in aln10.sPherc:", 5, 6·7, 469 dr)'. 495, 502-504
Bergeron proc:ess, 173. 176 an<l climatic change. 6·1, 45-4-?. 469, 473. drr-summer s ubtropical, 50?
Bergeron, Tor. 17"3, 176. 320 475-480 global patterns. 496-514
C...,,nfo )11~ °"'"'°'1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thu••icd >........J,,.. .1....wod,"' ,.f>;k o•in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11...t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dlLU;,,.,,h•
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl ~"'\l""~C~19ct.c:>r""'lll'""'.._ fl••,:l•.,•mom::JJo.,.,,...,.,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_ .....,.,.,..,,
«It""""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,. t....
highland, 495, 514 scauering ... L~lbl e light, 48, 49, 50, C'..olor
humid conLinent.al, 509, 511 550-551 oidouds, 49, 550-553
humid sublr<1pical. 504. ~6 si7.c, 170 o(dislanl tnount:ains, 552, 553
inadverlenl modificaUon, 541 ·545 Cloud Profiling Radar, 14-0 or rL~ing and S!.'lli.ng sun, 49, 553.554
inRuence on humatL'>, 23·26 CloudSat, 140. 194, 432 ois ky, 48, 49, 551-553
marine, 505, 506 Cloud s""'1 ing, 176-178 Colorado low, 323
~·tedilerranean, 507 cumulusdouds, 118 \..olor separaLiou O\'erla)\ 3563
moisl conlioental, 495, 509·5 I I fog, 126, 178 \...olun1bia Gorge wind (coho), 245
tnuL.:;LsubLropkal mid·latilude,495, and hurricanes, 452 Commadoud, 332, 333, 373
504-509 and lightnlngsuppre.ssion, 403-405 Commodities, 359
moist, 495, 498-502. 504-511 nalural, 177, 178, 179 Con1pressional healing. 38, 146-147
of Lhe past, 461-464 seed dr(1ps. 178 and Chinook \..·ind, 245-247'
polar, 488, 495, 511-514 and pr« ipit.ali-On, 176-178 andSanla 1\na "·ind. 247-249
subpolar, 510, 511, 512 prt'Yt:nttng hailsl or~. 190-191 \..ompulers used in ....'t'.ather and climatic
taiga, 511, 512 Cloudstrttts, 164, 2:98, 299 predicLion, 348-350, 351-353, 371.
tropical. 495, 498-502 Clouds . 127-141 (s«also specific t)·p<S) 372, 477, 479, 480, 483
urban, 541-545 albedo of. 48, 50 and algorilhms, 193, 348
world dislribuli-On, 498·499 along wealher ironts, 156 Con&nsation, 5, 35, 48, 94, 95-96
CUmale d1ange, 456-487 basic types, 127, 132 io clouds, 170-171
and aerO.Sl'~L.:;, 470, 471, 472·473, 475 changing coloroi, 550-553 lalenl heal o(, 35
and conl r.lils, 481 changing f-0rtns. 164-165 nearLlw ground, 116-117
and altnospheric parlide•.:;, 470-472 cla..:;slftealion, 127 Condensation le\'eJ. 157
C'alL~S of, 464-475 cold, 173 (.k"c also Li(ting condensaLion level)
coo.'>equenct-S or.45-47, 481-485 and cold fronL, 306-309 Con&nsation noclci. 96, 117, 170. 171
e.,,i clence of. 458-460 and C:Otnput.er ~nhanctd ln1ag~ o(, 139 c:once.ntralion oi. 117
and (~back mechanLl\ms,465-466. and C:Or\Yt'Clion, 154--159 and grov»th of cloud droplels, 170, 17 I
478, 477 <lefined, 17 size, 117, 170
(ulure \Varnling, 477-481 delerminlng bases oi. 137, 159 Condensation Lrail ($tC O':>nlrail)
global warming, 7, -16, 473, 475-485 development of. 154-165 Condilional instabUil)'
and greenhou..:;e gASc!'S, 7, 45.47, 467, 473, effect on daily temperalures, 45 defined, 151
475-477. 478-480, 482, 483 t leclrii1Cali-0n o(. 399-400, 40 I an<l severe •Neatht:r; 392, 393, 413
human (anthropogeni c) influences, and greenhou..~e t Jfect, 42-47, 480-481 \..ondoction, 33, 36.rJ
472-475 high, 128-129, 132 near Lll e ground, 48
and Land use changes. 473-475 ice parlide~'i ln, 117 Connuence o( air, 327
and increasing levels orco~, 7, 45-47, idenlifk'alion or. 128-133 Coning Stnoke plume, 537
469, 473, 479 lnf"luenteoncli1n1Hechang~. 45-47, Cooser\'alion oraogular momenlum (se.e
induced by nudear war, 474 480-481 Angular mo1ne:nlum)
models oi, 476-477. 480 low, 129-130, 132 \..o~er\'alion oi~oergy, 32
and rnounlain building, 466467 rneasuring ceU.ing o(, 137 Conslanl heighL c.'h.arls, 206, 201
nalural cau..:;es or, 464-412 1niddle, 129. 132 Coru:Lanl pressure char ls (see L.:;oba.ric
and ocean conYC)'Or bell, 463 obse:r ...ations o(, 135-141 charts)
and <>tot-.e, 482 orographic, l59, 18l-l61 ConlaCL irttilng, 175
and ozooe hole, 482 and produttion ofrain. 113 \..onlacl nudei, 175
and plale ltttonks, 466-416 sa.Lellite o bstrvalion•.:; o(, 136-141 \..ontinenlal arclic air ni-asses, 296-299
and suliale pol.lulit)n, 470, 47 I, 473 Lertns used In identliring, 134 Contint:nlal drill (S« Plalt: LC(LOnics)
and surfac.'e modificalions, 466-467 and topograph)'. 156, 159-161 Conlinenlal humi<lclimaLCS, 510, 511
and yarialions in e.arl.hS orbil,467-469 unusual, 133-135 Continenlal polar air ma....:;;;e..:;; 296-299
and variations in solar Oulput, 469-470 wilh \'trlica1 deYelopmenl, 1.30-133 Conlinental lropic:.al air 1nass e.~. 304
and \'Olcanoes, 471-472 ....·arm, 112, 178 C'..onlour lines.
Climate models 46-47, 476-480 (.st< also and \varm fron t, 309-311 c:onlo ur inler\·al. 209
Models) C.oolescenc:e, 172 ddined, 207 -208
Cllmale Pred.ktion CenLer, 359, 360 Cold ad''«~on. 327, 328, 364 Conlra.il, f.33, 136
Clin1aticopLilnu1n, ~·f edit-\'al. 461, 462 Cold air dilmming, 309, 312 and dimale change, 481
CUmatologit.al ioret'ast, 355, 358, 361 0'1ld-air funne l 417, 418 Convection. 33, rJ-38, 39, 48, 156
Climograph, 500, 50 I CoJJ.core highs, 241 and cloud de\'tJopmenl. 154-159
\...olor bltndness, 550 C'..old-('On!' lows. 2:41, 434 fore<><\, 68
Cloudbursl, 180 Cold fron t (su FronL<) near Lil e ground, 48, 68
Cloud <:ondensation noclei (ue C'..oodt:nsa- Cold oc:clusion, 313 Q:n)Yttli\-e 1\\'aUable Polenlial Energ)'
lion nuclei) Cold polar lows. -04 (CAPE), 393, 416-417
Cloud droplets 0'1ld Wa\"e, 64 Convecli\~ c irt"ulalion, 37, 38
growd1 of. 170-171 Colli.sion-c:oalesc:e.nc:e pl'oct'ss. 171-173 C'..Oo\•ttli'~ .. hot" tov.·trs, 261
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thu••icd >........J ,,.. .l....Wod."' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11..J fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h~dlLU;,,.,,h• «It""""' I f!4u.Wt_.,...,.t.....
,._,.,..,,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19ct.c:>r""'lll'""'.._ fl••,:l•.,•mom::JJo.,.,,...,.,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
OJnv«live inslabilil)'. 154, 392 tn alure, 320. 321 Dishpan e:<perimenl, 274
C.Onv«live slorms (~t Thu ndersl or ~) mO\'C!'menl of, 320-323 Dispersion oflighl, 560
C'.onvergence, 156. 268, 324, 327 open wave, 320 Dispersion o! polluLion, 535, 539, 541
aroundjtl s lreams, 329-331 satellite im age or.
20, 138, 139, 140, 253, Oislurbanc.e:, lropical. 43 l
cause or. 324. 321 315, 318, 322, 332, 333. 374. 375 Oivergt.n(e. 324,327
effecl onsurfa<'C pressure, 202, 222-223, Slruclure:, 324·326, 328-329, 331 cau..:.e of. 324, 327
324-326, 327, 338-339 lt .nd LO form, 321-323 eff.i:.cl on suriace air pressure:, 202,
v.·ilh high· and lov.•- pressure areas, L)'Pical winler paths, 323 222-223, 320, 324-325, 328
222-223,324-326, 327 upper·le:\'tl vtave.s, 326-328 wilh high- and low-presSW't' areas,
in hurricane.(;, 429-430 vertical air rnoLions, 20, 222-223, 325, 222-223,324-326,328-329,338-339
and \'Orlicil )~ 338-339 328-329, 331 in hurricane.'>. 430
O:>nveyor heh nlOdel oi de"'elopiog verlicaUy s lacked, 329 around jcl .slrtam, 329-331
C')'<'l oue~ 332 an<l vorLiCil)·. 335-339 and \'Orlic ily~ 338·339
C.Onveyor bell. ocean, 463 v.·aYe, 320, 322, 326-328 Dixie alle)'. 407 (st>~ a{s<, 10rnado al le:y)
C..oor<linaled Uni\'trsal T hnc- (UTC), winds around., 20, 209, 216·218. 219, Dobson unit..:;, 9. 530. 531
346, ,113 324-326 Dold rums, 267
C',,oriolts effttl ($t'e Coriolis iorce) C)t'.lone,s, Lomadoes (~~Tor nado) Doppler lidar, 259. 419
O:>rio lis rorce, 21, 212-214, 217, 267 C)'C:lones, Lropical. 426 (.ste 1Jso l·lurricanes) Doppler radar. 19. 19 2-194. 259, 374,
OJriolis, Gaspard, 21 2 Crclonic flow, 2l6, 218 417-420
C.Oriolli> paran1eler, 216, 336, A4 C)'C:losLrophie v.•lnd, 218 image, 19, 193, 307, 348, 374, 387, 389,
C..orona around sun or nloon, 565, 566 414,442,444
('..orona dis.cha~· 402~ 404
(',,orona (solar) , 52
D Dopplershifi (efl«t). 193, 418
Doppler on whee.ts, 420
CosnliCr'.t)·S and <kslru('lion of ozone, 529 Dallon's lav.· olparti.al pressure, 98 Downbursls. 26, 384 (StralstJ Thunder-
Counler t urrenl, 283 Data loggers, 87 Slorm, downdratts in)
Crepuscular rays, 130, 552, 553 Oa)·lighl hours, tor diffe.rent latilude.s and Downslope v.·ind, 255
Crops, ba..:we temperature or. 82-83 dates. 64 Ddttle, 172, 173, ISO, 505
prol« Lion or. 72· 76 Debr l<ball, 419 Orop..i;onde, 16, 432, 449
Cu1n ulonitnbuStlouds, 121, 131, 132, 158, Deiore:slalion, 1 Droughl, 508·509
245, 300, 427 an<l cUmal<' chanf,'C"', 473, 480 Greal DroughL of the 1930s, 509
(.k"e aistJ Thunde.rs lorms) Degassing, 467 (su also Outgassing) index. 508, 509
Cun1ulonimbus lotus (st>~ 1\nvil) Degrtt-days. S0-84 in Sahel, 476
Cum ulu.<elouds, 109, 127, 130-133, 153, Oendrile ice t:ry.stals, 182, 18.3, 184 in Tt.:tas, 509
156, 158, 313, 504, 525, 552 Dendroch ron ology. 460 Ory a<liabalic rale: oi coolit1gand wa nning.
and c:onveclion, 154+ 159 Densil y (stt' Air densil y) 146, 147
delern1ining ba..:we.s oi, 159 Oeposilion . .35, 95, 116 Dr)' •diabaLS, 162
de.veJopmenLof. 156-157 v.-tl and <lrr. 542 Dry-bulb lenlpe:ralurt:, defined, 110
Cun1ulus c:ongt~(;l USdouds, 131, 157, 158, OeposiLion nuclei, 175 Dr)' climates, 49 5, 502-504, 507
373, 383 Oeprt'ssion of v.·el bulb ($tt \ VeLbulb Ory ice, lo cloud seeding, 126. 177, 178
Curnulus: iractu..'> clouds. 13 l depression) Dr )'line, 311-313, 393-394
Cu1n ulu.>i humiliStloud.s. 131, 151, 158 Depre:si:ion..:;, middle latilude (sN C)'C:l one.~. Dry slot, 329. 332. 333
C upric: sulfide, 177 m iddle latitude) Dune.-:
Curvalure effecl, 17 I, 336 Depression..:;, Lropical. 431 sand, 236
Cut-<>rf low, 329 Oerech<>, 388, 389 SOO\v, 236
C)•d ogenesis. 321 , 336 Ocserl climale (set A rid (.Litnale) Ousl bowl, 237, 509
e:<pJQ.. :;i ve, 323 Oesertifiailiou, 473 Dust cloud, 250, 386
l<e, 322 Des Voeu:<, Harold, 520 Dusl <levUs, 250, 251
C)'t.IOnes, mid<lle lalltude:, 209, 3:20 Dew, 116-117 on ~'tars, 250
oornpared wilh l1urricanes, 434 lro~.en , 116 Ou.st sLorms. 249· 250
<'<u1ve)-c.)r bell mo&I oi alr moLions, Dew cell, 110 on ~1lars comparW LO Earlh, 250
331-332 Dew-point iront ($tt Dryline) Ov.•ar( planet, 4
dt>velopmenl ur.
320.341 Ocv.·-p0iol lempe:rature, 100-104, 106, 116 l)rnarnic 10,vs. 324-326 (St"e alstJ Crd ones,
cnerg)' ror de\'elopme:nl, 32(). 321, aYe:r.tge Cor January and Jul )~ 102, 103 middle latiludes)
328-329 defined, I00-101, 312
and hutnan discotniorL, IOI, 107
fu milies, 321, 322
rJllng, 329 lable.>i, AS, A 10 E
and Ll-ie jel .slream, 329-331 Oiffiuence, 327 F..arLh, 4
incipienl. 320 Olffra<'lion, of lighl, 565-567 a lbedo or. 48
ingreditnL" ior, 3'28-335 Diffust- lighL (set Scau ering) annual energy l>alance, 49- 52
lire <)<cl• or. 320-321 Dimelh)'bulphide (DMS),470 almo.sphe.re, O\'t:rview 01: 4-10
March s torm of 1993. 332-334, 335 DiscU\-Cr)· spa<.'e shuule, 427 a vetab'C"' s urfu<'e temperature, 4. 40, 44
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J,,.. .1....wod,"' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11....t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h~dlLU;,,.,,h• «It""""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl••,:!o .. •m•"":JJ'"*',...,.,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
(:hani:,oes in tih, 468, 469 ["V.apotranspir.ttion (potential), 496 ev-ap0raliou (mh:ing), 122-l23, 124-125
<limen.~ion oC, t 5 Evelyn, John, 520 formation al headlands, 121
dislanc:to (rotn sun, 4; 15. 52. 60, 468 E."'-<ph<re, 15, 16 iormalion atle:r .sunrise, 119
magnetic ft<ld, 52-53 E.<tended forecast, 359 frequency or dense in U.S .. 123
orbilal varialions, 468 E.tlrctlropical C)'tlone (rec Cydone, middle frontal, 121
rotation and re\'Olulion ol. 60, 61 latitude) ground, ll9
seasons, 60-66 Eye, human rods .and cones, 550 high ln\'trSion, 120
tUt of, 60, 61, 468, 469 Ere of hurricane (~t liurrkanes) i~. 122
\'Ortlcil)' of. 33tl-339 Eyewall,427,428 lanlp.S, 125
Earth Radiation Budget Experi.rnent. 41 Eye....·al I replac:e1ntnt, 431, 446 London, 520
F.asterlies. polar, 261, 268, 271 number o( da)'S oC, 123
F..asterly v•a,'c!', 426 (Stt also Tropical '~·ave) "'pea soup," 520
Eccentricity oi earth's orbil, 467, 468
Eddies, 230, 233-234, 235 ("" "'"'
F iti poUuledair, 118, 520.521
r.idiation,119-120, 122, 123
Cfclones; Antic)'clones) Faculae, 469 seeding of, 126, 178
in ocean, 2.80 Fahre:nheil, G. Daniel, 33 Sleatn, 122, l23
F.emian intc.-rglaelal period. 461 Fahrenheil lemper.ilurescale. 4 1 33, 34 Supercooled, 126
Ekrnan spir'ctl. 281, 438 Fair ....·e.alher cwnulu.s. 131 upslope. 122-123
Ekman Iran.sport, 281, 438 Fallstreak.s. 182 valley, 119
FJ Chk.h6n, \'Olc:ano, 471, 477, 554, 566 FaU....·ind, 244-245 r-og drip. 120
Electricily Fanning smoke plume, 537 r-orces
and gm....·lh uicloud dropleL~. I 72 Fat" A.f.organd, 558, 559 buoyancy, 150, 380
f~back mechanism, 46-47, 465.466
and lightning. 400--1-03 centrifuga l, 217
Electrihcatioo of cJouds, 399-400, 40 I biogeophy.sical in Sahe.I, 476 centriperal, 217 (stt atM ('tntripe:tal
fJectro1nagnetic: speclrum, 41 che1nic.al -...veathering-CO" 465, 466 ae.':("eleration)
FJectr-0n1-agnclic .....a.,,e.~. 39 (~tnf.so and clitnaLic change:, 465:466 \..oriolL.:;, 2 l. 2 I 2·214 1 217
Radiation) ne-galh'<', 47, 465 grctvity, 224
Electrons in upper alnu:>-'lphere, 15-17 pOSiti\'t', 41, 465 pressure gradient, 211 ·212
El Nino, 281, 282-286, 360. 477 sno....•-albedo, 465 f<0rcing ai:,oe.nts
and 2010 \Vi.nler Olrmpics, 287 walt:t' vapor.greenhouse, 47, 465, 477 hwnan, 417
and hurric:ane iormation, 430 r~rrel cell, 261, 268 natural, 477
O<~an Nino lnde.< (ON!), 284 Ferrel. \Villlam, 268 r.idiative, 415
f~l(:h, 238
ELVES, 400 r-orec:asllog (stt \\~alh er forecasting)
Embrro FinJ.eisen, \Vaher, 176 Fore<:aSl.S, aC:CurclC)' o(, 36-0-·36 I
halls lone, 189, 190 Fine line, 312 r'Ormalddt)'de. 522, 526
ice, 114 First lawof lhe:nnodrnamics. 32 Foosil fuel<, bu ming of, 7
En<rg)'. 32-33 Flag trees. 255, 256 and climate change, 46, 473
balance ofe arth and atmosphere, 49-52 Floods, 25-24 301-302, 394-397 Freeze, 72-75, 116
defined, 32 ln Big Thomp."4)n ('..an)'On, 396 Freezing, homoger.eous, 114
forms or. 32 Great Flood o( 1993. 395, 397 Freezing, .sponlaneous, 174
internal, 32 and hurricanes, 438-443 Freezing <lrb.ile, 185, 186
Ensemble forecas ling. 354, 355 and sno....· tndL 184 Freezing nuclei, 175
ENSO (El Nii\o/Sou ~ t<m Oscillation), 283, and lhundt-rslorn1s, 394--397 Frttzing rctin, 185-187
285, 477 walt hes and warning.<>, 347 Friction, t>.ffecl on \Vind, 220
Entralnrnent, 158, 382 Fluorocarboos (se.e Ch lorofiuorocarbonsJ Friclion la)'C:r, 220, 232 (~t>alM Planetary
Envi.ronmet\ta l Protc."'Clion 1\gency (EPA), Fl)·ing. along constant pre.~sure surface. 210 boundary layer)
43, 522, 525, 526, 532 Foehn, 245 (s.t~ df$d Chtnook) Frontal inverSion, 310
Environmenl Canada, 287 Fog. 26, 118-127, 149, 344, 520 Frontal surface:, 305
Et[uati<>n oi Slale:, 202, A4 acid, 118, 542 Frontal wa,-e, 320. 321
Equatorial low, 267 adveclion. 120--122, 123 Fr<>nl1ll ione, 305, 308
advttlio1~· radlatioo, 122, 123 Frontogenesis, 308
f:4u llibriutn vapor pre.ssure, 170 (stt:tJ/sn
Saluralion yapor pre,ssure) advisor)'• dense, 347 FronLOl)'sis. 308
F.quincrc and .airline dL~sters, 125 FronL,, 22, 304, 305-315
autumnal. 61, 63, 468 burnlngotT, I 19-l20 arctic, 305, 34 l
pr«esslon of. 468 c:ari bou1 120 back door, 308, 309
•~rnal, 61,64, 468 and coastal deserts, 505 and douds, 307 -308
Evapor.alion, 5. 35, 94, 95-96 aod (<>a..:;tal rtd.,..·ood Lrtts, 120 cold, 22. 306-309, 315
fllctors LhaL affect, 95-96 cold.and warm, 120-122, 126 dew palnl (dryllne), 3 l2
latent heal of. 35 dispersal oi, 126 occluded. 22. 313· 315
Evaporation (ml'<ing) fog, 122·123, 124·1 25 <lissipation o(, 119·120 polar. 267, 268, 271, 305
Evapor.ativecoolers, 107 efl<<L< or. 123-127 quasi-stationary, 306
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J,,.. .1....wod,"' ,.f>;k o•in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11....t jW')' <.,,._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h~dlLU;,,.,,h• «l>"I'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,.,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19c1-mll(lfD.._ fl••,:!o .. •m•"":JJ'"*',...,,,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_.....,.,.,..,,
(FronLs. conO,,utd) human (anthropog.enk) influenc:e on, dry and wet, t Ii', 118, 525
sea brt-~. 242 472.475 ewer Eastern Unit('(! States, 525
smog. 242, 538 an<l tl'lc." KyoLo ProLoc:ol,485 and re.~Lriction o( visibtlil)', 118
sLaLionarr. 306, 321 and land use <-hanges, 473-475 Heat
subLropi('al, 276 model prujoctions oi, 4?7--481 advisory and ···•Arning. 347
srmbols on y,.·ealher map, AS and ocean.~. 48 I balance oftarlh·atmospll-erc S)'Stem,
upper-air, 315 an<l ozone itn~l.S, 482 49-52
warm, 22. 309-311, 312, 315 and radiath·e forcing agenLS, 475-476 condu('tivity oivarious s ub.stances, 36
Fro.<t, 73. 116-117 ret't>nl trt:ntls, 4-01 462·464, 416-417 <lefine<l, 33
prol« Lion. 12-15 uncertainlies about, 478-480 latent, 6, 34-36, 48
(.«< a/s<i Fr«ze) Glory, 566, 567 and problen1s re.lated to body, 107-108
Froslbile, 23. 85 Glossary, G 1-G16 sensible, 35
Frost p0inl, IOI, 116 Gradienl wind, 216·217 specif.:, 34
Fujila scale of damaging v.-inds, 410-411 Gradient v.•lnd ~uation, 217 transttt, 36-38, 39.42
Enhanced (EF) scale, 4IO, 411 Grnup<I, 175, 188, 189, 190, 399 (S<«UW lieal burst. 387
Fujila, Theodore T., 410 Soow pellets) Heat eapat:h)" 34
Fulgurile, 403 Gravitational potential entrt;)'. 32 Heal t:ramp.~. 108
FumigaLi-On, 537 Gra\•il)" 10, 224 Heat energy, 32
Funne.I cloud, 406., 414, 417, 418 ($et> ti/so Gravity -waves, 381 Heal e.thaustion, 23, 108
·romado} Gravity \vinds, 244 Heat Index (HI), 108
Fusion, lalenl heal 35 or. Green flas h, 556-557 lieat island (se-e Urban heat L.Jand)
Grttnhouse efrttt ($ee a/.w Atrnospheric Heat lightning, 402
G greenhouse cffttl)
and climate t hange, 45-46, 415-411
Heatstroke, 23, 108
Heat \Va\'t', 25, 108
Gal a:<le.~. 4, 6 in earth'.s atmosphere, 6, 44-47 and air poUutiou. 543
Gale vtaming. 347 runa\vay, 465 He<lopa.<eal, II, 204
Gamma ra)•S, 41
Greenhouse gases. 4-8, 44-47 li<ighl charts (constant), 206. 207
Gas law, 202, A4 ab.'>orplion oi inirared radiaLion, 44 He iligenscl~in, 567
('Omputalions u.~lng. 202 and dimat ethan b~· 6-7, 4541, 46i, 473, Helich)'. 417
Geiger, Ru<lol r. 495 475-477, 478-480, 482-483 Helium, in early atmosp~re, 9
General ('irculalion, 266--214 on Venus, 14· 15 Hemoglobin, 526
<'Iimal~ rnodels, 476-480 Greenv.·ich ~l ean Time (G~IT), <'Orl\<ersion He1er-0spherc.", l6
and prttipilalioo pauerns, 271 ·272, 491 lO local lime, 346. A13 liighland <-Lhnates, 514
single-cell mood, 266-267 Gri<l p0in1S, 352, 354 High·pre.'>:.ure areas (S« ,\nlit:)'<-lones)
lhr«·«ll model, 266-269 Ground fog. 119 HoarCro.~ t. 116
General c."irc."ulalion nlodeJs (stt Climale GulfSLrt-am, 279 Hole it) tYl.One la)'tr. 8, 9, 482, 530, 531
models) Gust front, 382, 383-384, 385, 391, 416 Holocene tpoch,461
Gooengineering_, 485 Gustiness oi v.•lnd, 233 Hol ott:t~ maximum, 461
Geostationar)' Operational En\•iroomental Gust na~s. 416 li-Omosphere, 16
Satellite (GOES) (su Satellites, GOES) Hook echo, 414, 419
Geostrophic \Vind, 215·216
Geoslrophic wind equation, 216, 1\4 H Hooke, Robert, 257
Horse latitudes, 261, 268
Glaciated dou<ls. 174 Halx>ob. 250, 384 House, design and s unS position, 68
Glaciers, IS, 458. 459 Ha<ll<)' cell, 266, 267 Howard, Luke, 12?
GI""-"· 185, 186 Ha<lle)', George, 267 1-iuman bod)'. gain and loss of heal, 84-86
G lider soaring and wind, 234 Hail, 189-191 Hurnidil)". 17. 94, 97·110 (:.:t~also speti6c
Gliller path, 554 avt:r-.lge number oi da)'S obser\'ed in l)'p<S)
Global climate, 488-517 u. s.. 397' 398 ab-<;-0lule. 97, 99, I04
Global Forecast System ( GFS), 349, 352 rornlali-On. t89·l91 c:o1nparing Guli coast wilh Paci(r.c: coasL,
Global .scale rnotion, 230, 231 supprcSsi-0n, 190-191 !04- 105
Global warming, 7, 45-47, 463, 464, 475-481 in Lhun<l<'rslorms, 189, 190. 348, 392, 406 and dew point, 100·104
and dou<ls, 480-481 .,.,.-el and dry grov.'lh, 190 in Lhe home, 105-107
or,
('01\Seq_uc."nces 45-47' 481-485 Hails tone, 189, 190, 390, 399 and human dtscornf'ort, 107 -110
and deforc."Slalion. 473, 480 Hail~Lreak. 190 inslrumenls, 110
eOOrL'> to curb. 485 Halos. 128. 132, 362, 559, 560, 562 measurt'ment of. 110
and (eedbac:k mtthantsms, 46-47, Halocarbons, -180. 529 re.lath'c:":, 99-100
465-466, 476, 477 Haueras lov.•, 30 I, 323 spetifk and rnl:<ing ralio. 91 ·98, 99
iuture projttlious, 477·48 I, 483 Ha-L<, 30, 117-118, 149, 518, 525 tables, A9, Al I
and gre~nhouse gases, 7, 45-47, 461, 473, arctic, 524 vapor pre.~su re, 98.99
478-480, 481 blue, 552, 553 Humid<-onlinenral dimate, 510, 511
and hurricanes, 450 color of.117-118,523,552 Humid sublropical cl itnate, 504, 506
C...,.nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J,,.. .1....wod,"' "f>Jk o•in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11....t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h~dlLU;,,.,,h• «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•M•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl••,:!o .. •mom::JJo.,.,,...,.,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_.....,.,.,..,,
Hurrican~ mo<lifiatliou of, 452 Inches o( merCur)'. 11, 203
of 1900 Gah't'.slon, Te."tas, 447 mosl inlense, 443 Indian sumn1c:"r, 63
of 1938. New England. 448 movemenL, 433-436 Infrared r.adialion, \vavdength of, 41
Andrew, 441, 44+445, 449 11anies, 426, 433, 437-438 lnsolalion, 61, 62
B<ulah, 452 North Atlanlic, 436 Instability
Bill, 443 N<Jtable, 443-449 absolute, 149-150
CamiUt'.', 443 r.ti n bands ln, 427 barodinic, 328, 341, YJ I
C harley, 359, 446 sa.Lellite lma~ o(, 20, 424, 429, 431, 432, cau.se.s oi, 152-154
Dean, 450 435,442.444,445,4Mi,447.449 condilional. 151.380
Debbie,452 Slagt-S o( developtnt'nl, 431-432 <:onv«l h~. 154, 392
Dennis, 446 slruclurt or. 426-428 and St'\~re Lhunderstorin-.. 390-393
Dora, 432 lOLal number, ALI.antic Basin, 429, lnstanl weallt.er for«.a.sl charl, Al2
Elena, 426, 427, 435 436. 450 hL~lrume.nLs (str specific l)'PCS)
Emrlia, 432 t)·pical patl>< of, 433 lrL~ lrumc:"nl sheHer, 88
FelL<.450 walCht'.'S and warniogs. 347, 449-452 lnter'.i.cli \'e Foreca.sLPreparation Sysle1n, 348
Franc~s. 44 Hurricane lra<.'.king e:harl, 1\17 lnlerieren«:, dc:"~~Lruicth•e and cOtlSln.teth e, 1
Gordon, 435 Hr<lrOic."'°.i.rbons, 9, 526 l~tt iJISO \'olalile 5(,6

G~l Hurricane of l780, 448 organic c:ompounds} lnlt:rglacial periods, 461
Hugo, 443, 444 ltrpenes, 552 lnLergO\'c:",r nmenlal Panel on Climale Chaoge
Hun1berlo, 194,450 and lroposplled c." <Yi.one pr-Oduclion, 526 (IPCC) report from, 477, 479, 481,
lniki, 436 H)'drt)l'_hl oroOuorocarbon.~. 530 483, 484
Irene, 193, 438-439, 451, 478 1-l)'t'.lrofiuoruoarbons. 530 lnLerlropical con\'trgenre ione (ITCZ), 267,
lsL~. 435 Hr<lrogcn, in early atmosphere, 9 268
Ivan, 445, 446 Hydroloi,>i«)'<le, 94 and hurric.aoe (ormaLion, 429
lwa.436 Hydrophobic: parlides, 117 mO\'c:'menl oi. 271
Je.anot'.', 441, 446 Hrdroslalic equaLion, 224, A4 and prc:-cipilalion, 271. 492
John, 435 H)'drt).~latic equilibrium. 223, 224 and rainfall in Sahel. 476
Karl, 432 H)'droxyl radical, 527 Inversion
Katrina, 203, 428, 429, 441, 446-447, Hn;rometers, 18, 110 and air pollulion, 152, 535-538
449, 451 Hygl'O$COpic parlides, 1l7,171, 174. 525 and anLie: )X::lones, 296
~lilch, 435, 448 •n<l doud s<e<lit1g, 126, 178 defined, 12
Nora, 435, 436 and fog se«ltng. 126, 178 frontal, 310
Ophelia, 140, 446 H)·pernmae, 529 nocturnal, 70
Pauli ne, 435 Hypothermia, 23, 86 and nuclear winlt:r, 474
Rita, 138, 434, 447 Hn><>xia, 14 and polar air mass, 296
Tico, 436 radlation, 70·72, 536
'fina, 431 role in severe lhunderslorm iormaliOth
\Vilma, 203, 42?, 446 390.393
liurric.ane damage.polentlal S(ale. 440 la in lhesl raLo..~p here:, 12, 13
Hurricane hunlt'rS, 428, 4.32 black, 186 •ubsldence, 148, 152, 536, 538
Hurricant'.'S, 20, 341, 424-455 cle.ar and rime, 185, 186, 188 in Lhe lhernlO.~ phere, 1.3, 15
arclic, 434 rnolecular struclure o(, 95 lrade v.<ind, 430
assoe:i.altd wilh lornadoes, 440-441 \'<lpor pressure over, 98-99, 175 -with warm ironl, 309·31 l
Allan lie .season, 2004 and 2005, 446 Ice age.<, 461. 462, 463, 470 lonb.:ation, In upper almosphere, 17
c.:.ompared v»ith n1id·lalilude cyclone, 434 Ice c:ore.~. 459-48.l. 461, 469, 470 Ionosphere, 16, 17
defined, 426 and almosph.eric gases, 8, 459-4()(} Ions. 6, 17
de.'\lruction, 442. 443-449 lee Crystal (Bergeron) proe<.<S, 173-176 lridcscenct'.'. cloud, 566
Eastern Pacif.c, 436 lc:e c:rystals lsal lobar<, 363, 365
e rraliCpalh.S oC, 435 cause or oplical phenomena, 559·562. Isobaric charts, 206, 207. 208
eyeo(, 20, 424, 426, 427, 447 565 Isobars, defined, 18-19, 206
e)~wal.I , 427, 418 in cloud.<, 173-176, 177, 179 sea.Mltvel average. 270
e)~wall rt placemenl, 431, 446 !Orms of, 182, 183 lsotachs, defin«I, 276, 330
fish,436 and nalur.al se<e<llng. l76-178 IMltope, 458
fon."t"asting, 449-452 ralio ...... ilh cloud droplets, 176 beryllium, 460
fom1alit)n and dissipation oi. 428·436 lc:dandic (Greenland) low. 269, 270 Isothermal I.ayer, defined, 12
and llooding, 438443,448 Ice nuclei, 174 Isotherms
and global warmiog, 450 le:< pellet (su Sleet) defined, 78
as heal engines, 430-431 keslorms. 23, 185-187 January and July avt'.'rage, 80
1nt'aSurcmenlS O(, 432 icing, aircraR, 188 world <l\'erage, 490, 49 I
models of, 428 lma£c:"r insalellites, l37·138
C...,.nf• )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y ta>thu••icd >........J,,.. .i...,..wod,"' ,.f>;k o•in.,.... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iun,.hnflLU;,,.,J\o «It""""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
.bmcdfl,.....,"'\I~"''""" ..,.,,,,,,. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19ct.c:>r""'lll'""'.._ fl••,:l•.,•mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- nli•• '""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
defined, 12
J en.,,lronmental, 147. 148 M
Jacob'.< ladder. 553 standard (a...erage), 12 Macker<l .skr, 128, 132, 310
Jet s1reak. 329, 330, 331, 334, 34-0 supera<liabalic, 150 ~·lacroburs l, 386
and S.lOrin development, 329-331, 341 l.alcnl he.al,6, 34--36, 48, 382 1\1.a('roclitnale, 490
Jel stream tori!' (stL also Jcl Slreak). 275, 315. as source of energy in hurricaoes, 430, ~lacr osca l e motion, 2.30. 231
329. 331 , 340 478 ~1Lagnc:1.ic field, 52-54
<'Onvt"r gt>:nce and di,-ergenc:e around, 330 I.ale.rile, 500 ~lag~Lic slorm, 52
}el slreams, 12. 274-278 l.atiludeand longitude, 19 l\1agoetosphere, 53
defined, 274 Layers or altnu..~ phere:, 12-16 ~·tiig~lolail , 53
and develo ping v.·ave !')'clone.~. 329-331 teaching_, 499 l\•lajor El Nh\o event, 282 (see IJ/so El Nii'.o)
formalion oi, 275-277 lea<l Iodide, 177, 191 Mammatusdouds, 133. 134. 135, 383, 384,
low-level jet. 278, 392, 393 Lead particles in atmosphere, 532 3'!1, 415
and momenlum, 277 l.ea..'t'~I:, color ch angt~I:, 59, 63, 510 ~tap analrsis, 351
ll(')Clurnal jel, 278 l.ee ('ytJOStncsis, 322 !\•tares' tails, 128
p0lar-fronLjet. 274, 275- 276, 331 , 340, L«-side lov.·s, 322, 323 ~·larine dimale, 505, 506
3'!5 l.tt \Va\'e clouds. 161 (see 1JstJ Lenticular l\•laritinlf' polar air nm sse.~. 299-301
and severe Lhunderslorms, 392, 393 clouds) ~1lariti me tro pical a ir ma.'>ses, 301-304
rear inRow in 1.hundcrs lorm, 388 Legionnaires disease. 522 Mars. 4. 14-15, 250, 552
re.lalion Lo Lropopause, 12. 274, 277 l.entk ular clouds, 133, 134, 144, 161, 164 dust de ...il'> and dlL"l s torm.s, 250
Slr.i.l-OSpheric polar nlghl jel. 278 l.este, 251. 252 Mass, <le6ne<l. 10
•ublropical jet, 274, 275, 276-277. 334 l•ve<h e, 251, 252 1'!.Lter, 32
lrOpical easLerly j eL, 277 I.eve.I offrtt c:onvttlion, 157 Slfllf'S oC, 95
Joule. defined. 34, 36, 4-0, 3'!3, 416 Lidar, Doppler, 259, 419 ~1tauna Loa Obser valOr )~ 7, 8
Jupiler, 4, 14-15 LifHngc:ondensalion lt"\'c:"l (LCL).160, 163 ~1laun<le:r; E. \V., 470
t ig ht (s« Radial.ion) ~launder n1inimum, 470
K 1.ighLning. 26. 397-4-05

baU. 4-02
l\1ean Cree path, 15
~·techanic.a l lurbulance, 231
KaLabatic \vind, 244-245 bead, 402 l\1edie\·al CUn1alic Optimun1, 461 , 462
Kelvin, Lord, 33 boll from the blue, 399 ~1ledilerranean climate, 507
Kelvin Helmholtz. \ Vil\'t', 235 doud-lo-ground, 400, 402, 405 ~1tcl an in . and absorption o( radiation, 42-43
Kelvins, defined, 33 dart leader, 402 ~ten iscu s, 86
Kelvin 1.emperalurescalc, 33,34 detection an<l suppre..,sion. 403-405 l\'1ercury ban.)mtlet (se>.. 8aromele:r.s)
Kelvin waYe, 283 deterrnining distance, 397 ~·teridians, 19
Khamsin, 251. 252 <levelopn1enl of. 401 l\1eridional_···•i nd.~ (flow), 219
Kilopasc-. t, 204 dUft.rcnLCorms or.
400-4()3 a nd forttasLing, 358
KineLicenergy, 32, 37, 44, 320.4.30 dry. 402 ~1lesodin1 ate, 490
Ki r'-hho(rs law. 44 (atalilies, 405 MesoC)~l one, 3'!0, 3'J I, 413
Knot. defined, 12, 20. A I an<l fires, 404 Mesohigh, 383
KilppeuS dassilr.calion o(climaLCS. 495, 496, Corked, 4-02 ~·te.sop ause. 13, 15
497, 498-499 heal. 397, 402 l\1e.soscale Convttli\'e Comple.<te..,, 389·390.
Kl>ppen, 'Valdimir, 495 rel urn s Lroke, 40 I 510
Kuroshi.ocurrenl, 279, 280 ribbon,402 Mesose>le Convccli"<"SySL<m (MCS). 389
K)'Oto ProLocol,-l85 rods, 402-403 1\-tesoscale corl\'tCli\'~ vorle.t, 389
sheet, 402 l\'1e.soscale motion, 230, 231
L stepped leader, 40 I, 402 ~·te.so!iph ere, 13, 14, 16
Labrador ('urrtnl, 279 stroke. 400-403 l\•te1.rogr<i.n1, 348. 349
Lig htning dlr« Lion finder, 403 ~1leL eoroids, 13. 18
l ake breeze, 241, 244
light Llierap)' and SAD, 67 A1.tt~orologica . 18
Lake-effecL(enhanced) snov..·s, 296., 297
l.ioear momentum, '1J1 Meteorologist, defined, 24, 26
l•marck. J.. 127
l.iule Ice Age, 402, 472 l\'1eleorology
La1n inar Row, 230
LofHng Snloke plume, 537 brier hislor)'. 18-l9
Land brt'.'c-1.C':, 241-243
or
Land 1.h~ ~U dn ight Sun, 61, 62 l.ongv•aves in at1nospl1t-.re. 326-328. 337 defined. 18
o rigin of \~·ord, 18
Land ofTolal Darkness, 61 Looping c:urrtnl, 446
Loopiogs1noke plume. 537 ~1l<'.'lh.ane
landspoul, 416, 417, 418
l.ov•-levcl jel stream, 278 amount in air, 5, 7, 9
Langnluir. lrviog, 177
an<l mesoscale c:om-ecli\'e com pie:<, and <:litnale<hange, 473
la Nina, 282, 283, 284, 3ro
392, 393 and greenhousee(fee!l. 71 44
and hurri('ane formation, 430. 478
LapSe rate, lemperature, 12, 147, 490
and lhundt:rslo r1n formation, 392 METROMEX (Meteorological E.xp<rimenl),
adiabatic, 146 Lov.·· pressure art-a (se.e C)'done:s, middle 542
lalilude)
autocon.,,,-clh-t, 150
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an• Allibt!t.tt_.....i M:.y ta>thu••icd >........J,,.. ol....Wod."' ,.f>;k o•in.,.... floe .., ch<,....., .....-11...i 1-'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'!¥.,..al iun,.hnflLU;,,.,J\o «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
,._,.,..,,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,,. -...J4f •nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19ct.c:>r""'lll'""'.._ fl••,:l•.,•mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
~·ticr oburs l, 38+387 ~·lountain wa\'e cJouds, 161 (.s« als<J t\lorlh American Lighlniog Dtlttlion
and airline crashes, 386, 381 Lenticular clouds) Netv•ork, 404
in hurricanes' e)-ev.·-aU. 445 l\•tounlain .,...·ave eddies, 233 Norlh A.tlantk Orl(i, 219
~·ficrocl imate, 490 ~·lounl Piualubo \'OJ('ano North 1\tlaulic Os('illaLio n (NAO), 288-289,
altering lhe, '458 and climalt- t.hange. 471, 417 300
~·licron>e lers. defined, 39, 170, 524 and color of skr. 554, 555 l\lorthea.-.Lt rs, 30 I, 323, 324
~·ticr o.>Vea le motion, 230, 231 and o.oone deplelion, 485, 529, 530 ·wilh hurricane ch.araclerL.:;lics, 434
~tiddl e lalilude: C)'C:lone (.st>~ Cyclones, mid· ~·lount SL Helens, \'Olcano, 471 t\k>rthern lighls (.w Aurora)
die latitude) l\•tount Tambc.)ra, 472 Norlh &Jualorial Current, 279, 280
~·fiddle lalilu<le~~. defined, 19 ~·tul ticeU Slorrns, 3&'.l, 382-390 North Pacific Drift, 280
!\•lid-Holocene ma:timum, 461 l\lor11t·egi.an C)'t:lone l\itodcl, 320
~til anlu)\•ilch , ~1.. Lheorr oi clitnalic change,
467-409
N t'IJowcasli.ng, 358
Nuclear .,...,inter, 474
Milk)' Way gala.<y, 4 Nat:reou.1> clou<l.s. 1.33, 135 Nun>erit'.al \.\~th er Predi~Lion (N\.VP),
l\1tUibar. defined, 11, 98, 203 National 1\('adem)' o( Sc:ience, 462 351-353
~·lirages, 557-558, 559 National 1\mbie:nl Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS), 532, 533
l\•lbaral. 245 (see <'ISO Katabalic:: wind}
~lL"<ing depth, 536 Nalional Cenler for Atmosph.erie Research 0
~·tLting fog (s.a Evaporation (mL"<lng) fhg) (NC.AR),450, 545 Oakland Hills fi re, 248
~lL"<ing la)·er, 536
National Qoler fOr Environmental Obliquit)" ofearth's axis, 468
l\1Lxing ralit\ 97, 106, 124. 162 Prediction (NCEP), 346 Ocduded fronts (w Fronts)
~·lock sun (sre Suudogs) National Hurricane Cente,r, 4-39, 444. Oc<lusion, 313-315
Mode, 79 445, 449 bentback, 329
~·todt".I OutputStalistics, 356. 359 Nalional Morbidil)', ~1orta lil)'o and Air (Old and v.·arm, 313
Models Pollution (NM MAP). 543 Ocean cur-rents. 278-280
air n10Lion•.:; in hurricane, 428 National Oceanic anJ. AlmOSpheric 1\dn1in- a..:; a COnlrOI o( lC1nperature, 78-81, 505
atmospheric, 20-0-20 I, 348-350, 480 L<Lration (NOAA), 26, 285, 452 e:ffe<:l on nearby land lemperalure, 79
c limate, 46. 476--471, 4SO National O.t.one E:q:>e-dition (NOZE), 531 and dlnlate change, 463
EarlhSyskrn. 480 NaliOl)al \Veather A.ssocialion (N\VA), 26 Ocean-effect snows, 297
forecasting, 353-355 Nalional \\'eather Service, 26, 43, 82, 84, Oceanic (ronl, 280
general circulation, 266-267, 361 . 480 108, 141, 346, 347, 352, 357, 380, 403, Ocean Nliio Ind<< (ONI), 284
Norv.·egi.an C)'C:lont, 320 410,411,437,439, 441, 508 Oceans
s tation, AS Neptune, 4, l5 COO\'e)'Or bell, 463
used in weather (orttasling. 348-350, Neutral s tability, 149 infiuencc- on climale, 78-81, 463
370-371 Newlon, l~a.ac, 209 inlluenc-t on c.linl-ale change, ;rJ, 463, 481
~·toL.:;l adiabatic rate o( cooliog or \~·arming. Newtons, <lefioed, 11. 203 inleractions .,...,ilh altno...:;phere, 47.
146-147 New·tonS la\vS oftnolion, 209-211, 217 278-289
~loisl adiabals, 162 NEXRAO (Nes:l Genc:ralion Weathe:r Surface lenlperalurc.s and weather,
l\•tolet"ular Jeosily. 10 Radar), 419 282-289
Nimbostratusclouds, 127, 129, 130, 132, 177 ort:~hore wind, 255
~·lol c!eu l e.~. 6
exeiled, 53 Nilric add. 526 Om~ high, 370
mean frtt path ol. 15 Nitric oxide, 526, 528 Onshore v.:ind, 255
number ln a bre.ath or air, 6 ln poUulMair. 526 Open \..·ave C)'Clone, 320, 32t
Mollna, Mario j ., 531 and str.i.losphe:ric O't.One destruction, 528 OpliC".dl phenomena. (stt A l mo.~pheric
l\•tonomolec:ular film, 452 Nilroge.n Optics)
~·lon..:;oon depressions, 252, 271 pe:rcent ln almosphere, 4, 5 Orth.a.rd healerS, 73
Monsoons, 251-253 production and de~'>lruction near Orographic cloud..:;, 159
and El Nii\o, 252, 283-284 surface, 5 Orographic upliif, 159, 493
and tro pical ...,,el-and.<lr)' climalt, 501 Nilrogen dioxi<le, 9, 528 cloud developrnt'nt, 160-161
~lon..:;oon v..ind S)'Stem (k"t l\itonsc.)CUL.:;) in polluted air, 526 Otol i1h s. 481
l\•tontreal Protocol. 529 Nilroge.n oxides, 526. 532 Outflow b ouncir)'. 384, 386
Moon, bluo, 553-554 Nitrous o:<ide Outgassing_, 10, 467
l\•1oonbows. 563 amount in air, 5, 7-8 Overrunning. 310, 320
~·tother.()(-p earl cloud (St"t Nacreous clouds} and clhnate change, 473 0\-ers.hooLing lop, 383, 384. 391
1\Aounlainadoes, 247 and greenhOUSt'tffect, 7-8, 44, 473 O:cldanL..:;, phol(H:hemit'.al, 527
~·founiain bre~. 243-244, 255
NOAA Reconnaissance Aircraft, 428 Oxides of nitroi,>en, 526, 528
!\•fountains NOA.A weather r.t<lio, 26, 410 0')'!,"'n
and climatic cll.ange, 4(,6-467 t\loctiluctnl cJou<ls, 134, 135 it) e.arly almo..:;phere, 10
hillside len1peralure variaLions. 66, 67 Noclurnal tnverSion (stt> ln\~rsion) perce:nl ln almosphe:rt:, 5
influence on pr«:ipil'ation, 492-493, 494 Normal. defined, 79 production and <lestroction ~ar surface,
5, 528
O:tygen.isolope rali<>s, 458 Pit~appl e t.."tpress, 30 I, 302 upslope snow, 300
CYLOne, 5, 8, 482 Planetary (aln1os;pheric) boundar)' la)'er, urban Induced, 54:1·542
or
absorplion radialion, 44, 526 220, 232 warm. 173
and ~limalt' change, 482 Planetary scale n10Lion.~. 230, 23 l wiLh w·arrn fronL~• .309·3 l 1
concen1.ralion nc.ar surfa<e, 5 Planetal)' \'Orlicily, 336 v.·orld average annual, Al4·AI 5
t"OocenlraliOn over Anlart"lit,a, 8, 9, 531 Planetary \~·ave~ (st~ Longv•av~s in the Prccipilation prOc.'esse.~. 170· 179
conc:enlralion over Arelic:, 530 almosphere) c::oUL~iou and c:oo l e.~ene<-, 171 ·173
deslru<'lion bv chlorine, 8, 529, 530 P laneL~ ice-crystal (Bergeron), 173-176, 177
Cederal staooarde.<ettded, 534 diolc!'n.~ions and surface lemperalure.~. Pres.~ure
and furmalion of blue haze, 552, 553 14-15 associaled wilh c::uld air and \Varrn air
ground lewl, 526 posilion ol. 4 alort, 20-0-201, 206-209
hole, 8, 9, 482, 530, 531 Plasma (ste Solar wind) atmospheric:, 10-12, 200·206
imporlanct: lO Ufeon earlh, 8, 527-530, Pl.ale teclonics,1 8 averat,>e sea levt"1, I I, 206
531 and climalit change, 466-467 baromelric, I I, 204
nlaxinlunl, 13 Pletst ocene ept)Ch, 461 and boiling poinl, 100
as a pollulanl, 8, 526+ 530 Plulo, 4 cau..-.e.s oi surfuce \'arla.Lio ns, 201 -203,
produclion and <lestruclion near Surface, Polar air n1asse.s, 296-301 22 1-222
528-529 Polar climate, 488, 495, 511-514 ccnlral, 320
in s lralosphere, 8, 13, 526., 527-530 Polar e.asLerlics. 267, 268, Tl I t"hanges aloR, t"auses of, 201-202
and supersonic.' jel lransporl, 529 Polar front, 267, 268, 271, 305 convt"rsions, 202, 203-204 1 A2
in Lroposphcre, 526·527 Polar.(ronl jel stream, 274, 275-276, 331, 340 dail)' varialions;, 201-203
Own< bole, 8, 9, 530, 531 Polar·fr-Onl Lheory ofC')·done...:;, 320·32 I defined, II, 17, 200
and dimate change,482 Polar high, 267 diurnal cha.nge.s, 201, 203
O.t.one ~lonitoring lnslrumenL(Oi\•U), 530 Polar kc t"ap clitnale, 512, 513, 514 ex'lre:mes, 20.3
Polar jel slream c:ore, 315 and gas law. 202
p Polar lt)vts, 340-341, 434 horizonlal "ariations;, 201-202
Polar s lralosphe.dc clouds. 531 ins lrumenls, 203·204
Pacific air, 299 Polar lundra t"limale, 512, 513 January and Jul)' average, 270
PadC.c Decadal Oscillation (PDQ), 286-288, Polar vorlC.'"<, 531 1neasurcme:nl ol. 203·206
360 Pollutants, 9, 532, 533 (""also spedCIC reJuclion lo sea le\>el, 206
index or, 288 t)ves) relation lodensil)' and lt:mpcralure, 202
Pad fie high. 269, 270, 271, 538 Pollutant Standard Index (PSI), 532 s landard. Almospheric, 11 203, 204 1
Pacific Hurricane Cenler, 449 Slalion, 2-05
Pollulion (s.tt> 1\ir pollulion)
Palmer Drought Se,"<rily lnde.< (PDSI), 508, P-0loniurn. 522 lendenC)'. 306, 363, A6
509 Pole.nli.al energ)'. 32 uniL.::, 11, 2()3.204. A2
Palmer Hydrological Drought Index Polcnllal e\•apolranspiralioo (P/E), 496 \'atiation wilh ahhu<le, 11, 12, 204-206.
(PHDI), 508-509 P/ E inde.<, 496 223-224, Al6
P;dn1t-.r, \Varne, 508 P/ E ratio, 495 o( Wind, 240
Parameleri:utllon, 480 Polenlial lemperalure, 149, l62. 294 Pres.~ure gradie:nl. 211
Parcel, or air, 'JJ, 38, 97, 146 Pov.·ers of len, 6, A 2 Pressure gradienl force (PGF), 20 I.
Parhdia ("' Sundogs) Prece..~sion, ofearl h's a.'(is of l'Olalion, 468 211-212, 217
Parliculale mauer, 52.3 Precipitable v.·ater. 95, 141 Prc\'ai.liug v.·csle:rl.ies, 267, 268
PM-2.5, 524, 532 Precipitation, 168·i 97 (s« also specific Prevailing winds (set\Vinds. prevaUing)
PM-10, 524, 532 t)ves) Probability (orecast, 357
Pascal, Blaise, 203 acid, 9, 180, 542-545 Profiler("' Wind profiler)
Pascal, defin«l, 11, 204 and t"lhnale cha.nl,'t", 482, 483 Pr<>gnootic charl (prog), defined, 352
Pallt rn recognilion, 355 in clouds. 178· 179 Promine:nce.s, 52
Perihelion, 60 \Vith c::old ironls, 30<>-.309 P.lle'udoodiabatic pmt'ess, 146
Permair<>!l:l, 512 defined, 5, 18. 94, 170 Psychrometric tables, AB-:\ 11
Pt.r<>xya<elyl nitrale (P1\N), 527 C.Xl rtnle!'S, 494 Psychromelers, 110
PersL~l ence forea.~l . 355, 361
global pallerns or, 271-272. 482, 483, P)'roc.-urnul u.~. 153
pH scale. 544 491-494, Al4-Al5
Pholochemical O':ddant!l:, 527
Phot(Khernical Snl <>g (str Smog)
and hydrC>logic c:: )~l e, 94 Q
inslrumenLS, 19J.f 92
Pholodissoc:la.Lio n, 10 1nea.~uremenl -Of, 191·i 94 QuikSCAT, 259, 432
Pholons. 40 and radar, 192-194
Phol~ phere, 52
PholOS)'nlhcsis, 5, 1, 10, 52
rdale<l. lo general t"i«ulation. 271-272, R
491-493
Phytoplankton, 7, 117, 470, 479 Radar
and sky c::olor, 181
Pile us cloud, 133, 134 Cloud Profiler, 194
an<l t opograph)~ 493
Pilot balloon, 258 t"011\'t!nlional 192· 194
t)'PCS· 180-1 91
defined, 192
C...,.nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thu••icd >........J,,.. ol....Wod."' ,.f>;k o•in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11...t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dlLU;,,.,,h• «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,.,..t.....
obmcdfl,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,,. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl••,:!o .. •mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_.....,.,.,..,,
delermlning v.iods, 259 R.a.io rore..o;L Saod ripples, 236
Doppler, 19, 192-194. 259, 374, 387, 388, deslruction 473or. Sandstorms (u~ Dusl sLorms)
389, 414. 417-420, 442. 444 tro pieal, 498, 500 Sanla ;\na ""ind, 23, 247-249, 521
dual-polarlution, 420 Rain free base, 390 SanLa ~'I aria, \•olca.nic eruplion, 47i'
echo, 192, 388, 389, 414, 428 Raingaugcs, 191-192 Salcllilt image..::
~1lk:rowave iniagcr, 194 Rain s hadow, 160, 493 3-<lirnensional. 429, 432
polarmeLric, 194. 420 R.a.ioslreamer, 180, 502 compuler enhancemcnl oC, 139, 333, 341,
and prc:-c:ipilalion, 192-194 Rawi~onde obser.,.aLion, 16, 258 390
and k)rnadoes,417-420 Reading materials. addilional. Rl-R2 ofrniddle laLilude sLorms, 20, 1.38, 1.39,
and tropk·. J s lornl Alli.son, 442 Red sprilt's, 400 140, 253, 302, 315, 318, 322, 332, 333,
WSR-880, 348, 419 Red wood tr""'· 121l 374, 375
Radianl energy (se.e Ra<llali-On) Reflection (stt •lw Albedo) o(hurricanes, 20, 138, 140, 194, 424. 431,
Radial ion, 4. 32, 39-52 •nd <olor of objects. 550-551, 563, 564 442, 444, 44.5, 446
absorplion and emis.~on or, 42-47 or radiation, 4-0, 48 infrared, 302, 308, 333, 341, 373, 390
in(rared, 41 Refr'.i.ction, 554-557, 560, 562 and lightning delttLion. 403-404
inlt"n.~ ily, 42-43 and gr""n lla.<h. 556-557 of polar Iow, 341
long\vavt and slw:>rlv.·ave, 41 and l•ngthening of day, 555-556 andsurCate \\'inds. 249, 253, 259
radlalive equilibrium, 43, 44, 475 oflight, 554-557, 565 o(thundcrSLonns, 20, 253, 269, 308, 390
r<lle<tionof,40, 48, 550, 560, 567 •nd mirage. 557-558, 559 o(Lropical Slorms. 20, 431. 435, 442, 449
refraclion -0(, 55+55? (st~ ais.o c.au..o::eofl\vinkUng, 555 visible, 120, 140, 269, 299, 315, 332, 375,
Rerraction) Relative hutnidil)', 99-104 431,442,445,446.449
scauerlt1g. 48, 50, 550-554 comparing desert air wilh polar air, \Valer vap0r hnage, 19, 140, 3.39
sc:>l« Li\•e absorbers, 44-45 102-104 Salcllilc..::
.shorLWa\'C!' and longv•a\'e, 41 computation of. 97, 99, IOO, IOI, 105, 1\ura. 530, 531
and skin <.'ancer. 42-43 106. 162 CloudSat, 140, 194, 432
c:l sun and ea.-rth, 40-42 dail)• \·aria.Lion of, 100-102 E.arlh Radi.a.Lion BudgeL, 47
and Lemperalure. 40 defined, 99 ('.OES, 138, 141. 354
ltrrc.~Lrial, 41 or<lifft.rtnl latiludes, 104.- l05 b>eO..~Lali onary, l9, 136, 137. 1.38, 141
lransmiued Ughl, 554 efkcLon humans. 107-108 global_posilioning S)'Slem, 16, 141
ultraviolel, 41. 42-4.3 ln the home. 105-107 and identif"'"alion o(clouds, 136-141,
vari.alion \·\cilh sea.sons. 60-66 tables, A9, All 374, 375
vL~ibl e ~ion, 41 Ret roreJlec.~L ed IlghL, 567 infl)rmalion (rom, 136-141
Radialional (X)()ling, 69-70 Retrogr.tde wa\'t motion, 326 fA,u/sat, 141
Radiation fog, 119-120, 122, 123 RiJ~ (see t1lso Anlicydones} ~·Ur. 15
Radiation it\vcrsion, 70, 536 defined, 208 p0lar orbiling. 136
RadiaLiveequiUbrium temper.tlurc, 43, 44, aod upper-levc.-.1ch.arL~. 208 QuikSCAT, 259, 432
475 Rime, 185, 186, 188 SOH0,470
Radiath~ rorclng, 475 ROc.'kets, and wind in(ormation, 258-259 Solar ~·fa.1, 15
Radiath~ forcing agents. 475 RoUcloud, 384, 385 TOPEX/Poseidon, 283
Radio Rc.)Ueddies (ste RoLors) 1iros I, 19, 1.37
cornn1unications and ionu.~phtre, 17 Rossb)'. C. G.. 326 Tropical Rain(aU ~·leasuring ~1Hssion
wavtlenglhs. 41 Rossby wa\'CS (ste Long"·a\'eS in (TRMM), 139, 140, 141, 194, 429
RadiornelerS. 37,41, 1r7, 137 almosphere) Visible and lnlrared Scanner. 19-t
Radiosonde, 12-13, 16, 87, 110, 147, 258, Rotor clouds, 233 SaluraLion, 96, 99
348, 449 RoLors, 161 Saluration mL~ing ratio, 99, 124, 125, 162
Radon, 522 Rc.)ughness ur ground and turbulence. Saturalion vapor pressurt-, 98, 99, 106, 170
Rain, 190-181, 187 (~.e1J/u, Precipilation) 230·233 O\'tr ice and \Valer, 98, 175
acid, 9, 180, 542-545 Rowland, F. Sher ....·ood, 531 (or variou.~ air lcmptr.i.tures, 99_ , 106
itUtnSil)', 180, 181, 192- 194 Ru<ldiman, \VlUiam, 475 Salurn, 4, 15
lra<:e or. 191 Runawa)' grt."t:nhouse cffecL, 465 Savanna grass, 500, 50 I, 514
warm. 173 Runaway kt- age. 465 Scale..:: olatrno..::pherlc rnt)Lioo, 230, 231
RAINE..."{ (Raloband lnlensity Chan~ Scauerers, selecth't, 48, 49, 551-553
E:<.perilne.nt), 431
Rainbows, 378, 562-565
s Scaut ring, 48, 49, 124, 550-551
f,aeometric (non-selective), 550, 551
prin1ar)'. 564 Saffir-Simp.~on Hurrlc.ane \Vind Scale, 4.39, Mie,551
secoodar-y 00\V, 564 440, 441 of radiation, 48, 49
Raindrop Sali<I, 476 Rarleigh. 551, 552
shape, 181 Sainl ElnlOS Fire, 402, 403 ScaueromeLer, 259
siie, 170, ISO Sall partides, a..:: condensation nuclei, 96, Sea\Vi nc.l'>, 259
117. 171 Schaefer, Vincent. 177
Sand dunes, 236 ScinLillalion, 555
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an• Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...ico.l. >........J,,.. .1....wod,"' ,.f>;k o•in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11...t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h~dlLU;,,.,,h•
.bmcdfl,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19ct.c:>r""'lll'""'.._ fl••,:lo .,,.......,:JJ,.,.,,...,,,,_
«It""""' I f!4u.Wt_.,...,.
.,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_.....,.,.,..,,
t....
Scud, 129, 130 falJh)g in abcwt fr~ing air, 182 184 4
Spectrum, elec:Lromagnelit . 41
Sea brttu, 24-1-243 Rurrie$;, 182 Speed of light, 39
and Florida 6rc!'S, 243 as au insulalor, 184-185 Spi raJ rain band, 42?
Sta breeze cOn\'t'rgence zone, 24.3 inlensil)'. 182 t84 4 Spiril Rover, 14
Sea brtt"te (ronl. 242 inOuence on landseape, 184-185. 236-237 Spriles, red. 400
Sea le\-CI, and climalic duu.ges, 458, 459 lake-•fl<ct, 296, 297 Squall line, 307, 387-389, 426
Sea-leveJ pressure. 206 1neasuremenl of, 191-t92 Slable equilibrium, 146
Sea-le...·e.I prt-~li.Sure <"harr, 205, 206 meh tng le\•tJ, 181.182 Stabil ily
Sea...:;onal atTeclive disorder (SAO), 67 an<l nighuime lentperalure. 71-72 almosphe.ric, 146-148, 155
Sta.'VUnS. 60-61 Ottan-eJfe<l, 291 c:hans,oe..:; due lo lifting alr, 153
asl ronomical an<l n1el corologkal. 65 lapioca. 189 thange.s due le> ntixi.nSi 162-163
defined, 65 upsl<>pe, 300 and clou<l <levtlopme:nl, 154-165
in Norlhem HemL;;phcre, 61-65 Snow drifts, 236, 237 dtlermining l)'pt" or.
147-154
inSoutl~m Hemisphere, <i6 Snow dunes, 236 neulral. 149
Sea\'/ind.;;, 259 Snowfall, records of. 185. 494 and pollution, 149, 152, 535-538
Secondary low, 320 Snow fences. 236, 237 and srnoke plumes, 5"37
Se«! drop.<, 178 SoowAake, 176, 177, 182-184 and windy afien1oon, 155
Sticl~s. 239 shape, 183, 184 Slandard almosphtre lable, Al6
Selecti Ye absorberS (s.tr Radiation) Snow grains, 187-189 Slan<l.ing wa\<f cJouds, 161 (St.Y als<J
Semi-arid cUmaLe, 502, 503, 504 Snow pellets, 175, 187-189 l.enlicular c:louds)
Sernipemlant-nl highs and IOY.'S, 269 Snow ripples, 236 Slars lv»i.nkl.ing. 555
s-.isible beat, defined, 35 Snow roller, 236, 237 Slale uftbe Clirnale in 2009. re.porl, 475
Sensible lernperalure, 84 Soow squall, 182-183 Slation n1cuJel, t\5
Sferics, 403 Soft hail, 189, 399 Sleam <le\ils, l22
Shar.tv, 251, 252 Soil, t.lfet"l on ltmperalurt abo\'e, 70-72 Sltfan-Bohzmann lav... 40, 465. A4
Shelf cloud, 384, 385 Solar colJectors, 485 Stefan, Josef, 40
Shdterbehs. 237, 238 Solar c:onstanl, 48. A4 Steppe. 502, 503, 504
Shorlwave.s in almosphere, 326, 371, 373 Solar corona, 52 Stepp«l leader,401,402
Shower, 180 Solar e<.lip.se, 52 STORM FURY project, 452
Siberian express, 300 Solar flares, 52 Storm of March, 1993, 332-334, 335
Siberian high, 269, 270 anJ. radio c:ommunicalion, 52 Slorm Prediclion Cenler,4 10,416
Skk bulldlng S)·ndrome, 522 Solar healing. and roofangle, 68 Storm Re:lalive Helicity (SR.ti), 417
SU\'t r iodide. 177, 118 1 190, 191. 452 Solar irradiance, 475 Slonn s urge, 438, 439, 441
Simoom, 251, 252 Solar particle, and aurora, 52-54 Slorm \van)i.ng, 347, 410
Sir()(CU, 251, 252 Solar radi.alion, 4l Slralocumulus cloud'>, 127. 129-130, 132,
Sk)' absorption by almo.sphcre, 42-45 158, 164, 165
color of,48, 49, 344, 550-554, 555, 562 absorption al earlhS Sur-fate, 49-52, <i0-66 due lo 1uixing. 165
coodilion.sof, 135-136 and t Jimale: chanh~• 469 470 4 Stralopause, 13, 14
Sk)"vane (~e Aerovane) brighLness, 469 Slr-alosphe:re. 12. 13, 16
Sleet, 185, 187 Solar sysletn, planets in, 4 ozone in, 8, 526, 527 -5"30
Sn1all craft ad.visor)'. 347 Solar wind, 52. 53 sudden v.·armlng, 12-13
Stnog, 8, 526, 53'! a..:;socialed ..,,.iLhsolar flare:, 52-. 53 lC'n1peralure ar.
12-13
London- l)'p<'. 520, 526 and aurora, 52-54 Stratus clouds, 127, 130, 132
Los Angeles-type. 526 Solberg. Halvor. 320 and prc:-tipilation irom, 130
pholodren1ical, 8, 521, 526 Solule:tlfttl, 111 Slralus (r.ittus clouds (st~ Semi}
($t.t t1lso Alr pullulion) Sonic boom, 397 Slreamlines, 426
S1nog fronl, 242, 538 Sound Subduction, 466
S1noke (ronL. 242 i..nRuenc:M by snOY•, 187 SublinlaliOn, 35, 95, 116
Smoke.slack pluttt.s, 537 sonic boom, 397 lalt:nl heal of. 35
S1nudge pols (sre Orthard healers) speed of, 3'!8 Subpolar climate, 5 IO, 511, 51 2
SneUS la\v, 550 of lhwKler rutnbling. 397- 399 Subpolar low, 267, 268, 271
Snow, 181-185, 187-189 Sounder, i.n .saleUilt-S. l38, 141, 348 Sub..~i<lence ln\'t'rsion..~. 148, 152, 536, 538
absorplion and emission infrarc.'d or Sounding, 16, 147 Subtropical .alr, 30 I
entr8)', 44 and .St:\'C're lhuntle:rslorms. 3'92, 393 Sublropical ironl, 276
advisory, 341 and v.·ealhe:r forecasting. 346., 348, 349 Subtropical highs.and general circulallou,
a lbedo of, 50 Southern llghLS (s.t~Aurora) 267, 268
averab~Annual. Unit.edSLales. 185 Soulhern Osci.Ualion, 252, 282-286 Sublropical j el s lreant, 274, 215. 276-217.
and dtinook, 246 Spagheui plot, 354, 355 334
tfk.cl on tninimum lemptralurt, 44, Sp«ific heat. 34. 79 Suclion vorlke.s, 409
72, 74 Speci.fic humidil)~ 97-98 SuJfutes, and climalc chaoge, 471, 473, 475
ttl_.ct ou sound, 187 defined, 97, 99 Sulfur dioxide, 470, 526, 532
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thu••icd >........J,,.. .l....Wod."' ,.f>;k o•in ...... floe "'ch<"''*" ..... -11...t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dlLU;,,.,,h•
,._,.,..,,.....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl••,:!o .. •mom::JJo.,.,,...,,,,_
«It""""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
.,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_.....,.,.,..,,
Sulfur Lrioxidc, 526 defined, 12, 17, 32 liquid·in-glass. 86. 88
Sulfuric." ac."id, 9, 526 and densil)' relationship, 202 ma.timum and minimum, 86. 87
Summer solslke, 61. 62, 64 <le\V polnl, IOI, 106, 116, 312 Thermosphere, 13. 15, 16, 84
Sun efft'cl on alr:S capat il)' (or \Valer vap0r, 1l1ickness chart, 350, 351
ac."lh-e, 16 $6,98-99 Thornlhv.·aite, C. \ Varrr.n, -195
angle al noon, 68 e."<lrt.'nlt"S, 70-71, 74-75 ThornthwaiLe's clas.sifK'alion o( climaLe.o:;,
apparl!'nl path, 64 global pauems of. 78, 80, 461-464, 495-496
t"hanges in color, 49, 553. 554 476-478, 480-481, 483, 490-491 Thunder, 397-399
t"h.ange.s ln energy Oulpul. 409.470 hori2ontal variation beLv.'t!'en summer Thunders now, 380
or
c hanging posilion rislng and Sc!'l llng, and \Vinler, 78-82 Thundt:rSlorms, 380-405
6-0. 61, 64, 66 and human comforl, 84·86 and alrline t"ra.o:;he..:;, 386
<llamcle:r of, 15 lr-.sLrumenL.:;, 86-88 air.mass (.set ordlr1ar)' ctU)
dL.:;Lancc fronl earlh.4, 15. 52 iD\'t.rSit)n, 12,69-71.148. 152, 535-538 a\'erage number o(<la)'S obsetved in
n1agncLic- t")'t"le or.
52. 53, 469 lag ln dall)'o ({/ u. s.. 397. 398
posilion in Milky \Vay gala.'(y, 4 lag ln sea.sonal,65 cell, 380, 381-393
seasonal \'arialionsal noon, 6667, 68 land \'t"rsu...:; \•falt r, 78-82 distribution, 397
sLructure or.52 lap.'>e rate.. avera~. 12, l47,490 dO\VndraCls and updrafts, 382, 392,
lemperalure of, 15, 16, 40, 52 lov.•esl a\'C!rag<" value in alnlOSpht:re, 15 413, 414
Sundogs, 548,56-0,561,562 maximum.and minimum, 67-72 dry line Slur-ms, 311-313, 393.39;1
Sun piJlars, 56-0-562 mean (a\-erage) annual. 81 electrit--il)' in, 399-405
Sun Prolc!'t"Lio n Faclor, 43 nlc!'an (a\'C?:rase) dail)'. 78 elevalcd,311
Sunset, red,49, 554 1neasurc1nt:tll near s urface, 67-72 and Rooding. 394-397
Sunspots, 52 rntasurement in thennosplK-.re, 13, 15, 84 fortta.o:;linSi 416
and climatic change, 469, 470 mode. defined, 79 and hurrit.aoes, 426-431, 4.34
solar flare and magne:lic." slorm acti vily, normal, <lefined, 79 images of. 19, 20, 22, 158. 243, 383,
52, 53,469 on north and soulh s lopt~.:;, 66-67 391, 402
Sup<rcell. 380, 390-393, 413-415 potential, 149, 162, 294 lifec)'d e. 381-382
<lifferenl types. 390 radi.ath-e equilibrium, 43; 44, 475 and marititne lropical air rna.s..~es.
do\vndr.ttls in, 414 rapid changes in, 246 301 -304. 394
formation of390-393 re<or<l hig h and lov.·, 10-7 I, 74-75 multieell, 380, 382-390
and tornadoes, 391, 413-415 regional \·ariatit)nS of, 78·8 I , 82 nonsuperce.U, 415-417
Supercooled v.·aler, 174 o(rising and stnklngair, 38, 146 ordlnar)' eel.I, 380, 381-382
Supe:rsaluratlon, 99, l24, 171 scales, 33-34 O\t r.shooting lop. 383, 384, 391
Super$Onic Lrao..o:;porl and oione, 529 .sensible, 84 "pop up,'' 380
Super-I)'pllOOn, 439 oisun, 15, 16, 40, 52 rotation or. 390-393. 413-414
Surt'.li.te t"harLS, 206-209 trcods O\~ r lasl 1000 )'t'ars, 461-464 seme, 380, 387-389, 390-393,413-414
Swells, 238.438 wet bulbanddr)' bulb, !07, 110 sLagcs o( dtvtlop1nenl, 381-382
Srnoptic scale motions, 230, 231 v.·orld a\'trage annual, 464 superu ll, 380, 390-393, 413, 414, 419
S)·st.etue lnternalional (SI), 11, 34, 203, A3 world a\'frage for monlh oijanuar)'. 80 superct-U rnovetnenl, 393
v.-orld average for month o(Jul)'. 80 squall line, 307, 387-389. 426
T Tcrrninal velocil)'. or parlides and prrtipita·
tion, 172
Lr.tining, 395
watches and v.·arnings, 347,416
Table.< Te.'(as norlht:r, 296 Time zones, North 1\merica. 1\ 13
of c:onslants and equations, :\4 The<>dolite, 258 Tornado, 20-21, 25, 378, 405-420
of dew poinl and humidil)'. AS-1\l I Theophraslus, 362 as.o:;t')CiaLed \\•ilh hurricanes. 440-441
of wind chill, 85 Thermal belts . 72. 73 a\'t rage nurnber oi. 407, 408
Taiga, 511, 512, 514 Tht-.rrnal t"irculations, 240-241 damage caused b)" 25, 379, 410. 411
Ta.ngtnl art, 559-560, 562 Thermal high- and low-pressure areas, 241 d.istribulion oi. 407·408
Tcleconr« lions. 285, 36() Thermals, 37. 38, 39, 155 ia1nilies, 406. 412
Ttmpe.r.i.ture Thermal (atmosphc.>:rit) Lldes, 203 forecasling of, 416
a<l\'t"Ction ($tt Ad:vecti-On) Thermal lurbulance, 232 (ormaliunof, 413-417
annual range, 81 Thermal \'flt.cl, 276 Fujila •.:;cale:, 410-411
apparenl, 108 Tht-.rrnislor, in radiosonde, 16. 87 enhanced (EF) scale, 410,411
and application oidalA, 82-88 ThermocUue, 282 and hcHc;ily, 417
avera~change \Vith height, 12, 13, 153, images of, 25, 378, 391. 406. 408, 412
Thermocouple.\ 87
Al6 ThermOOynamics, fir.sl Inv.• of, 32 incidenlS by slale, 407
base for t:rop growth, 82-84 Thermograph, 87, 88 life q·de. 406-407
t"Ontrols o(, 18-81 Tht:rmoh.aline circulaLion, 463 mo\torne:nt 406 or.
t"onvt:rsions, 34, A3 The.rrnometers, 18. 86-88 muhi·\'OrlC.'(, 409
dail)' <hanges in, 67-81 bimetaUic, 87, 88 nonsuperctU, 415-417
dailr (diurnal) range, 77-78 t le<lrical, 81 obscr.·ations o(, 417-420
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J ,,.. .1....wod,"' ,.f>;ko•in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11...t jW')' <.,,._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h ~dlLU;,,.,,h• «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
,._,.,..,,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,.,,.. -...J4f•nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19ct.c:>r""'lll'""'.._ fl••,:l•.,•mom::JJo.,.,,...,.,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_.....,.,.,..,,
(Tornado, cottti,,uai) 1·ropi(al y,·et.-aod-drr cllmale, 500, sot Vert.ical air nlOliOns
oaurrence of, 407-408 Tropi< oi \,an«r, 61, 63, 64, 65 in high- and 10....·-prcssureareas, 21,
oulbreaks, 411-412 Tropic of Capricorn, 64, 66 222-223, 325. 328-329. 331
nlin Wrapped, 415 Tropopause, 12, 13,274 in hurricanes, 428, 430
~eking she.her Crom, 409-410 ·rropopalL~ jeL... 274 i.n Lhunderst.onns, 381-383, 384-387, 388,
slages of d~\·el opmenL, 406-407 Tropo.<phere, 12. 13, 16 390, 393, 413-415
suclion Vl)rtices, 409 1·rough Virga. 180. 386, 391, 502
superceU, 413-415, 419 along (Old fronl, 306 \'isco..:;ity. 230
\'Orlex, 414 de fined, 21l8 eddy, 230-231
walches antl Warnings, 347, 410 on upper-level e:hart.s, 208 rnolecular, 230
w·incb o(, 408, 411 ·r RO\\fAL (Trough o(\Varm i\ ir A loft), 314 Visibilil)'. 18
Tornado alley, 407 Tuunami. 239, 44 l as..:;oci.alcd ·wilh cold iront.s, 309
Torna<logt"n~sis, 414 Tundra, 512, 513. 514 associ.at.td wilh occluded front.s, 315
Tornado oulbreaks, 411-412 Turbulence, 230-233 associat.M ....·it.h warm fronL'i, 311
April 3-4, 1974, 412 Twilight., 556 r«luc tion b)' fog, 118-119, 124-125
April 25-28, 21lll,412 T\vL~t.er~ (ueTomado) r«luction b)' iw.e, 117-118
March 28, 1984, 407 ·ryphoon, 426 ($tt IAislJ Hurricane..:;} reduclion by polluLanl.S, 296, 520. 524,
May 3, 1999, 412 Choi-\\'an, 140 543
Tri,Stateoi 1925, 379, 380, 412 Nalgae, 448 \ 1 isible lighl. 39-40. 4l
Tornado \Ur lex signalure (TVS), 419 Tip, 203, 427, 438 and hun1an t")'e. 550
Tornadoes \\fasl1i. 448 \'olallle organic (Onlpound..:; (VOCs). 526,
1983 Los 1\ngeJe.,., 408 532
1987 Edmonton, C'lnada, 408
1993 Oklahoma City. 412, 419
u and lY.£Ooe produel.i.on, 532
Volcanoes
2004 Hallam, Nebmska, 406 Ullraviolet. r.idlalion, 39, 41, 42-43 and climati( (h.anf,>e, 471-472
2007 Grcenbu rg, Ka nstl.S, 411 cnert;)( of. 42-43 and rom1at.ion ofaltnospher~. 9
2008 \\llndsor, C...olora<lo, 406 v•avelengt.h o(, 39, 41 ga..:;es t.tnille<l b)'• 9, .f'J I, 477. 485, 529,
2010 New York City, 408 Un<lulatus aspe:r.i.tus cloud, 136 530
2011 Joplin, ~1L.:;souri, 25, 411, 478 Unils and corrversions. A1-J-\2 \ 'onnegut., Bernard. 177
2011 TlL.:;caloosa., Alab.a.ma, 412, 419 Unst.able almosphere (stt ln..:;t.abtlil)') VORTEX2 ( Verihc.atiOfi of Lhe Origin o(
Torrie.el Ii, Evangcltsla, 204 UnstableequUibriwn, 146 Rolat.ioual Tornadoes Experimenl 2),
Towering cumulus clouds (sttCurnulus Upper-air charls, 206-209. 219-220 420
cong~slu.'i cloud) Upper-air ironLS. 315 \forle:< ch:unber, 420
Tradt ....·inds, 267, 268, 271 Upper atmosphere, 12-17 \1orl ~ lubes. 413
Trade wind inversion, 430 Upslope snow, 300 Vorlie:ily
1'r anspiralioo, and h)'ilrologitc)·Cle, 94 Up.slope wind, 255 ah-«>lul<, 336, 337, 338
Trcv.-art.ha, Glenn T,, 495 Upwelling. 280-281, 490, 505, 507. 538 ad\'C!'(lion, 339
Triple point.. in de\<eloping <')~J one..:;, 320 and dr)· cUn1ale, 505 anlicy~l onk:, 337
Tropical air rnas:Ves. 301-304 Uranium, 522 C)'C.lonic, 336, 337
Tropical C)'Clone,426 (uedlM hurricane..:;} Urban cUmat~ (sec Clirnat.c} defined, 335
Braz.LI (-Oa..:;l, 435 Urban heat island, 78, 462, 541 and developing C)'(lone.s, 335-339
Na llC)'. 259 UV lnd<.x, 43 earth, 336-339
Narg.is, 448, 449 and Joogwaves, 331
O laf. 259
Sidr, 448, 449
v ma:<ln1un1s, 338, 370, 371
tnlnlmum, 338
Vall<)' br.......,, 243-244, 255
Yasi, 448 nc!'gali \'I!' and p0$ilh•e, 335
Valley (og, 119
Tropical depression, 431 plan<laq" 336
\lapori1..atim, 35
1'ropical d islurbance, 431 and r~ions of dh-e:rgence and
Vapor pressure, 98-99, 106
Tropial moist. climat.t-~'i, 495, 498-502 cOn\'t"rge_nce, 336-338
actual, defined, 98, 99
Tropical rnonsoon t :Umat.e, 500 r<lath«, 336, 337
a.n<l boi l.ing, 100
Tropical rain (ore st., 498. 500 and slwrt....·av~·s, 339
Tropical squall clUSl(".r, 426 equUibrium. 170
saturalion ($.CC Saluralion \'apor pressure)
Tropical storms, 426, 43 l, 442 (se.e als.a
Hurricanes}
\leering \vi.nd,and \\·arm ad\'ttlioo, 364 w
Agalha, 442 VegcLalion \Valker ci.rc u.lat.ion, 2.82
effttl on ma.'timum and n1inlmum Wall cloud. 391, 392, 415
Allison, 442
lemperat.ure, 66·67 \\rarm adveclion, 328, 364
Fay,442
Emili.a, 432 protected rronl cold air, 72-76 \Varmdouds, pr(."(.'ipit.aliOn in, 172, 178
soulh-f-acing.slope.s \'trSUS oorlh-facing \'Varm-rore 10.....·s, 241, 434
Tropical Wa\'l!'S, 426
slopes. 66-67 \Varm fronL.:; (s.t.e FronLS)
1'ropical ....•ealher, 426
Tropial wet. t limalt:, 498, 500 Venus, 4. 14- lS \Vartn occlusion, 3 l3
\Ternal equinox,61, 64, 468
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an•Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thc...icd >........J,,.. .1....wod,"' ,.f>;ko• in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11...t fW'1 '",._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h~dlLU;,,.,,h• «It""""' I f!4u.Wt.-,...,.t.....
,._,.,..,,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,..
-...J4f •nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19ctr..t""'lll'""'.._ fl••,:l•.,•mo"":JJ'"*',...,.,,_ .,,....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••'""''"""*"'"....,.""'"·
\Varm r.i.ln, 173 and fu tures, 359 \Vien, \VilheJm, 40
'A'arm s~l or, 320 and hurricanes, 449-452 WiU)'·Willy, 250
\Valer (see nlro Precipilation) imprO\'C'.menl ol, 353-355, 360-361 \Vin<l (sec "'so spttifk lype)
change of Slat<, 5-<5, 7, 34, 95 i.nlormaliOn, a<:quisiliOn or, 346-347 aboYt friction la)'er, 215-216
c irculation in almosphtre, 94 lrom local ....-ealher signs, 362 advisor)'. 347
c ritical angle o(, 563, 564 long-raoge, 359 ang l ecrusse..~ isl.)bars. 219-220
heat capacily of. 34 medium-range, 359 arl.)und high- and low-pres..:;ure areas,
phase change, 34, 95 method.< of, 350-362 21,207-209, 216-218,219,269-271
prtcipilable, 95, 141 rnodds, 351-355, 371-373 bac:king and \'f't!ril1£i 364
re!kction o( sunlig.hl from, 48--49, 50 and movernml o( weal.her .S)'Slerns, defir>«l, 18, 20, 37, 39, 230, 254
sup<rcooled, 174 363-366 in de.~e.rl .S, 249· 251
lemperalure, conlrasred y"ilh land, 34, nov.·C'aSl, 358 delermilling dirtclion and speed, 21.
78-82 numerical, 351-353 218. 254-259
'A'ale:requivalenl, 192 b)' o bserving ('IOuds, 363, 364 eddies, 230, 233-234, 235
\Valer molecule, 95, 96 o ullooks, e-<lended, 359, 360 efrttl oifriction on, 220-221
\\faterspouts, 420-421 pallern rtcognhion, 355 e.slimating <lirc."C!lion aloft, 215·216, 218
\Valer vapor per.sislenc.-e, 355, 361 t-,,.:;limaling <lir«tion al surface, 220·222,
air'scapadty for, 95-96, 97-110 predictions, 351-353, 359, 370-375 230-233, 254-256
asagrunhouse gas, 6, 44, 45, 46-47, 465, probabilit)" 357 C.'ilimating surface winds from spact, 259
477 problems in, 353-355 rortes thal inRuenc::t-, 211.222, 234, 240,
arnounl in alrno..~phere, 5·6 rule.'\ oi lhurnb. 350, 353 255-256
den.~ il)'. 97, 99 .shorl·r.lnge, 358, 362 b>eO..~trophi c, 215-216
proper lies or,95 fOr .sL'( cilie,s. 366-370 gradienl, 216-218
role in absorbing in(r'i1.rc!'d radialioo, aod snow le\'el, 351 gravity, 244
44-45 and soundings, 346, 348, 349 io hurricanes,426·432, 4.38·443
r<1le in cUmale change, 4S.47, 465, 477' slalislical, 356 influence on surract-, 234·239
weighl o(. 109 and lht Slock market, 359 inslrurnenlS. 256-259
\Valer Yapor pre.ssure, 98-99, 100 LhuuderSlorms and lOruadoes, 416-417 local systems, 239-254
\Va\'t· ~loud.~. 133, 161 tools. 348-350 mean global (or Ja.nuar)' and July. aloft,
\\ra\'e C)'t.lone, 320-321 (Str alM C)'clooes, trend (steady-stat<) method, 355 273
middle latitud<s) u.~ing upper-le\'el diarls, 351-353, mean global for januar)' and Jul)" at
and lemperaturead\'tt'lion, 328-329 366, 370-371, 373 surface, 270
\Va\-t C)'Clone model, Norwegian, 320 using ins lanl weather (o~casl c.-harl, notlurnal drainage. 244
\Vaveleng1.h, defined, 39, 326, 550 363-366 and ocean t urren1..s. 278·280
\Va\'eS. upper. level, 274, 326·328 or
using pOSilion shorlVt'a\'C.S, 371, 313 onsho re an<l. ofrshore, 255
and slorm de-vtlupmenl, 326-.328 using saldlile informal.ion, 358, and pollulion, 535
\Veal her 373-375 prevailing, 255-256, 505
defined, 17 using surfac.-e ch.arls, 362·370, 3?3, stnall scale and en\·ironmenl, 230-239
elernenl~~or. 17-18 374 andsnow, 236-237
influence on hulnans. 23-26 trpcs or. 358-360 and soil, 234-236
record cold or 1983, December. 300 using lhicknesst.harl, 350, 351 in Soulhcm HetnL"phere, 218, 219, 221,
record cold or 1989, 1990, December, \'C'.r)' sho rl-range, 358 222
296-298 v.-or<ling, 357 strougesl r«orded, 234
or
record vt'armlh 1976, April, 303 \\~lh er insurance, 359 .Slr.iighl-line, 383
\\feather advisories, 34-0-347 \\iealher modifK'.ation (see spec-ifi<:. lypes) thertnal. 276
\\real.her Ch.anneJ. The, 26 \.Vea1.he.r Rt-se.ardl Forttasl{Nor1.h 1\merioan in lornadt"lie:s, 408-411
\Veal.her cond i1.ions Mesoscale (WRF/NAM) Model, 352 unilsorspeed. Al
as.~ocialcd '<''ilh cold (ronls, 306-309 \\iealher S)'mbols. A5-A6 on upper-levcl d>arl<, 206-209, 219-220
associaltd wilh occluded fronls, 313·315 \\ieather lype: forecasting. 358 upslope and doy..·~ l opc:>:, 255
associaled wilh warm fron L~. 309-311 \\~1.h er v.·al<:hes and warnings, 346·347 and \~gel alion, 237-238
Weather Forecast Offices (\HO), 346 \\iegeoer, Al(red, 176 warnings, 347
\\real.her lorec.as:l ('.harl, i.n.~t.anl, A l2 \.Vegener·Beq;~oeron·Findeisen proces,.s, 176 and v.·~ner, 238-239, 24i -242
\Veal.her fOr«-..L~ting. 346-375 Weight. defir>«l, 10 or11 .. world, 254
actura('.')' and ski U, 360-361 Westtrlies, 267, 268. 271 Windbreaks (•u Sheherbchs)
and alf,lQrithms, 348 \\'t>l·bulb depre..:;sion, 110 \Vind<hiU, 23, 84
analogue method, 355 \\~l ·bu l b lemper.alure, 107, 110, 183 advisory, 347
and ('h.aos, 354 or
and ({)()ling skin, 101 in<le.'<, 84
dimalological. 355, 358, 361 \.Vhlrlwinds (sti' Oust devils} table.<or, 85
and c:ompul<r progs, 348-350, 351-353, \Vhite ChriSlmas. probabilily of. 357, 358 \\find direc.-lion, defined. 21, 209, 255
371, 372 \Vhile nighl, 556 \Vind energ)' (stc \>Vind pov.·t-r}
ensemble. 354, 355, 451 \Vhile plague, 189 r
\Vitu.l arm, 257
eX!ended, 359, 36-0 \Vien~ (displa('en1enl} la,v, 40, A4
C...,-nfo )11~ On'"'° 1->an• Allibt!t.tt_....al M:.y ta>thu••icd >........J,,.. ol....wod,"' ,.f>;ko•in ...... floe .., ch<"''*" ..... -11...t jW')'<.,,._ "R'f t. "'1¥.,..al iuo"h~dlLU;,,.,,h• «11"1'""' I f!4".Wt.-,...,.t.....
.bmcdfl,....,"'\lf11»<'1"''""" ..,.,,,,,,. -...J4f •nt.•le_.Jl~"'\l""~C~19cl.c:>rmll(lfD.._ fl••,:lo .,,..,• ...,:Jj,.,.,,...,,,,_ ,.....,......,11,.b""I.- "ii••...,,_.....,.,.,..,,
\Vln<l Kll.,l 1i1, 2'\ I, 3A9
\\rlnJ 1ntk-hlllC'V, 73 ·74, 76
\\'Intl 11ou1uU1\Mi 2~9
WlnJ>1-1.J<llnl'<l. 21
y
\\'trul po¥rl'C't. 257, .J8S \\1nd lutbhX'., ~7 Ya.r wllhoul .ii. 1iummtr, '672
\\-LnJ prohltt. 158, 2S9, lSO \\'h-.l \·ant". 2S6. l~H Yoongtt-11rr)· a n·eont, .Jf)l 1 461
\\·LnJ ro..r,. l"'6 \\"1nJ _..,\~t. lJR
\\ inJ 1a.lt. Bnuklitl. A';
\\111J t<ulf"""'J '""'· !SS, :?56
\\'1nkrt..htll1-124
\\1Jlltr t&Jl•U•.t', 61 , ·~ M
z
\\lllJ .n.-.... ». 164. !.M, l:?S. M!6 ,,-, ... , W.'1tlll ~am.,.. ).C 2.omJ ,_\tlJ
.nJ Mrluv <r.nhn. !6. 386 World \lttr•"'*'sial C<111m.. 346 dr6nal. 21•. 472
..,JoO.- '""m dndopm<m.336 World \lttr•"'q".al OrpolUIDl ~ ~r-apmmrnt,17.f
.locp l.)tt. 117 CW\IO), Ill>. l46 ~ """'~ .... l'\I
and hurnun< d<\o•i.>pmmt,4l0 ZondA. ?4S (Kt dbu(hlnOOJ...)
.i.nJ \upt'rtcll Jr'\clopment, 390-393
.a.nJ torn.lUO JC'\'t'lopmt:nL. 416--417
x Zulu Tlmt, A I'
ou\d \'tit I kit)'• 31b- 339 Xorupll)I" ~02

\\'Intl ,oc.k, 257 X-r•)> •.19. 41
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TENTH EDITION

AN INTRODUCTION TO WEATHER, CLIMATE, AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Meteorology Today: An Introduction to () 2013, 2009 BrookS/Cole, Cengage Learning

Content Project Manager:

To learn more about Brooks/Cole visil www.cengage.com/brc>okscole

CHAPTER 2 Energy: Warming the Earth and the Atmosphere 30

CHAPTER 3 Seasonal and Daily Temperatures 58

CHAPTER 4 Atmospheric Humidity 92

CHAPTERS Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds 114

CHAPTER 6 Stability and Cloud Development 144

CHAPTER 7 Precipitation 168

CHAPTER 8 Air Pressure and Winds 198

CHAPTER 9 Wind: Small-Scale and Local Systems 228

CHAPTER 10 Wind: Global Systems 264

CHAPTER 11 Air Masses and Fronts 292

CHAPTER 12 Middle-Latitude Cyclones 318

CHAPTER 13 Weather Forecasting 344

CHAPTER 14 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 378

CHAPTER 15 Hurricanes 424

CHAPTER 16 Earth's Changing Climate 456

CHAPTER 17 Global Climate 488

CHAPTER 18 Air Pollution 518

CHAPTER 19 Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics 548

Energy: Warming the Earth

FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION Relative Humidity and Human Discomfort 107

Condensation: Dew, Fog, and

Air Masses and Fronts 292

Earth's Changing Climate 456 Global Climate 48s

Ti ing events. From drought and famine to devastating

..._ ~ ......... ,.... ...- ..........--...._____ .......-.... --....-.

The Ionosphere years, has not diminished this feeling.

Facing page: Light reflected from the Indian Ocean

0 surrounds the fragile earth. In one way or another, it in-

tions are not to sea~}

\,'t!Tl..I~ '. ,,1rs

., TABLE 1.1 Composition of the Atmosphere near the Earth's Surface

PERlt\ANENT GASES VARIABLE GASES

Nitrogen N, 78.0S \"lacer vapor H,O Oto 4

Ox·ygen o, 20.95 Carbon dioxide co, 0.039 395•

Argon Ar 0.93 ~·fethane CH, 0.00018 1.8

Neon Ne 0.00t8 ~tttrous oxide N~O 0 .00003 0 .3

Heliun1 He 0.0005 Ozone o, 0.0 00004 0 .04'

Xenon Xe 0.000009 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 0.00000002 0 .0002

duringphotosynthesi~. as plants consume CO, to produce green

THE EARLY ATMOSPHERE The atmosphere that originally

tration, or ozone liole..over the Southern Hemisphereon September 25, 20 10 .

e FI GURE 1. 7 Erupting volcanoes can send

~nilkJn. • b,,,, a klrcC"of IOOJXIOnt•1oru(N) .:.11n1M • turt.« ar••ol WEATHER WATCH

0.w._....,... _ ... ,...._...., ... 01~....t-llh .._ _....... ~H·•......••-"'"'

radiosonde. More information on this instrument is given in

Y TABLE 1 Data on Planets and the Sun

Sun 1.392 x 10' 5,800 10.SOO

Mercury 4,880 SS 260' 500

Venus 12,J J2 108 480 900 co,

Up to this point, we have ex:unined the atmospheric layers

Weather and Climate

A SATELLITE'S VIEW OFTHEWEATHER A good view oftbc

0..•-- ,......_ ............ _

wam i fro nt is d rawn in red, with half circlessho"1ng its general

e FIGURE 1.21 Ughtn;ng

e FIGURE 1.22 Emergency

• FI GURE 1. 23 Flooding during May, 20 10, inundated Nashville, Tennessee.

from floods and flash floods than from eitherlightning or torna-

Energy: Warming the Earth