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What is an Experiment?
• Research method in which
- conditions are controlled
- so that 1 or more ind ep end ent v ar iab les
- can be manipulated to test a hypothesis
- about a d ep end ent v ar iab le.
• Allows
- evaluation of causal relationships among variables
- while all other variables are eliminated or controlled.
Some Definitions
• Dep end ent V ar iab le
- Criterion by which the results of the experiment are
judged.
- Variable that is expected to be dependent on the
manipulation of the independent variable
• Ind ep end ent V ar iab le
- Any variable that can be manipulated, or altered,
independently of any other variable
- Hypothesized to be the causal influence
More Definitions
• Exp er im ent al T r eat m ent s
- Alternative manipulations of the independent variable
being investigated
• Exp er im ent al G r oup
- Group of subjects exposed to the experimental
treatment
• C ont r ol G r oup
- Group of subjects exposed to the control condition
- Not exposed to the experimental treatment
More Definitions
• T est Unit
- Entity whose responses to experimental treatments are being
observed or measured
• R and om iz at ion
- Assignment of subjects and treatments to groups is based on
chance
- Provides “ control by chance”
- Random assignment allows the assumption that the groups are
identical with respect to all variables except the experimental
treatment
Constant Error (bias)
• C onst ant er r or is error that occurs in the same
experimental condition every time the basic experiment
is repeated –a systematic bias
• Example:
- Experimental groups always administered the treatment in the
morning
- Control groups always in the afternoon
- Introduces an uncontrolled extraneous variable –time of day
- Hence, systematic or constant error
• Ext r aneous V ar iab les
- Variables other than the manipulated variables that affect the
results of the experiment
- Can potentially invalidate the results
Sources of Constant Error
• Dem and C har act er ist ics
- Experimental design procedures or situational aspects of the
experiment that provide unintentional hints to subjects about
the experimenter’ s hypothesis
- If occurs, participants likely to act in a manner consistent with
the experimental treatment.
- Most prominent demand characteristic is the person actually
administering the experimental treatments.
• Exp er im ent er Bias
- Effect on the subjects’behavior caused by an experimenter’
s
presence, actions, or comments.
• G uinea Pig Effect
- Effect on experimental results caused by subjects changing
normal behavior or attitudes to cooperate with experimenter.
Controlling Extraneous Variables
• Blind ing
- Technique used to control subjects’knowledge of
whether or not they have been given the experimental
treatment.
- Taste tests, placebos (chemically inert pills), etc.
• C onst ancy of C ond it ions
- Subjects in experimental & control groups are
exposed to identical situations except for differing
conditions of the independent variable.
Controlling Extraneous Variables
• O r d er of Pr esent at ion
- If experimental method requires that the same
subjects be exposed to 2 or more experimental
treatments, error may occur due to order in which the
treatments are presented
- C ount er b alancing
•½ the subjects exposed to Treatment A first, then to
Treatment B.
•Other ½ exposed to Treatment B first, then to Treatment A.
•Eliminates the effects of order of presentation
Experimental Validity
• Int er nal V alid it y
- Indicates whether the independent variable was the
sole cause of the change in the dependent variable
• Ext er nal V alid it y
- Indicates the extent to which the results of the
experiment are applicable to the real world
Extraneous Variables that Jeopardize
Internal Validity
• Hist or y Effect
- Specific events in the external environment between
the 1st & 2nd measurements that are beyond the
experimenter’ s control
- Common history effect occurs when competitors
change their marketing strategies during a test
marketing experiment
• C ohor t Effect
- Change in the dependent variable that occurs because
members of one experimental group experienced
different historical situations than members of other
experimental groups
Extraneous Variables that Jeopardize
Internal Validity
• M at ur at ion Effect
- Effect on experimental results caused by
experimental subjects maturing or changing over time
- During a daylong experiment, subjects may grow
hungry, tired, or bored
• T est ing Effect
- In before-and-after studies, pretesting may sensitize
subjects when taking a test for the 2nd time.
- May cause subjects to act differently than they would
have if no pretest measures were taken
Extraneous Variables that Jeopardize
Internal Validity
• Inst r um ent at ion Effect
- Caused by a change in the wording of questions, in
interviewers, or in other procedures used to measure the
dependent variable.
• Select ion Effect
- Sampling bias that results from differential selection of
respondents for the comparison groups.
• M or t alit y or Sam p le A t t r it ion
- Results from the withdrawal of some subjects from the
experiment before it is completed
- Effects randomization
- Especially troublesome if some withdraw from one treatment
group and not from the others (or at least at different rates)
Figure 8.3 Experimentation as Conclusive Research
Conclusive
Research
Descriptive
Causal
Experimentation
Field Laboratory
Experiments Experiments
Symbolism for Diagramming
Experimental Designs
A B C
Extraneous B C A
Variable 1
C A B
< 5 years X1 X2 X3
5 –10 years X2 X3 X1
> 10 years X3 X1 X2
Factorial Design
• Used to examine the effects that the manipulation
of at least 2 independent variables
(simultaneously at different levels) has upon the
dependent variable
• The impact that each independent variable has on
the dependent variable is referred to as the m ain
effect
• Dependent variable may also be impacted by the
interaction of the independent variables. This is
called the int er act ion effect
Factorial Design Example
• Grocery store chain wants to use 12 of its stores to
examine whether sales would change at 3 different hours
of operation and 2 different types of sales promotions
• Dependent variable is change in sales
• Independent variables
- Store open 6 am to 6 pm
- Store open 6 am to midnight
- Store open 24 hours/day
- Sales promotion: samples for a free gift
- Sales promotion: food samples
• Called a 3 x 2 factorial design
• Need 6 experimental groups (3 x 2 = 6)
Factorial Design Example
HOURS OF OPERATION
Gift stamps
Food samples
Test Marketing
• Controlled experiment conducted on a small segment of
the target market
• Major objectives
- Determine how well products will be accepted in the
marketplace
- Determine how changes in marketing mix will likely affect
product success
• Major reason for test marketing is risk reduction
- Lose $ 1 million in test market or $ 50 million on product
failure?
• Problems
- Expense
- Time
- Competitors can disrupt
Factors to Consider
• Population size
• Demographic composition
• Lifestyle considerations
• Competitive situation
• Media coverage & efficiency
• Media isolation
• Self-contained trading area
• Overused test markets
• Loss of secrecy