Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

1.1 Introduction
The term computer is derived from the Latin word ‗compute‘ which means to calculate. A computer is
an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and controlling operations that can be
expressed either in logical or numeric terms. A computer is an electronic device designed to accept
data or instruction (input), performs prescribed mathematical & logical operations at high speed
(processing) and supply the results of these operations to the outside world (output) or store the data.
In simple words it is an electronic device that performs mathematical & logical operations with the
help of instructions to process the information in order to achieve the desired results. Computers have
entered in every sphere of human life and found applications in various fields such as medicine and
health care, business, education, science, technology, government, entertainment, engineering,
architecture and agriculture.

1.2 Information & Communication Technology (ICT)

Information & Communication Technology is technology that merges computing with high-speed
communications links carrying data and information in the form of text audio, or video. The most
important consequence of information technology is that it is producing a gradual fusion of several
important industries in a phenomenon that has been called technological convergence. Technological
convergence is derived from a combination of two recent technologies computers and
communications.

1.3 Characteristics of Computers

Following are some of the characteristics of computers, which have made them an essential part of
every emerging technology and such a desirable tool in human development:

 Automatic. Computers are automatic; once started on a job, they carry on until the job is finished,
normally without any human intervention.
 Speed. A computer is a very fast device. Units of time are microseconds (10-6 second),
nanoseconds (10-9 second) or even picoseconds (10-12). A powerful computer is capable of
performing several billion (109) simple arithmetic operations per second.
 Accuracy. The accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the degree of accuracy of a
particular computer depends upon its design.
 Diligence. Unlike human beings, a computer is free from boredom, tiredness, lack of
concentration, etc., and hence can work for hours without creating any error and without
grumbling.
 Versatility. A computer is capable of performing almost any task provided that the task can be
reduced to a series of logical steps. A computer can be used to calculate spreadsheet, store data,
process text, listen music etc.
 Power of Remembering. A computer can store and recall huge amount of information because of
its secondary storage capability.
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 No I.Q. A computer is not a magical device. It can only perform tasks that a human being can. The
difference is that it performs these tasks with unthinkable speed and accuracy. It possesses no
intelligence of its own. Its I.Q. is zero. It has to be told what to do and in what sequence. Hence,
only the user can determine what tasks a computer will perform.
 No Feelings. Computers are devoid of emotion. They have no feelings and no instincts because
they are machines. Computers cannot make judgments on their own. Their judgment is based on
the instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us.

1.6 Classification of Computers: Computers can be categorized broadly by their application, the
type of data they process and their size.

Classification of
computers

Purpose Data Handling Functionality

Super

Analog Hybrid Micro Mini

Mainframe

General Specific Digital

Desktop Portable

1.6.1 Classification According to Purpose:

General-purpose computers can be used for different purposes. We need only have appropriate
software to use a general-purpose computer to perform a particular task. For example, the personal
computers (PCs) currently in wide use are general-purpose computers.

Special-purpose computers are specifically designed to perform one particular task. A computer that
guides a missile is, for example, a special-purpose computer.

1.6.2 Classification According to the type of Data-Handled Techniques:

Analog computers: Process data that vary continuously with time, such as variations in temperature,
speed, chemical composition of petroleum products, or current flowing through a conductor. Used for
scientific & engineering purpose

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Digital computers: Process digital data. All the PCs currently in wide use are digital computers.

Hybrid Computers: Incorporate the measuring feature of an analog computer and counting feature of
digital computer. For computational purposes, these computers use the analog components and for the
storage of intermediate results, digital memories are used. So they process both analog and digital
data.

1.6.3 Classification according to Functionality:

Supercomputers: Supercomputers are the most powerful and expensive computers; they are used for
problems requiring complex calculations. The CRAY and CYBER are typical examples of the
supercomputers. They can process a great deal of information and make extensive calculations very,
very quickly. They are the fastest, costliest and most powerful computers available today.

Mainframe computers: These are mainly found in large organizations. They can serve hundreds or
thousands of users, handling massive amounts of input, output and storage. They are used as e-
commerce servers handling transactions over the Internet. They are housed in special rooms, as they
require special power and environmental control. Mainframes are the second largest (in capability &
size) of the computer family. Mainframe allows its user to maintain a large information storage at a
centralize location and be able to access and process this data from different computers located at
different locations.

Minicomputers: A mini computer is a small digital computer, which normally is able to process and
store less data than a mainframe but more than a microcomputer. Generally Minis perform many of the
tasks that a mainframe can, but on a reduced scale. These are used as desktop devices that are often
connected to a mainframe in order to perform auxiliary operations. These are multi-user computers
designed to meet the computing needs for several people simultaneously in a small to medium size
business environment.

Workstations are powerful single-user computers used for tasks that require a great deal of number-
crunching power, such as product design and computer animation. They are often used as network
and Internet servers.

Micro Computers: A micro computer is a small, low cost digital computer, which usually consists of
a microprocessor, a storage unit, an input channel and an output channel, all of which may be on one
chip inserted into one or several PC Boards. The microcomputer is generally the smallest of the
computer family. Originally these were designed for individual users only, but nowadays they have
become a powerful tool for many businesses that, when networked together, can serve more than one
user. Microcomputers include desktop, laptop and hand held models such as PDAs (Personal Digital
Assistants).

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 Chapter-2

DATA REPRESENTATION

2.1 Number System:

Number systems have been around for thousand of years. It defines a set of values used to represent
the quantity, and other special characters. Number systems are basically of two types: Non positional
and positional number systems. In a non positional number system, special symbols or characters are
used to indicate the values. It is very difficult to perform arithmetic with such a numbers as it has no
symbol for zero. In a positional number system, the value of each digit in a number is defined not only
by the symbol but also by the symbol‘s position. These symbols are called digits. Positional number
systems have a base or radix. The base or radix tells the number of symbols used in the system.
The number system we use in our day-to-day life is called the decimal number system. In this system,
the base is equal to 10 because there are ten symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).
Computers use the binary number system. We have two symbols or digits (0, 1) that we can use in
this system. The smallest unit of data is called it (Binary digit) and is represented by an on (1) or off
(0) state of a switch. The octal number system with its eight symbols 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 is a base 8
system. Hexadecimal is another number system having base as 16.

Types of Number system

Number System Radix Value Set of Digits Example

Decimal r = 10 (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) (25)10

Binary r=2 (0,1) (11001)2
Octal r=8 (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) (31)8
Hexadecimal r = 16 (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,AB,C,D,E,F) (19)16

2.1.1 Conversion between Number Systems:

Internally computers use binary numbers for data representation whereas externally it uses decimal
numbers. However, any number in one number system can be represented in any other number system.

2.1.1.1 Conversion of Decimal to Binary: The method which is used for the conversion of decimal
into binary, is often called as the remainder method. This method involves the following steps:

1. Begin by dividing the decimal number by 2 ( the base of binary number system)
2. Note the remainder separately as the rightmost digit of the binary equivalent.
3. Continually repeat the process of dividing by 2 until the quotient is zero and keep writing the
remainders after each step of division (these remainders will either be 1 or 0).

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 4. Finally, when no more division can occur, write down the remainders in reverse order (last
remainder written first)

Example: Determine the binary equivalent of (36)10

Remainder
2 36 0
2 18 Least significant bit
0
2 9 1
2 4 0
2 2
0
2 1
0 1
Most Significant bit
Taking remainder in reverse order, we have 100100. Thus binary equivalent of 36 is 100100.

2.1.1.2Conversion of Binary to decimal:

In the binary to decimal conversion, each digit of the binary number is multiplied by its weighted
position, and each of the weighted value is added together to get the decimal number.

Example: Determine the decimal equivalent of (11010)2

Binary Number 1 1 0 1 0
Weight of each bit 24 23 22 21 20
Weighted Value 24 X 1 23 X1 22 X 0 21 X 1 20 X 0
Solved Multiplication 16 8 0 2 0

Sum of Weight of all bits = 16+8+0+2+0

= 26
Thus the decimal equivalent of 11010 is 26.

2.2 Unit of Data Representation:

When data is stored, processed, or communicated within the computer system, it is ―packed‖ in
units. Arranged from the smallest to the largest, the units are called bits, bytes, and words.
These units are based on the binary number system where large numbers can be conveyed
using only two digits, 0 and 1. Information to be processed or stored in a computer is first
assigned a binary number using only these two digits.

2.2.1 Bit

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 The smallest unit is the bit, a contraction of the more descriptive phrase binary digit.
Computers use binary number system. We have two symbols or digits (0,1) that we can use in
this system. Each binary digit (bit) is represented by an on (1) or off state of a switch.

2.2.2Byte
Bits are small units and can convey only two possible states; they can be organized into larger
units to convey more information. This larger unit is called a byte and is the basic unit of
information in a computer system. It usually contains 8 bits. Since each bit has two states and
there are 8 bits in a byte, the total amount of information that can be conveyed is 2 8 or 256
possible combinations. These combinations can represent letters, numbers, and symbols such
as +,-,? etc… Most reference to computer‘s memory processing, storage, and communication
use the byte as a unit of measurement. The number of bytes is usually given to indicate the
size of memory like 128,000 bytes or 128K bytes. The K is used to indicate a magnitude of
1000. As memory increase, the K (for Kilobyte) is replaced by an M (for Megabyte) to
indicate a magnitude of 1,000,000. For example, you can say that the computer‘s memory is
1,000,000 bytes, 1000 kilobytes, or begin to encounter the next level of magnitude, the
Gigabyte, or 1 billion bytes.
When referring to bytes in this way, the numbers are rounded off. Bytes are calculated by
raising the number 2 to various powers. For example, the number 2 raise to tenth power is
1024. This is rounded off to 1000 (or 1k) for most discussions. But 1KB exactly mean 1024B

2.2.3 Words
It refers to the number of bits that a computer processes at once. Although bytes speed the
transmission of messages, they can be conveyed even faster by sending more than one byte at a
time, two bytes, or four bytes. Generally, however, word length is given in bits, so the
equivalent word length is 8 bits, 16 bits, or 32 bits. The larger word length a computer has, the
more powerful it is.

2.3 Binary Coding:

As we have already discussed binary number system is used by the computer system to represent data
in the computer understandable form. Numeric data (consists of only numbers 0,1,2….9) is not the
only form of data, which is handled by the computers. Alphanumeric data (it is a string of symbols of
the letters A,B,C….Z or the digits 0,1,2….9) and some special characters such as =,-,+,*,/,(,) etc. are
also required to be processed by the computer. There are a lot of ways to represent numeric,
alphanumeric and special characters in computer‘s internal storage area. The following are the most
commonly used coding standards:
 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
 Unicode

2.3.1 The Binary Coded Decimal (BCD):

Based on the binary number system, BCD coding system represents numeric character (0-9) by
a combination of four bits. Binary equivalents of the decimal digits (0-9) are given in the chart
below.

Decimal Binary Decimal Binary

0 0000 5 0101
1 0001 6 0110
2 0010 7 0111
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 3 0011 8 1000
4 0100 9 1001

In the BCD system, the digit in each position of a decimal number is represented by four bits
and is converted as a separate entity. For example, 13 is represented in BCD as
1 3
0001 0011
256 is represented as:
2 5 6
0010 0101 0110

2.3.2 ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange

The ASCII code is the basis for the internal coding scheme of most computer system. The BCD
system uses only four bits which are inadequate to represent all 10 numeric characters (digits),
alphabetic characters (upper and lowercase) and many special characters such as $,?,%, etc.. The
ASCII code uses eight bits, which is four bits more than BCD system, so as to represent 2 8
alphanumeric characters. For example,

Character B8 B7 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1
? 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
F 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
H 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

Where B1 stands for bit 1,

B2 stands for bit 2, And so on.
With the ASCII code table, all eight bits (called a byte) are needed to represent a single
character.

2.3.3 EBCDIC: Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code

EBCDIC uses 8 bits for each character, it is possible to represent 256 different characters or bit
combinations. This provides a unique code for each decimal value 0 to 9, each upper case and
lower case letter and for a variety of special characters. Since it is an 8=bit code, each group of the
eight bits makes up one alphabetic, numeric, or special character and is called a byte.

2.3.4 Unicode:
This code was standardized to accommodate special symbols such as Greek characters α, β, γ etc.
It uses 16 bits to represent each character or symbol. Thus, 216 distinct symbols can be represented
with Unicode. Virtually every character of every language can be represented by using this code.

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 Chapter-3

COMPUTER SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction:
A Computer system is a group of hardware components and associated software, designed and
assembled to perform a specific function or group of functions. It is a complete, working computer
that includes not only the computer, but also any software and peripheral devices that are necessary to
make the computer function. In general a complete computer system includes four distinct parts: Data,
Users, Hardware and Software.

3.2 Data
Data are raw facts which the computer can manipulate and process into information that is useful to
people. Computer data is digital, or in the form of digits or numbers. Data may be simple numbers for
mathematical calculations, text such as names and addresses or more complex structures such as
pictures or drawings. The instructions that make up the program define what data is to be processed, in
what form and at what time. The computer reads and stores all data as numbers.

Data can be semi information that need to be processed more and generates complete information.
Information is the out put of the computer that can be used by human beings to do some decisions.

3.3 Users
The users are the people operating the computers.

3.4 Hardware
The term hardware embraces the physical components of the system that you can touch and fill:

1 The box which contains the printed circuit boards, power supply, etc.
2 The display screen, keyboard and mouse for user interaction.
3 The peripheral devices such as disks and printers.
The internal electronic circuits of modern computers are made up from a number of integrated circuit
chips and other components. An integrated circuit chip is a small packaged device a few centimeters
square which contains complex electronic circuits. The heart of the modern computer is the
microprocessor which is an integrated circuit chip containing the central processing unit (the basic
control and processing circuits) of a small computer system. A complete microcomputer system
contains a microprocessor plus memory, input/output devices, power supplies, etc. However, before
the computer hardware can perform a task (for example add numbers or read a character from a
keyboard), it requires a program to tell it what to do.

3.5 Software
Software comprises the programs that tell the hardware what to do. A program is a sequence of
instructions stored in the memory of the computer system. The central processing unit fetches an
instruction, decodes it and then executes the required operation (e.g. to add two numbers). When an
instruction has been executed the next instruction is fetched, decoded and executed, etc. A program
may be very simple, for example, to calculate the average of ten numbers, or very complex, as would
be required to draw a television quality picture on a display screen.

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  The Hardware and Software components of computer systems are described at the next two
chapters in detail.

Chapter-4

COMPUTER HARDWARE

4.1 Introduction:
Computer hardware is one component of computer system which is the physical components of the
computer. It is the part of the computer or any accessory attached to the computer called ―peripheral‖
which you can touch or feel. The computer case, monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, modem and
scanner all constitute hardware.

4.2 The Computer Physical Setup:

When you look at a computer Monitor
externally, it simply consists of
the system unit and the most Printer
common peripheral devices, System Unit
namely the monitor, keyboard,
mouse and (optionally) printer.

4.2.1 The Computer Case Keyboard

The computer case houses all the
Mouse
major components of the
computer. On the front end of the case may be found on/off switch, reset button (optional), status
indicators (power and HDD indicators) and openings to floppy disk drives, CD–ROM drives and tape
cassettes. On the rear end of the case are found ports for connecting peripheral devices with the PC
and a power socket for connecting the PC to the electrical power source.

4.2.2 Expansion Slots and Cards

Expansion cards are small circuit boards that are used to upgrade a computer. These include:
enhanced graphics cards, modems, networking cards, sound cards, etc. Expansion cards are inserted
into expansion slots in the motherboard (a board into which most of the basic components of the
computer are built).
i) PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) is a local bus system that allows devices to be inserted
quickly and easily (plug–and–play compatible). Most of the computers today come with PCI slots and
cards.
ii) AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) is a new platform bus specification that enables high
performance graphics capabilities, especially 3D graphical display applications.
iii) USB (Universal Serial Bus) defines a class of hardware that makes it easy to add serial devices to
your computer. It provides an instant, no-hassle way to connect a new digital joystick, a scanner, a set
of digital speakers, a digital camera or a PC telephone to their computer. To install a USB device, plug
the cord from the device into any USB Port on your computer.

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 4.2.3 Power Supplies
Power supply converts normal household electricity, alternating current (AC), into electricity that can
be used by the computer, direct current (DC). It also lowers the voltage level. In Ethiopia, the normal
household voltage is 220V/50Hz AC. The capacity of a power supply is measured in watts (W). A
power supply of 150–200 W is large enough for most computers.

4.3 Operational Setup of Computer:

The hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of interacting parts. The central
element in the system is the CPU. Connected to the CPU are a number of peripherals (such as the
keyboard, display monitor, and printer), which are used to get data into and out of the computer and to
store data and programs.
All what a computer does is that takes input (of various forms), processes it (according to some set of
instructions), and produces an output (of various forms). The internal architecture design of
computers differs from one system model to another. However the basic organization remains the
same for all computer systems. A block diagram of the basic computer organization is shown in the
fig. It displays the four major building blocks or functional units of a digital computer system namely
input unit, output unit, central processing unit and storage unit.

Storage Unit

Secondary Storage

Program Input Output Information

and Data (Results)
Unit Unit
Primary Storage

Indicates flow of
Control Unit instructions and
data

Central Processing Unit (CPU) Arithmetic Logic Unit Indicates the

control exercised
by the control unit

Basic Organization of a Computer System

4.3.1 Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The CPU is the computing part of the computer; it is referred to as the brain of the computer. It
controls and manipulates the data to produce information. In a personal computer the CPU is usually a
single, fingernail-size ―chip‖ called a microprocessor, with electrical circuits printed on it. The CPU
and other components necessary to make it work are mounted on a main circuit board called a
motherboard. The main components of a CPU are the Control Unit (CU) Arithmetic and Logic Unit

10
(ALU) and registers. The three components work together to provide the operational capabilities of the
computer.
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – this is the part of the CPU that executes the computer's
commands by doing arithmetic or the logical comparisons. The data and instructions, stored in
the primary storage prior to processing are transferred as and when needed to the ALU, where
processing takes place. Intermediate results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred
back to the primary storage until needed at a later time. Data may thus move from primary
storage to ALU and back again to storage many times before the processing is over.
 Control Unit (CU) - directs the operation of the entire system. It obtains instructions from the
program stored in main memory, interprets the instructions, and issues signals that cause other
units of the system to execute them. It acts as a central nervous system for the other components
of the computer system.
 Registers – The registers are special purpose, high speed temporary memory units. They hold
various types of information such as data, instructions, addresses and the intermediate results of
calculations. Essentially they hold the information that the CPU is currently working on.
Registers can be thought of as CPU‘s working memory. The important registers within CPU are
Program Counter, Instruction Register, Accumulator, Memory Address Register, Memory
Buffer Register and Data Register.

4.4 Input Devices:

An input device is defined as an electronic device that allows the user to feed information (data) into
the computer for analysis, storage, and to give commands to the computer. Data and instructions are
entered into the computer‘s main memory through an input device. Input devices capture information
and translate it into a form that can be processed and used by other parts of the computer.
Input devices can be classified into the following categories:
4.4.1 Keyboard: Keyboard is the standard input device. Using a keyboard, the user can type text and
execute commands. Keyboard is designed to resemble a regular typewriter with a few additional keys.
Data is entered into computer by simply pressing various keys. The number of keys in a typical
keyboard varies from 82 keys to 108 keys. The keys are arranged as follows:
a. Alphanumeric keys – used for typing, similar to that of a typewriter.
b. Numeric keypad – found at the right side of the keyboard, it is used for entering numbers
and moving the pointer.
c. Function keys – these are the twelve function keys, F1 – F12, at the first row of the
keyboard. They may be programmed to perform different tasks.
d. Modifier keys – include keys like Alt, Ctrl and Shift.
e. Cursor movement keys – found between the alphanumeric keys and numeric keypad, they
are used to move the cursor.
4.4.2 Pointing Devices: A pointing device is used to communicate with the computer by pointing to
location on the monitor screen. Such devices do not require keying of characters, instead the user can
move a cursor on the screen and perform move, click or drag operations. Some of the commonly
used pointing devices are mouse, trackball, joystick, light pen and touch screen.
i) Mouse: Mouse is a small hand held pointing device. Usually a mouse contains two or three buttons
for left clicking, right clicking and for scrolling. The mouse may be classified as a mechanical
mouse or an optical mouse, based o the technology it uses. A mechanical mouse uses a rubber ball
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 at the bottom surface, which rotates as the mouse is moved along a flat surface to move the
cursor. An optical mouse uses a light beam instead of a rotating ball to move the cursor. Some of
the common mouse actions are pointing, click, Right-click, Double-click, Drag and drop.

ii) Trackball – is similar to a mouse except the ball is

on top where it can be moved with the thumb.

iii) Track pad (or touchpad) – is a touch-sensitive pad that is used

to move the pointer by gliding your finger across its surface.

iv) Touch screen – is a type of display screen device that is placed on the computer monitor in order
to allow the direct selection or activation of the computer when somebody touches the screen.

v) Integrated pointing device – is a small joystick built into the keyboard.

You can move it in the direction that you want to move the pointer.

4.4.3 Speech Recognition: Speech recognition is the technology by which sounds, words or phrases
spoken by humans are converted into digital signals, and these signals are transformed into coding
patterns where the meaning has been assigned. It is more generally called as sound recognition.

4.4.4 Digital Camera: Digital camera stores images digitally rather than recording them on a film.
Once a picture has been taken, it can be downloaded to a computer system and then manipulated with
an image editing software and printed.
4.4.5 Scanner: A scanner is a device that scans an image and transforms the image into ASCII code.
These images can be edited, manipulated, combined and printed. The common types of scanners are
hand held scanners and flat bed scanner.

 Other devices like devices for hand- include pens, and game controllers; optical input
devices- include bar code readers; audio devices- include microphones also used as input device.

4.5 Output Devices:

Output devices are peripheral devices through which processed data is made available for humans. An
output device is an electromechanical device, which converts machine readable data or the information
into human readable form. The computer output generated by output devices is of two forms: Hard
copy and soft copy. The printed form of output is referred as hard copy while the form of output which
is shown on a display screen or is in audio or voice form is referred as soft copy.
Based on the hard copy and soft copy outputs, the output devices are classified into tow types: Hard
copy output devices and soft copy output devices. Among the most extensively used output devices
are Video adapter cards, monitors and printers.

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 Output Devices

Hard Copy Soft Copy

Printers Plotters Microfilm Monitors Audio Projectors

Response

Output Devices of Computer

4.5.1 Monitors:
The monitor displays the output of the computer. Monitors are categorized by the colors they produce
and by the technology they use.
By the colors they produce, monitors are classified as follows:
 Monochrome - one color text/image on single color background, i.e. white on blue, or green on
black.
 Grayscale – shades of gray on a white background.
 Color – can display different colors, from 16 to 16 million colors.
By the technology they use, monitors are classified as follows:
 Cathode ray tube (CRT) – in these monitors, electrons are fired at phosphor dots on the
screen. The dots are grouped into picture elements called pixels, which glow when struck by
electrons. In color CRT monitors, each pixel contains a red, green and blue dot. These glow at
varying intensities to produce color images.
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) – these screens use an entirely different technique. The screen is
still made of dots but is quite flat. LCD displays are made of two layers of a polarizing material
with a liquid crystal solution in between. An electrical signal makes the crystals line up in a way
that keeps light from going through entirely or just partly. A black screen has all the crystals
lined up so that no light gets through. A color LCD screen uses groups of 3 color cells instead of
3 phosphor dots. The signal for a picture cleverly lets just the right spots show their colors. Your
eye does the rest.
When comparing monitors, consider the following
 Size – the diagonal measurement of its face I inches. 17‖ is common.
 Resolution – number of pixels on the screen. This is important especially for graphics, page
layout and CAD.

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 o VGA (Video Graphics Array) monitors have resolution of 640 X 480 pixels.
o SVGA (Super VGA) monitors have resolutions ranging from 800 X 600 pixels to 1024 X
768 pixels or more.
 Refresh rate – indicates how often the picture is redrawn on the monitor. If the rate is low, the
picture will appear to flicker. Flicker is not only annoying but also causes eye strain and nausea.
So, a high refresh rate is desirable. 60 times per second is tolerable at low resolutions for most
people. 75 times per second or more is better and is necessary for high resolutions.
 Dot pitch – is the distance between phosphor dots that make up a single pixel. A dot pitch of
.28 is very common and .26 should be good for nearly all purposes, however it is measured.
When the same image is displayed on a monitor for a long time, it leaves a ―shadow‖ or ―screen
burn‖. To avoid this effect, ―screen saver‖ program that blanks out the monitor or displays a
moving image or text when not in use for a prolonged time, is used.
4.5.2 Video Adapter Cards: Video adapter cards convert information from the CPU into a format
used by the monitor and the monitor displays the information sent to it by the video adapter card. The
video adapter card can be built into the motherboard but, in most cases, it is installed as an expansion
card.
Video adapter and monitor standards ensure that your video adapter card and monitor are compatible
with all popular programs and operating systems. The following standards exist at the moment.
 VGA (Video Graphics Array), which is suitable for low–budget home and business applications. It
has a resolution of 640 X 480 pixels.
 SVGA (Super VGA), which is ideal for business applications, has greater resolution (800 X 600
pixels) than VGA and also supports true colors.
 XGA (eXtended Graphics Array), which is ideal for more graphic–intensive applications like
desktop publications and CAD/CAM, has a resolution of 1024 X 768 pixels.

Video adapter cards come with their own memory, separate from the computer‘s main memory. The
amount of memory installed on the video adapter card determines the maximum number of colors that
can be displayed at a given resolution. For example, a video adapter card with 1MB video memory
can display up to 16.7 million colors at VGA resolution but only up to 256 colors at SVGA resolution.
At the moment, video adapter cards may come with up to 16MB video memory. The minimum
amount of video memory required for windows applications is 1MB.
4.5.3 Printers:
Printers are used to produce ―hard copy‖ of documents, programs and data. Some printers use serial
communication (RS232 standard) while others use parallel communication to transfer information
from the PC to the printer. In serial communication, data is transferred one bit at a time while in the
case of parallel communication; one byte (8 bits) is transferred at one time.
The printing method (the actual forming of characters) also varies. Based on the printing method used,
printers are categorized as impact printers and non-impact printers. Impact printers strike an inked
ribbon, pressing ink from the ribbon onto the paper while non-impact printers use different methods to
place ink on paper.

14
  Dot–matrix printers are common types of impact printers. The print head has an assembly of
tiny pins that are activated in a row and physically ―hit‖ the paper through the ribbon to produce
the desired impression. Speeds are expressed in characters per second (cps) and vary between
180cps and 400cps. These printers are loud, inexpensive and slow. The quality of the printout
is not so good as that of inkjet or Laser printers. But, we can have carbon copies and printouts
on stencils from these printers.
 Inkjet printers are non-impact printers. Tiny particles of ink are electrically charged after
leaving the nozzle. The droplets are then guided to the right position on paper by electrically
charged deflection plates. The print quality is very good. We cannot use them with stencils nor
can we produce carbon copies using these printers. Inkjet printers are available for color or
black and white.
 Laser (Light Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation) printers are the most advanced
of all. In this printer the laser beam forms an image of the characters to be printed on to the
light sensitive drum. Ink then sticks to the character images and is transferred from the drum
and fused onto the paper. Laser printer speeds are specified in pages per minute (PPM), e.g.
6PPM, 12PPM or 24PPM.
Factors to be considered while selecting printers include: speed (measured in PPM or CPS), quality
(measured in dots per inch – dpi), initial cost, cost of operation and special features like support for
color and large page formats.
Other Output Devices: PC Projector – connects to a PC and is used to project images on a large
screen; Sound systems – multimedia PCs come with a sound card, speakers and a CD-ROM or DVD
drive. A sound card translates digital signals into analog that drive the speakers.

4.6 Storage Unit:

The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system through input units have to be
stored inside the computer before the actual processing starts. Similarly, the results produced by the
computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer system before being
passed on to the output units. Moreover, the intermediate results produced by the computer must also
be preserved for ongoing processing. The storage unit of a computer system is designed to cater to all
these needs. It provides space for storing data and instructions, space for intermediate results, and also
space for the final results.

The storage unit comprises of two types of storage:

4.6.1 Primary storage:

The primary storage, also known as main memory or RAM (Random Access Memory), stores data
and program code needed by the CPU. Contents of RAM change rapidly and often. RAM can hold
information only while the computer system is on. As soon as the computer system is switched off or
reset, the information held in the primary storage disappears. Additionally, the primary storage
normally has limited storage capacity because it is very expensive. The primary storage of modern
computer systems is made up of semiconductor devices.
 RAM contains a large number of cells (or locations) in which are the data and instructions
stored. Each location is specified by an address.
 ROM (Read Only Memory) is a non-volatile memory whose contents cannot be changed
by the user and contains minimum instructions that the computer needs to get started

15
4.6.2 Secondary storage:
The secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage, is used to take care of the limitations of the
primary storage. That is, it is used to supplement the limited storage capacity and the volatile
characteristic of primary storage. It is much cheaper than primary storage and it can retain information
even when the computer system is switched off or reset. The secondary storage is normally used to
hold the program instructions, data, and information of those jobs on which the computer system is not
working on currently, but needs to hold them for processing at a later time.
The physical material that actually holds data is called storage medium. The surface of floppy disk (or
the diskette) is storage medium. The hardware that writes data to or reads data from a storage medium
is called a storage device. A floppy disk drive is a storage device.

There exist two technologies for secondary storage: magnetic and optical. Floppy disk, hard disk,
magnetic tape is examples of magnetic storage. CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW are examples
of optical storage.
4.6.2.1 Magnetic storage devices – the medium contains iron particles, which can be polarized, i.e.
given magnetic charge in one of two directions. Each particle‘s direction represents a 1 or a 0,
representing each bit of data that the CPU can recognize. A disk drive uses read/write heads
containing electromagnets to create magnetic charges on the medium.
o Formatting maps the disk‘s surface and determines how data will be stored. During
formatting, the drive creates circular tracks around the disk‘s surface, and then divides each
into sections called sectors. The OS organizes sectors into groups, called clusters, then tracks
each file‘s location according to the cluster it occupies. Formatting also deletes any
information that exists on the disk.
o During formatting, the OS creates four areas on its surface.
 Boot sector – stores the master boot record, a small program that runs when you first start
the computer.
 File allocation table (FAT) – a log that records each file‘s location and each sector‘s
status.
 Root folder – enables the user to store data on disk in a logical way.
 Data area – the portion of the disk that actually holds the data.
i) Hard disk drive:
Inside the case of the hard disk drive are a set of rigid rotating disks, called platters, stacked on a
spindle. As the platters rotate at high speed, Read/Write heads move back and forth recording or
reading magnetic information on both sides of the platters.
The speed with which the heads can find data is called
―average access time‖.
Hard disk drives are normally installed inside the
computer case although external hard disk drives, which
connect to the computer by a cable, are also available.
Hard disk drive is selected based on its storage capacity (measured in ―Gigabytes‖ (GB)) and its
access time (measured in milliseconds (ms)). The larger the capacity and the smaller the access

16
 time, the better. Today, it is not uncommon to have hard disks with capacity in excess of 200GB.
Operating system and application software normally reside in hard disk drives. Documents created
using application software may also be placed on hard disk drives.
Write-protect
ii) Floppy disk drive: Window

Floppy disk drives store information onto a removable media known as

diskettes or floppy disks. Floppy disk drives operate slower and have much
less capacity (1.44MB) than hard disk drives.
Diskettes store information on the magnetic surfaces of a thin, flexible disk
inside a protective plastic cover. 3 ½‖, 1.44MB Diskette

Although some years back, we had two standards as far as physical size is concerned, namely 3½‖
and 5¼‖, the standard size these days is invariably 3½‖. With respect to the amount of information
that a 3½‖ diskette can store, a few years back diskettes were coming with sizes of 720KB and
1.44MB; now they come only with 1.44MB.
It is possible for someone to format a diskette, or write information on a diskette unintentionally
and important information could be lost in certain situations. To avoid such unintentional loss of
information, diskettes are write–protected. To write–protect a 3½‖ diskette, open the write–protect
window by sliding the plastic tab covering the window. We can read information that is stored in
write–protected diskettes, but we cannot write onto them.
Software used to come in floppies some years ago. Now, floppies are rarely used to carry software
unless the software happens to be very small. Floppies are mainly used to carry personal files, to
transfer information from one PC to another or as backup media for small files.
Previously, a good number of removable (floppy–like) drives have made their way into the
computer business, but nowadays it is out of the market (becoming obsolete). Their capacities
range from 100MB (Iomega Zip) to 1.5GB (SyQuest SyJet). Indeed, the larger capacity drives are
considered ―portable equivalent of the hard drive‖. They may be used to supplement the hard disk
drive, to carry private files, to transport personal files and core applications between home and
office and to backup important files.
iii) Magnetic Tape:
Information stored in a hard disk or floppy disk may be damaged for various reasons. To protect
against losing any of your files, you should make a backup copy of all your data. Small files
(1MB) can be backed up to a floppy disk. For larger files or groups of files, it is more convenient
to use CD–R/W or magnetic tape unit. Magnetic tape systems offer very slow data access, but
provide large capacities and low cost. Thus, they are particularly convenient if we want to backup
the entire hard disk.
Tape backup units are available as either internal or external models. Tapes must be formatted
before you can use them. Backed up information could be compressed, where compression ratios
vary for different types of data.
4.6.2.2 Optical Storage Devices – offer high-capacity storage medium. Optical drives use reflected
light to read data. The disk‘s metal surface is covered with dents (pits) and flat spots (lands), which
cause light t be reflected differently. Light cannot be reflected back from pits (data = 0) and lands
reflect light back to its source (data = 1).
o CD–ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) discs can hold large amounts of information
(text, graphics and hi–fi stereo sound), which cannot be altered. They are designed to last
indefinitely, but finger marks or scratches can damage the disk‘s surface. CD–ROM drives
read programs and data stored on removable CD–ROM disks.
17
 The first CD–ROM drives transferred data at 150KB per second.The speed then doubled to
300KB (2X), then quad speed at 600KB (4X). Today, we have as much as 52X (78000 KBps).
A single CD–ROM can hold up to 650MB information. Time to retrieve information off the
CD–ROM is much slower than from a hard disc (5-15 MBps). Most of today's newer
CD─ROM‘s can be used in multimedia applications.
CD–ROM drives are often installed inside the computer case although external units, which
connect to the computer by a cable, are also available.
o CD–R is a standard and technology allowing you to write to and read from a Compact Disc,
but not erase or change what you record. This technology is compatible with existing CDs, i.e.
you are able to read these discs in existing CD–players.
o CD–RW is rewritable CD–ROM technology. CD–R/W drives can also be used to write CD–R
discs, and they can read CD–ROMs. But, CD–R/W disks have a lower reflectivity than CD–
ROMs, and CD–ROM drives must be of the newer multiread variety in order to read them.
CD–R/W was initially known as CD–E (or CD–Erasable).
o Digital Video Disc (DVD), also called Digital Versatile Disc, is similar to CD–ROMs but able
to store far more music, video or data. DVDs are of the same physical size as today's CDs but
are able to store as much as 17GB, compared to the 650MB on today's CD–ROMs.
4.7 The Bus System:
In computer architecture, a bus is a subsystem that transfers data or power between computer
components inside a computer or between computers. Unlike a point-to-point connection, a bus
can logically connect several peripherals over the same set of wires. Each bus defines its set of
connectors to physically plug devices, cards or cables together. It includes:

 Data bus- transfer data from CPU to other components and vise versa
 Address bus - transfer the address of the ongoing executable data or instruction.
 Control bus - sends the control over each executable code and data

4.8 Factors that affect the processing speed of a computer include:

 Registers – these are the memory areas in the CPU that store data and instructions while the
CPU processes them. The size of the registers, also called word size, determines the amount of
data with which the computer can work at one time. Most PCs have 32-bit registers.
 RAM – has direct effect on system‘s speed. The more the RAM size, the faster. These days,
PCs come with RAM sizes of 128MB – 512MB.
 System clock – sets the pace for the CPU by using a vibrating quartz crystal. A single ―tick‖ of
the clock is the time required to turn a transistor off and back on. This is a clock cycle
measured in hertz (Hz). The faster the PC‘s clock runs, the more instructions the PC can
execute each second. Today, PC clock speeds exceed 3GHz (3 X 109 Hz).
 Bus width – determines how many bits can be transmitted between the CPU and other devices.
The bus refers to the path between components of a computer. The larger the bus width, the
faster the computer.
 Cache memory – cache is a high speed memory that holds the most recent data and instructions
that have been loaded by the CPU. It is located directly on the CPU (L1 cache) or between the
CPU and RAM (L2 cache). Amount of cache memory has tremendous impact on the computer
speed. The larger the cache size, the faster the computer.

18
 Chapter-5
COMPUTER SOFTWARE

5.1 Introduction:
As we know, a computer can not think or perform on its own. It performs various operations only
when the user instructs it to do so. The user issues instructions and the CPU acts in accordance with
the instructions. Such a sequence of instructions written in a language that can be understood by a
computer is called a program. It is the program that controls the processing activity of computers, and
computer performs precisely what the programs want it to do. The term software refers to the set of
computer programs, procedures and associated documents. The sets of instructions which control the
sequence of operations are known as programs and collectively programs are called software.

5.2 Relationship between Software and Hardware:

Software refers to the computer programs that are loaded into a computer system and hardware refers
to all the visible devices, which are assembled together to build a computer system. It is the blending
of software and hardware that gives life to a computer system. Both are complementary to each other.

Application Software

System Software

Hardware

5.3 Software Categories:

Computer software can be classified into two major categories: System software and Application
software. System software is the software is the software that is essential for computer to function.
Application software is the additional software that a user chose accomplish a specific task. System
software helps the computer manage its own tasks and devices. System software can further be
classified as operating system, programming language and utilities:

19
 Computer software

System software Application Software

System
System development
management
program

Operating Utilities High level Low level

system Device programming programming
driver language language

5.3.1 System Software:

System software is a set of one or more programs designed to control the operations and processing
capabilities of a computer system. In general, a computer‘s system software performs one or more of
the following functions:
 Provides user interface
 Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources such as CPU, memory,
peripherals etc.
 Support the development and execution of other application software.
System software contributes to the control and performance of the computer system and permits the
user to use the system more conveniently.
Types of system software:
i) Operating System: The most important type of system software is the operating system.
An operating system is an integrated set of programs that controls the resources of a
computer system and provides its users with an interface. The basic functions of an
operating systems are:
a. Process Management: It handles the creation, deletion, suspension, resumption,
scheduling and synchronization of processes.
b. Memory Management: It handles allocation and deallocation of memory space as
required by various programs.
c. File Management: It is responsible for creation and deletion of files and directories. It
also organizes, stores, retrieves, names and protects all the files.
d. Device Management: It manages all the devices of the computer system such as
monitor, printer, disk etc.
e. Security Management: It protects system resources and information against
destruction and unauthorized use.
f. User Interface: It provides the interface between the user and the hardware.
ii) Device Drivers: Device drivers are system programs, which are responsible for proper
functioning of devices. Every device or hardware, whether it is printer, monitor, mouse or
keyboard, has a driver program for support. Whenever a new device is added to the
computer system, a new device driver must be installed before the device can be used. In
modern operating systems, most hardware drivers such as keyboard driver, comes with the

20
 operating system. For other devices like printer, a user must load the device driver of that
particular printer. A driver acts like a translator between the device and programs that use
the device.
iii) System Utilities: Utility programs or utilities are a set of programs that help users in
system maintenance tasks and in performing tasks of routine nature. Some of the tasks
commonly performed by utility programs include the following:
 Formatting hard disks or floppy disks.
 Reorganizing files on hard disk to conserve storage space.
 Taking back up of files stored on hard disk
 Checking the amount of available memory
 Checking the amount of available storage space on hard disk.
 Scanning the system for computer viruses.
iv) System Development Programs: System development programs consist of system
software, which are associated with the development of computer programs. These
program development tools allow programmers to write and construct programs that the
operating system can execute. Examples are computer languages, language translators,
linkers and loaders.
a. Programming Language: A programming language is a primary interface of a
programmer with a computer. A program is an ordered list of instructions that, when
executed, causes the computer to behave in a predetermined manner. A programming
language includes a series of commands, which are used in development of software.
Programming language are further divided into three categories namely, Machine
language, assembly language and high level language.
b. Language Translator: Computers only understand a language consisting of only 0s
and 1s called machine language. To ease the burden of programming entirely in 0s and
1s, a special programming language called high level programming languages were
developed that resembled natural languages like English. Therefore a tool was required
which could translate a program written in a programming language to machine
language. This program is referred to as language translator. It helps in converting
programming language to machine language. There are three types of translators.

Assemblers: - translate programs written in assembly language into machine

code which can be executed on the target computer.
Compilers: - translate programs written in a high level language into machine code,
which can be executed on the target computer. A compiler reads the source program
statement by statement, translates it into an equivalent machine code, and produces the
object program file, which is then executed without the presence of the compiler.
Interpreters: - these are another form of programs that translate programs written in a
high level language into machine code. Unlike a compiler, an interpreter reads one
statement of the source program, translates it and executes it immediately. It then goes
to the next statement until the source program is exhausted. As a result, it doesn‘t
produce an executable object program file.
c. Linker: A linker is a system program that links together several object modules and
libraries to form a single, coherent program (executable)
d. Loader: Loader is a kind of system software, which is responsible for loading and
relocation of the executable program in the main memory. The functions of loader
include assigning load time space for storage, that is storage allocation and to assist a
program, to execute properly

21
5.3.2 Application Software:

The most often used software by a general user is the application software. It is used to accomplish
specific tasks rather than just managing a computer system. Application software may consist of a
single program such as Microsoft‘s Notepad for writing and editing simple text. It may also consists of
a collection of programs called a software package, which work together to accomplish a task such as
a spreadsheet package. Application software may also include a larger collection of programs ( a
software suite), related but independent programs, which have a common user interface, such as
Microsoft Office Suite.
Application software are in turn controlled by system software, which manages hardware devices and
perform, background tasks for them. Fig. given below illustrates that application layer executes on the
system software layer, which lies on the hardware layer.

Application Software

System Software

Hardware

Fig. Relationship of Application and System Software, and Hardware part of the computer

a. Word Processor: A word processor is a computerized typewriter, which permits the

electronic creation, editing formatting, filing and printing of text. Word processing is
probably the most Common application of microcomputers. The ease with which you
can draft and revise memos, letters, reports, and other documents with a word
processing program increases both the speed and quality of your writing. You can
enter, edit, reorganize, format, and print text without retyping all of it and then correct
them. These features encourage you to revise and reorganize your material more
frequently, so you can express your ideas more clearly. Examples are MS Word,
WordPerfect etc.

22
b. Spreadsheet: A spreadsheet is an electronic worksheet displayed on the VDU. Until
recently, accounting, financial analysis, and other mathematical calculations were done
by entering numbers on pages of an accountant‘s ruled ledger pad. Gathering data and
calculating subtotals from analysis took time. In addition, exploring what-ifs (called
―performing a sensitivity analysis‖) to see how changes affect the numbers was
laborious. Compounding the problem was the likelihood of forgetting how you did the
analysis so that subsequent analyses took as much time as the original.
Today, the microcomputer and the electronic spreadsheet have taken all of the drudgery
out of analysis. It may take as much time to gather the data needed to analyze a
situation, but that is where the similarity between the old and the new methods ends.
You can quickly create a model of a situation on a spreadsheet by entering labels,
numbers, and formulas. Details are entered into the computer and recorded in
predesigned rows and columns to form a grid of cells The relationship of each cell in
the grid can be defined for performing specific computations. Using the program‘s
built-in functions, you can perform complicated calculations such as net present value,
internal rates of return, and monthly payments on a loan. You can then use the
completed model to explore ‗what if‘ questions. If you change any variable – for
instance the price, discount, or sales pattern the model will recalculate a new result
automatically and instantly.

You can save a spreadsheet model and use it again whenever you need it. Never again
will you forget how a specific analysis was done and how to reconstruct it from scratch
the next time you need to use it. You will find ways to modify your models so that they
can grow in power and simplicity. You can save each revision to provide the base for
the next step forward in your understanding and analysis. There ate many spreadsheet
programs available and more are sure to come. Each spreadsheet is slightly different
from the others.
Examples are Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 etc.

c. Database Management System: A database software is a set of one or more programs

that enable users to create a database, maintain it( add, delete and update its records),
organize its data in desired fashion and to selectively retrieve useful information from
it. Database software is widely used today by both large and small organizations to
maintain employee data, customer data, asset data, accounting data etc. Examples are
dBase III Plus, FoxPro, MS Access, Oracle etc.

d. Graphic Software: Computer graphics is the technique of creating, editing, displaying,

and printing graphs, diagrams, charts, and images in a computer system. The old saying
that a picture is worth a thousand words applies to computer graphics. At a glance,
graphics can convey information that could be difficult or even impossible to put into
words.

23
 Chapter-6

COMPUTER CARE AND SAFETY

Computers, like any other piece of electronic equipment, need special care and attention in order to
perform properly and safely.

1. Keeping your system free of dust, dirt and liquids is the first step to computer care. Your system's
user guide is the best place to find information on how to clean your outer components; but here
are some general tips that you should always remember:

 Never spray your monitor screen (or any other computer component) with glass cleaner.
Instead, spray a lint-free cloth lightly with glass cleaner, then clean the screen. Be sure to hold
the cloth away from the computer when spraying.
 Computer components should be kept as dust-free as possible.
 Canned air or small computer-specific vacuum cleaners are an excellent way to clean
keyboards, computer case vents, or around disk drive openings.
 The rubber ball inside the bottom of a mouse may need occasional cleaning. If the mouse does
not perform correctly, check your user guide for cleaning directions.
 Never try to remove the cover on your computer to clean inside. Instead, take it to an
authorized service technician for cleaning.
 Keep all liquids and food items away from your computer. Liquids and food crumbs can
damage delicate electronic circuits. Also, mixing liquids and electronic components can cause
serious electrical shock!
 Wash your hands before using the computer to avoid "sticky keys."
 When in doubt about how to clean your computer system, consult your user manual or
technical support.

2. Never use your computer during a storm. Also use surge arresters.

3. Protect your computer from viruses and worms.

 Install, use and regularly update virus software

 Never open an email attachment unless you know and trust the person who sent it.
 Do not accept downloads from Internet sites that you don't know and trust.

4. Avoid installing several programs one right after the other; try installing one program, then use
your computer long enough to see how your system responds to the installation before loading the
next program.

5. Keep CDs away from dust, liquids, or other damaging or corrosive substances. If you tend to have
problems with CDs, buy yourself a CD cleaner and read the instructions carefully.

24
 Chapter-7

DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

7.1 Data Communication:

A communication system can be defined as the collection of hardware & software that facilitates
intersystem exchange of information between different devices. Data communication is the exchange
of data between two devices via some form of wired or wireless transmission medium. It includes
the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the preservation of the data during the transfer
process.
7.1.1 Data Communication Components:
There are five basic components in data communication system:
i. Message: It is the information that is to be communicated
ii. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the message
iii. Receiver: The Receiver is the device that receives the message.
iv. Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path that communicates the message from
sender to receiver.
v. Protocols: Protocols refers to a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information.

7.1.2 Data Transmission Mode:

It refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. Following are the three types
of transmission modes:
i. Simplex: Simplex transmission is unidirectional. The information flows in one direction across
the circuit, with no capability to support response in other direction. Only one of the
communicating devices transmits information, the other can only receive it.
ii. Half Duplex: In this mode, each communicating device can receive and transmit information, but
not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive at that point of time.
iii. Full- Duplex: This mode allows both communicating devices to transmit and receive data
simultaneously.
7.1.3 Data Communication Measurement:
The measurement of quantity of data that can be passed down a communicating link in a given time
is done in terms of bandwidth. Fundamentally, bandwidth refers to the maximum volume of
information that can be transferred over any communication medium. Bandwidth is the range of
frequencies that is available to for the transmission of data. A narrow range of frequencies in a
communication system is analogous to a narrow road. Wider bandwidth permits more rapid
information flow. Thus, wider the bandwidth of a communication system, the more data it can
transmit in a given period of time. The communication data transfer rate is measured in a unit called
baud. In general usage, baud is identical to bits per second.
In the popular digital context, the level of bandwidth falls into three categories:
 Narrowband: In narrowband, there is a single transmission channel of 64 Kbps or less. There
can also be a number of 64Kbps transmissions (N x 64Kbps) but not more than 1.544 Mbps.
 Wideband: In wideband, the bandwidth capacity lies between 1.544Mbps (also called T1
Lines) and 45 Mbps ( T3 Lines)
 Broadband: The bandwidth capacity in broadband is equal to 45Mbps or a T3 line.
7.2 Transmission Medium:
Transmission media refers to the physical media through which communication signals (data &
signals) are transmitted. The information or a signal transmitted from one device to another is
through electromagnetic signals. An electromagnetic signal is the combination of electric and
magnetic fields, vibrating in conjunction with each other. These signals can travel through vacuum,
25
 air or any other transmission medium. Voice signals are generally transmitted as current over metal
cables. Radio frequencies are generally transmitted through air or space. Third type of
electromagnetic energy is the visible light which is currently being used for communication through
fiber optic cable.
Transmission medium can be divided into two broad categories: Guided Media and Unguided media.
7.2.1 Guided Media:
Guided media use a cabling system that guide the data signals along a specific path. The data signals
are bound by the cabling system. It is also known as bound medium. There are four basic types of
guided media: open wire, twisted pair, coaxial cable and optical fiber.
i. Open Wire: Open wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical wire system or power
transmission wires strung along power poles. No shielding or protection from noise
interference is used. It is not recommended for long data transmission distances.
ii. Twisted Pair Cable: Made of two or more pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.
May be unshielded or shielded (UTP/STP). Examples telephone wire installation.

a. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular
and is generally the best option for most networking today. This is because:
 It's cheaper than other types of cabling.
 It's easy to work with.
 It permits transmission rates considered impossible ten years ago.

Fig: Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The cable has
four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to
help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs called crosstalk and other electrical devices. The
tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. The
EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established
standards of UTP and rated five categories of wire.

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Type Use

Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (LocalTalk)

Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)

Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

26
 Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic
connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector. A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only
one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from
the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.

Fig. 2. RJ-45 connector

b. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable: A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to
radio and electrical frequency interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for
environments with electrical interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite
bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.

iii. Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer
provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal
shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other
computers.

Fig. Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In addition, it
can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of
coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial
cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200
meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in
school networks, especially linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial
cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500 meters. Thick
coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the center

27
conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus
network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC)
connector. Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector,
barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To
help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather than screw,
onto the cable.

Fig. BNC connector

iv. Fiber Optic Cable: Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several
layers of protective materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather than electronic signals
eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain
environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the
standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of
moisture and lighting.

Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and
twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity
broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive
services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult
to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet
signals.

Fig.. Fiber optic cable

Facts about fiber optic cables:

 Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.

 Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent breakage.
 A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
 Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.

28
 Fiber Optic Connector

The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST connector. It is barrel shaped, similar
to a BNC connector. A newer connector, the SC, is becoming more popular. It has a squared face and
is easier to connect in a confined space.

Cable Summary

Specification Cable Type Maximum length

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

10Base2 Thin Coaxial 185 meters

10Base5 Thick Coaxial 500 meters

10BaseF Fiber Optic 2000 meters

100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters

Installing Cable - Some Guidelines:

When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules:

 Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack.
 Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have problems that
will be difficult to isolate later.
 Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other sources of electrical
interference.
 If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable protectors.
 Label both ends of each cable.
 Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.

7.2.2 Unguided Media:

Unguided transmission media is data signals that flow through the air. They are not guided or
bound to a fixed channel to follow. Wireless systems are used where normal cabling cannot be
used. If great distances must be travelled or cables cannot be run, wireless systems provide a
necessary but expensive solution.
i. Infra-red: Using Infrared emitters, these types of connections can be used for small
networks where cables cannot be laid as an entire network media, or as a point-to-point
signaling method over medium distances.
ii. Radio Frequency: Radio frequency (RF) is used where longer distances are needed or
cables cannot go. Signals wary in strength (Amplitude) and tone (Frequency) in order
to offer a broad range of services, from short-range to extremely long-range.
iii. Microwave: Microwave transmissions are normally used in satellite communications,
and are point-to-point transmissions. They are meant for extremely long-range
communications, and are extremely expensive.
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7.3 Common Network Devices

i. The Network Interface Card (NIC)

The network interface card (NIC) is the expansion card you install in
your computer to connect (interface) your computer to the network.
This device provides the physical, electrical, and electronic
connections to the network media. NICs are either an expansion card
(the most popular implementation) or built in to the motherboard of
the computer.

ii. The Repeater

A repeater amplifies (or repeats) network signals to extend the maximum reach of
a network. Repeaters receive network signals on one port, amplify them, and
repeat them out on the other port. Repeaters can interconnect different media types
but cannot convert protocols.

iii. The Hub

A hub is the central device in a star topology. Most hubs are simple
multiport repeaters. That is, they receive a signal on one port and repeat it
to all other ports.

iv. The Bridge

A bridge is a network device that logically separates a single network into two segments. The primary
use for a bridge is to keep traffic meant for stations on one segment on that side of the bridge and not
let that traffic pass to the other side. Bridges can improve network performance because traffic is not
propagated unnecessarily on all network segments.

v. The Ethernet Switch

These are in essence high-performance multi-interface bridges. Like bridges, switches subdivide
larger networks and prevent the unnecessary flow of network traffic from one segment to another, or
in the case of cross-segment traffic, switches direct the frames only across the segments containing the
source and destination hosts.

Vi. The Router

A router is a network device that connects multiple, often dissimilar, network segments into an
internetwork. The router, once connected, can make intelligent decisions about how best to get
network data to its destination.

A router is more like a special-purpose computer than a simple electronic device. The classic
definition of a router is a device that reads the source and destination address of a packet and forwards
it based on the information it gathers about the network. Routers can make intelligent decisions about
the best way to forward packets.

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7.4 Computer Network:
A computer network is a collection of two or more computers, which are connected together to
share information and resources like printer. Computers in a network are interconnected by
telephone lines, coaxial cables, satellite links, radio and/or some other communication
technique. A network can be as few as several personal computers on a small network or as
large as the internet, a worldwide network of computers.
Generally there are three primary categories of computer networks: Local Area Network
(LAN). Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN). These categories
are defined based on various factors like the size of the network, the distance it covers, and the
type of link used in interconnection.

i. Local Area Network (LAN):

A local area network or LAN is a computer network that spans only a small geographical
area, such as an office, building or campus. It cconnects computers & other devices within
a limited physical area s.a. an office, classroom, building etc. It uses a variety of
telecommunication media s.a. ordinary telephone wiring, coaxial cable etc. to interconnect
workstation & other devices. To communicate each PC has a circuit board called a network
interface card (NIC). Most LANs uses a more powerful microcomputer having a larger
hard disk capacity, called a file server or network server that contains a Network Operating
System Program that controls communication and the use and sharing of network
resources.

ii. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

Metropolitan Area Networks or MANs are large computer networks usually spanning a
campus or a city. They typically use wireless infrastructure or optical fiber connections to link
their sites. For instance a university or college may have a MAN that joins together many of
their local area networks (LANs) situated around site of a fraction of a square kilometer. It may
cover a group of nearby corporate offices or a city and could either be private or public. It can
support both data & voice, and might even be related to the local cable television network.
iii. Wide Area Network (WAN):

31
 A computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area. Typically, a WAN consists
of two or more LANs. Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected
through public networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be connected through
leased lines or satellites. The largest WAN in existence is the internet.

WANS differ from LANS in the following ways:

 WANs cover greater distance.
 WAN speeds are slower.
 WANs can be connected on demand or be permanently connected. LANs have permanent
connections between stations.
 WANs can use public or private network transports. LANs typically use private transports.
 WANs can use either full- or half-duplex communications. LANs typically use half-duplex
communications.

7.4.2 Peer-to-peer & Client/server networks

 Based on security and access, we may classify networks into peer-to-peer and client/server
networks technologies:
i. Peer-to-peer networks – all computers are equal - they are peers. Each computer can be a
client that requests resources and a server that provides resources upon request.
They s are characterized by the following:
 Security is not centralized; each computer is responsible to check access rights for its
resources.
 Network is not scalable; it is good only for a few number of computers (10).
 Each user is responsible for local backup.
 No specialized operating system is required; the operating systems used in standalone
computers like Windows NT 4.0 Workstation, Windows 95/98, Windows 2000 Pro, etc. are
sufficient.

ii. Client/server networks – there exist dedicated servers which only provide resources/services
when requested. They characterized by the following:

 Security is centralized and tighter. All user accounts are stored in the same database on the
server.
 The network is highly scalable; you can have tens of thousands of workstations in the
network.
 Backup is centralized and is done by a person responsible for the job (backup operator).
 Specialized networking operating systems are required, such as Windows NT 4.0 server,
Windows 2000 server, Novell NetWare, etc.

32
7.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Installing a Network

Advantages: installing a network has its own great advantages from those:-

 Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without a
network, files are shared by copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks
from one computer to another. This method of transferring files (referred to as sneaker-net) is
very time-consuming.
 Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at considerable
savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies. Besides monetary savings,
sharing a program on a network allows for easier upgrading of the program. The changes have
to be done only once, on the file server, instead of on all the individual workstations.
 Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so that you do
not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be established for
specific directories to restrict access to authorized users.
 Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of installing a network at a
school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one computer (the file server). This
eliminates that need to spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files on
independent computers throughout the building.
 Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds stand-alone
computers. Most organizations cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines, modems,
scanners, and CD-ROM players for each computer. However, if these or similar peripherals are
added to a network, they can be shared by many users.
 Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to install an e-
mail system. E-mail aids in personal and professional communication for all school personnel,
and it facilitates the dissemination of general information to the entire school staff. Electronic
mail on a LAN can enable students to communicate with teachers and peers at their own
school. If the LAN is connected to the Internet, students can communicate with others
throughout the world.
 Flexible Access. If you take School networks as example, allow students to access their files
from computers throughout the school. Students can begin an assignment in their classroom,
save part of it on a public access area of the network, then go to the media center after school
to finish their work. Students can also work cooperatively through the network.
 Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice) allows many
users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example, educators located at various
schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas about new curriculum
standards to the same document and spreadsheets.

Disadvantages: there are some disadvantages while installing a network from those:

 Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the initial
costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software are expensive, and
the installation may require the services of a technician.
 Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time
and expertise
 File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any other
computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a halt. When this
happens, the entire may lose access to necessary programs and files.
 Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information about the various
configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
33
 inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop the
entire network.

7.5 Network Topologies:

The physical configuration of a network that determines how the network's computers are
connected is called network topology. Common configurations include the bus, star and ring
topologies. It refers to the layout of connected devices on a network.

i. The Bus Topology

 In a bus topology, all computers are connected to a single cable.
 The cable is terminated at its ends to avoid signal bouncing.
 When a computer wants to send data to another computer, it places the data and address of
the recipient computer on the cable. Only the computer whose address is included with the
data accepts the data.

Advantages of a Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Network can slow down in heavy traffic.

ii. The Star Topology

 Each computer in a star topology is connected to a central device

(hub) by a separate cable.
 When a computer wants to send data to another computer, it
sends the data and address of the recipient computer to the hub,
which in turn, sends it to every computer connected to it. Only the
computer whose address is included with the data accepts the data.

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
 Failure of one computer does not affect the rest of the network

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.

34
 iii. The Ring Topology
 Each computer is connected directly to two other computers in the
network.
 Data moves down a one-way path from one computer and if the
next computer is the recipient it accepts the data; otherwise it
amplifies it and sends it to the next computer down in the path.
 Any break disrupts the entire network and hence the physical ring topology is seldom used.

Advantages of a Ring Topology

 System provides equal access for all computers.
 Performance is even despite many users.

Disadvantages of a Ring Topology

 Failure of one computer can impact the rest of the network.
 Problems are hard to isolate.
 Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.

iv. The Mesh Topology

 Each computer is directly connected to every other computer.
 A mesh topology can become quite complex as wiring and
connections increase rapidly with the increase of computers to
connect. For n computers, n(n-1)/2 cables are required.
 Today, the mesh topology is rarely used, and then only in a WAN environment and only
because the mesh topology is fault tolerant. Computers or network devices can switch
between these multiple, redundant connections if the need arises. On the con side, the mesh
topology is expensive and quickly becomes too complex.

Advantages of a Mesh Topology

 System provides increased redundancy and reliability as well as ease of troubleshooting.

Disadvantages of a Mesh Topology

 System is expensive to install because it uses a lot of cabling.

7.6 Considerations When Choosing a Topology:

 Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not
have to purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another
concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often
used with star topologies.

35
7.7 Summary Chart:

Physical Topology Common Cable Common Protocol

Twisted Pair
Ethernet
Linear Bus Coaxial
LocalTalk
Fiber

Twisted Pair Ethernet

Star
Fiber LocalTalk

Star-Wired Ring Twisted Pair Token Ring

Twisted Pair
Tree Coaxial Ethernet
Fiber

7.8 Media Access

With many stations on the same piece of network media, there has to be a way of vying for time on the
cable. This process is called media access, and two of the most popular methods are discussed below.

i. Carrier Sense/Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) - this media access
technology, used in Ethernet networks, is probably the most common. When a protocol that uses
CSMA/CD has data to transmit, it first senses if a signal is already on the wire (a carrier),
indicating that someone is transmitting currently. If no one else is transmitting, it attempts a
transmission and then listens to hear if someone else tried to transmit at the same time. If
someone else transmits at the exact same time, a condition known as a collision occurs. Both
senders "back off" and don't transmit until some random period of time has passed. They then
both retry.

ii. Token Passing – this media access method uses a special packet called a token. The first
computer turned on creates the token. It then passes the token on to the next computer. The token
passes around the network until a computer that has data to send takes the token off the network,
modifies it, and puts it back on the network along with the data it has to send. Each station
between the sender and the receiver along the network reads the destination address in the token.
If the destination address doesn't match its own, the station simply sends the package on its way.
When the destination station recognizes its address in the destination address of the token, the
NIC copies the data into the station's memory and modifies the token, indicating it has received
the data. The token continues around the network until the original sender receives the token back
again. If the original sender has more data to send, the process repeats itself. If not, the sender
modifies the token to indicate that the token is "free" for anyone else to use. With this method,
there are no collisions (as in CSMA/CD networks) because everyone has to have "permission" to
transmit (via the token).

36
 Chapter-8
THE INTERNET

8.1 What is Internet?

The Internet is a huge collection of computer networks that can communicate with each other – a
network of networks. It is an umbrella under which many different networks, small or big, freely
exchange information. When you connect to the Internet from office or home, your computer becomes
a small part of this giant network.

To ensure the delivery of the data to the right computer, each computer on the Internet is given an
address. This address scheme is known as the Domain Name System.

How does the Internet work?

In order to make the Internet work, it requires:
1. a physical connection between the computers
2. a common language (called TCP/IP - Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) for the
computers to communicate over the Internet. By using TCP/IP Protocol, all kinds of computers
with different operating systems run on the Internet.

8.2 Getting connected to Internet:

You can connect to the Internet in one of two basic ways, dialing into an Internet service provider's
(ISP) computer called dial-up internet connection, or with a direct connection to an Internet service
provider called broad band or leased line internet connection.

To establish a conventional dial-up connection to the Internet, you will need the following:
 An account with an ISP (a company that provides the Internet access, in Ethiopia
Telecommunication is an account provider)
 A telephone connection:
 Modem (external/internal): used to connect the telephone line to the computer
 Communication software: example internet browsers such as internet explorer

Advantages of dial-up connection:

 Is not coasty: it is possible to by an account with money not more than 500 birr.
 It flexible: if you have an account you can use it what ever you go if you do have
telephone line and computer (not fixed in some areas only).
 Less monthly payment: it charges you based on the amount of time that you are going to
use internet as any telephone does.

Disadvantages of dial-up connection:

 Not faster: it is very slow because it uses the public service that the other people use.

Broad band internet connection you can also get a direct connection to your ISP, where you have a
fixed cable or a dedicated phone line to the ISP.

37
 Advantages of broad band connection:
 Faster: because it uses a free telephone line which is dedicated for this internet service only
it is faster than dial-up connections.
 Fixed monthly payment: the monthly payment is not varies base on the amount of time the
you use. Whether you use it or not you have to pay the fixed amount of money in a month
Disadvantages of broad band connection:
 Coasty: it needs thousands of birr to have this service (which is fixed and must be paid
monthly)
 Not flexible: you have to have a fixed telephone line and use it on that area only
8.3 Protocols

Since most computers were not similar, they had to share the same language to understand each
other. This is what gave birth to the various protocols. Protocols are the formal rules governing the
exchange of information between computers so as to provide reliable and efficient transfer of
information. Without protocols to guide the orderly exchange of data between points in a network,
there would be chaos, not communication. Detailed protocols are required to precisely define the
format in which data and system messages are to be sent. These also describe how a message is
addressed and govern network traffic flow by controlling priority, routing and sequencing of
messages.

When you send a message across the Internet to another user, TCP divides the data into
manageable units called packets and attaches to each packet the information necessary to
reassemble the data and check for errors. IP then labels all the packets with a header containing
the address of the destination and sends them on their way.

Once the packets reach their destination, the computer at the receiving end removes the IP header
and uses the data that TCP attached to each packet to make sure none of the packets have been lost
or damaged. The packets are then reassembled into the original message. If the computer
discovers a damaged packet, it sends a message to the sending computer asking it to resend the
packet.

You access pages on web servers by using a program called a browser. As soon as you tell your
browser what web page you want to view, it goes to the web server that holds the page and
retrieves it for you.

The links contained in web pages can point to areas within the same page, to other pages residing
on the same web server, or to pages sitting on a computer on the other side of the world.

The term web site refers to a collection of one or more web pages on the web.

The relationship between Browsers and the web servers is a client/server relationship. The client
(your browser) requests information from the server (the web server containing the requested
information) and the server delivers it.

8.4 Social network service

A social network service focuses on building online communities of people who share interests and/or
activities, or who are interested in exploring the interests and activities of others. Most social network
services are web based and provide a variety of ways for users to interact, such as e-mail and instant
messaging services.
38
Social networking has encouraged new ways to communicate and share information. Social
networking websites are being used regularly by millions of people.

While it could be said that email and websites have most of the essential elements of social network
services, the idea of proprietary encapsulated services has gained popular uptake recently.

The main types of social networking services are those which contain category divisions (such as
former school-year or classmates), means to connect with friends (usually with self-description pages)
and a recommendation system linked to trust. Popular methods now combine many of these, with
Facebook widely used worldwide; MySpace, Twitter and LinkedIn being the most widely used in
North America; Nexopia (mostly in Canada); Bebo, Hi5, MySpace, dol2day (mostly in Germany),
Tagged, XING; and Skyrock in parts of Europe; Orkut and Hi5 in South America and Central America;
and Friendster, Multiply, Orkut, Xiaonei and Cyworld in Asia and the Pacific Islands.

7.4.1 History
The notion that individual computers linked electronically could form the basis of computer mediated
social interaction and networking was suggested early on. There were many early efforts to support
social networks via computer-mediated communication, including Usenet, ARPANET, LISTSERV,
bulletin board services (BBS) and EIES: Electronic Information Exchange Service.
Early social networking websites started in the form of generalized online communities such as The
WELL (1985),Theglobe.com (1994), Geocities (1994) and Tripod (1995). These early communities
focused on bringing people together to interact with each other through chat rooms, and share personal
information and ideas around any topics via personal homepage publishing tools which were a
precursor to the blogging phenomenon. Some communities took a different approach by simply having
people link to each other via email addresses. These sites included Classmates.com (1995), focusing
on ties with former school mates, and SixDegrees.com (1997), focusing on indirect ties. User profiles
could be created, messages sent to users held on a ―friends list‖ and other members could be sought
out who had similar interests to yours in their profiles.
Between 2002 and 2004, three social networking sites emerged as the most popular form of these sites
in the world, causing such sites to become part of mainstream users globally. First there was
Friendster (which Google tried to acquire in 2003), then, MySpace, and finally, Bebo. By 2005,
MySpace, emergent as the biggest of them all, was reportedly getting more page views than Google.
2004 saw the emergence of Facebook, a competitor, also rapidly growing in size. In 2006, Facebook
opened up to the non US college community, and together with allowing externally-developed add-on
applications, and some applications enabled the graphing of a user's own social network - thus linking
social networks and social networking, became the largest and fastest growing site in the world, not
limited by particular geographical followings.

Social networking began to flourish as a component of business internet strategy at around March
2005 when Yahoo launched Yahoo! 360°. In July 2005 News Corporation bought MySpace, followed
by ITV (UK) buying Friends Reunited in December 2005. Various social networking sites have sprung
up catering to different languages and countries. It is estimated that combined there are now over 200
social networking sites using these existing and emerging social networking models. Twitter now has
recently (2009) eclipsed many other social network services and although lacking in some of what
were considered the essential aspects of a SNS, has allowed add-on services to connect and supply
these services via its public API.

39
8.4.2 Important Internet Applications or Services that commonly used:
Internet gives diffirent types of services from those the main services are World wide web,
Electronic mail,File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Telenet, Internet Relay Chat (IRC), Internet
Telephony, Video conferencing and they are described in detail as follows:

i. World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a vast collection of documents stored on Internet computers. The
web documents contain links that lead to other web pages and they contain graphics, sound and so on
which open up new possibilities for presenting information.

WWW uses Hypertext Mark-up language (HTML) to design a web document. WWW has
revolutionized the way the world is accessing the information on the Internet as:

 The web is not linear - a user can click on any of the links and jump to the related document.
 The web is rich in media elements – it includes text, voice, video, pictures, etc.
 The web is interactive - A web user can fill in forms on-line, run programs, select options

a. Basic Internet Terms:

Web Server - a program and a computer clubbed into one entity which responds to the requests from
web browsers for Internet resources.

Home Page - the first hypertext document to be shown when a user follows a link to the web server.

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - the protocol used by the Web to transfer hypertext
documents & other Internet resources.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL) - a special scheme that tells the user exactly where a resource is
located on the Internet. URL typically refers to the complete address of a resource located on a
computer on the Internet. For example:

http://www.hu.edu.et

Protocol Host Domain

Web Browser - a program that allows a user to display & interact with a hypertext document.

b. How to surf the web with a Browser

Netscape Navigator is a very popular browser in use today. The other almost equally popular browser
is Microsoft Internet Explorer. Both browsers have a simple toolbar for navigating the web including
buttons to move backward and forward through pages you have visited, as well as buttons to reload the
current page. Several other options, including printing and searching, are also available from the
toolbar.

You can jump immediately to any site on the web by typing its URL in the Address Box and pressing
Enter.

40
Hyperlinks allow you to jump to another page on the web. Normally, hyperlink text is underlined and
appears in a different color on the web page. Browsers give you an additional visual clue as well as
when the mouse cursor passes over a hyperlink, it changes to a hand with pointing finger.

Both Netscape and Internet Explorer remember your favorite web pages by using bookmarks. You can
instantly jump to any of your marked pages by selecting it from the Bookmarks menu.

ii. E-Mail:
E-mail is the most widely used feature of the Internet. Using e-mail, a user can send and receive mail
through computers to and from any Internet user.

 E-mail can be used transmit text, messages, audio and video clips.
 E-Mail allows users to send a message to just one user or a group of users. Large documents can
be attached.
 Users can read, print, forward, answer or delete a message.
 E-mail is much cheaper and faster in comparison to other communication services.
 Each E-mail user is assigned a unique address, which is used by the e-mail network to deliver the
message.

iii. FTP and Telnet:

Internet offers FTP (File Transfer Protocol). FTP allows a user to transfer data between computers on
the Internet. FTP can send and receive data to/from any distant computer on the Internet from/to the
user's computer.
FTP provides commands that allow users to manage files. The FTP applications allow the users to
download files from computers connected to the Internet.
Telnet is another popular feature available on the Internet. It is a program that allows one computer to
connect to another computer, anywhere in the world.

iv . Telnet

Telnet is a program that allows you to log into computers on the Internet and then enter commands
which will be executed as if you were entering them directly on the server. There are no graphics in
Telnet sessions, just text. To Telnet to a computer, you must know its address. This can consist of
domain name (locis.loc.gov) or IP address (140.147.254.3).

On the Web, HTTP and FTP protocols allow you to request specific files from remote computers, but
not to actually be logged on as a user of that computer. With Telnet, you log on as a regular user with
whatever privileges you may have been granted to the specific application and data on that computer.

v . Usenet News

Usenet News is a global electronic bulletin board system in which millions of computer users
exchange information on a vast range of topics. The major difference between Usenet News and e-
mail discussion groups is the fact that Usenet messages are stored on central computers, and users
must connect to these computers to read or download the messages posted to these groups. This is
distinct from e-mail distribution, in which messages arrive in the electronic mailboxes of each list
member.

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There are thousands of Usenet newsgroups. These range from academic to recreational topics. Serious
computer-related work takes place in Usenet discussions.

Usenet is not as popular nowadays as it once was. Blogs and RSS (Rich Site Summary) feeds are
newer modes of communication that have caught the interest of Internet users.

Vi . Chat & Instant Messaging

Chat programs allow users on the Internet to communicate with each other by typing in real time.
They are sometimes included as a feature of a Web site, where users can log into the "chat room" to
exchange comments and information about the topics addressed on the site.

Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a service through which participants can communicate to each other on
hundreds of channels. These channels are usually based on specific topics. While many topics are
frivolous, substantive conversations are also taking place. To access IRC, you must use an IRC
software program.

A variation of chat is the phenomenon of instant messaging. With instant messaging, a user on the
Web can contact another user currently logged in and type a conversation.

Vii . Search Engine:

It is computer software that compiles lists of documents, most commonly those on the World Wide
Web (WWW), and the contents of those documents. Search engines respond to a user entry, or query,
by searching the lists and displaying a list of documents (called Web sites when on the WWW) that
match the search query. Some search engines include the opening portion of the text of Web pages in
their lists, but others include only the titles or addresses (known as Universal Resource Locators, or
URLs) of Web pages. It allows a user to enter a keyword related a particular topic and retrieve
information about internet sites containing those keywords. Examples: Google, Mama, Yahoo etc.

7.4.3 Social impacts

A 2008 book published by Forrester Research, Inc. titled Groundswell builds on a 2006 Forrester
Report about social computing and used the term "groundswell" to refer to "a spontaneous movement
of people using online tools to connect, take charge of their own experience, and get what they need-
information, support, ideas, products, and bargaining power--from each other."

8.4.4 Social good

Several websites are beginning to tap into the power of the social networking model for social good.
Such models may be highly successful for connecting otherwise fragmented industries and small
organizations without the resources to reach a broader audience with interested and passionate users.
Users benefit by interacting with a likeminded community and finding a channel for their energy and
giving.

8.4.5 Typical structure

i. Basics

In general, social networking services allow users to create a profile for themselves, and can be broken
down into two broad categories: internal social networking (ISN) and external social networking
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(ESN) sites, such as MySpace, Facebook, Twitter and Bebo. Both types can increase the feeling of
community among people.

An ISN is a closed/private community that consists of a group of people within a company,

association, society, education provider and organization or even an "invite only" group created by a
user in an ESN.

An ESN is open/public and available to all web users to communicate and are designed to attract
advertisers. ESN's can be smaller specialized communities (i.e. linked by a single common interest e.g.
TheSocialGolfer, ACountryLife.Com, Great Cooks Community) or they can be large generic social
networking sites (eg MySpace, Facebook etc).

However, whether specialized or generic there is commonality across the general approach of social
networking sites. Users can
 Upload a picture of themselves,
 Create their 'profile' and
 Often be "friends" with other users. In most social networking services, both users must
confirm that they are friends before they are linked. For example, if Alice lists Bob as a friend,
then Bob would have to approve Alice's friend request before they are listed as friends.
 Some social networking sites have a "favorites" feature that does not need approval from the
other user.
 Social networks usually have privacy controls that allows the user to choose who can view
their profile or contact them, etc.

ii.'Normal' features

Almost all social network have a set of features which are considered essential to qualify as a social
networking service, namely:

 The ability to set up and customise a personal 'profile',

 An ability for members to comment,
 Fine granular control of who sees what (privacy settings),
 Ability to block an unwanted member,
 Have own page of personal (blog like) entries or notes and individual picture albums,
 Ability to own, form or be member of a Group or Community within the network and
 Increasingly the ability to include "Social Apps" or "Gadgets" which can create 'viral' like
online contact and spread of information.

iii. Additional features

Some social networks have additional features, such as the ability to create groups that share common
interests or affiliations, upload or stream live videos, and hold discussions in forums.

Lately, mobile social networking has become popular. In most mobile communities, mobile phone
users can now create their own profiles, make friends, participate in chat rooms, create chat rooms,
hold private conversations, share photos and videos, and share blogs by using their mobile phone.

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8.4.6 Emerging Trends in Social Networks

As the increase in popularity of social networking is on a constant rise, new uses for the technology
are constantly being observed.

One popular use for this new technology is social networking between businesses. Companies have
found that social networking sites such as Facebook and twitter are great ways to build their brand
image.

According to Jody Nimetz, author of Marketing Jive, there are five major uses for businesses and
social media. They are to create Brand Awareness, online reputation management tool, recruiting,
learn about new technologies and competitors, and as a lead generic tool to intercept potential
prospects. Thus companies are able to drive traffic to their own online sites, as well as encouraging
their consumers and clients to have discussions on how to improve or change products or services.

One other use that is being discussed is the use of Social Networks in the Science communities.
Researchers have outlined that by sharing information and knowledge with one another, Scientists are
able to "increase both their learning and their flexibility in ways that would not be possible within a
self-contained hierarchical organization." Social networking is allowing scientific groups to expand
their knowledge base and share ideas, and without these new means of communicating their theories
might become "isolated and irrelevant."

A final rise in Social Network use is being seen by college students using the services to network with
professionals for internship and job opportunities.

Of course the most popular social networking sites, at the time of preparing this material, are
facebook, myspace, twitter, and youtube. But a number of new sites and social groups are born each
day. Furthermore SNN sites like Ning.com allows you to create your own social networking site to fit
your own niche group. This and other noteworthy emerging sites show the dynamics or constant
change in the trends SNN sites are veered towards.

 Business model
Social networks operate under an autonomous business model, in which a social network's members
serve dual roles as both the suppliers and the consumers of content. This is in contrast to a traditional
business model, where the suppliers and consumers are distinct agents. Revenue is typically gained in
the autonomous business model via advertisements, but subscription-based revenue is possible when
membership and content levels are sufficiently high.
Few social networks currently charge money for membership. In part, this may be because social
networking is a relatively new service, and the value of using them has not been firmly established in
customers' minds. Thus companies such as MySpace and Facebook , the two most widely used SNN
sites; currently sell online advertising on their site as their major source of income.

8.4.7 Issues

i. Privacy

On large social networking services, there have been growing concerns about users giving out too
much personal information and the threat of sexual predators. Users of these services need to be aware
of data theft or viruses. However, large services, such as MySpace, often work with law enforcement
to try to prevent such incidents.
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In addition, there is a perceived privacy threat in relation to placing too much personal information in
the hands of large corporations or governmental bodies, allowing a profile to be produced on an
individual's behavior on which decisions, detrimental to an individual, may be taken.

Furthermore, there is an issue over the control of data—information having been altered or removed
by the user may in fact be retained and/or passed to 3rd parties. Although the damage was insignificant
compared to what might have been, this danger was highlighted when the controversial social
networking site Quechup harvested e-mail addresses from users' e-mail accounts for use in a
spamming operation.

Medical and scientific research is another area of concern related to privacy issues related with SNNs.
When these researches are conducted the results are strictly scrutinized by institutional review boards.
Researchers are also under legal obligation to have informed consent from the people on which the
research was conducted upon before publishing their findings. But it is not clear whether the same
rules apply to researchers who collect data from social networking sites. These sites often contain a
great deal of data that is hard to obtain via traditional means. Even though the data are public,
republishing it in a research paper might be considered invasion of privacy.

ii. Notifications on websites

There has been a trend for social networking sites to send out only 'positive' notifications to users.
For example sites such as Bebo, Facebook, and Myspace will send out a notification if a user is
moved to the top of another user's friends list but no notification is sent if they are moved down the
list or they are removed totally from a person's friends list.

This allows users to purge undesirables from their list extremely easily and often without
confrontation since a user will rarely notice if one person disappears from their friends list. It also
enforces the general positive atmosphere of the website without drawing attention to unpleasant
happenings such as friends falling out, rejection and failed relationships. In other words, SNN sites
tend to magnify positive reactions just so their membership numbers do not decline.

iii. Access to information

Many social networking services, such as Facebook, provide the user the choice of who can view
their profile. This prevents unauthorized user(s) from accessing their information.

To edit information on a certain social networking service account, the social networking sites
require you to login or provide an access code. This prevents unauthorized user(s) from editing an
account such as posting pictures and editing personal information.

iv. Potential for misuse

The relative freedom afforded by social networking services has caused concern regarding the
potential of its misuse by users. Cases have been seen where users have used SNN sites for harassing
and posting false information.

In October 2006, a fake Myspace profile created in the name of Josh Evans by Lori Janine Drew led
to the suicide of Megan Meier. The event incited global concern regarding the use of social
networking services for bullying/discrimination purposes.

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 In July 2008, a Briton, Grant Raphael, was ordered to pay a total of GBP £22,000 (about USD
$44,000) for libel and breach of privacy. Raphael had posted a fake page on Facebook claiming to
be that of a former school friend Matthew Firsht, with whom Raphael had a disagreement with in
2000. The page falsely claimed that Firsht was homosexual and that he was dishonest.

Such situations have made owners/administrators of SNN sites to act on suspicious activities by
users on their sites. At the same, genuine use of social networking services has been treated with
suspicion on the ground of the services' misuse. In September 2008, the profile of Australian
Facebook user Elmo Keep was banned by the site's administrators on the grounds that it violated the
site's terms of use. Keep is one of several users of Facebook who were banned from the site on the
presumption that their names aren't real, as they bear resemblance to the names of characters in the
popular cartoon movies. In the unlucky Mr. Elmo Keep‘s case it was Sesame Street's Elmo.

The misuse of social networking services has led many to cast doubt over whether any information
on these services can in fact be regarded as true.

v. Risk for child safety

Citizens and governments have been concerned by a misuse by child and teenagers of social network
services, particularly in relation to online sexual predators. A certain number of actions have been
engaged by governments to better understand the problem and find some solutions. A 2008 panel
concluded that technological fixes to achieve a measure of control, such as age verification and scans
are relatively ineffective the potential damage caused by social misfits on unwary children and
teenagers.

8.4.8 Investigations

Social network services are increasingly being used in legal and criminal investigations. There have
been cases where information posted on sites such as MySpace and Facebook has been used by police,
probation, and university officials to prosecute users of said sites. In some situations, content posted
on MySpace has been used as evidence in court.

Recent data shows that the SSN site Facebook is increasingly being used by school administrations
and law enforcement agencies as a source of evidence against student users. The site, the number one
online destination for college students, allows users to create profile pages with personal details. These
pages can be viewed by other registered users from the same school which often include resident
assistants and campus police who have signed-up for the service. It has recently been revealed that
some UK police forces are using social network services such as Facebook to help their crack down on
knife and gun crime. It is believed that up to 400 users of Facebook have been arrested as a result of
searches of this site revealing users posing with dangerous weapons.

8.4.9 Application domains

i. Business applications

The use of social network services in an enterprise context presents the potential of having a major
impact on the world of business and work.

Social networks connect people at low cost; this can be beneficial for entrepreneurs and small
businesses looking to expand their contact/customer base. These networks often act as a customer
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relationship management tool for companies selling products and services. Companies can also use
social networks for advertising in the form of banners and text ads. Since businesses operate globally,
social networks can make it easier to keep in touch with contacts around the world.

The traditional way to interact is face-to-face. Interactive technology makes it possible for people to
network with their peers from anywhere, at anytime in an online environment. Professional network
services attract, aggregate and assemble large business-focused audiences by creating informative and
interactive meeting places.

ii. Medical applications

Social networks are beginning to be adopted by healthcare professionals as a means to manage

institutional knowledge, disseminate peer to peer knowledge and to highlight individual physicians
and institutions. The advantage of using a dedicated medical social networking site is that all the
members are screened against the proper licensing board list of practitioners to be authentic
professionals in their field.

The role of social networks is especially of interest to pharmaceutical companies who spend a large
amount of their marketing budgets attempting to influence the opinions of users of social networks.

A new trend is emerging with social networks created to help its members with various physical and
mental ailments/diseases. For people suffering from life altering diseases, PatientsLikeMe offers its
members the chance to connect with others dealing with similar issues and research patient data
related to their condition. For alcoholics and addicts, the site SoberCircle gives people in recovery the
ability to communicate with one another and strengthen their recovery through the encouragement of
others who can relate to their situation. Daily strength is also a website that offers support groups for a
wide array of topics and conditions, including the support topics offered by PatientsLikeMe and
SoberCircle. SparkPeople offers community and social networking tools for peer support during
weight loss.

7.5 Introduction: What is Malware?

Malware is a portmanteau from the words malicious and software. It is software designed to infiltrate
or damage a computer system without the owner's informed consent. The expression is a general term
used by computer professionals to mean a variety of forms of hostile, intrusive, or annoying software
or program code. The term "computer virus" is sometimes used as a catch-all phrase to include all
types of malware, including true viruses. Malware includes computer viruses, worms, trojan horses,
spyware, dishonest adware, and other malicious and unwanted software. Malware is not the same as
defective software, that is, software which has a legitimate purpose but contains harmful bugs.

 Most Malware have the following phases while affecting your computer system:
a) Dormancy phase - It does nothing at this phase. This is intended to create a sense of trust in the
user.
b) Propagation phase - At this stage most malwares duplicates itself without making damage.
c) Triggering phase - The malware is triggered by some occurrence such as date or a particular
number of replications, or a certain sequence of keystroke.
d) Damaging phase - at this stage, the malware does whatever the author impended it to do such as
formatting the hard disk thereby destroying all the data in it, reserving space on disk so that files
cannot be stored on it, transposing characters in a data file, displaying a greeting message on the

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 screen. Etc. There are also some of them, which play music. Or display something on the screen
without making a significant damage, but are still nuisances to the user.

Let‘s look on different types of malware: viruses, worms, trojan horses, spyware

7.5.1 Virus:
A computer virus attaches itself to a program or file enabling it to spread from one computer to
another, leaving infections as it travels. Like a human virus, a computer virus can range in severity:
some may cause only mildly annoying effects while others can damage your hardware, software or
files. Almost all viruses are attached to an executable file, which means the virus may exist on your
computer but it actually cannot infect your computer unless you run or open the malicious program. It
is important to note that a virus cannot be spread without a human action, (such as running an infected
program) to keep it going. People continue the spread of a computer virus, mostly unknowingly, by
sharing infecting files or sending e-mails with viruses as attachments in the e-mail.

Viruses are categorized to several parts based on its features:

i. Macro Viruses
A macro virus, often scripted into common application programs such as Word or Excel, is spread by
infecting documents. When the application is running, this allows the macro virus to spread amongst
the operating systems. There are thousands of macro viruses that exists, and each are considered major
threats. Examples of these viruses are: Melissa A. and Bablas pc.

ii. Network Viruses

Network viruses rapidly spread through a Local Network Area (LAN), and sometimes throughout the
internet. Generally, network viruses multiply through shared resources, i.e., shared drives and folders.
When the virus infects a computer, it searches through the network to attack its new potential prey.
When the virus finishes infecting that computer, it moves on to the next and the cycle repeats itself.
The most dangerous network viruses are Nimda and SQLSlammer.

ii. Logic Bombs

The logic bomb virus is a piece of code that is inputted into a software system. When a certain and
specific condition is met, such as clicking on an internet browser or opening a particular file, the logic
bomb virus is set off. When the virus is activated, then various activities will take place. For example,
files are permanently deleted.

iv. Companion Viruses

Companion viruses take advantage of MS-DOS. This virus creates a new file with typically the .COM
extensions, but sometimes the .EXD extension as well. When a user manually types in a program they
desire without adding .EXE or any other specific extention, DOS will make the assumption that the
user wants the file with the extension that comes first in alphabetical order, and thus running the virus.
The companion virus is rare among Windows XP computers as this particular operating system does
not use the MS-DOS.

v. Boot Sector Viruses

Boot sector viruses generally hide in the boot sector, either in the bootable disk or the hard drive.
Unlike most viruses, this virus does not harm the files in the hard disk, but harm the hard disk itself.
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Boot sector viruses are uncommon at this day and age because these viruses are spread rapidly by
floppy disks and not on CD-ROMs.

vi. Multipartite Viruses

Multipartite viruses are spread through infected media and usually hide in the memory. Gradually, the
virus moves to the boot sector of the hard drive and infects executable files on the hard drive and later
across the computer system.

7.5.2 Worm
A worm is similar to a virus by design and is considered to be a sub-class of a virus. Worms spread
from computer to computer, but unlike a virus, it has the capability to travel without any human
action. A worm takes advantage of file or information transport features on your system, which is what
allows it to travel unaided. The biggest danger with a worm is its capability to replicate itself on your
system, so rather than your computer sending out a single worm, it could send out hundreds or
thousands of copies of itself, creating a huge devastating effect. One example would be for a worm to
send a copy of itself to everyone listed in your e-mail address book. Then, the worm replicates and
sends itself out to everyone listed in each of the receiver's address book, and the manifest continues on
down the line. Due to the copying nature of a worm and its capability to travel across networks the end
result in most cases is that the worm consumes too much system memory (or network bandwidth),
causing Web servers, network servers and individual computers to stop responding. In recent worm
attacks such as the much-talked-about Blaster Worm, the worm has been designed to tunnel into your
system and allow malicious users to control your computer remotely.

7.5.3 Trojan horse

A Trojan Horse is full of as much trickery as the mythological Trojan Horse it was named after. The
Trojan Horse, at first glance will appear to be useful software but will actually do damage once
installed or run on your computer. Those on the receiving end of a Trojan Horse are usually tricked
into opening them because they appear to be receiving legitimate software or files from a legitimate
source. When a Trojan is activated on your computer, the results can vary. Some Trojans are designed
to be more annoying than malicious (like changing your desktop, adding silly active desktop icons) or
they can cause serious damage by deleting files and destroying information on your system. Trojans
are also known to create a backdoor on your computer that gives malicious users access to your
system, possibly allowing confidential or personal information to be compromised. Unlike viruses and
worms, Trojans do not reproduce by infecting other files nor do they self-replicate.

7.5.4 Combating Viruses, Worms and Trojan Horses

Here are a few primary indicators that your system might be infected:

 Runs consistently slower than normal

 Stops responding or locks up often
 Crashes and restarts every few minutes
 Restarts on its own and then fails to run normally
 Applications don't work properly
 Disks or disk drives are inaccessible
 Printing doesn't work correctly
 You see unusual error messages
 You see distorted menus and dialog boxes
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These are common signs of infection-but they could also indicate hardware or software problems that
have nothing to do with a virus. The bottom line is that unless you install industry standard, up-to-date
antivirus software on your computer, there is no way to be certain if your computer is infected with a
virus or not.

7.5.5 How to protect your computer against viruses

 Protect your computer current with the latest updates.
 Use an Internet firewall (Note: Windows XP with SP2 has a firewall already built-in and active).
A firewall is a system that prevents unauthorized use and access to your computer. A firewall can
be either hardware or software.
 Subscribe to industry standard antivirus software and keep it current.
 Never open an e-mail attachment from someone you don't know.
 Avoid opening an e-mail attachment from someone you know, unless you know exactly what the
attachment is. The sender may be unaware that it contains a virus.
 If you use Microsoft Office applications, it's a good idea to keep them updated too.

7.5.6 Adware
Adware is considered a legitimate alternative offered to consumers who do not wish to pay for
software. Programs, games or utilities can be designed and distributed as freeware. Generally most or
all features of the freeware are enabled but you will be viewing sponsored advertisements while the
software is being used. The advertisements usually run in a small section of the software interface or
as a pop-up ad box on your desktop. When you stop running the software, the ads should disappear.
This allows consumers to try the software before they buy and you always have the option of disabling
the ads by purchasing a registration key. In many cases, adware is a legitimate revenue source for
companies who offer their software free to users. An adware is not malicious until it doesn't track your
habits or provide information about you to a third party. This type of adware is simply serving up
random paid ads within the program. When you quit the program the ads will stop running on your
system.

7.5.7 Spyware
Unfortunately, some freeware applications which contain adware do track your surfing habits in order
to serve ads related to you. When the adware becomes intrusive like this, then we move it in the
spyware category and it then becomes something you should avoid for privacy and security reasons.
Due to its invasive nature, spyware has really given adware a bad name as many people do not know
the differences between the two, or use the terms interchangeably. Spyware is considered a malicious
program and is similar to a Trojan Horse in that users unwittingly install the product when they install
something else. A common way to become a victim of spyware is to download certain peer-to-peer file
swapping products that are available today. Spyware can gather information about e-mail addresses
and even passwords and credit card numbers.

Combating Spyware: while one may not realize they have installed spyware, there are some signs that
it exists on your computer. If you notice any changes to your Web browser that you did not make such
as extra toolbars or different homepage settings, as well as changes to your security settings and
favorites list, you could have spyware running on your system. You can make use of anti-spyware
packages to get rid of this malicious software. Anti-spyware software works by identifying any
spyware installed on your system and removing it.

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