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POWER MACHINES N5
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TROUPANT
/ Publishers
Copyright © 1985 by the author
Published by:
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Previously published by
Southern Book Publishers
First edition 1985
P
P, -- - - - - 1 1.1.5 Units 01 heat
Charles's law
Qualitative measuremel1l: This is the measurement
of the quality or temperature of the heat. The use-
I fulness of the heat is mainly determined by the heat
P2 - - - - - ~ - 2'/----'.......--------''''" a drop or increase, which is dependent panlyon the
I I :
difference between the temperatures of the heat on
I I I
being taken in and rejected. Methods of measure-
v, Va V
ment of temperature include thermometers, pyro-
meters etc. Thermometers are usually calibrated at
FIG.1.1 the freezing and boiling points of water, and the
fixed distance between these points is then divided.
According to Boyle's law (const!lnt temperature) Absolute temperature is the temperature at which a
P, V, P2 V(J gas occupies no volume (provided that it has not
P,V, liquefied or solidified before reaching this tempera-
(I)
P2 ture).
According to Charles's law (constant pressure) Qual1litative measuremel1l: The quantity of heat
V2 depends on three factors:
T2 (0) The mass of the substance heated or cooled;
V2 (b) the range through which the substance is heated
T2 or cooled;
V2 T, (c) the specific heat.
(2)
The mass of a substance does not change by heating
T2
or cooling. The range through wh ich the substance
Equating (I) and (2) we obtain is heated or cooled can be expressed in °C or K.
Not all substances require the same amount of heat
to raise their temperature by 1°. The ratio of heat
required by a substance to increase its temperature
2
piston
heat transferred from
external sou rce ,....-----------,--.,...,r----r'-----
1- --- --
Q
I
I I
unit mass of gas
in the system
FIG.1.2
by 10 to the amount of heat required to increase the 1.2.2 The specific heat capacity at constant
same mass of water by 10 is called the specific heat pressure (Cp)
capacity of the substance. Since water is easily avail-
This is the amount of heat transfer to or from unit
able, it is taken as the standard substance from
mass of gas while the temperature changes by I
which the unit of heat quantity is determined.
degree and the pressure remains constant.
The ratio between these two specific heats is con-
1.2 Specific heat
stant for any one gas. It is a very important ratio in
The specific heat capacity of agas may be defined thermodynamics.
as the amount of heat transfer (energy) required to Cp
gamma (y) =
raise unit mass of the gas by a 10 rise in tempera- Cv
ture. This statement may seem to be applicable to
Average values commonly assumed for air are:
all gases but let's study the following experiment.
Fig. 1.2 shows a piston.and cylinder containing unit Cp = 1,005 kJjkg.K and Cv = 0,717 kJjkg.K
mass of gas (the system). This gas could be heated Cp
from an outside source so that the temperature of Cv
the gas is raised by 10 • The amount of heat transfer 1,005
to accomplish this 10 temperature rise will depend 0,717
upon the movement of the piston. If the piston is 1,4
fixed, in which case the gas would be heated at and R Cp - Cv
constant volume (no external work done), a certain 1,005 - 0,717
quantity of heat would bring about the 10 rise in 0,288 kJ j kg. K
temperature. The gas in the cylinder could be
allowed to expand and move the piston and hence 1.3 Two laws of thermodynamics
external work would be done. The amount of heat
transfer will thus depend upon the piston move- The first law of thermodynamics (Joule's law) states
ment. From this it can be seen that there are an that mechanical energy and heat energy are mutual-
infinite number of specific heat capacities for agas. Iy convertible. They are both expressed in joules.
If the specific heat capacity of agas is quoted it The second law of thermodynamics, also known as
would thus be necessary to define the conditions Clausius's statement, states that heat can flow from
under which the specific heat capacity was a hot substance to a cold substance unaided, but
measured. that it is impossible for heat to flow from a cold
substance to a hot substance without the aid of
1.2.1 The specific heat capacity at constant external work.
volume (Cv)
Example 1.1
This is the amount of heat transfer to or from unit
mass of gas while the temperature changes by 1 Find the mass of 2m 3 of air at 400 kPa and 130°C.
degree and the volume remains constant. Take the value of Ras 0,287 kJ / kg. K
3
Solution T2 0+273
PV mRT T 130 + 273 273 K
PV 403 K Tl 90 + 273
m
RT
363 K
400 X 2
0,287 X 403
6,917 kg.
(b) PI VI mRTI
Derivation of units in example. PI V,
m
kPa X m3 kN 3
kg.K 1 RT,
kJjkg.K X K = m2 X m X kN.m X K = kg. I 000 X 0,003 534
0,287 X 363
Example1.2 0,0339 kg
Find the pressure of 0,05 m of gas with a mass of
0,08 kg and a temperature of 60 0 C.
R = 0,297 kJjkg.K Example1.4
The pressure of the gas supplied from an engine is
Solution measured as 102 kPa. Determine the volume of
1 kg of the gas at this pressure and at a temperature
PV = mRT of 85 °C if R for the gas is 287 J j kg.K.
mRT
P
V
= 0,08 X 0,297 X 333 ( kg X kNm X K) Solution
0,05 kgK X M3
Finding volume of gas (V): T 85 + 273
= 158,24 kPa (kN = kPa) 358 K
m2
PV mRT
mRT
Example1.3 V
P
A small air compressor has a cylinder diameter of I X 0,287 X 358
150 mm and length of stroke 200 mm, and is used 102
to compress air to I 000 kPa and a temperature of
1,0073 m 3
90 0 C. Calculate:
(a) The volume the air would occupy at standard
Example1.5
temperature and pressure (0 0 C and 101,325
kPa); Agas at a temperature of 17 0 C and apressure of
(b) the mass of the air if R for air is 0,287 kJ j kg. K. 125 kPa occupies a volume of 2,46 m3 • If the gas is
compressed to a volume of I m 3 and apressure of
Solution 700 kPa, what would the final temperature be?
P 2 V2
T2 Solution
P,V,T2
= P2 T,
Finding final temperature (T2):
T2 17 + 273
I 000 X 0,003 534 X 273
P2 V2
290K
101,325 X 363
0,0262 m 3 T2
P2 V2 T,
Volume of cylinder
P,V,
rrD2 700 X I X 290
4 X L 125 X 2,46
rr (0,15)2 X 0,2 660,2 K
4 660,2 - 273
0,003534 m 3 387,2°C
4
Exercise 1 gen at a temperature of 15 0 C and apressure of
I. Define the following: 300 kPa. Taking R for hydrogen = 4150 Jjkg.K,
calculate the mass of hydrogen used in kilo-
(0) Absolute temperature; grams.
(b) the two specific heats of agas; 5. The pressure, volume and temperature of a quan-
(e) law of conservation of energy; tity of gas are respectively 690 kPa; 0,085 mJ
(d) the internal energy of agas; and 150 0 e. A change of state results in the
(e) Charles's law; following: volume 0,25 m J ; temperature 10 oe.
(j) Boyle's law. What is the pressure?
2. Find the mass of 1,5 m J of air at 375 k'pa and 6. 1,5 kg of gas at a temperature of 80 ° C occupies
120 0 e. Assume that the characteristic constant a volume of 99820 cm J . The gas constant is
R for air is 0,288 kJjkg.K. 0,288 kJ j kg. K. Calculate the pressure.
3. Agas at a temperature of 20 °C and apressure 7. The volume of 0, 18 kg of gas at a temperature of
ort 20 k Pa occupies a volume of 2,5 m 3 If the 15°C and apressure of 103 kPa occupies a
gas is now compressed to a volume of I, I m J volume of 0,15 m J . If Cv for the gas is 722 J / kg. K
and apressure of 660 kPa, what would be the and Cp for the gas is I 020 J j kg. K, calculate:
final temperature of the gas? (0) The gas constant:
4. A balloon of capacity 125 m J is filled with hydro (b) the ratio of the specific heats.
5
2 Heating of gases
cross-sectional
areaA
pressure
p
'
Cl j
,,0',:·,·,············0
i:i~
distance L
~":"";.
~
i!!~
.....;,.;...:..;......;.....;.
:.J).l
_
FIG.2.1
6
If the pressure is in newtons/ metre 2 (N / m2), the Consider then the non-flow energy equation applied
volume is in cubic metres (m 3), the area is in square to constant pressure heating:
metres (m 2 ) and the length is in metres (m), then by
equation (2) the work done is given by the product of
Q = !::.V + W (2)
pressure and change in volume. In this case external work is done by the gas.
:.Workdone N/m 2 X m 3 Fig. 2.3 shows that there is adefinite area beneath
N.m. the constant pressure line, which gives work done
joules = P (V2 - VI)' where P = the constant pressure.
In this case then, equation (2) becomes:
p
(V2 - VI) + P(V2 - VI) (3)
p (V2 + PV2) - (VI + PVI )
H 2 - Hf (4)
it is
Heat transferred at constant pressure = change of
enthalpy
From equation (2):
v
The constant pressure process
This process is carried out in such a way that the
pressure remains constant throughout the process. Jt FIG.2.3
is often called an isobaric or isopiestic process.
The work done during such a process is represented 2.2 The polytropic process and agas
by the shaded area in Fig. 2.3.
Consider an experiment conducted on a mass of
Let a mass of gas m be heated at constant pressure so
working substance so that expansion takes place
that its temperature rises from TI to T2 and its
and changes the state from state I to state 2. Let the
volume increases from VI to V2• Then
volume change from VI to V2 and the pressure from
Heat received by the gas = mass X specific heat PI to P2 • Record the volume and pressure as the
capacity X rise in experiment proceeds. If the values obtained were to
temperature be plotted on a P- V graph a smooth curve would
mCp(T2-TI ) (I) result, as shown in Fig. 2.4.
7
The value of the constant C will change with each
change of condition, as will the value of n, which is
P, - - - - - -
called the index of expansion or compression or the
polytropic exponent.
I
I
pressure I 2.2.1 Wor1c: done and the polytropic process
I
I Work will be required to compress a substance
from a lower pressure to a higher pressure. Once
P2 - - - - - L_
the substance is at the high pressure it will have the
potential to expand and, in expanding, do some
V, V2 work. Work done is given by the area under a P- V
volume diagram of an expansion or compression and the
FIG.2.4 problem is now to determine the area under a curve
ofthe form PV n = C.
By inspection only it is not possible to tell whether Fig. 2.6 shows a P- V graph of an expansion ac-
n
there is a law connecting pressure and volume for cording to the law PV = C from state PI to P2,
the expansion that occurs. and from VI to V2. Consider a point on the curve at
However, if log Pis plotted against log V, a straight- which the pressure is P and the volume is V. Let the
line graph as shown in Fig. 2.5 will be obtained. gas expand from this point by a very small volume
n
l) Vaccording to the law PV = C. The work done
during this very small expansion is very nearly
equal to P X l) V. As l) V - 0, the area and there-
10gP
fore the work done = PdV.
8
is negative, meaning that the work must be done on Substituting equation (4) in equation (2):
the substance. I
T2 P2 PI n
- - X(-)
TI PI P2
P P--'-
2 X (_2) n
Pl PI PI
i\
/1-)
P2 ,,-
(-)
PI (5)
P Pvn=c
Combining equation (3) and (5):
.~
T V n-I P n-J
pre ssure
_2 (_I) = (_2) -n-
TI V2 PI (6)
P2 2
In the beginning it is sometimes difficult to know
which expression to use for the solution of a parti-
cular problem, but it may be observed that in order
V, V2
to use the expression
V
b-
volume
PI VI
--
TI
P2 V2
- -
T2
five conditions of state must be known. If five
conditions are not known then it usually points to
FIG.2.6 the use of the other expressions, such as
P VI n T VI n-I P 2 "-=..!
2.2.2 Combining the polytropic law PV n = C - 2 = (-) or - 2 = (-) = (-) n
and the characteristic equation of a perfect gas PI V2 TI V2 PI
The law Pvn = C allows us to make calculations 2.3 The isothermal process
of the changes in pressure and volume which occur
during a polytropic process. Combining this with The isothermal (hyperbolic) process is a specific
the characteristic equation of a perfect gas will case in the polytropic process. It is defined as a
enable us to determine variations in temperature. process carried out in such a way that the tem-
Consider a polytropic process where the original perature remains constant throughout (Boyle's law).
conditions PI. VI and TI are changed to P2• V2 and The law for the isothermal process is
PV = C
T2•
This law plotted on a P- V diagram will appear as a
From the polytropic law: rectangular hyperbola. Thus, for a change of state
PI vln P2 Vt from I to 2,
P2 VI n PI VI = P2 V2
~ = (v;-) (I) and
TI = T 2 = constant temperature
From the characteristic equation:
P,r----""1l
(2)
Substituting equation (J) in equation (2):
P
~
::J
Vl
Vl
Q)
Ci P
21----+-----( I----~ 2
(3)
V,
V liV
FIG.2.7 volume
(4)
9
Consider Fig. 2.7. By analysis similar to that used polytropic process (Pvn = C) in which no heat is
for the polytropic process allowed to enter or leave during the process.
V
Consider an adiabatic expansion where the original
Workdone =
l '
V,
PdV (I) conditions PI' VI> TI are changed to the final condi-
tions P2, V2, T2. Then
but PV = C
:.P= ~ Change of internal energy = mCv (T2 - Td (I)
V
and
PI VI - P2 V2
Substituting this in equation (I): Workdone = ,,- I
Cv (6)
From this, then, the law for an adiabatic expansion
2.4 The adiabatic process
or compression of agas is
If a process is carried out in such a way that there is
no heat transferred into or out of the system Cp
PVY = Cwhere" = Cv'
(Q = 0), then the process is said to be adiabatic.
If a process is carried out sufficiently quickly there The average value of", the adiabatic index, for air
will be little time for heat transfer. Such a process is is 1,4.
not really possible in practice although it can be
c10sely approached. Note: n #- ~ although " is a special case of n
The adiabatic process is a particular part of the the polytropic index.
10
Me,hod S\'mho/ Work done Head added or (,hanKes in imernal Otherfurmulae
rejeCled (Q) enerK\' (V)
.. n =1= Cp
Cv
constant pressure
Ci I ~
<f)
<f)
J Q)
I Ci
I
P2 ---- 1 -
I
P2 - _...J - __
P, constant pressure
P2 - - ~- : V2 v, ,:
I V,
volume volume
FIG. 2.8: Expansion and compression curves. The work done in each case is the area under the curve.
11
Example 2.1 Example2.3
Agas whose original pressure, volume and temp- 3 kg of gas, occupying a volume of 0,9 m3, had an
erature were 150 kPa, 0,12 m 3 and 30 ° e respect- original temperature of 20 ° e. It was then heated at
ively, is compressed so that its final pressure is constant volume until its temperature rose to
750 kPa and its final temperature is 60 ° e. Deter- 140 oe. How much heat was transferred to the gas
mine the final volume of the gas. and what was its final pressure?
Take Cv = 0,718 kJjkg.K and R = 0,289 kJjkg.K.
Solution
From the characteristic equation, Solution
P2 V2
Finding heat transferred:
T2
Q = ~U + W
P1 V,T2
but
P2 T J
12
270 X 0,1 Solution
0,288 X 463
Finding final temperature:
0,2025 kg
T2 VI n - )
- (-)
Finding heat transferred: TI V2
Q mCp (T2 - TI) V) n - )
= 0,202 5 X 1,005 (293 - 463) T2 = TI (-v;)
=- 34,594 kJ 563 (0,015) 1,35-)
The negative sign indicates that the heat has been 0,1
289,83 K
extracted from the gas.
Finding final volume: final temperature = 289,83 - 273
16,83 oe
VI V2
- -
TI T2 Finding mass of gas:
V I T2 PI VI mRTI
TI P)V)
m
0,1 X 293 RT(
463 250 X 0,015
0,063 m3 0,29 X 563
0,023 kg
Finding work done:
W = P(V2 - VI)
270 (0,063 - 0,1)
Example2.7
- 9,913 kJ
0,765 kg of gas at 1 350 kPa and 270 ° eis expanded
The negative sign indicates that it is work done on to three times the original volume according to the
the gas. law PV 1.29 = C. Determine:
(a) The original and final volume ofthe gas;
(b) the final pressure ofthe gas;
Example2.5 (e) the final temperature ofthe gas;
(d) the work done during expansion.
A gas whose original pressure and temperature were
350 kPa and 23 oe, respectively, is compressed ac- Take R = 0,289 kJjkg.K
cording to the law PV 1,4 = C until its temperature
rises to 170 oe. Determine the final pressure of the Solution
gas.
(a) (i) Finding original volume:
Solution
PI VI mRTI
Finding final pressure: mRT)
T2 p n-I PI
(_2)-n- 0,765 X 0,289 X 543
TI PI
T2 _n_ 1350
P2 PI (r;-) n-) 0,0889 m 3
13
(e) Finding final temperature: 150 X 0,175
PI VI P2 V2 0,3 X 0,286
1; T; 305,94 K
P2 V2 T I R Cp - Cv
PI VI 1,0045 - 0,7185
327,23 X 0,266 7 X 543 0,286 kJ j kg. K
I 350 X 0,088 9 Find T2
394,86 K T2 P2 n-'
-n-
- (-)
final temperature = 394,86 - 273 TI PI n-]
121,86°e P2 -n-
T2 TI (p)
I 1,26-1
VI n-I 30594 (I 350)-u6
(-) , 150
V2
VI n-I 481,44 K
TI (-v;) :. V2 - VI = 0,3 X 0,718 5 (481,44 - 305,94)
0,0889 1,29 - I = 37,83 kJ
543 ( 0,266 7 ) (b) Find work done
394,86 K W mR(TI - T2 )
final temperature = 394,86 - 273 n - 1
121,86 oe 0,3 X 0,286 (305,94 - 481,44)
1,26 -1
(d) Finding work done: -57,92 kJ
PI VI - P2 V2 This is negative and hence the work is done on
w n-I the air.
(e) Finding heat received or rejected
_ I 350 X 0,0889 - 327,23 X 0,266 7
- 1,29 - I Q ßV+ W
= 37,83 - 57,92
= 112,91 kJ
or = - 20,09 kJ
mR(TI - T2) This is negative and hence the heat is rejected
w n-I
by the air.
_ 0,765 X 0,289 (543 - 394,86) Example2.9
- 1,29 - 1
Agas expands adiabatically from apressure and
= 112,93 kJ volume of 750 kPa and 0,017 m3 respectively to a
pressure of 150 kPa. Determine the final volume,
Example2.8
the work done by the gas and the change of internal
energy in this case.
0,3 kg of air at apressure of 150 kPa occupies Take Cp = 1,015 kJjkg.K and
0,175 m 3 , and from this condition it is compressed Cv = 0,730 kJjkg.K.
to I 350 kPa according to the law PV 1,26 = C. Deter-
mine: Solution
(a) The change of internal energy of the air; Finding final volume:
(b) the work done on or by the air;
(e) the heat received or rejected by the air.
PI V,'Y = P2 V2'Y
Take Cp = 1,0045 kJjkg.K and Find)' (gamma)
Cv = 0,7185 kJjkg.K Cp
Cv
Solution 1,015
0,730
(a) Finding change of internal energy: 1,39
V2 VI = mCv(T2 TI) P ...l-
-
Find TI
-
VI <-f) Y
2 I
PI VI 0017(750:'\1,39
, 150}
0,0541 m3
14
Finding work done: (iii) Finding change of internal energy:
PI VI - P2 V2 Vz - VI mCv (Tz - TI)
w )I-I = 0,5 X 0,7838(514 - 294)
750 X 0,017 - 150 X 0,054 1 = 86,22 kJ
1,39 - 1 (iv) Finding external work done:
11,885 kJ
Q !1V + W
Finding change of internal energy: W Q - !1V
Q = !1V + W III - 86,2
24,78 kJ
but there is no change of heat
or
:.!1V - W
find V2 and VI
= - 11,885 kJ
mRTz
Pz
Example 2.10 0,5 X 0,2253 X 514
(a) A certain gas has a density of 1,6 kgj m 3 at 106
106 kPa and 21 ° C. Calculate the characteristic 0,5462 m3
gas constant R. m
(h) When 0,5 kg of this gas is heated from 21°C D
and 106 kPa to 241 ° C at constant pressure, the .~
heat required is 111 kJ. Calculate: 1,6
(i) The specific heat capacity of the gas at 0,3125 m3
constant pressure; :. W P(Vz - VI)
(ii) the specific heat capacity of the gas at con- 106 (0,5462 - 0,3125)
stant volume; 24,78 kJ
(iii) the change of internal energy;
(iv) the external work done during the heating
process. Exercise 2
l. 0,2 m 3 of agas has apressure of 140 kPa. It is
Solution compressed to pressure of 700 kPa according to
the law PV I ,4 = C. Determine the new volume
(a) Finding gas constant:
ofthe gas.
. mass
Denslty = -1--
vo urne
2. A certain gas, density 1,875 kgj m 3 at 100 kPa
and 15 ° C. Calculate:
PV mRT (a) The characteristic gas constant R;
PV (h) when 0,9 kg ofthis gas is heated from 15°C
R
mT to 250 ° C at constant pressure the heat re-
106 X 1 quired is 175 kJ; calculate:
1,6 X 294 (i) The specific heat capacities of the gas
0,225 3 kJ j kg. K (Cp and Cv);
(ii) the change in internal energy;
(h) (i) Finding specific heat capacity Cp: (iii) the work done during heating.
Q mCp(Tz - TI) 3. A quantity of gas occupies a volume of 0,3 m3 at
Q apressure of 101 kPa and a temperature of
Cp
19 ° C. The gas is compressed isothermally to a
pressure of 500 kPa and then expanded adia-
0,5 (514 - 294) batically to its initial volume. Assurne gamma
1,009 1 kJjkg.K ()I) = 1,4 and R = 0,288 kJ j kg. K. Determine:
(a) The heat received or rejected;
(ii) Finding specific heat capacity Cv:
(h) the change of internal energy;
R Cp - Cv (e) the mass of gas.
Cv Cp - R 4. (a) Discuss the following:
1,0091 - 0,2253 (i) The two specific heat capacities of a
0,7838 kJ jkg.K gas;
15
(ii) the relationship between the two specific (a) The specific heat capacity of the gas
heat capacities and the specific gas con- at constant pressure;
stant. (b) the specific heat capacity of the gas
(b) Three kilograms of air at apressure of at constant volume.
400 kPa and a temperature of 130°C ex- 6. (a) What is meant by:
pands polytropically until the pressure and (i) Adiabatic expansion;
temperature are 100 kPa and 20°C respect- (ii) isothermal expansion?
ively. For air Cv = 0,712 kJ j kg. K and (b) Draw pressure-volume curves on the same
Cp = 1,00 kJ j kg. K, calculate: axes to represent:
(i) The initial and final volumes of the gas; (i) Adiabatic expansion;
(ii) the value of the polytropic index (n); (ii) isothermal expansion.
(iii) the work done by the gas during expan- (c) Determine the volume of IO kg of agas at a
sion. pressure of 960 kPa and a temperature of
5. (a) Agas expands according to the law pvn = 480°C given that the specific heat capacities
constant, from a volume of 4,4 m3 and a ofthe gas are Cv = 0,17 kJjkg.K and Cp =
pressure of 480 kPa to a volume of 10,4 m3 0,207 kJ j kg. K.
and apressure of 156,88 kPa. Determine the (cl) A cylinder contains 0,22 m3 of air at a pres-
value of the index of expansion n. sure of 650 kPa and a temperature of 180 ° C.
(b) (i) Agas at apressure of 120 kPa and a The air is expanded according to the law
temperature of 20°C has a density of PV 1.34 = constant, to a final volume of
1,68 kgj m3 • Calculate the value of the 1,2m3 •
characteristic gas constant R. For air, Cp = 1,005 kJjkg.K. and Cv =
(ii) When 1,2 kg of this gas is heated from 0,718 kJjkg.K. Determine:
15 ° C to 210 ° C at constant pressure (i) The mass of air;
the heat required is 160 kJ. Determine: (ii) the work done.
16