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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

1.0 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT

Foundation is a part of a structure which transmits loads directly to the


underlying soil or rock. Thus a foundation plays an important role as an interface
between the load carrying components of a structure to the ground. Foundation
elements specifically considered include shallow foundation such as footings and
mats, and deep foundation such as driven pile and drilled shaft or caissons. Site
investigation is covered as an integral part of designing any foundation. In
general, there are two categories of foundation: shallow and deep foundation.
We try to design both shallow foundation and deep foundation in order to choose
the most safety and economic design.

Our company is invited to submit a design proposal for foundation


Interchange Bridge along Inner Rings Road at Jalan Yahya Awal, Johor
Bahru .The length of the Interchange Bridge is about 40 meter. For preliminary
investigation, we obtain the borehole test data (borehole log) from Pakatan Geo
Services Sdn. Bhd. Based on the data provide , we can design and calculate the
suitable soil profile which allows the structure to be built. Our group is
responsible for the part of foundation design proposal which included provide a
site investigation report both in hard and soft copy, propose the foundation for an
interchange bridge

To obtain the suitable size of the foundation, we apply the trial and error
method with some assumption as it was almost impossible to get the best fit
design at the first attempt. All the diagram, analysis and calculation which are
related to this project will be compiled together in this report.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

2.0 SITE LAYOUT

Figure 2.1: Interchange Bridge Along Inner Rings Road At Jalan Yahya Awal,
Johor Bahru

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

3.0 COMPANY PROFILE

3.1 Organization Chart Of Apple Asus Specialist Sdn. Bhd.

Project Manager

Kamarulzaman @ Idham B. Hassan

ENGINEERS

S.I
INTERPRETATION COMPUTER
PROGRAMMING
M Zaidi B. Che Daud
Norsharizal B. Sahlan
Hamirullah B. Zahari

FOUNDATION
DESIGN CHECKING

Sharifah Bt. Atan


Zaihazrawaty
Mohd Helmi B. Zainuddin
Navin Nair A/L Vasudevan

Figure 3.1: Organization Chart

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

3.2 Background Company

Apple Asus Specialist Sdn. Bhd is a Civil and Structural


Consultancy firm lead by En. Kamarulzaman @ Idham Bin Hassan, the
Project Manager of the company, with the help of associated experience
engineers and consultants who are responsible in handling and managing
the project as a dedicated team.

En.M Zaidi Che Daud and En Norsharizal Bin Shahlan as our Site
Investigation. Interpretation engineers, En. Mohd Helmi Bin Zainuddin and
En. Navin A/L Vasudevan are responsible for the foundation design and
En. Hamirullah Bin Zahari responsible for the computer programming on
foundation and concrete design. Last but not least, part of checking and
inspection the whole project are responsible by Pn. Sharifah B. Atan and
Pn.Zaihazwaty.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

4.0 SCOPE OF WORK

The specific scope of our services on this project consisted are summarized as
follows:

 to determine the general subsurface conditions at the project site,


 to evaluate those conditions with respect to geotechnical engineering
considerations for the proposed construction
 Determination of geotechnical parameters required for foundation
analyses.
 to provide analysis for foundation design

In relation to the scope of works, information that can be gathered from


subsurface explorations includes:

 soil strata
 thickness, length and width of each layer
 groundwater table (level, fluctuation)
 location of rock layer and rock conditions
 sample for laboratory testing

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

Instructions Of The Works Based On The Provided Borehole Log At BH 3 And


BH 5:

a) Plot the soil profile of the proposed project site. Borehole are 100m apart

b) Design the appropriate abutment with 4.5m high clearance and foundation
to support the proposed bridge. Assume the surcharge behind the
abutment due to traffic is 20 kN/m2, vertical load and horizontal traction
force on the top of abutment are 18,000 kN and 500kN, respectively.

If shallow foundation is to be selected, the depth of the footing should not be


greater than 3.0m. If pile foundation is to chosen, assume the skin friction due to
uplift is 50% of the calculated friction capacity due to compression. Use spacing
3 – 3.5dpile between piles. The maximum allowable extension of driven piles is
limited to two.

 The maximum allowable total settlement is 50mm. Use Cc = 0.45 where


applicable.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

5.0 FIELD INVESTIGATION

5.1 GENERAL

The investigation program included drilling boreholes and collecting soil samples
at desired intervals for subsequent observation and laboratory testing. The
investigation program will consist of soil boring and sampling at desired intervals
for subsequent observation and laboratory testing to determine the capacity of
pile foundation economically and safely.

A site investigation generally consists of several activities, which must be


performed accordingly in order to obtain adequate information for foundation
design as well as for feasibility study of the proposed project. The activities are
as follows:

a) Gathering of available information of the proposed site.


 Sources: geological and land-use maps, aerial photos, water-well
logs, hydrological data, SI report for the nearby existing structure.

b) Gathering of information of structure to be constructed


 I.e. type and function of structure, column loads, local building
codes

c) Site visit
 Type of vegetations can give clues soil type and conditions, nearby
open cut showing soil strata, cracks on nearby structures may
indicate the presence of soft soil and/or expansive soil

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

d) Preliminary subsurface exploration


 Types of in-situ tests that can be performed include geophysical
exploration (seismic refraction survey, resistivity survey), JKR or
Mackintosh probes

e) Detailed subsurface exploration


 Involve drilling of several boreholes to obtain disturbed and
undisturbed samples at different depths
 No specific formula or method to determine the number and depth
of boreholes ~most structures (every corner and middle until hard
layer or ∆σ ≈ 10 % of the averaged imposed stress by building). If
pile foundation is to be used, depth of boreholes must be extended
to 20 – 30 %.
 If rock is encountered, coring must be performed ( a minimum of 3
m continuously)

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

5.2 FIELD IN-SITU TESTS

5.2.1 STANDARD PENETRATION TEST ( SPT )

 The test uses a thick-walled sample tube, with an outside diameter


of 50 mm and an inside diameter of 35 mm, and a length of around
650 mm. This is driven into the ground at the bottom of a borehole
by blows from a slide hammer with a weight of 63.5 kg (140 lb)
falling through a distance of 760 mm (30 in). The sample tube is
driven 150 mm into the ground and then the number of blows
needed for the tube to penetrate each 150 mm (6 in) up to a depth
of 450 mm (18 in) is recorded.

 The sum of the number of blows required for the second and third 6
in. of penetration is termed the "standard penetration resistance" or
the "N-value". In cases where 50 blows are insufficient to advance
it through a 150 mm (6 in) interval the penetration after 50 blows is
recorded. The blow count provides an indication of the density of
the ground, and it is used in many empirical geotechnical
engineering formulae.

Figure 5.1: Standard Penetration Test ( SPT )

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

 The main purpose of the test is to provide an indication of the


relative density of granular deposits, such as sands and gravels
from which it is virtually impossible to obtain undisturbed samples.
The great merit of the test, and the main reason for its widespread
use is that it is simple and inexpensive. The soil strength
parameters which can be inferred are approximate, but may give a
useful guide in ground conditions where it may not be possible to
obtain borehole samples of adequate quality like gravels, sands,
silts, clay containing sand or gravel and weak rock.

 In conditions where the quality of the undisturbed sample is


suspect, e.g. very silty or very sandy clays, or hard clays, it is often
advantageous to alternate the sampling with standard penetration
tests to check the strength. If the samples are found to be
unacceptably disturbed, it may be necessary to use a different
method for measuring strength like the plate test.

 When the test is carried out in granular soils below groundwater


level, the soil may become loosened. In certain circumstances, it
can be useful to continue driving the sampler beyond the distance
specified, adding further drilling rods as necessary. Although this is
not a standard penetration test, and should not be regarded as
such, it may at least give an indication as to whether the deposit is
really as loose as the standard test may indicate.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

 The usefulness of SPT results depends on the soil type, with fine-
grained sands giving the most useful results, with coarser sands
and silty sands giving reasonably useful results, and clays and
gravelly soils yielding results which may be very poorly
representative of the true soil conditions. Soils in arid areas, such
as the Western United States, may exhibit natural cementation.
This condition will often increase the standard penetration value.
Indian examples are missing.

 The SPT is used to provide results for empirical determination of a


sand layer's susceptibility to earthquake liquefaction, based on
research performed by Harry Seed, T. Leslie Youd, and others.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

5.2.2 Mackintosh Probes or JKR

 JKR or Mackintosh probes are usually used in preliminary S.I. to


acquire the undrained shear strength (indirectly through
correlations) and consistency of the subsoil layering for very soft to
soft soils. It assists in interpolation between boreholes or
piezocones. Figure 4 shows the probe details. This method is also
effective in identifying localised soft or weak materials or slip plane.
However the major limitation of the method is shallow depth.

Figure 5.2: Mackintosh Probes or JKR

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

 Human errors are also prone in this method such as wrong


counting, non-consistent drop height or exerting force to the drop
hammer giving misleading results. When using light dynamic
penetrometer, some of precautionary measures to prevent errors in
testing:
- drop of hammer should be a free fall and consistent drop height
- components and apparatus properly washed and oiled.

Figure 5.3: Mackintosh Probes or JKR test

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

5.2.3 Vane Shear Test

 This test is used to estimate the undrained shear strength of a soil,


and is particularly appropriate for assessing very soft and sensitive
clays, which cannot be tested accurately in a laboratory as it is
difficult to obtain an undisturbed sample.

 A rod with a four blade vane is pushed into the ground and rotated
generally at a slow rate of 6o to 12o per minute. Every 15 - 30 secs
the torque force is measured, once maximum torque has been
reached, the vane is rotated rapidly for ten revolutions to induce
shear failure. After shearing, the slow rotation rate is resumed to
determine the remolded shear strength. The shear strength is
proportional to the torque / blade diameter.

 The test can be done at the base of a drillhole or trial pit, or at


ground level. If the test is being conducted at the bottom of a
drillhole it is important that the test area has not been disturbed by
boring, generally the test is conducted five borehole diameters
below the borehole base.

Figure 5.4: Vane Shear Test

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

5.2.4 Bored Hole Test

 The most common method used to obtain soil and rock details
directly is to drill a borehole. This method also estimates the
engineering properties and plasticity. The samples can be taken
from the borehole and sent to a laboratory for testing.
 A core barrel fitted with a drill bit at the bottom end is rotated into
the soil and when withdrawn, a core sample is contained inside. To
obtain greater depths, several core barrels are connected together.
The core samples are carefully stored in coreboxes for further study
and geological description. Details on strata type, levels, colour,
stiffness, weathering grade, jointing, infilling, cavities etc. can be
obtained visually.

5.2.5 Trial Pit Test

 The use of trial pits enables a visual inspection of the in-situ soils
conditions and strata boundaries can be determined accurately. It is
also relatively easy to obtain samples, blocks can be cut by hand
from the bottom or sides of the pit and tube samples can also be
obtained from below the bottom of the pit.
 Generally, the pit is dug using the back-shovel of a mechanical
excavator so trial pits can be excavated in all soils types, even
those in which obstructions such as cobbles and litter are
encountered.Trial pits are limited to 4-5m depth; sides must be
sloped at a safe angle, stepped or shored. If the excavation is
beneath the groundwater level in permeable soils, dewatering will
be required.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

5.3 Laboratory test

To get good quality of testing results, the samples retrieved from the
ground should be tested as soon as possible after arrival at the laboratory.
The type of laboratory test and the number of sample to be tested as
follows:

5.3.1 Proctor test

 The Proctor test is a test that is used in geotechnical engineering to


find out the maximum density that can be practically achieved for a
soil or similar substance. The Proctor soil compaction test is
performed by measuring the density, or dry unit weight, of the soil
being tested at different moisture content points.
 The aim of the soil test is usually to determine the optimum
moisture content for the soil. In addition to soils, other substances,
such as aggregate, gravel, or sand, may be measured.
 Soil testing equipment used for the Proctor test usually consists of
a mold of a standard shape and size, and a device, such as a
hammer, for compacting the soil into the mold. When soil testing
machines are used, they must be able to measure how much force
is applied to the soil in the mold. The hammer or other compacting
tool is used to compact the soil or aggregate in the mold. In this
scenario, compacting the soil means increasing its density by
forcing air out of the soil.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

5.3.2 California Bearing Ratio Test (CBR)

 The CBR is obtained as a relation of the unit load (per square inch)
needed to achieve certain penetration in the soil sample,
compacted at a given moisture content and density in respect of the
pattern unit load required to make the same penetration in a
standard sample of crushed material.
 CBR tests are usually performed on compacted samples at the
optimum moisture content for the given soil using the standard
compaction test.Often times, two samples or soil are compacted:
one for immediate penetration and the other for penetration after
soaking for 96 hours. The latter is loaded with a similar weight to
that of the pavement but in no case less than 4.5 kg. It is necessary
to record randomized expansion readings in this period.
 In both tests, the sample is loaded with the same weight as used
during the expansion test. The test on the soaked sample has two
objectives:

1. Provide information on the expected expansion of the


ground under the pavement structure when the soil is
saturated.
2. Provide indication to the loss of resistance due to field
saturation.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

5.3.3 Permeability Test

 The permeability of a soil is a measure of its capacity to allow the


flow of water through the pore spaces between solid particles. The
degree of permeability is determined by applying a hydraulic
pressure gradient in a sample of saturated soil and measuring the
consequent rate of flow of water.

5.3.4 Triaxial Test

 The test is carried out in the triaxial apparatus on the specimens in


the form of right cylinders of height approximately equal to twice the
diameter. Specimen diameters range from 38 mm to about 110mm.
The diameter of the specimen should be selected with regard to the
character of the soil and the maximum size of particle present in the
sample. Specimens of 38 mm diameter are usually suitable only for
the homogenous fine-grained cohesive soils.

5.3.5 Direct Shear Test

 In a direct shear test a square prism of soil is laterally restrained


and sheared along a predetermined horizontal plane while being
subjected to a pressure applied normal to that plane. The shearing
resistance offered by the soil, as one portion is made to slide on the
other, is measured at regular intervals of displacement. Failure
occurs when the shearing resistance reaches the maximum value
which the soil can sustain.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

 By carrying out set of tests on a set of (usually three sets) same soil
sample under different normal pressures, the relationship between
measured shear stress at failure and normal applied stress can be
obtained. The shearbox apparatus is only suitable for carrying out
drained tests for the determination of effective shear strength
parameters. There is no control of drainage and the procedure
cannot be used for undrained tests.

5.4 Observation of Ground Water

Information on the groundwater level and any artesian pressure in any particular
strata is very important and should be determined carefully during site
investigation. Several problems related to the presence of groundwater table:

1.) Shear strength of a soil may be reduced below water table.


2.) Foundation may be uplifted by the water.
3.) Possibility of dewatering if the structure should be constructed in dry
condition.

The location of ground water table is usually determined by measuring the depth
of water surface in a borehole after a suitable time lapse because water table in
boreholes may take some time to stabilize depending on the permeability of the
soil.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

6.0 SITE CONDITIONS

This section describes the soil conditions encountered on site. Detailed soil
conditions are presented in a boring in the Appendices of Borehole Logs. Profile
with interpolated conditions between boreholes and are not necessarily accurate
representations of the true conditions on site.

7.0 Theory of Abutment

The purpose of designing an abutment is to support the ends of bridge (in


this case is interchange bridge). Abutments are used for the following purposes:
transmit the loads from the superstructure to the foundations. Resist and transmit
the following loads to the foundations: loads from the superstructure, own weight,
and lateral loads such as the earth pressure, surcharge live loads, and wind
loads.

 to support the end of the first or the last span.


 to retain the earth underneath and adjacent to the approach roadway, and
if necessary support part of the approach slab.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

7.1 Vertical Loads

For abutments constructed of piles or posts and footings, the total loads
acting on the entire abutment were determined. For continuous abutments (such
as mass or reinforced concrete), the load per foot of abutment length were also
determined. The dead load acts vertically through the center line of the bearing
plate.

Figure 7.1: Typical Concrete Abutment

Figure 7.2: Dead- and Live-Load Action on an Abutment

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

7.2 Abutment Weight

The weight of timber or steel abutments is negligible since it is small in


comparison to other vertical abutment loads. However, the weight of concrete
abutments should be included in the design loads. Divide the cross-sectional
shape of an abutment into sections of known size, shape, and cross-sectional
area. The weight of any section acts vertically through the centroid of that section.
The computation of the weight of any section per foot of abutment length as
follows:

W = Au

where ;
w = weight of any abutment section (1- foot- wide strip), in kpf
A = area of the abutment section, in square feet
u = unit weight of abutment material (concrete weighs 0.15 kips per
cubic foot)

Figure 7.3: Abutment Sectioning, Load Centers, and Soil Forces

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

7.3 Soil Forces

To compute on the weight of soil acting on the rear face and heel of the
abutment. To account for vehicular traffic approaching the abutment, assume
placing a hypothetical layer of soil (surcharge) over the backfill at the
abutment. Therefore, the height of the surcharge as follows:

hsu = MLC / 20

where :

hsu = surcharge heights, in feet


MLC = military load classification

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

7.4 Horizontal Loads

Horizontal loads acting on abutments are created by soil, water,


temperature, and vehicles. These loads are computed per foot of abutment
length.

Soil Forces

By using the Rankine equations from Introductory Soil Mechanics and


Foundations: Geotechnic Engineering to compute the horizontal surcharge and
backfill forces as shown below.It shows the actions of these forces. In most
cases, passive pressure is so negligible that it is not considered, resulting in a
somewhat conservative design.

 Coefficient of active earth pressure.


Kα = tan2[ 45̊ - (θ/2) ] (7-7)
where :
Kα = coeffient of active earth pressure
θ = angle of internal friction

 Coefficient of passive earth pressure.


Kp = tan2 [45 ̊ + (θ/2)] (7-8)
where :
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure
θ = angle of internal friction

 Soil forces and point of application.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

 Horizontal surcharge force.


Hs = ( Kαuhsu) hα @ hα/2 (7-9)
where :
Hs = horizontal surcharge force, in kpf
Kα = coefficient of active earth pressure(equation 7-7)
u = unit weight of backhill, kips per cubic foot
hsu = surcharge height, in feet( equation 7-6)
hα = abutment height, in feet

 Horizontal backfill force.


Hb = ( Kαuhα) (hα/2) @ hα/3 (7-10)
where :
Hb = horizontal backfill force, in kpf
Kα = coefficient of active earth pressure(equation 7-7)
u = unit weight of backhill, in kips per cubic foot
hα = abutment height, in feet

 Horizontal force due to passive earth pressure.

Hp = Kpuhp(hp/2) (7-11)
where :
Hp = horizontal force due to passive earth pressure, in kpf
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure (equation 7-8)
u = unit weight of backfill, in kips per cubic foot
hp = height of passive force, in feet

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

Figure7.4: Abutment Types

The general principles of abutment design are applicable to any type of


abutment resting on the ground or on footings, with only a few modifications for
abutments resting on piles. These principles also apply directly to the design of
retaining walls. Abutments must be designed to avoid the following types of
failure:

 Overturning.
 Sliding
 Soil bearing
 Soil shear
 Material

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

8.0 THEORY OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION

A shallow foundation is a type of foundation which transfers building loads


to the earth very near the surface, rather than to a subsurface layer or a range of
depths as does a deep foundation. By far the most common structural foundation
in today's construction industry is the shallow foundation. Other types of
foundations, such as piles, piers, caissons, and similar deep foundations, are
used primarily for major structures, not for ordinary building that constitute the
overwhelming majority of all constructions. Advantages of using shallow
foundation are as follows:

1. Cost (affordable)
2. Construction Procedure (simple)
3. Materials (mostly concrete)
4. Labor (does not need expertise)

There are two calculations that can be used to determined the bearing
capacity that is Terzaghi’s and Meyerhof/Hansen’s.

TERZAGHI’S

1
a) Strip footing : q u = cNc + qNq + γBNγ
2
B 1 B
b) Rectangular footing : q u = ( 1 + 0.3 )cNc + qNq + ( 1 − 0.2 ) γBNγ
L 2 L

c) Circular footing : q u = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.3γBNγ


d) Square : q u = 1.3cNc + qNq + 0.4γBNγ

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

MEYERHOF / HANSEN’S

𝟏
𝐪𝐮 = 𝐜𝐍𝐜 𝐅𝐜𝐬 𝐅𝐜𝐝 𝐅𝐜𝐢 + 𝐪𝐍𝐪 𝐅𝐪𝐬 𝐅𝐪𝐝 𝐅𝐪𝐢 + 𝛄𝐁𝐍𝛄 𝐅𝛄𝐬 𝐅𝛄𝐝 𝐅𝛄𝐢
𝟐

Where;

c = cohesion of soil
q = overburden stress at base of footing
= γDf
γ = unit weight of soil
Df = depth of footing
B = width of footing
Nc , Nq , Nγ = bearing capacity factors
Fcs Fqs Fγs = shape factors
Fcd Fqd Fγd = depth factors
Fci Fqi Fγi = inclination factors

Shape factors

BNq
Fcs = 1 + LNc

B
Fqs = 1 + tan φ
L

B
Fγs = 1 + 0.4 L

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

Depth factors

D
( Bf ≤ 1 )

Df
Fcd = 1 + 0.4 B

D
Fqd = 1 + 2 tan φ( 1 − sin φ)2 Bf

Fγd = 1

Depth factors

Df
( > 1)
B

D
Fcd = 1 + 0.4 tan−1 ( Bf )

D
Fqd = 1 + 2 tan φ( 1 − sin φ)2tan−1 ( Bf )

Fγd = 1

Inclination factors

β
Fci = Fqi = (1 − 90°)2

β
Fγi = (1 − φ)2

𝐷𝑓
Note: β = inclination angle of load with respect to vertical plane and tan−1 ( )
B

should be expressed in radians.

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

9.0 Factor of Safety

Factor of safety (FOS), also known as (and used interchangeably with)


safety factor (SF), is a term describing the structural capacity of a system beyond
the expected loads or actual loads. Essentially, how much stronger the system is
than it usually needs to be for an intended load.

Safety factors are often calculated using detailed analysis because


comprehensive testing is impractical on many projects, such as bridges and
buildings, but the structure's ability to carry load must be determined to a
reasonable accuracy.

Many systems are purposefully built much stronger than needed for normal
usage to allow for emergency situations, unexpected loads, misuse, or
degradation.

1. Gross allowable load

 Qall is the allowable load (inclusive of loads from column or structure

2. W(L+D)

 weight of footing W f and weight of soil above the footing W s that the
soil can support.

3. Nett allowable load

 Q(net)all or designed load is the load from the column that the soil
needs to carry (weight of footing and weight of soil above footing
are excluded.

𝐖(𝐋+𝐃)+𝐖𝐅 +𝐖𝐒 𝐖(𝐋+𝐃)


𝐐𝐚𝐥𝐥 = 𝐐(𝐧𝐞𝐭)𝐚𝐥𝐥 =
𝐅𝐒 𝐅𝐒
𝐪𝐮 𝐱 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐨𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 (𝐪𝐮 −𝐪) 𝐱 𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐨𝐨𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠
= =
𝐅𝐒 𝐅𝐒

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

10.0 SETTLEMENTS

The components of settlement of a foundation are:

a) Immediate settlement
b) Consolidation Settlement
c) Secondary compression (creep)

10.1 Immediate Settlement

Immediate settlement takes place as the load is applied or within a time


period of about 7 days. Predominates in cohesion less soils and unsaturated clay
immediate settlement analysis are used for all fine-grained soils including silts
and clays with a degree of saturation < 90% and for all coarse grained soils with
large co-efficient of permeability (say above 10.2 m/s)

For intermediate or elastic settlement:

𝐁𝐪𝐨
𝐒𝐞 = (𝟏 − 𝛍𝟐𝐬 )𝛂
𝐄𝐬

where

B = width of footing, m
qo = nett pressure from footing, kN/m2
Es = modulus of elasticity of soil, kN/m2
µs = poisson ratio of soil
α = factors depend on footing flexibility

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10.2 Consolidation Settlement

Consolidation settlements are time dependent and take months to years to


develop. The leaning tower of Pisa in Italy has been undergoing consolidation
settlement for over 700 years. The lean is caused by consolidation settlement
being greater on one side. This, however, is an extreme case. The principal
settlements for most projects occur in 3 to 10 years. Dominates in
saturated/nearly saturated fine grained soils where consolidation theory applies.
Here we are interested to estimate both consolidation settlement and how long a
time it will take or most of the settlement to occur.

For consolidation settlement:

𝑪𝒄 𝑯𝟎 𝝈′𝟎 + ∆𝝈
𝑺𝒄 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( )
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝝈′𝟎

Where;

Cc = compression index

H0 = height of soil

e0 = initial void ratio

𝜎0′ = initial vertical stress

∆𝜎 = change of vertical stress

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10.3 Secondary Settlement/Creep

 Occur under constant effective stress due to continuous


rearrangement of clay particles into a more stable configuration.

 Predominate in highly plastic clays and organic clays.

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11.0 THEORY OF PILE FOUNDATION

Pile foundation is normally selected if shallow foundations are


geotechnically unable to support loads from superstructures. In addition to
carrying vertical compressive loads, pile is used to resist uplift and horizontal
loads.A load is carried by a pile either through end bearing, skin friction, or both.
Generally, an end bearing pile is a pile with its tip rests on rock or hard soil,
whereas a pile is categorized as friction pile if the entire length of the pile is
embedded in soft or weak soil. The equations (static formulae) to determine the
geotechnical capacity of the pile :

𝐐𝐮 = 𝐐𝐛 + ∑ 𝐐𝐬

Where;
Qu = the ultimate load
Qb = the end bearing
Qs = the skin friction

CLAY
𝐐𝐮 = 𝐜𝐮 𝐍𝐜∗ 𝐀𝐛 + ∑ 𝐩(∆𝐋)𝛂𝐜𝐮

Where;
Nc∗ = bearing capacity factor
Cu = undrained shear strenght
Ab = cross sectional area of pile base
p = perimeter of pile
ΔL = length of pile segment of interest
α = adhesion factor

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

SAND


𝐐𝐮 = 𝐪′𝐍𝐜 𝐀𝐛 + ∑ 𝐩(∆𝐋)𝐊𝛔′ 𝐯 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛅

Where;

q’ = effective vertical stress at pile base


Nq∗ = bearing capacity factor
Ab = cross sectional area of pile base
p = perimeter of pile
ΔL = length of pile segment of interest
K = coefficient of lateral stress depending upon
displacement of soil during pile installation
( high, medium or low displacement )
= Ko for bored pile
= Ko to 1.4 Ko for low displacement pile
= Ko to 1.8 Ko for high displacement pile
Ko = coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest
= 1 – sin Ø
δ = interface friction angle between pile and soil ( ≤Ø )
σ′v = effective vertical stress at depth of interest

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

End Bearing :

𝐋
𝐐𝐬 = 𝟒𝟎𝐍 𝐀𝐛 ≤ 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝐍𝐀𝐛
𝐃

Where;

L = length of embedded pile


D = diameter or width of pile
Ab = cross-sectional area of bottom pile tip
N = SPT number ( the average N between 10D and 4D
above and bellow the pile bottom tip, respectively )

Skin Friction :

𝐐𝐬 = 𝐩𝐋𝐟𝐬

Where;

P = perimeter of pile
L = length of embedded pile
fs = ̅ for low and no displacement pile
N
fs = ̅ for high displacement pile
2N

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

12.0 GROUP OF PILES

A pile group must be considered as a composite block of piles and soil, and not a
multiple set of single piles. The capacity of each pile may be affected by the driving of
subsequent piles in close proximity. The parameters are the axial load, shear force and
bending moment carried by each individual vertical or batter pile in a piles group
foundation when subjected to a vertical load, bending moment and horizontal load.

The following assumptions have been made:

a) The pile cap is infinitely rigid and rotates about the mass center of the piles
group.
b) The origin of the coordinate axes is always located at the point of application of
the vertical load.
c) The load carried by each pile is proportional to the displacement of the pile head.
d) The problem is two-dimensional, that is, all the pile movements take place in the
same plane.

To determine the load carried by each pile in a group of piles :

𝐐 𝐌𝐱 𝐲 𝐌𝐲 𝐱
𝐐𝐦 = ± ±
𝐧 ∑ 𝐲𝟐 ∑ 𝐱𝟐

Where;
Qm = load to be carried by any pile
Q = applied vertical load
n = number of pile in group
Mx, My = Moment with respect to x and y axis respectively
x, y = distance of pile with respect to x and y axis
respectively

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

13.0 SOIL PROFILE

13.1 Soil Profile For Borehole 3 & Borehole 5

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14.0 BRIDGE ABUTMENT FOUNDATION

14.1 Shallow Foundation

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14.2 Soil Bearing Capacity

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14.1 BOREPILE

14.1.1 PILE CAP

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Continue:

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

14.1.2 Pile In Group

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SKAA 3712 GEOTECHNIC 2

14.1.3 Group of Piles

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