THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF TALL AND SPECIAL BUILDINGS

Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)

Published online 3 November 2008 in Wiley Interscience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/tal.471

SUSTAINABLE STRUCTURE OF TALL BUILDINGS

MAHJOUB ELNIMEIRI* AND PRAIRNA GUPTA

College of Architecture, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois, USA

SUMMARY
Structure by its own nature is sustainable. It is all about doing more with less. Good structural engineering revolves
around achieving efficiency and minimization of material. However, thinking will have to be broadened to accom-
modate the pressing needs of the environment. Structure can no longer stay on the sidelines and will have to be
an active partner in the building-design process. Although the architect is usually perceived as the designer of a
tall building, a partnership between him/her and the engineer will have to be established before any meaningful
design process can commence. This paper presents an insight into sustainable structures within tall buildings.
The elements that constitute such a structure, the strategies that confirm this approach and the proposed hypoth-
esis for the structure-environment interaction are discussed. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

1. INTRODUCTION
Historically, tall buildings have been perceived as inefficient users of energy. However, with time,
these towers have gradually increased their role in supporting the sustainable growth of cities. Tall
buildings can be considered sustainable structures in their very existence as they optimize the use of
limited land resources (Smith, 2007). But it can also be argued that tall buildings are not sustainable
because large amounts of the natural resources used in their construction and operation cannot be
compensated. These resources can obviously be conserved if the buildings are designed to accom-
modate them. With increased awareness about our depleting natural resources, great design efforts are
being made by architects and energy engineers to address this issue of conservation.
While architects are increasingly responding to the pressing environmental needs and trying to do
something about them, structural engineers remain somewhat dormant. This can no longer be accept-
able. Today, the time has come for the structural engineer to step up and play a significant role by
including energy strategies in his/her way of thinking. Structure has to interact closely with architec-
ture and respond positively to the environmental demands of its surroundings. This should be done
without compromising the structural efficiency but enhancing its overall performance and aesthetics.
That can only happen through close collaboration between the architect and the engineer.
Structure/architecture interaction has been well established and many structural engineers over the
years have contributed significantly to the notion. As a testament of close collaboration between
architects and structural engineers, many wonderful and well-designed buildings have been built all
over the world. However, with the increasing concern over the environment, the structural engineer
finds himself once again faced with new challenges. This time, the challenge is to find out how the
structure can fit within the energy conservation strategy.

* Correspondence to: Mahjoub Elnimeiri, College of Architecture, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA. E-mail:
elnimeiri@iit.edu

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882 M. ELNIMEIRI AND P. GUPTA

It is true that the primary function of the structure is to carry loads and transfer them to the ground.
However, the process of doing so has never been a result of mere straightforward logical deductions,
but rather an imaginative endeavour that is carefully guided by experience and intuition. Experience,
knowledge and creativity are, to a great extent, the prerequisite for the development of novel and
exciting structural systems. It is now important to extend this process to include environmental issues.
The challenge is to incorporate a structural design that takes as much advantage as possible of the
environmental forces. For a tall building, wind is the most important natural resource that can be
exploited. Instead of forcibly resisting the wind forces, an attempt should be made to accommodate
them within the design of the building.
A sustainable tall building is not only the realization of an architect’s vision, but also the creation
of many engineers and consultants. Complex designs demand expertise from each profession. Struc-
tural engineers, mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) engineers, foundation consultants, etc. all
play an active role in the design process. Each specialty adapts itself to the overall design leading to
a wonderful finished product. While architects as well as energy engineers are gearing their efforts to
develop energy strategies that highlight the technological advances in the MEP services as well as
architectural design improvements, the structural engineers have consciously or unconsciously excluded
sustainable planning within their structural design schemes. The only development concerning sustain-
ability of structures has been in terms of the recyclable content of the structural materials, i.e. pre-
dominantly recycled concrete and recycled steel.
Though passive structures are coherent with the energy approaches, i.e. they do not interfere with
the buildings energy scheme(s), they are not counted for being actively sustainable. Sustainable struc-
tures are those that play an active/interactive role in the overall energy plan of the building. Sustain-
able structures not only imply optimum-sized structural elements, but also optimum-designed structural
systems catering to the building’s energy needs. For a structural system to be sustainable, it should
not take a destructive role in the building’s energy proposal. Both the structural system and the energy
proposal need to be developed in sync to have a successful sustainable tall building.
This paper outlines what constitutes a sustainable structure. Some simple strategies have been
constructed to insure the validity of the approach. To achieve a sustainable structure, a few important
steps are to be considered. A new way of thinking is to take place—one that would lead to structural
systems that are both efficient and environmentally conscious. The approach towards achieving a
sustainable structure is neither simple nor direct. It can take different paths and can emerge from dif-
ferent starting points. By introducing the following elements of sustainable structure, the paper intends
to open the dialogue among engineers and architects towards a more active participation. Also, the
paper presents some buildings where the issues of sustainable structure are explored.

2. ELEMENTS OF SUSTAINABLE STRUCTURES

2.1 Scale
The parameter of scale is vital for the design of tall buildings. Scale does not only imply to the overall
height of the building relative to its surroundings, but it also entails the size of the structural members
relative to its user. In general, when the height of a building increases, the efficiency of the structural
system(s) becomes very important to reduce the weight of the structure and hence its time of construc-
tion. So scale provides an opportunity for the structural engineer to create new structural systems,
propose new materials and advance constructability.
Certain ideas have been developed for structures that are sustainable on their own. These are struc-
tures that have been inspired by nature. The Ultima Tower (Newittz, 2008) by architect Eugene Tsui
(Figures 1 and 2) is a 2-mile-high tower envisioned as an eco-city skyscraper. Though the structure

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
 SUSTAINABLE STRUCTURE OF TALL BUILDINGS 883

of the building is claimed to be motivated by organic forms, i.e. termite nests, the question is how
sustainable it is for the human scale. Bio-mimic structures are often out of scale as they are sustain-
able in their natural form and environment. But when applied to human living environments, their
scale is lost and hence, their eco-friendly properties are also sacrificed unless designed adequately.
However, to realize a tower of such immense height (a vertical city), the structure will have to be the
dominant factor.

2.2 Structural form

Structural form/system is imperative in creating a wholesome sustainable strategy for a tall building.
The structural system should not be a mere simplification of the gravitational and lateral load transfer,
but it needs to be a comprehensive design in conjunction with the energy strategy. The Chicago Spire
by architect Santiago Calatrava (Figures 3 and 4) is a tower inspired by organic forms. However, in

Figure 1. Graphic rendering of the proposed 2-mile-high Ultima Tower (Source: Tsui Design + Research Inc.)

Figure 2. Plans for the predicted vertical city from the 1-mile-wide base to the top (Source: Tsui Design +
Research Inc.)

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
884 M. ELNIMEIRI AND P. GUPTA

Figure 3. The 360-degree twisted Chicago Spire will be the USA’s tallest building when completed (Source:
Chicago Spire LLC)

Figure 4. (a) Sketch showing the 7-W-shaped megacolumns (Source: architect Santiago Calatrava); (b) Sketch
depicting the structural system (setback columns and outrigger floors) for the tower

this design, nature is applied only for visual excitation and has no connection to the structural system
of the building.
Sustainable structural systems are those systems that develop a relationship with the architectural
form of the building. They aim to minimize the unnecessary material waste and take advantage of the
architectural form to enhance the structural performance. Concepts of stiffening forms should be
positively integrated within the architectural forms. Several student research projects (Figure 5) at the

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
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College of Architecture, Illinois Institute of Technology, have conceptually addressed this concern of
form-stiffened architecture. The structural validity of this particular form comes from the notion of
maximizing the moment of inertia at the base of the building. Hence, in this project, the architecture
and the structure are in close communication to reduce the gravity and lateral forces encountered by
the building.
The sustainable towers (Chapa, 2008) on the Malaysian waterfront by Studio Nicoletti Associates
(Figure 6) also highlight the integration of the structure and the architectural form within the energy
plans for the building. These eight towers resembling a fleet of ships are designed to harness the wind
from different directions. The exterior fins of the building appear to act as its primary structural system.
Hence, unlike other designs wherein the structure is separated from the exterior façade skin that is
solely responsible for the energy conservation of the building, the structure of these buildings appears
to be in unison with its energy scheme.
The impact of scale cannot be overemphasized. Scale determines to a great extent the choice of
structural system and form. In this context, form can be perceived as an expression of the structural
system. For example, a tall and slender building will require a structural system that will possess
appropriate dynamic characteristics that will respond well to the dynamic nature of wind. Such require-
ments may rule out the issue of certain geometric forms that will aggravate the situation, like dramatic
setbacks or twisting beyond a certain limit.
The solar chimney technology introduced by Schlaich, of Stuttgart, Germany, in the early 1980s
demonstrates this concept of scale-related form. The taller the chimney, the more electrical energy can

Figure 5. An Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) research student’s rendering of a conceptual 30-storey-high
form-stiffened concrete residential building (Source: the Master’s Thesis Program, College of Architecture, IIT)

Figure 6. Architect’s rendering of the Malaysian towers emphasizing the structural ‘fin-like’ members (Source:
Studio Nicoletti Associates)

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
886 M. ELNIMEIRI AND P. GUPTA

be produced. As such, its structure falls within the domain of ultratall and slender structures that poses
serious challenges from both design and construction points of view. Innovation, choice of the appropri-
ate material and careful planning for the construction is a perquisite for a successful chimney. A few
years ago, a novel structural system for a 600-m-high solar chimney was developed by the first author
(Figure 7). It would serve both as a structure and solar space. Significant effort was exerted to ensure
ease of construction, utilizing, for most of the part, available local labour, material and technology.

2.3 Structural material

Along with scale and form, structural materials also contribute to the idea of sustainable structures.
In a typical design, structural material is carefully chosen by the structural engineer to satisfy the
structural and construction requirements while meeting architectural and functional needs. However,
sustainable concerns bring to the forefront issues of the sustainability of the structural material. While
minimization of material weight generally results in an efficient structural system, it is not sufficient
to generate a sustainable one. Appropriately sized structures only help to reduce the impact of structure
on our natural resources. They do not play an active role in the energy design plan. Hence, the struc-
tural strategy and material should be designed to respond to the overarching sustainable idea.
The use of recycled structural materials in the construction of tall buildings does not necessarily
render them sustainable, as huge amounts of energy are consumed during the recycling process itself.
Hence, there is a demand to use renewable materials that do not require man-made energy for produc-
tion. Various architects are also testing the possibilities of natural materials like bamboo as primary/
secondary structural materials in the tall-building industry. Architect Renzo Piano successfully utilized
bamboo as his primary structural material while designing the Tjibaou Cultural Centre in New Cal-
edonia (Figure 8). Though this project is not a tall tower, it reflects the properties of the natural mate-
rial. Not only will natural materials render sustainable structures, they will also play an important role
in urging sustainable regionalism in architecture. Bamboo is a highly abundant material, and if
exploited to the building’s advantage, can be quite useful. Fly ash is another well-known, copious
material that is increasingly being used to substitute cement in concrete mixes. Advanced construction
materials including structural insulated panels, insulated concrete forms and autoclaved aerated con-
crete can also be coupled with other primary structural elements in a tall building to deliver an overall
sustainable structure (Mehta and Manmohan, 2005).
Statistics show that structure and MEP each account for approximately 20–25% of the total con-
struction cost in a tall building (Figure 9). Currently, with most of the sustainable efforts in MEP

Porous (organic) form

for the structural wall

Stiffening tension system

Figure 7. (a) Model of the 600-m-high solar chimney; (b) Cross-sectional plan—65-m diameter (Source:
Mahjoub Elnimeiri)

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
 SUSTAINABLE STRUCTURE OF TALL BUILDINGS 887

Figure 8. Bamboo (native material) used as primary structural material in the Cultural Center design by
architect Renzo Piano (Source: Renzo Piano Building Workshop)

elevator system
6-12%

architecture
MEP
30-40%
20-25%

structure
20-30%

Figure 9. Pie chart depicting structural cost in relation to the total building construction cost

technologies, some costs have been reduced. However, expenses incurred on the structure still remain
gigantic. By incorporating the two elements together, i.e. integrating sustainable ideas for heating and
cooling within the structural system, major costs can be cut down.

2.4 Energy-conscious strategy

Most issues of energy conservation are common sense subjects, but it is important to address them in
a timely manner, without miscalculations, to avoid mistakes. Sometimes, there is a tendency to over-
estimate the benefits of certain energy solutions that may not work as planned or that may become
difficult to modify once the building is built. Hence, the energy strategies need to be formulated around
the knowledge base of the team members. Similar to the structural system development strategies, the
energy engineers should depend on outstanding experience that is verifiable computationally and
experimentally, and should not be intuitive and judgmental. Although there is a lot of research and
development in energy planning and simulation, the practice is yet to take advantage of it in the plan-
ning phase.
Compared with midrise buildings, tall buildings typically have a higher wall-to-floor ratio that
requires special design of the façade. The thermal performance of the envelope is the starting point
in the design of an efficient and sustainable solution. Cladding systems on tall buildings need simple
and strong detailing to resist high wind loads and building movements. Hence, it becomes imperative

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
888 M. ELNIMEIRI AND P. GUPTA

that the façade system is integrated with the structure in designing a sustainable tall building. Sir
Norman Foster designed the Hearst Tower in New York (Figure 10) and the Swiss Re Tower in London
(Figure 11) on the concept of a structural diagrid system. He expressed the structure on the exterior
and coupled it with the façade to improve its thermal performance.

Figure 10. Exposed diagrid structural system of the Hearst Tower, New York (Source: Foster and Partners)

Figure 11. Collaboration between the energy strategies of the Swiss Re Tower and the structural design system
(Source: Foster and Partners)

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)
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Although most towers are designed as sealed, air-conditioned buildings, increasingly healthy active
facade solutions are being developed, utilizing either natural ventilation or passive controls. This can
be greatly achieved with structurally exposed architecture, i.e. the structure does not have a cladding
skin. Tall buildings in the city can be made more sustainable by architecture that responds to the
conditions of a site with integrated structure and building services. Effective use of the building’s
structural thermal mass can help to minimize fossil energy use.

2.5 Collaboration between disciplines

Collaboration between team members is based on trust, respect and a genuine quest for sharing knowl-
edge and useful information. The process will not yield any valuable results if one member, notably
the architect, stifled the input from the engineers, or limited it to satisfy his own needs in isolation of
the others. The process will also not work if the members neither share a common vision nor under-
stand clearly each others’ concerns and needs. In particular, engineers have to appreciate the archi-
tectural context of the building and be sensitive to the related issues. At times, there will be conflicts
of interest between the different disciplines within the building design group, but the challenge is to
turn the conflict around and present an opportunity for integration and harmony.

2.6 Safety and evacuation

The objective of a sustainable design is not only to provide a clean and healthy living environment
but to also preserve the human lives involved (Wener and Carmalt, 2006). It involves comprehension
of the ultimate behaviour of a tall building, in terms of its own safety performance and the assurance
it provides its occupants and owner should an extreme event occur. The safety and evacuation strategy
for the occupants is closely linked with the structural integrity of a tall building. Thus, while design-
ing the structural system(s), the engineers cannot afford to overlook provisions for the vibration,
buckling, failure, fire resistance, etc. of the structural members.

2.7 Integrated functional design

Integrated design (Armstrong and Ali, 2007) and the use of structural materials for optimum perform-
ance in controlling the internal environment of buildings can provide added benefits at no extra cost.
In a tall building with exposed structure, the interior–exterior interface can be greatly enhanced if the
structure is designed to incorporate certain energy strategies. Hollow tubular structural columns can
accommodate stack effects of wind and help in controlling indoor air temperatures. The selection of
façade materials, although governed largely by architectural concerns, greatly influences the thermal
performance of buildings. If these façade materials are a part of the structural system, then the system
is sustainable.
Integrated design also applies to the flexibility of use in a building. A structure can be considered
sustainable if it does not lose its functionality after a few years. An example of such a scheme is the
Muslim Pilgrims in Mennah, Saudi Arabia (Figure 12), developed by architect Yunsef Hijazi and the
first author. This system is modular, flexible and adaptable to different uses. The structural concept,
with its simple hinging mechanisms, provides for foldability and ease of transportation. The foldable
nature of the structure made it possible to be folded and kept in storage in the mountain slopes without
being noticed, as it occupies very little space, preserving the natural environment. It is important to
note that aluminium is chosen as the structural material for the design as it is light, non-corrosive and
effectively recyclable.
When choosing the structural material for a sustainable design project, it is imperative to understand
the embodied energy of the material along with its other properties (Figure 13). Many construction

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
890 M. ELNIMEIRI AND P. GUPTA

Figure 12. Flexible and foldable pilgrim structures made from recycled aluminium (Source: architect Yunsef
Hijazi)

Figure 13. Weighted chart portraying the sustainable values of materials based on their recyclability and
embodied energy

materials have high embodied energy and low recycling scope (Yeang, 1999). In the design of a tall
building, the quantity of materials is significant; hence, special considerations need to be made in
choosing the primary structural material to maximize the sustainable characteristic of the design by
balancing the embodied energy and the recyclability of the material among other characteristics.

2.8 Speed and efficiency

The construction of tall buildings is usually an efficient process because of member standardization
and repetition (Langdon et al., 2002). However, certain architectural designs do not cater to structural
efficiency. A single beam design or joint detail, if repeated a hundred times in the design of a tall
building, is more efficient than 20 different design details recurring only five times each. Consistency
within the structural design is an effort towards sustainable structures. Uniformity saves natural
resources spent on manufacturing and transportation of structural parts. It also increases the speed of
construction that is critical for successful project delivery. Sustainable structures are efficient in terms

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
 SUSTAINABLE STRUCTURE OF TALL BUILDINGS 891

of energy consumption during building construction and operation. Sustainable approaches in struc-
tural design also reduce the building’s maintenance demands.

2.9 Role of the structural system

The primary role of a structural system is to provide the required stability, strength and stiffness to
ensure a robust structure that will stand the test of time. Of course, the structure also has to be care-
fully designed to fit well within the architecture of the building and adhere to the abovementioned
criteria for sustainability. In addition, the structural system should participate directly in the energy
strategy of the building. For example, the structural slab can be used as a thermal mass to reduce heat
transfer. Structures that are architecturally exposed to the outside can act as horizontal/vertical shading
devices. The structure can shape and frame atriums for the use of solar/wind spaces. It can also inter-
act with the planning of installation of wind turbines by providing and supporting the openings needed
for the wind to pass through.
Figure 14 shows the relationship between the efficiencies of a stand-alone structural system and
that of a sustainable structural system. The proposed theoretical sustainable structural system will be
achieved by incorporating some of the sustainable ideas addressed above. Though this proposed system
is an ideal solution to sustainable structures, it will not be entirely perfect because achieving energy
efficiency will demand certain sacrifices within the building design. Hence, architects and engineers
should work to minimize this gap within their building schemes such that they accomplish a near-
perfect design.

2.10 Life cycle cost analysis

Perhaps the most important contribution of the structure is its long lifespan, as compared with other
components of the building, architectural or mechanical. So if the structure is well designed and well
maintained, it can last a long time. Sustainable structures demand high initial investments that most

Figure 14. Graph showing structural efficiencies of both an ideal stand-alone and a proposed sustainable
structural system

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)
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892 M. ELNIMEIRI AND P. GUPTA

Figure 15. Graph representing the cost-effectiveness of a sustainable structural system

Figure 16. Diagram depicting the standard structural synthesis process

developers are hesitant to incorporate within their projects. However, the long-term benefits of such
investments need to be realized during the design process as shown in Figure 15. The notion of sus-
tainable structure is also given credence if a structure is planned to be flexible enough such that it
adapts itself to future use of the building.

2.11 Simplified proposed outline for structural synthesis

Figure 16 gives a brief bar diagram of a standard approach for analysis and design of a structural
system. Certainly, there is cross referencing and coordination between the disciplines before the final
structure is realized; however, the process is independent of architecture and other engineering
disciplines.
Figure 17 shows a proposal by the authors for a future structural analysis/design process that should
lead to a sustainable structure. The idea here is to have a completely interconnected process that keeps
feeding back and forth into the analysis and design of the structure until a final desired solution is
arrive at.

3. CONCLUSIONS
In preparing for this paper, the authors spent a significant amount of time surveying the relevant lit-
erature. The bulk of the work in this area is still in its infancy; however, a lot of promising research
(Kaji-O’Grady, 2007; Pank et al., 2002; Bae et al., 2007) is in progress. In this paper, the authors give
a brief account of the fundamentals that constitute a sustainable structure, and outline its important
elements. While all elements count, collaboration and teamwork still remain the cornerstone for
achieving meaningful work. The authors’ proposed hypothesis highlights the importance of the inter-
action between architecture, structure and energy strategies. The traditional linear progression of a
structural design (as shown in Figure 16) needs to evolve to a circular progression wherein each

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/tal
 SUSTAINABLE STRUCTURE OF TALL BUILDINGS 893

Figure 17. Proposed hypothesis diagram showing a sustainable approach for structural synthesis

component is interrelated to the other and not simply derived from it (see Figure 17). Historic exam-
ples of tall buildings clearly demonstrate the interdependence between architecture and structure. Since
the era of tall-building design began, structure has been the primary defining factor in the design
process. By looking at the building, one could tell its structural system. However, over the past few
decades, as building designs have become complicated, so have the structural solutions. Still, their
interrelationship remains prominent. It is only recently that there has been an increased dependence
of the architecture on energy demands, which has forced the structural systems to a back seat. Hence,
it is time to interrelate structure with the energy demands such that it can play an important role in
building design once again. Sustainable parameters of scale, efficiency and material in the structural
design need to be addressed along with the overall architectural energy strategies of ventilation, day-
light, indoor air quality, etc. Architectural forms need input from both structural and sustainable
systems. Hence, by incorporating sustainable ideas in structural design, the overall architecture of a
tall building can be enhanced. The buildings reviewed above show how the elements of a sustainable
structure have been incorporated into the architecture to develop wonderful design solutions. It is
certain that the future is going to witness significant advances in energy-conscious research and design,
with sustainable structure playing an important roll.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors appreciate the help of the PhD programme faculty, students and the research resources at
the College of Architecture, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, Illinois.

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Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Spec. Build. 17, 881–894 (2008)
DOI: 10.1002/tal