The Laplace Transform

2-1 INTRODUCTION

The Laplace trnns!orm is one or

the most important mathematical 1ools a,•ailablc
for modeling and analr.ting linear systems. Since the Lapl:acc transform method
must be studied in any system dynamics course, we present the subject at the begin-
ning of this text so 1h:11 the siudcnt can use the method throughout his or her study
of system dynamics.
The remaining sections of this chapter are ou11inell as follows: Section 2- 2
reviews complex numbers. complex variables. and complex functions. Scc1ion 2- 3
defines the l...:lplacc transformation and gives Laplace 1ransfonns of several com-
mon functions of time. Also examined arc some of the most important Laplace
transform theorems that npply 10 linear systems nnal)·sis.. Sccti<m 2-4 deals with the
inverse L.1placc transformation. finally. Section 2- 5 pr.:.-scn ts the Laplace 1ransfonn
approach to the solution of the lincar. 1ime-in\'arian1 differential equation.

2-2 COMPLEX NUMBERS, COMPLEX VARIABLES,

AND COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

111is sct1ion rc\."ie~'S tximpkx numbers. complex algebra. complex variables, and
complex runct ions. Since most or the ma terial OO\cred is generally included in the
bask m;1thematic:s courses required or engineering students. the section C<lll be
omiucd entirely or used simply for personal rdcrcnce.

l rom l"1mplL-r :?of SVJlmf l>vntlmH"J. I ourtb lcditioo Ka1,uh1~0 ~aia C'tJP)Tii;h! 0 :l)[M by l'l:aN>n
~1ioo . l ocl'ubhstung as l 'n.."111K:ellallAUnghls res4'ro>:d
Sec. 2-2 Comple11 Numbers, Complex Variables, and Comple11 Functions

Ila,... i-1 C~lu plant r~pr....,n1a

ounolaromf*•numbcr;i:.

Compl ex numbers. Us ing the no1u1ion j : V-T. \l,e can express all num-
bcn in cngincering calculations as
;;. - x + jy
where z is called a complex 1wmber mid x and jy arc its rt'11/ and imaginary ptms.
respectively. Note thnt both .f an d y arc real and that j is the only imaginary quant i-
ty in the expression. The co mplex plane rcprescntntion of z is shown in Figure 2-1.
(Notealsot hattherealaxisandtheimaginaryaxisdefinethecomplexplancand
that the combi nation of a real number and an imaginary number defines a point in
that plane.) A complex number;;. tan be considered a point in the complelC plane or
a directed line segment to the point; both interpret:1tions arc useful
The magnitude. or absolute value. of;;. is defined as the length or the directed
line segment shown in Figure 2-1. The angle of~ is the angle that the directed line
segmen t makes with the positive real axis.A counterclod.wisc rota tion is defined as
the positive direction for the measurement of angles. Mathcmaticall~·-

magnitudc of z • Id •~. angleof;;. • 8 • Ian-•~

A complclC number can be wrmcn m rectangular ronn or in polar form as
follows:

z - x + i>' }rectangular fonns

z: lzl(cosO + jsinO)
z = lzlil }polar forms
' - kl"'
In convening complelC numbcn to polnr form from rectangular, we use

lzl-~. O '- tan 1 ~

To convert complex nurn ben to rccrnngulllf form from polllT. we employ
.r"' lzlcos(I. y =Iii si n O
Co mplex conjugat e. The romp/ex co11j11g11rt of z • x + jy is defined as
1- ,f - jy
 Thel11phtc11Transform Chap. 2

-y
I
f'"'!""'l-l Cornpk>inuml:>c:1 z •ndi1S
coml)k>:roniup t(1.

The complex conjugate of z thus has the same real part as z and an imaginary par! that
is the negati\"e of the imaginary p.ir1 of z. Figure 2- 2 shows both z and t. Note that

z • x + jy • lzl L.!! - lzl (cosO + j sin O)

I • x - jy • lzl L.::!J.. • lzl (cos 0 - j sin O)

Euler's th eorem. The power se rie s expansions of cosO and sin 0 are,
respectil:el y.

'"' (fl uS
sin0 • 0 - 3! + 5! - 7! + ·
81

Thus.

cosO + jsinO • I + {j9) + (~t + (j:t + (j~)~ + ·

Since

it follows that
e' • I + x+2t+3!+ ..
""
cosO + jsin8 • ei'
TI1is is known as £u/e6 1hrore111.
Using Euler's theorem. we c:m CXpt'CSS 1hc sine and cosi ne in complex form.
Nutingthate-i* is th cl-o rn1>1 exoo11j uga t cof~ :rndthat
elf - cosO + jsi n O
r:- i'I . cosO - jsj n()

11
Sec. 2-2 Comple11 Numbers, Complex Variables, and Complex Functions

we find that

=• -- ,- tl"+e i'

si n e - ti' - e- 1'
2j

Complex algebra. tr lhe complex numbers are written in a suitable form.op-

erations like addition, subtraction, multiplication. and di~·ision can be performed easily.
Equufity of comp/a 11umbt~. Two comple x numbers z. an d 1,; are s.1i d to be
eq ual if and o nl y if their real parls nre equal and their imaginary parts a rc eq ual. So
if two oomplc11 numbers arc wri n cn
l. "' X + jy, W • II + jv
1hcn z. =wifandonl yi f x -= 11 rmdy • v.
Addi/Ion. Two complex num be rs in rcctrl ngu lnr fon11 can be adde d by
addingth crc11 lpartsand1h c imagi nory pa rtsscparn1c ly:
t + w "' (x + jy ) + (u + j1J) - {.r + 11) + j(y + v)
Sub1rac1ion. Subtracting o ne comple11 num ber from a nother ca n be cons id·
ered asaddingt heneg.1 ti\'eof 1heformer.
z. - w .. (x + jy ) - (11 + jlJ) • (x - 11) + j(y - v)
Note that addition a nd subtract io n can be done easi ly o n the rectangular plane.
M11ftipfirotion. If a complex number is mult iplied by a real num ber. th e re-
sult is a oomplcx num be r whose rea l a nd imaginary parts a rc multiplied by that real
number.
az. = 11{x + jy) .. ax + jay (u = real number)
If two complex nu mbers appear in rectangular fom1 and we wam the product in rec-
tangular form.muhiplica1io11 is accompli shed by using the fact tha1 j2 = - I. Th us. if
two complex numbers arc wriu cn
z. • x + jy, U1 s II + jll
then
w.1 • (x + jy)(u + jv ) • .rn + jyu + jxv + j2yv
= (x11 - yv ) + j (xv + )'11 )
In polar form, multipli ca ti on of two t'Omplcx nu mbers can be done easily. Th e mag·
nitud c o f th e product is th e producl of the two magni tudes, a nd the angle of th e
product is the sum ufthe 1..·u11 11gles. Su if1wo cun11,lex numbers arc written
z. = lzl/.l.. w • lw!L.!J!.
then
l.llJ • lz llwl L!!...±...1.
 Thelapl&eeTranslorm Chap. 2

Muftfpficuti011 by j.It is imporiant to nol e 1ha1 multiplic:uion by j is equh•a-

lenl lo ~-ountcrdockwise rol!ltion by 90". For exampl e, ir
z - .r + jy

'"'" /2 - j(.x + jy) - j.x + j2y - -y + j.f

or.no1ing1h11 t j • I L.J!!... ff
·-1<1~

""" jz • JilQ_lzlL.!!. ld/8 T 9() ·

Figure 2-3 illustrates th e multiplication or a complex num be r : by J·

Dfrlsfott. If :1 complex number 2 • h:I L.J!. is divided by another complex
numbcr 111• lwlf..!£.. 1hen
2 lzlL.!!. lzl
-;; ... livlf..!£.-j;j'~
That is. the res ult consisls of the quoti ent of lhc magnitudes and the difference of
the angles.
Di vision in n:crnngular form is inconvenient. but can be done by multipl )•i ng
the denominator irnd numerator by the complex co njugate of 1he denominator. This
procedure OOn\·cns 1he denominator to a real number and thus simplifies dh·ision.
For instance.
.E..=~ (.x+jy)(u-jv) (.x11 + yv) + j(y11 - xv)
w 11 + jv (u + /11)(11 - ju)

~ ::~ : :; + j~;: ~)

+ ·;-,,
•i,.....,w
•1 .

Muluplocalionuh
a....plu numbcr:b)I/
-*m.
•litu"' l-6
numbcr~b)li
o,...,.,nol•romplc~

13
Sec. 2~2 Comple1< Numbers, Complu Variables, and Comple1< Functions

Di~ision b)' j. Nole 1h:11 division by j is equi\•alent to clockwise rotation by

90". For e1<ample.ir z - x + jy, 1hen
::x + jy (.I" + jy)j ; .... - y .
7 • - j - • - j j - • ----=-1 = y- JX

Figure 2-4 illustrah:s th e di,·ision of a complex numlx: r z by j.

Po..-trs ond roots. Multiplying:: by itself 11 times. we obtain
z" • (lzl~)"• l zl~L.!.!!!.
Extracting the mh root of a complex number is c11uivalcn1 to raising the number to
the llmh power:

z11" • (lz l L.!d'" = lzl 11 ~ ffi

Forinst;mcc,
(8.66-j5) 3 = ( !O l.=~f • l000L.=2Q: • O-jl000 = - jlOOO
(2.12 -j2.12)112 • (9~)112,. 3~
Commtnts. It is important 10 note th at
lzwl • lzllwl

lz + 1rl ~ lzl + lwl

Complex variable. A complex number h.as a real pan and an imaginary
pan. bolh of which are constant. Ir the rea l part or th e imaginary pan (or bolh) are
variables. the complex number is called a romp/a 1·ariabk. In the Laplace transfor-
mation. we use the notation s to denote a com plex variable: tha t is.
s • 11 + jw
where u is the real part and jw is the imagin:1ry pa11. (Note that both u and w arc real.)

Complex function. A complex funclion F(s), a function of s. has :1 real part

and an imaginary part.or
F(s ) • /•""., + jF1

where Fs and F1 arc real quantities. The magnitude of F(s) is \) F~ + F ;, and th e

angle O of F(s) is tan 1( F,1Fs). 111c angle is measured ~'Ou nt e rclockwise from the
positive real axis. The complex conjugate of F{s) is 1"(s) "' F~ - j F,.
C(Hflplcx functions commonly encou111 crcd in linear systems analysis are single·
valued functions of s and arc uniquely determined for a gj\·cn value of s. Typically,
 ThelephtceTransform Chap.2

suchfun ctions ha vet heform

F(s) • ~!s/P~)~~s++ p:;>.'.'.'(~s: ;:»

Points at which F(s) eq uals 1.cro are called uros. That is. s = -z,,.I' = - zi• ..
.!' - -::.,. arc zeros of F(s). (Note that f1s) may ha,·e additional zeros at infinity: see
theillustrativeexamplethal follows.] Pointsat"hich F(s)equalsinfinityarecallcd
po/es.1bat is.s = -p1, s • -Pi. • ... , s "" - p,. 11re poles of F{s). If the denominat0r
of F(s) im·olws k· mullipl e factors (s + p)t. thens • - pis called a n111lriplepoleof
order k or repeated pok of order k. lf k • I, th e pole is called a simple pole.
A s an illus1rath·e example, consider 1he complex function

G(s ) • s(s ~(;}~ ~(;·)~ ~\s)z

G(s) has zeros m s .. -2 ands • - 10. si mpl e JlOles at s • 0.s = -1. and s = -5,
and a doubl e pole (multiple pole of orde r 2) m s • - 15. Note that G(s) becomes
zeroa t s = oo.Sincc.forlnrgevn lu esof.t,

G(s) • ~
it follows that G(s) 1~sscs a trip!.:: 'l'ero (mu lliple 1.ero of order 3) at s = oo, lf
points at infinit y are included. G(~) has lhc same number of poles as 1.eros. To su m-
marize. G(s) has fh ·e ze ros (.J • - 2.s • - 10,s • oo .s = oo.s = oo) and five
poles (s = 0.s = - 1.s = - 5,s - - \S,s • - IS ).

2-3 LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION

1be Laplace transform me1hod is an operational meth od that can be used adva nta-
geously in solving linear. lime-in variant differential equa tions. Its main ad vaniage is
that differcn1iation of the time function corresponds to multiplicalion of the trans-
form by a complex variable .~. and thus the differential equations in time become
algebraic equa ti ons ins. "llte solution of the differential equation can then be found
by using a Laplace tra nsform tahle or the par1ial-frac1ion e~pa nsion technique.
Another advanrngc of 1hc Laplace trr111sform method is 1hat.i n solving 1hcdifferc n-
1ial cq ua1ion. the ini1ial conditio ns arc au tomatically taken ca re of. and both th e par-
1icu!ar solution and the complcmcn rnry solution can be obtained si multan eo usly.

Laplace transformation. Let us define

/(1) = a tim e function such that /(1) • 0 for 1 < 0
r = a complex variable
:£ = an0JX:ra ti on:1l srmbol indic.1 ti11 gtha tth c
qu:rntity upon which it opc rnt es is to be transformed

by the Lnplace integral [c- 14

dt

F (s) • Laplace transform of /(1)

15
Sec.2-3 LaptecaTranslormation

l"hcn 1hc l..;1place transfom1 or ft.1) is given by

!f[/(1)] - F(s) • l "'t •dt[/(1 )] • l "'f( l)t "rlt

The reverse process of finding lhe time function ft.1) from the Laplace transfom1
F(s) is called im•er:u laplact 1ra11sfom1a1ion.·n.c notation for inverse La pince 1rans-
formation is X- 1. Thus,
!t 1[F (s) ] • /(t)
Existence of Laplace transform. The Laplace transform or a function fl1)
exists if the Laplace i111cgral convcrges. llic integral ""ill converge iffl1) is pie<:cwisc
oominuous in every finite interval in the range 1 > 0 and if j{t) is of cxponcn1ial
order as 1 approaches infini1y. A function flt) is ~id to be of cxponcnti:il o rder if a
rca1.1Xbitivcconstantt.Tcxistssuchthatthcfunctiou
t -'"l/(1)1
approacht.'li ;:em as 1 approaches infinity. U the limit of the function t-"'l/(t) I
appro:1chcs u:ro for,, grc:ucr than"~ and the limit approaches infinity for" Jess
than u ,.. thc valucu~iscallcd 1heabscissuofco11vtrge11ct.
11 can be seen 1ha1 . fur ~uch functions as 1, sin""· and 1 sin""· the absc~a of
com·crgence is equal to zero. For functions like t ·".it-". and t "sin""· the abscis-
sa of oonvcrg<.:nl'C is equal to -c. In the t.<JSC of functions that int.-rease faster than
the cxpom.:ntial funclion. it is impossible to find suiiablc valuci. of the absdssa of
ron1·crgcnce. Consequ<"ntly, such functions as t" and 1t" do not possess Laplace
transforms.
Ne1·cnhc\css. ii s hould be noted that. ahhough r' for 0 s / s oo docs nol
possess a Laplac<" transform, the lime func1ion defined by

/(1) • t" for 0 s t s T < oo

• O for1<0,T<1
dOt.'$, sinl'C /(1) - I' for on ly a limited time inh,:rval 0 :5 I :5 T and not for
0 s 1 s oo. Such a signal can be physically generated.Note 1ha1 the signals that can
be physically generated alw:iys ha\C corresponding Laplace transforms.
If function~ / 1(1) and /:(1) arc both Laplace tra nsformable, then lhc Lnpl:lce
transform of / 1(1) + f2(t) isgi1cn by
!ll/1(1) + fi(t) I • Jl/1(1)J + !ll/i(tlJ
Exponential function . Consider the c:rtponcntial function
/(t) • 0 rort < 0

wh<"re A and narc consiants. ·n.<" Laplace transform of this <"Xpon<"ntial func1ion
canbeob1aincdasfollows:

YIM-]• J."'A,-t-.. d1 • AJ."'t-<"••lt d1 • ~

0 0 s + {)
 ThelaplilCeTransform Chap.2

In perfonning this integra1ion. we assume that 1he real pan of sis greater than - a
(the abscissa of convergence). so that the integral conve rges. The Laplace trans-
form F(s) of any Laplocc tnmsfomrnble fonction /(I) obtained in this way is valid
throughout 1hc entires plane. except Ill the poles of l'(s). (Although we do not pre-
sent a proof of 1his statement. it am be proved by use of the theory of complex
variables.)

Step function . Consider the step function

/ (1) • 0 for I < 0
• A forr > O
where A is a oonsrnnt. N01e 1ha1 this is a special case of the exponential function
Ae-....wherca = 0.Thc~tcpfunction is undefined at 1 ., 0. lU; Laplacctrnnsfom1 is
given by

UIAI - !."At' "tit=~

" '
The step function whose hcigh i is unity is called a m1i1-s11•p /1111c1io11. ll1 c unit-
step function that occurs at 1 - l{lisfrequently written !(1 - 10).a notation tha t will
be used in this book.The preceding step func lion ... hos.:: heigh! is A can thus be writ-
ten A 1(1).
The Laplace1ransformof1hcunit-s1cpfunctioothatisdefim:dby

l (t ) • 0 forr < O
• 1 furl > 0
is \ls.or

.l{l (1)] - ~
Physically, a step function occurring at t • lo corresponds to a constant signal
suddcnlyapplicd1othcsystcmat timc1equals111-

Ramp function . Consider 1he ramp function

f(f) • O for1 < 0

for1 .z: 0
where A is a constant. The L..~plncc lrnnsform of I his ramp function is

!ljA1] • A [ ""tr-" dt

To eval uate the integral. we use the fonnula for integration by parts:

L"11dv • 1wl: - L"vtlu

17
Sec.2-3 Lapl &eeTranslorm11tion

lnthiscase.11 .. tandl/ 11 n e "tl1. INotethat11 • t "/(-s).] l lence,

!£fA1J = A
1 ~te"tll ( -·1~ -
• A I~
s 0
1' -· )
0
~dt
-s
• - Al'
' '
e "d1 • , A
r
Sinusoidal function . The Laplace 1ransform of the sinusoidal function
/(1) • 0 for1 < 0
.. Asi n fJJ/ ror1 z:Q
where A an d w a rc constants. is obtained as follows: Noting that
d*" - ooswt + jsinwt

e , ... ~ COSWI - }sin WI

we can wri te

Hence.

Similar!)·, the Laplace transfonn of A cos WI can be derived as follows:

~!ACOSfJJ/] = 51 -::S,,,i
Comments. The L..:1plncc tr.im.forn1 o f any Laplace transfommblc function
ft1) can be found by muhiplying.1{1) bye " and the n integrating the product from
1 • 0 tot • oo. Once we know lhe method of ohrni ning Lhc Laplace transfom1, how-
e\·er, it is not ncccss.1ry lo derive the Lnplncc trnnsforrn of/[.!) each time. L1placc
tr.insforrn tabl cseanconw nicnt lybc used tofi11d the transfoim of a given function
f(1). Table 2-1 shows L.1placc transforms ohirnc fun ctio11s th:tt will frequent ly appear
in linear systems analysis. In Table 2-2, the properties of L.1placc trm1sforms arc given.

Translated function . Let us oh1ai111h c l...:1placc transfom1 of the trnnslHtc<l

function [(1 - a)l (I - a). where a Ol: 0. 111is function is zero for 1 < a. Th e func-
tions.1{1)!(1) and /(1 - a)l (I - a) arc ~h ol'.-n in Figure 2- 5.
By definit ion. the Lapl:icc mmsfonn of f(I - u)i(I - u) is
10

.\t:lf(I - u)l(r - a)I • [ /(f - a) l (f - a)t_,. d1

 The Laplace Transform Chap. 2

TABLE2-1 l.8plaoeTumslo1mP1!n

F{s)
Uni1impulsc6(1)

Uni1stcpl(1)

I
~
,., I
{11 • 1.2.3.... )
~ ~
,. (11 • l.2.3. ... )
"'
-_;::;;:-;

,-· I
:;-:+-;
,,. I
(1 ... a)!

R,.,('-· {11-l.2.3•... )
r;+;r
I

1•e- (n• 1.2.3•... }

10 .loin""

12 i inh ..,

L3
I
s(s+a)
I

" (J+a)(J + b)

16

__ _!___
s(s + a)(s+ b)

19
 •'
_ _ _ __j_ s(sl+~)

•'
_ _ _ __[__ ,l:(sl+~)

,,,;
_ _ __JL <(•s1 + ....,2li

(,..l .. wf)
 !flA/(1)1 • AF(.•)

!I ,[::,1(1)] · sF(i)- f (O±)

~.[fit(1)] • ,.: F (i ) - J[(O±) - j(O±)

(t I) Jl- 1
v.hc:rc/(1) • t-1/(1)
111

J.[/1<•)1/1 ]- ,.-~) + lf/(1),d1k-~

;![<'"""'f( t)J - f (s + u)

12 !£[/(1 -a) l(I - a) ] ·~-*' F (s) a ;.:O

13 !l\1/(1)1 - - d:~s)
Sec.2-3 Laplace Transformation

~ · -r·~
0 , 0 "'

11g.-2-5 FuncUon /{1)!/l) •nd trlMlalcdfunchonf(I 1t)l(1 - a ),

By changing the independent variable from 1 co,., where T • t - a, we obtain

1. f(t - a) l (t - a)e "tit • 1·~ /(1 ) l{T)e '(H<>)1f-r

Noting that /{T)i(T) = 0 for T < 0, we cun chongc 1hc lower limit of integration
from -a to 0. Thus.

L "'/ (T) i (T)e"""l f1T • £ "'nT) l (T)e'("aJ ,1-r

• l ""f(1)e"e"'1/-r

• c '"' l~f(T)e " 1/T • e-"'F(s)

where

F(s) = 9.:1/(t)] = [ "" f(t)t' -• dt

!CV(r - a ) l(1 - a )! • e '"'F(s) a ;i:. 0

This lost equation sta te s that the tninslation of the time function flt) ! (t) by a (where
a ;i:. O) corresponds to the mul1ipliea1ion of1he lrnnsform F(s) by c"""''.
Pulse fun ction. Consider the pulse funct ion shown in Figure 2-6. namely,

f(t) • ~ for 0 < r < la

• 0
'• fori < 0.ln < 1
where A and1o arcconstan1s.
The pulse funt"tion here may be considered 11 stcp funct ion ofhcighc Allo that
begins at 1 = 0 and that is superimposed by a 1M!ga ti'c step function of hei ght A lto
 ThelaplilCeTransform Chap.2

L ·fl--.
beginning at I • 10:, 1hm is.
fl g11..,l-7
0
lmpul,;cruncoon.
'

/(1) . !!.1(1) _ !!.l(t - /11)

lo lo
Then the Laplace transform offi.1) is obtai ned as

!f[/(1)J • !f[~l(t) ]- !f[;1 (1 - lo)]

- ~ - ~e "•
lu-f f()S

• £;<1 - e '") (2-1)

Impulse fun ction. The impulse function is a special limiting C:lSC of the
pulse function. Consider the impulse function

f (t ) • lim~ forO < I < 10

•• -0 10
- O forr < o.1o < 1
Figure Z- 7 depicts the impulse funclion defined here. Jt is a lim iting case of the pulse
function shown in Figun:: 2-6 as 10 approochcs 7.ero. Since the height of the impulse
function is A /10 and the dura1 ion is IG. 1hc area under the impulse is equal to A . As
1hc duration 10 approaches zero. the height Alt11 approaches infinity. but 1hc area
unde r the impulse remains equal to A. Note that lhe magnitude of the impulse is
mcasurcdbyi1sa rea.
From Equation (2- 1), the L:ipl:icc trnn~funn of1his impulse fun ction is shown

'°"' Y[/(1)] • lirn [~c1 - e"··)]

1.-0 ll)S

~[A ( l - e ... )J
• Jim-'"0- - - • ~ = A
••-o ~ ( toS) .s
1f10

23
Sec.2~3 Laplace Transformation

Thus. the Laplace transform of 1hc i111pulsc fonction is equal to the area under the
impulse.
The impulse function whose area is equal to unity is called the unit-impulse
f1111ctian or the Dime delra f1111ction. The unit-impulse function occurring at f • 111 is
usually denoted by 6(1 - 1o). which satisfies the following conditions:

6(1 - 111) • 0 fort,,. to

6(1 - 111 ) .. oo for/"" 10

/~6(1-1n)1/1 • l

An impulse that has an infinilc magnitude and zero duration is mathematical

fiction and docs not occu r in physical systems. If.howeve r. the magnitude of a pulse
input lo aS)"S tcm is very large mid its dunuion very short com pared with the system
time constants.then we c.111 approximntc the pulse input by an impulse function. For
instance. if a force or torque input f(r) is applied to a system for a very short time
duration 0 < 1 < If). where the magnitude of [(1) is sufficiently larg.; so that
J:• f(t) d1 is not negligible. th en this input can be conside red an impulse input.
(Note that. when we describe the impulse input. the area or magnitude of the
impulse is most important. but the exact sha pe of the impulse is usually immateri:il. )
The impulso.: inpul supplies energ)' to the sy~tc 111 in au infinim;imal time.
The concept of the impulse function is highly useful in diffcre nti3ting di5'on-
tinuow;-timc fu nctions. The unit-impulse function 6(f - lo) c:rn be considered the
dcrivati\·e of the unit-slep function I (t - lo) at the point or discontinuity t .. I(). or

6(t - 10 ) • f,1(t - t0 )

Conversely. if the unit-impulse function 6(t - t11 ) is integr.11cd, the result is the unit-
step function 1(1 - IQ). With the concept of the impulse function. we can differenti-
ate a function containing discontinuities. gil•ing impulses. the magnitudes of which
arc equal to the magnitude of each corresponding discontinuity.

Multiplication of Itri by 11-" 1• Jf f(t) is Laplace transformable and i1s

Laplace tr:insform is F(s). then 1hc Laplace uansform of"- f(t) is obtained as

!lle....,''/(1)] • [ '" r-'f(t)e-" tit • F(s +a) (2-2)

We see that the mult iplication of/[J) bye-"' has the effect ofrepl;icings by
(s + a ) in the Laplace 1rnnsform. Convcrsely,ch:mgings to (s + a) is equivalent to
multiplyingft.1) bye-. (Note th:u a may be rc:i l or com plex.)
The relationship given by Equ:uion (2-2) is useful in finding 1he Laplace
transforms of such funct ions as t'""' sin Wf Hnd e "'cos Wf. For instance. since

!£!sin wt] - 52 : wz • F(s) and !£(cos wt] • s 2 : w: = G(s)

 ThelaphtceTransform Chap.2

it follows from Equation (2- 2) th:1t the L.1place transforms of e-"" sin WI. and
e-"'cos w1arcgivcn.rcspcctively.by

!l(t'-•sinWl'I • F(s +a) • - - " - ,- ,

(s +a)·+ r.r

'"' $+a
.!t[e"-..r cos WI] • G{.s + a) • (s + a)? + .,}

Comments on the lower limit of the Laplace integral. In some cases..l{r)

possesses an impulse fu nction at f • 0. l'hen 1he lowe r limit of the Laplace integral
must be clearly specified as 10 whether ii is 0- or 0+. since the Laplace transforms
of .1{1) differ for these 1wo lowe r limits. U such a distinction of 1he lower li mi t of the
Laplace intcgrnl is ncccssi1ry.111.:uScthcnotnlions

Y,lf( t)] • 1. . f(t)e "dt

'"'
x. 11c1n .. L...._,,,)e .. dt .. ::e.11<1>1 + [ /(1)e-.. di

U.1{1) in\·ol\·cs an im pulse function Ill I • 0, Ihen

!£.[f(1)) '1-!£.. [f(1)J

since

[f(1)e"'d1'l"O

for such a ca5C. Obviou~ly. if /IJ) d()(.'S not ~ss an impulse function at f • 0 (i.e.,
if the func1ion to be transformed is finite bc1wcen I • 0- and I = O+). then
!t.[/(1)] • !f_[f(r)]

Differentiation theorem. The Uiplacc transform of the derivative of a

funct ion/{t)isgivcnby

,,,
!£[.!!.../(1)] • sP(.s) - f(O) (2-3)

wheref(O) is the iaitial value of f(r).ev:il uated at I = 0. Equation (2-3) is called the
differentiation theorem.
For a given function /(r), the val ues of f(O+) and /(0- ) may be the same or
different. as illustrated in Figure 2-8.111e distinction between /(O+) and f (0-) is
important when /{t) has a discontinuity at 1 - 0, be<::iuse. in such a case. df{t)/111 will

25
Sec. 2-3 Laplace Transformation

.RO-! JtO+)

n~ure ?-JI Siep runcuo11 and p nc f\lnctl<ln 1ndicat1nJ mni•I v1IUC1 al1 • 0 - and
I ~ 0 +.

involve an imp11lsc function al I • 0. If f(O +) 'I'- f(O -) , Eq 11ation (2- 3) must be

mod ified to

!l'.[ff(t)] • sF(s ) - f (O+)

!L[ frt (1)] • sF(s ) - / (0-)

To prove the differentiation theorem, we proceed as follows: Integrating the

Laplace in1egral bypartsgi\"es

1. /( I )~"' d1 "' / (I)!__ ·1·

-So
- lo'[ d l"
- f (t ) !__ di
di -s
Hence.

F(s) • / (O) + ..!_ ,J~/(1) ]

s s''""t,11
It follows that

!t:[f,f(l)] • sP(.r) - /(O)

Similarly.for the seoo11ddcri11111i11eoffl.1),wcobrnin 1hc 1·c1a1ionship

["' l '
!£ J;Ef(I) - r f(.r ) - sf(O) - f (O) .
where /(o ) i~ the value of dj{1)f111 evalu:itcd m I • 0. To derive this equation.define

f,ntJ - s<1>
 TheLaplaceTransform Chap. 2

11""
!£[~[(1) J .. J[f,s(1) J .. .rJls(1)J - s(O)
= .rY[fit(1)] - i(o)
- .slF(.r) s/(O) - i(O)
Similarly. for the 11th deriva tive o f /ti). we obtain

;c[f,wt(1)] .. s" F(s) - .r•- 1/(0) - s·-~i(O) - ··· ~fcl:h

where f( OJ.i( O) . ... ~ /{/J) represent the values of /{1).d/(1)/dr, .... d" 1/(1)/
8

dl" - 1. rcspccli•·ely. ev11lu111ed MI • 0. Uth e disliru:tion between Y:, and Y: is

necessary. we substitute I • 0+ o r I • 0- into /(1). df( 1)fd1 . ...• d" - 1 / ( 1 )/tlt~ - 1 •
dcpcndingonwhcthcrwc tiikc !f~ or!£.
Note that. for L1placc tran sfo rms of derivatives o f f(t) 10 exist. d"/ (1)1</r"
(n= l,2,3 . ... ) mustbel<lplatxtrans romrnble.
Notealsothat. if:1ll thc initial vi1lueso r ft1) and its derivatives are equal to
zero, then th e Laplace transform ofthcmh derivative of/(r) isgi,·en by s" F(.t).
Final·value theorem. The final -value theorem relates the steady-state b<:hav-
ior of fi.1) to the behavior of s l·i.r) in the neighborhood of s • 0. The theorem, howC\'·
er. applies if and only if lim,_,,, /(1) e:cists [which means th:nfi.1) settles down to a
definite value as 1 -- oo \. lf all poles of sl·'(s) lie in the left half s plane. then lim,-oc f(t)
exists..butif sf'(.t) haspoleson thei maginaryaicisor in the right half s plane.fl1)will
contain oscillating OI" eicponentially increasing time functions.. rcspecth·ely. and
lim,-.x./ {1) 1>oil1 not exist.The final·\'il lue theore m does no t apply to such c-.ises. For in-
stance. if /f.t) is a sinusoidal function si n""· then sf{s) has poles at s = ±jw, and
lim,__,/ (1) docs not exist. The refore. 1he theore m is no t applicable to such a function.
The final-\•alue 1heorcm may be slllled as follows: If Jl1) and df(i)/<11 are
Laplace transfonnable. if F(s) is the Ltlplare tran sform or fl.1), and if lim,--./(1)
exist.s.. then

,!!_n.!, /(1) • !~sF(s)

To pro\'e the theorem. we let .I' 11ppro11ch lC ro in lhc equation for the L1placc Lrnn s-
form of the derivative of/(1). or

.-u
limf.l!!.../(1) l_ "tit • lim [sF(s) - /{0)]
0 di f .--.o
Since lim,-ot " = I. iflirn ,_,., /(1) ex ists, then we obtain

[ "'[fi1<1) ]tit • f(l) [ - /(00) - /(0)

• !~ sF(s ) - /(0)

27
Sec.2-3 Laplace Transformation

fromwhichitfollow-s lhat

/(oo) • .~~/( 1 ) • ~~sF(s)

lnitial·value theore m . The initi11l·valuc theorem is che rountcrpan or the

final·\'alue theorem. Using the initial.v11luc theorem. we 11re able to find the value of
/(1) at 1 = 0+ diree1ly from the Laplace transform or fl..1). The theorem docs not give
the value or /(.1) at eimctly 1 • O. but rather gh-es it at a time slightly greater than zero.
The initial·value theorem may be Stilted !IS follows: If /(1) and d/(1)/dt 11re both
Laplace transformable and if Jim,_,. sF(s) exists. then

f(O+) - .~isF (s)

To prove this theorem. " ·e use th e eqtuHion for 1hc 9: .. transform of ,f/1..1)/i/1:

:e.[!!..n,1] - sF(s) - /(O+J

'"
For the time imc1·val O+ :s; 1 :s; oo, ass aµproochcs infinity.e " approaches zero.
(Note that we mus1 use Y:.. rm her tha n !!. for thi~conJilion.) Hence.

lim 1"[!!..f(l)]e
,_.,., I» di .i,11 lim l)"F(J) - /(0+)] = 0
.. ,_,.

/(0+) • ,11!:!!_.J F (J)

In applying the initial-value theorem , we arc not limiteJ as to the locations of

the polesofsf'(s). Thus, 1he theo rem is valid for lhe sinusoidal function.
Note that the initi:il-\·alue theorem and 1he final·\·alue theorem provide a con-
venient check on the solmion.sincc they enable us to predict the system behavior in
the time domain without aclUally trnnsfonning functions in J back to time functions.

Integration theore m . U ft.1) is of exponential order. then the Laplace trans-

form offf(1)d1 exists and isgh·c n by

9'[ / ni)rtr] - F~s) +r~(O) (2--4)

whercF(s) "'!llf(t) landf 1(0) • ff(t)d1,c,•aluatcdn11 = O.Eq uatio11(2--4)is

callcdtheintcgration1hcorcm.
The integration theorem can be proven ns follows: Integra tion by parts yields
 Thelepl&ceTransform Chap.2

- ~Jrci>'''I
S 1-0
+ ~1"'rc1)e •d1
So

_f ;o) + F~s)

andthethe<>rcmispro\·en.
Note that. if fl.I) in\'Ol\·es an impulse function at I .. 0. then 1(0+ ) .. r
r 1(0-). Soif/f.1) involvesnn impulse function Ill I - 0, WC must modify Equation
(2-4)as follows:

~.[ Jrcr)d1] • F~s) + ri~o+)

9; [ j f(t)1/1] • F~s) + r1~0-)
Wcscc 1hatintcgrntionin1hc1imcdomni n isoonvc rtcdin todivisioninlhcs
domain. If the initial value of th e in1cgral is 7.Cro, the Laplace transform of the in lc-
grnl ofJr.1) isgiven by F(s)lf.
The in tegration theorem can be modified slightly to deal with the definite in te-
gral of/SI). lf/(1) is of exponential order. the Laplace transform of the defi nite inte-
gral fnf(t) dt can be give n by

[1' l F(>)
:J. Qf(t ) 1/1 - ---;- (2-5)

To pro1•e Equation (2- 5), first note that

[ f (t) dt • J f (t ) tit - r 1(0)

where r 1co) is equa l 10 I f(t) di. evaluated at I - 0. and is a constant. Hence,

>:[[tc•Jd•]·-"[fte<l"' -f 'co1]
= !£[!/(<) "' ] - !£(/ '(O))

Hcfc rri ngto Equation(2-4)andnotingthlllf 1(0)isa consrnn1,sothlll

!£[[ i(O)J ,. I ~(O)

we obtai n

x[[f(r)dr] - F(s)s + r 1s(0) _ r 1s(0),,. F(s)

0 s

29
 Sec.2--4 Inverse Laplace Transformation

Not e 1ha1. irf(1) involv t'Sll ll im pulsi.: fu nc1ion iu f "" 0, lhcn J(i_ / (1) d1 "'- j/i.._f(l) (fl.
andthefollowingdis1inctionmust bcobscn·cd:

!l'.[[ f (1)d1] - .2'-~(f)I

::£. [1' l !£ 1f(<)J

l>-f (l)tll - - , -

2-4 INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION

The inve rse Laplace 1ransforma1ion rdcrs to 1he process of finding 1he time fun c-
tion /IJ) from the corrt'Sponding L:1place transform P(1>). Several methods are avail-
able for finding inver:se Laplace transforms. The simples t or chese me thods are ( I) to
use tables of Laplace trnnsfom1s to find the time func1ion Jl:r) corresponding to a
gi\'cn L1place tra nsfo rm f1s) and (2) to use the pnrtinl-fn1ction exp;msion method.
In this section. we present the lmt er tech niqu e. [Note that MATLAB is quit e useful
in obtnining the partial-fraction ex pansion of the rat io of two polynomial:;,
8 (.f)/A(s). We shall disc uss the MATLAB npproach to the partial-fraction expan -
sion in Chap1cr4.J

Partial-fraction expansion method fOf' findi ng inverse Laplace transforms.

If F(s), the Laplace transfonn of1(1). is broken up into components.or
f"(s) • F1(s) + f i{s) + ··· + P~ (s)

:ind if the in ver:sc Laplace transforms of F1(s ). Fi( s) . .... f-;,(s) are readil y ll\"ail -
able. th en
X-1[F(s)] • X-1[F1(sl) + X- 1[f?(s)] + ··· + :r1[Fh)]
- /1(1) + fz(t) + ... + f.( 1)
where / 1(r).fi(1) .... ./.(t ) are th e im•crse Laplace transfonns of F1(s), Fi(1>), ·
F,,(s). rc:spcctivcly. lllc inverse L.iplacc lrnnsfonn of f1s) thu s obtai ned is unique,
except possibly at poin ts wh ere th e time fun ction is disconti nuous. Whenever the
time func1ion is co111inuous. 1hc lime funclion / (1) and its Laplace transform F(,f)
have aone-to-oneoorrespondcnce.
For proble ms in S)'Slcms i11111lysis. F(s) frequently occurs in the fom1

F(s) - ~~:~
where A(s) and B(s) are polynomials in J and the degree of B(s) is not higher thnn
thntofA(s).
The advan1age or che pim ial-fraction expnnsion approach is that the individ~
uat tenns of F(s) resulting from th e exp:rnsion in1 0 partial-fraction form are \·ery
simple fun ctions of s: oonscqucn•l y. u is not necessa ry w refer to a Laplace tran s-
form table if we memori1.c SC\"eral simple Laplnce transform pairs. Note, howe\·er.
that in appl yi ng the partial-fraction c~pansion technique in the search ror the
 Thelapla-ceTrensform Chap.2

inverse Laplace transform of F(s) • B(s)IA(s). 1hc roots of the denominator poly-
nomial A(s) must be known in adv:mce. That is. this method docs not appl)' until the
denominator pol)•nomial has been factored.
Consider f1s) written in the factored rom1

F(s) - !~:~ - ~!s++P~;~~s++;.;).·····(~: ;:»

when- />I. Pl• ... , p~ and : 1• z2 •.... z... are either real or complex quantities.but for
each complex p1 or z,. there will (X'(ur the cornplexconjuga1eof p, or Z1. respective-
ly. Herc. the highest power ors in A(.t) is assumed to be higher than that in B(s).
In I he expansion or B(s)IA(s) into partial-fraction form. it is important that the
highest powerofsiu A(s) bcgrcmcr1han 1hc highesl IJOWC r ofs in B(s) bc<:ausc if thm
is not the case. then the numenuo r B(s) 111us1 be divided by the denom inator A(s) in
orde r to produce ll polynombl ins pl us 11 remai nder (a rnt io or polynomi11 ls in .t whose
nu mern tor is of lower degree 1hnn the denotnin:nor). (For de lails. sec Ex1m111lc 2--2.)

Partial-fraction expansion when Fis) involves distinct poles only. In

this case. F(s) can always be expanded into a sum of si mple pa rtial fractions: that is.

F(s) ,., ~~:~ .. S ; 1P1 + S:

2
Pi + ... + S ;n/ln ( 2-{))

where Ut(k "' I. 2..... n ) arc constants. 1bc coefficient Ut is called the rf'Silflle at
the IJOlC at s = - Pt· The \'l1luc or Ut C'.tn be found by multiplying both sides of
Equ<ltion (2-{i) by (r + Pt) and lettings • -pt, giving
0
[ (s +Pt) AB((<))] • [-''-(.t + P•) + - +! (s +Pt)+ ·
s ,. ,,. .t + P1 .t Pl

+~(r+pt)+ ... + ~ (s+pt)l

s +Pt .t + Pn •-,.

We sec tha1 all the expanded terms drop 001. with the exception of Ut. Thus. the
n:sidueatisfound from
B(>)l (2--7)
llt - [ (s+pt)-()
AS , 1,,

Note th:il ~incc Jtt) is a rea l function of time, if p 1 and f'2 arc complex conjugates.
1hcntheresiducsf1 1 a ud11 2 arcalsocomplexconj uga tcs.On lyoncoft hcconjugat es.
111 or11 2.ncedbcc"aluatcd,bcc:wse1 heothcr isknown autom<ltically.
Since

ft.t)isobtainedas
f(t) = !C 1{F(.t)J .. Uit p,I + 112t I'~+ ... + a#t pJ I 0?: 0

31
Soc.2-4 lnverselaplaceTransformetlon

Uample2-I
Findthein•l!rM'l.aplacc1ransforn1of

~: + 2}
1
F(s) • (., + 1

The panial-fracuon expansion of F(1) is

FM (s +sl;(: + 2)
"here a, anda 2 a«if()Ulldbyu§ing&juation(2- 7):

111 -[(s + l}(s /. ~s "'2)L I-[::

3
a. ,-2
112 • [(s + 2)(.1 /1~s\ 2)1. 2 • [; : n.: • - I

Th us.
f(t) • !£ 1(P(.1)]

• r•[,--h] + .r•[, ~' ,]

Example2-2
Obtainthein•·crsel.aptace1ransforn1of
J' + S1: + 9s+ 7
G( s)·~

llerc-.siru !lie degree of the nun1cra1or potynonnal iS higher than chat of the
di.>norninatorpolyOOP1ial.""C"'ll5tdi•ide1hentuner.uorbythedi.>nommalor.

G(s) ... _. + 2 + (i/l ~:+i)

No1e1ha1 thcLaplacetransforn1ofthcum1-1n1pulscfonc11on.'l(r)isunityand1ha11he
Laplace transform of 1M(1)ld1 Is'· The third tcnn on the right-hand side of 1his lut
e.iuation is P(s) in Enmpl~ 2-1. So the inverse Laplace 1 r11n~forn1 of G(s) is given as

g(t) • f,6(1) + 26(1) + 'b'""' - c-11

Comment. Consider a fonc1 io11 F(.~) 1h111 involves a qu adratic faclor

r + IU +b in the denominator.]( this qu11drnlic expression has II pair Of oomplex-
OO!ljugatC roots.t heu it isbc l\ crnot tofactorthcquadratic.in ordcrto:ivo id oom-
ple~ numbers. Forcx;nnplc.if F(s) isgil'.::n as

FM - ~
s(r + as + b)
 The Laplace Transform Chap. 2

where a <.>:: 0 and b > 0. and ir s1 + as + b • 0 has a pair of complex-conjugate

roots. then expand f(l) into the ronowi11g partial-fraction expansion ronn:

F(J) • ; + _r ~ 8: : b
(See Example 2-3and Probkms A-2-13.A-2-16.and A-2-19.)

Eumpl<'?-3
Find the inwrsc Laplace tram;fonn of

f(s) J?~ ~.I~ S

Notice 1hm the denominator JKllynominl c:m Ile factored as
s 2 .+ 2s + S • (s+ l +j2)(.r+ I - j2)
l'he two roo1s of the dcnominHUJr 1tre com plex amjug~t~'S. Hence, we expand F(s) into
thcsumofadampcdsinca n()adamp.'<lcmincfunc1io11.
Noiing that r + 2s + S "' (1 + l )1 + 2l and referring to the Laplace 1rn115-
formsof1:"...., sin wt an<li:-..~""·'c~ri 11cnas

1[t"'ros..,I• (s/.,~ 1 °+..,z

- c:m 'flTili: the gll'en 1'1.J) as a wm of a damped sine 1rid a damped cmini: fullciion:
2s ... 12 l0+2(s + I)
F(i) • r+u+s • (s+ J)i+21
•l--'-+2-•-+_
2
I _2
(1 + 1) 2 - 22 (s.,. 1) + 2
ltfollowi;that
/(r) •X-1[f(s)J

•S!J' i[(;+ 1~l + 21] .+ 2!£ '[(s +s l~?l+ 22]

•Se. '!iin21 +:k'C0112I

Partial-fraction expansion w hen Fis) Involves multiple poles. lnstcmJ

of discussiug the gcucral case. we sha ll use an exam ple to show how to obtain 1hc
p1.rt ial-frac1ion expansion of F(s). (Sec also l'robleo1s A-2- 17 and A-2-19.)
Consider

F(s) • sl(; :fl;J 3

33
Se<:.2-4 Inverse Laplace Transformation

l lic par1ial-fr.1ctio11 cx-pansi.on of this F(s) im·ol\"CS three terms;

F(s) • !m- ~1 (s + ~ :-i,j + s: 1

where bJ. bz, and bi arc determined as follows: Multiplying both sides of this tas1
equation by (.!"+ 1)3.wc h.1\"C

(.r + l)l~~:{ - i>J + bz(.r + I)+ b1(.!" + 1)1 (2-8)

l licn,lcuings - -1. we find tha1 Equruion (2-8) gi\·es

[cs+ l )J ~~:~L 1
rz bl

Also. differentiating both sides or Equation (2~) 11-ith rcspi.!cl to s )'iclds

" [(s + l)J A(s)

ds 8(>)] • bz + 2bi(s + I ) (2- 9)

If we lets • - I in Equation (2-9). then

!1_[(s + l )J B(s)] " b,

1ls A(.r) ,. 1
Differentiating both sides of Equation (2-9) with respect to s, we obtain
fl B(>) l
dsll(s + l)J A(.r) "' 2b1

From the preceding analysb.. it c:m be !K!Cn that the \'aluci. of "3. bz, and b 1arc found
sys1cma1icaltyasfollows:

"'.[cs+ l)Jll(s)l
A(.r) . l

_,
• (.r1+Zs+3).. 1

b, • {!1_ [(>+
1ls
l)'BA(s)
(<)ll ••· I

• [..£.c.r
1/s
+ 2s + 3>]
••1
= (2s + 2). .,
• O
I { d' [ ,B(>)]}
bi - 21 dsi (s +I) A(s) ••- I
• --;- -;(s?+2s+3)
I ["'
2. dr ,. 1
l
· t(2) • I
 Thelapl&ceTranslorm Chap.2

Wc1husob1:1in
/(t) • TV(s)J

-r•[(s: 1)-'J +r'(cs ~ 1)2] + ~ •[;h]

- f 1t I+ Q +CI
- (1 1 + l)t 4 I ~ 0

2-5 SOLVING LINEAR, TIME·INVARIANT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

In th is SCdion, we arc concerned with the use or 1he Laplace transform me1hod in
soh·inglincar,timc·invariantdiffcrcnti11lcqu111 ions.
11le l...1placc trnnsform method yields the complcle solution (complemenrnry
solution and panicutar solutio11) of linear. timc·invarian1 differential equations.
aas.o.ic:d methods for finding 1hc con1plc1e solution of a differcn1ial cqua1ion
require the evaluation oft he integration consta nts from the initial conditions. In the
l'Hl>C of the Laplace Imm.form method. however. th is requirement is unncct-ssary
because the initial condi1ions arc autorn111ically included in the Lapli.cc transform
of the differential equation.
Ir all initial conditions nrc 1.ero. then Lhe Laplace lmn~fonn of the differentia l
cqua1ion is obtained simply by replacing did/ wi1h s. tl 1Id1 1 with s1. and so on.
In solvi ng linear, time·invarianl diffen:nlia l equations by the Laplace lrans·
form method, two MCps arc followed :
I. By taking the Laplace trnnsform or each term in the gi\·cn ditrcrcntial cqua·
tion. convert the differential equation into an algcbmic equation in :rand ot>.
tain the expression for the Laplace transform of the dependent 1•ariablc by
rcan-anging the algebraic equation.
l. The time :.olution of tbc differential equation is obrnincd by finding the in·
,·ersc L..apl:1cc 1 ran~rorm oft hclkpcndc111 variable.

In the dist-ussion Lhal follo1<.-s, lwo examples 11.rc used 10 demonstrate the solu·
tion of linear. timc·invarian1 differential equations by the Laplaec trnnsfonn
method.

E.-11111plc2-4
Find1hcwlutionx(1)of1hcd1fforcntialcqua1ion
:i+ 3X + ix .. o. x(O) - •J. X(O) .. b
"'hcrcaandbarecoosian1s..
WnLing the Lapbc:e transform or x(1) as X(J),or
!l\x(t)]'" X (s)
1<.-eobtain
:llxl •sX (s) x(O)
YtXI .. ..zx (s) - sx(O) - .i(O)

35
Se<:. 2-5 Solving Linear, lime-Invariant Dilferemial Equations

Ille lapla<:c tram form of the gown differcn1111.I equation beoomcs

irx(s ) - u (O) - i"(O)I + 31sX(s) - x(OJI + 2X(s) .. 0
Su11'1111.mngtlM!gi\'cn1111llalcom.li110nsin10LIM!prl'CCd111gcquationyil.'ld'
ls1X{s) - 11J - b] + JlsX (1) - 11] + 2X(1) .. 0

(r + 3s+2)X(s) •11s + b+ Ju
Sohing1hi•laMcquationforX(1),,.·c havc

,\' (s) .. ..
~: ~++~ (;:1~1+:;) ~ .. :t-:: ~
Thcin,cri;elaplaretransfoonofX{J)prodoo.-s

x(1) "!r' IX (s)j • x-•[~: t]- r'(::~]

.. (2a + b)to' - (11 + b~ !> , .. 0
"hich is1he:;olu1ionoftllcgivcndilfcrcntialcqU11tion.NU11reth.at LIM.: 1mt111l oondi-
tK>ns11andbaprcar1111ht,,!iOlut1on.Thus,x(1)hasnoundcK.,.mint:dcom;1antll.

•::.:amplel-5
l-i ndthcsolunon x(1)oft hcdiffcrenualcquation
:i +li+5x•3. x(O) • O. i"(O)•O
No1111g that J ill• 311, x(O) .. O. all(I i"(O) .. O. "c k'e 1ha1 the laplare tr.ms·
form of the U1fkremial cquauon ba:omti

i2X (s) + ZsX(s) + 5X{s) .. .;

Sohing 1h1s ctjuallon for X(s). W\: ohmm

X (s)"' s(s: + ~. + 5)
JI 3 s+ 2
5s 57+2s+5
31 3 2 3 s+ 1
"'5s - lO (s+ l)l+ 2i 5(1 +If +2:
Hcnce. 1heinwrseLaplacctranslonnh<.'COllles
x(t) !f"'[X(1)J

.. ~r'[;]- Tt;r1((J + ,~i + 2i]-fr'[h +' 1~:1+2i]

-t-ftif"'sm2t -tf"'ca112' rO!:O
"h1chis1hesolulionof1hegivcndifferemrnlcqua1ion.
 TheLaptaceTransrorm Chap.2

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS

Ob1nin1hcrcaland1magin11rypansor
2+, 1
3+ji
Al!IO.oblain1hcmagni1udcand1nglco(1hbcomplexquanrny.
Snlul ion
2 + jl (2 + jl)(3 - j4) 6 + j3 - i8+ 4 JO- j5
J+"j.1 - (3 + j4)(3 - i4) - - , - . - " - - , ,

- ~- ik
Hence,

real pa.rt ·t- imaginarypan .. -jk

"Ole magnitude and angle ofttus oom plcr quantity arc obiamcd u follow.-s:

magnuudc · ~ - ~ - * • 0.-447
angle• ran
1
~~ • ian ::f- -
1
-26.565

FindthcLapl;icetraru!ormol
f(t) • 0 I<0
, .. --.. I~ 0
Stlh11 io11 Since

!l\11 G(s) ~
rcfcrnngtoEquation(2-2),•••cobt.:un

F(s) .. l\1t· ""J ., G(r + 3) • (i: 3

):

Wha1is1hcLapl:icc1ransrormof
f(I) "" 0 I <0
.. sin(M +6) 1 <-0
"'here9isaoonstanr!
Solu1 kJ11 Notin!llha1
Jtn(.,.. + 9) •i.in""coslJ + C<l!l1.itsin6

37
Example Proble ms and Sololions

.115in(...,. + 9)1 "' rosf!llsin ..,J + 5in9 !£!cos""]

., cos9s 1 :,,; + 5in9 s2:,,;
.. ... ros9 + um9
~

rroblen1 A-2-$
Find1hcLaplaccuansform1'1s)ofthe fonction ft1)sOOwninFigurc:2-9. Al so. find1he
limuingvalueofF{s)asuapprooehesuro.
Solution 1'hcfunction /{1)c:m hc.,.rillen

/(1) - ~l(r) - ;1(1 - u) + ~l{1 - la)

F(s) • U'[/(1)1

- ~!£!! (1)1 - ~!£[1 (1 - u)] + ~!£11 (1 - 2a ))

- ~; ;i;t•' + ~;ti.'
- ~(l - 2t-"' + ri.')

Asuapproachc!lzero.,.·chave

~F(s) • !~l - i...,:s+t Jao ., !~;/;(\ - it-•+ t:-;i..)

;;;1.11)