Chapter 02 Basic Chemistry

BASIC CHEMISTRY
Agip KCO Well Area Operations

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CALCULATIONS-MAP-1 RPW2021A 1
INTRODUCTION
• Mass
– The unit of measurement normally used for the mass are grams (g) and pounds.
• Volume
– Gallons (gal), barrels (bbl), cubic feet (ft3), litres (l) cubic metre (m3).
• Density
– Pounds per gallon (lb/gal), pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3), kilograms per cubic
metre (kg/m3) and grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3). Specific Weight is a
particular definition of density often used for solids and liquids. It is a ratio
between the weight of a substance and the weight of the distilled water at a
temperature of 4 centigrades.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
There are three different states in which matter can exist in the universe:
– Solid
– Liquid
– Gaseous
• SOLIDS
– Characterized by higher density than liquids.
– Solids keep their own shape and volume, independent of the container.
• LIQUIDS
– Lower density than solids but higher than gases. Liquids take the shape of the
container they are in.
• GASES
– Lack of definite shape and volume, easy contraction and expansion.

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All the substances can be divided in one of the following two categories:
¾ Homogeneous substances (pure substances). Like table salt where each grain is
identical in chemical composition.
¾ Heterogeneous substances (mixture of substances) as the riverbed gravel,
mixture of rocks having different chemical composition.
It is possible to separate the pure substances in two categories:
¾ The elements which cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by ordinary

chemical methods.
¾ The compounds which can be reduced into two or more simpler substances.

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COMMON ELEMENTS
Element Symbol Atomic Weight Common Valence
Alluminium Al 26,98 3+
Arsenic As 74,92 5+
Barium Ba 137,34 2+
Boron B 10,81 3+
Bromine Br 79,90 1-
Cadmium Cd 112,40 2+
Calcium Ca 40,08 2+
Carbon C 12,01 4+
Caesium Cs 132,91 1+
Chlorine Cl 35,45 1-
Chromium Cr 52,00 6+
Copper Cu 63,55 2+

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Fluorine F 19,00 1-
Hydrogen H 1,01 1+
Iodine I 126,90 1-
Iron Fe 55,85 3+
Lead Pb 207,19 2+
Lithium Li 6,94 1+
Magnesium Mg 24,31 2+
Manganese Mn 54,94 2+
Mercury Hg 200,59 2+
Nickel Ni 58,71 2+
Nitrogen N 14,00 5+

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Oxygen O 16,00 2-
Phosphorus P 30,97 5+
Potassium K 39,10 1+
Silicon Si 28,09 4+
Silver Ag 107,87 1+
Sodium Na 22,99 1+
Sulphur S 32,06 2-
Tin Sn 118,69 2+
Titanium Ti 47,90 4+
Zirconium Zr 91,22 4+
Zinc Zn 65,37 2+

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Diffuse cloud of electrons (-) orbiting

the nucleus in structured shells
Atoms are made up of three subatomic particles:
¾ Protons
¾ Neutrons
¾ Electrons
Nucleus is compact and dense,

containing protons (+) and neutrons
(neutral)
Atom structure

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The atoms have two distinct zones: a small dense nucleus, which contains the protons and
neutrons, surrounded by a diffuse cloud of electrons.
¾ The nucleus is spherical in shape, 10-4 angstrom (Å) in diameter.
¾ The nucleus contains only protons and neutrons.
¾ The proton has positive charge.
¾ The neutron has no charge.

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
(Cont’d)
¾ Surrounding the nucleus is the electron cloud, in which electrons orbit the nucleus in
specific orbits.
¾ The electron cloud is also approximately spherical, 1 Å (10-10m) in diameter and

contains only electrons.
¾ The electron has a negative charge equal in strenght to the positive charge of the
proton.
¾ Every atom has a specific number of electrons that surround the nucleus and if the
atom is neutral (has no charge) that number is equal to the number of protons in the
atom’s nucleus

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Certain atoms can acquire or loose electrons = name ion
Ion with positive charge = cation When electron is lost.
Ion with negative charge = anion When electron is gained.
The mass, that belongs to a proton or a neutron is approximatively 1837 times greater
than the mass of an electron
Proton and neutrons mass ≃ atom mass (electron mass is irrilevant)

Mass and charge of subatomic particles
Particle Charge Mass (g)
Proton Positive (1+) 1,6724 X 10–24
Neutron None (neutral) 1,6757 X 10–24
Elettron Negative (1-) 0,000911 X 10–24

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
¾ The nucleus of an atom has a very high density: around 1,770 tons/in3.
(98.000 kg/cm3).
¾ The electrons cloud has a diameter 10.000 times larger than that of the
nucleus.
¾ The average density of the electron cloud is between 2 and 20 g/cm3.
¾ The hydrogen that is the lightest and simplest element has only one proton in
each nucleus. Atoms of other elements contain 1 to 93 protons in their
nucleus.

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
(Cont’d)
¾ 92 elements occur in nature which in various combinations form the physical world.
¾ The number of protons in the nucleus is used to define each element and is called
atomic number
Number of protons = (p+)

Atomic number = (z)
Atomic mass a = p+ + n.
¾ Isotopics atomic number (z), atomic mass number (a) (azX).
¾ The hydrogen has three isotopes. (11H), (21H) (31H).

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Most recurrent compounds in the drilling activity
Name Formula Common name

Silver nitrate AgNO3
Aluminium oxide Al2O3 Alumina
Barium sulphate BaSO4 Barite
Barium carbonate BaCO3 Mineral whiterite
Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Hydrated Lime
Calcium sulphate (anhydrous) CaSO4 Anhydrite
Calcium sulphate (hydrous) CaSO4 • 2H2O Gypsum
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 Calcite
Calcium chloride CaCl2

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Quick lime,
Calcium oxide CaO
Hot lime
Hydrochloric acid HCl Muriatic acid
Hydrogen oxide H2O Water
Sulphuric acid H2SO4
Hydrogen sulphide H2S
Magnesium oxide MgO Mag ox
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 —

Nitric acid HNO3 Aqua fortis
Potassium chloride KCl Muriate of potash
Sodium hydroxide NaOH Caustic soda

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 Baking soda
Sodium chloride NaCl Salt
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 Soda ash
Salt cake,
Sodium sulphate Na2SO4•10H2O
Glauber’s salt
Sodium acid pyrophosphate Na2H2P2O7 SAPP
Sodium tetraphosphate Na6P4O13 Phos
Silicon dioxide SiO2 Quartz, silica
Zinc carbonate ZnCO3
Zinc sulphide ZnS
Zinc oxide ZnO

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VALENCE
The valence of an element or of a ion represents the number of elettrons that it can
acquire loose or share to become a stable, neutral charged compound.
Symbols of elements and compounds and their valences
Element Symbol Valence
Hydrogen H 1+
Oxygen O 2-
Potassium K 1+
Sodium Na 1+
Calcium Ca 2+
Magnesium Mg 2+
Aluminum Al 3+

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VALENCE
Element Symbol Valence
Zinc Zn
2+
Iron
Fe 3+, 2+
Silver Ag
1+
Carbon C 4+
Phosphorus P 5+
Sulphur S 2+,4+,6+
Chlorine Cl 1+,3+,5+,7+

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VALENCE
Ion or group Symbol Valence
Hydroxide OH 1-
Oxide O 2-
Carbonate CO3 2-
Bicarbonate HCO3 1-
Sulphate SO4 2-
Sulphite SO3 2-
Sulphide S 2-

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VALENCE
Ion or group Symbol Valence
Nitrate NO3 1-
Nitrite NO2 1-
Phosphate PO4 3-
Ammonium NH4 3-
Acetate C2H3O2 1-
Formate CHO2 1-
Thiocyanate SCN 1-

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ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE
¾ Electrons orbit around the nucleus of an atom in an ordered disposition called electron
shell.
¾ Each shell can contain only a maximum and defined number of electrons, and in general
each following shell cannot contain more than 8 electrons.
¾ The first orbital or shell cannot contain more than two electrons. Completely filled shells
form stable structure; they tend not to accept or give up electrons.
¾ N=1
¾ N=2
¾ N=3

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IONIC BONDING
Electron shells and ionic bonding

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COVALENT BONDING
• Hydrogen bond:
Water: 2 Hydrogen atoms Oxygen atoms
Covalent bond
Shared electrons
Water and hydrogen gas covalent bond

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HYDROGEN BONDING
Polar molecule and

hydrogen bonding in
water.

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IONIC BOND
Clay hydration by means of water through hydrogen bond

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COMPOUNDS
A compound is a substance composed of elements in definite proportions.
The following rules are applied to all compounds:
¾ The composition of a compound is always the same; it is uncheangeable and

exact.
¾ The elements loose their own identity (and their peculiar characteristics) when
they combine to form a compound.
¾ A compound is homogeneous.

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FORMULA
¾ The formula of a compound represents a molecule of the same compound.
¾ The weight is used to measure the quantity of chemical substances involved in

chemical reactions.
¾ A sodium atom weights 22,99 a.m.u.
¾ A chlorine atom weights 35,45 a.m.u.
¾ 22,99 g of sodium will combine with a definite number of atoms in 35,45 g of

chlorine to originate salt (sodium chloride)

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FORMULA
¾ The atomic weight corresponds to 6,023 x 1023 atoms. (Avogadro’s number).
¾ This value corresponds to the weight of a ‘gram-atom’ molecular or ‘mole’.
¾ A mole is a quantitative unit of measurement which contains a definite number of atoms.

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FORMULA
¾ A mole is a quantitative unit of measure that contains the exact number of atoms,
molecules or formula units which have a mass in grams, equal to the atomic,
molecular or formula weight.
¾ The normal usage of the mole is the formula weight expressed in grams.
¾ For sodium chloride, the formula weight is 58.44 (sodium 22.99 a.m.u., chlorine 35.45
a.m.u.), so one mole of Sodium Chloride would be 58.44 g.

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FORMULA
The number of atoms of an element in the formula of a compound is equal to the

number of moles of that element needed to form one mole of the compound.
¾ Water:
- Hydrogen (atomic weight 1,01)
- Oxygen (atomic weight 16,00)
¾ Ratio:
- 2,02 g of hydrogen for 16,00 g of oxygen
- The formula is H2O.

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STOICHIOMETRY – STOICHIOMETRIC REACTIONS
¾ Atoms react with the other atoms according to their valence. This is the reason why
the compounds show a fixed ratio between the elements.
¾ Atoms react according to these ratios based on predetermined weights of each atom
involved.
¾ Stoichiometry deals with the quantities and the ratios among reacting substances.
¾ Stoichiometric calculations permit to fix exactly the weight and ratio of the chemical
elements which will react to be fixed exactly and will determine the desired result.

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EQUIVALENT WEIGHT
¾ Often, chemical test and reactions are carried out with unknown materials.
¾ Since we do not know the correct composition, it is often convenient to express

the results in terms of “equivalents” of a standard compound instead of moles.
¾ The equivalent weight is the molecular weight of an element, molecule or ion

divided by its valence.
– H2SO4 + 2OH– Æ 2H2O + SO42–
– HCl + OH– Æ H2 O + Cl –

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BALANCE OF THE CHEMICAL EQUATION
¾ To balance the chemical equation is the first step to determine the

stoichiometric reaction.
¾ Considering this non balanced equation involving the reaction between iron
(Fe3+) and oxygen (O2–) which generates iron oxide:
- Fe3+ + O22– Æ Fe23+O32–

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(Cont’d)
We can observe that the equation is not balanced in the number of atoms and in the
valence charges: there are 2 oxygen atoms on the left side and 3 on the right; there
are 4 neg. charges (2 x 2-) on the left and 6 neg. charges (3 x 2-) on the right.
The correct equation becomes:

1) Fe3+ + 3O22– Æ 2Fe23+O32–
2) 4Fe3+ + 3O22– Æ 2Fe23+O32–
3) 4Fe + 3O2 Æ 2Fe2O3
Stoichiometrically, 4 moles of Iron combine with 3 moles of Oxygen to yield two
moles of Iron Oxide.

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RPW2021A 34
Atomic weight Fe = 55,85

4 moles Fe = 4 x 55,85 = 223,4 g
Atomic weight O ≈ 16
3 moles O2 = 3 x 2 x 16 = 96 g
How many grams of Oxigen would be required to react with 140 gr of Iron to produce
iron oxide?
¾ Since only 140 g of iron are used (and not 223,4)
¾ The ratio given by 140 and divided 223,4 must be multiplied by 96 g of oxigen to
determine the quantity of oxygen needed to react with 140 g of iron.
¾ Oxygen needed = (140 g Fe / 223,4 g Fe) x 96 g O2 = 60,2 g O2
¾ Hence, 60.2 g of oxygen are necessary to react with 140 g of iron to produce iron oxide.

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SOLUBILITY
• SOLUTIONS
¾ Sugar + Water solution of sugar in water.
¾ Sugar = Solute (Substance dissolved).
¾ Water = Solvent (Substance that does the dissolving).
¾ A saturated solution is a solution that contains as much dissolved materials as it

can hold at a given temperature.

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SOLUBILITY
BONDS EFFECTS
Sodium chloride ionization in water

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SOLUBILITY
Solubility quantification
• The quantity of solute which dissolves in a quantity of solvent to have a saturates solution.
• Unit grams of solute per 100 grams of water.
Solubility
Compound Name
(g per 100 g of water)
NaOH Causic soda 119
CaCl2 Calcium chloride 47,5
NaCl Sodium chloride (kitchen salt) 36
KCl Potassium chloride 34,7
Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate 21,5
NaHCO3 Sodium bicarbonate 9,6
CaSO4 Anhydride 0,290
Ca(OH)2 Lime 0,185
MgCO3 Magnesium carbonate 0,129
CaCO3 Limestone 0,0014
Mg(OH)2 Milk of magnesia 0,0009
BaSO4 Barite 0,0002
ZnO Zinc oxide 0,00016
Solubility of common chemical compounds

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SOLUBILITY
Factors affecting solubility
Temperature
pH (acid or basic)
Ionic ambient (salinity)
Pressure
Temperature
For the majority of solids and liquids, the solubility increases as the temperature
increases.
Generally, gas solubility decreases as the temperature increases.

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SOLUBILITY
pH
pH (potential (of) hydrogen) is a measure of the relative acid or basic condition of a
solution. The solubility of many chemicals is a function of pH. Some salts of hydroxide or
carbonate are more soluble in acid condition. Others are soluble only in neutral pH range
and others like organic acids and ligno-sulfonate are more soluble when pH is over 9.5.
Calcium solubility decreasing as the pH increases

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SOLUBILITY
Carbonate-bicarbonate equilibrium

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SOLUBILITY
Ionic Ambient (salinity)

• Chlorides concentrations or salinity. A salinity increase generally causes an increase
of the solubility of other salts and additives and will affect both the chemical reactions
and precipitations. This trend decreases as the salinity approaches saturation
Pressure
• A pressure increase, increases the solubility of a gas in a liquid, but it has no effect
on the solubility of the liquids and solids.

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pH AND ALKALINITY
pH
¾ The pH is used to define the acidity or the basicity of the solutions.
¾ pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the concentration of the hydrogen ions.
¾ Low values of the pH correspond to an increase of the acidity and high vlues of the pH
correspond to a high basicity.
Water is in equilibrium with the ions according to the following equation:

2H2O ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
The expression of equilibrium for the process of autoionization is:

Kw = [H+] [OH–]

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pH AND ALKALINITY
¾ AT 25°C, Kw = l,0 x 10–14

¾ Kw, the product [H+] e [OH–]
¾ It is constant provided that the temperature is constant.
¾ In a neutral solution, the concentration of hydrogen [H+] is equal to the concentration of
hydroxide[OH–]; hence, each will have a concentration of 1,0 x 10–7, and the solution will
have a pH of 7,0.
¾ If the [H+] increases, the [OH–] decreases and the solution becomes more acid.
Similarly, if the [OH–] increases, then the [H+] must decrease and the solution becomes
more basic.
¾ The terms pH and pOH are defined as:
- pH = - log [H+]
- pOH = - log [OH–]

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pH AND ALKALINITY
¾ Ratio between pH and pOH:

pKw = -log Kw = -log [H+] -log [OH–]
Through the above definitions of pH and pOH, we

find that at 25° C:
pKw = pH + pOH
because Kw = l,0 x 10–14
pKw = - log Kw = 14
pH + pOH = 14
pH range, acids and bases

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pH AND ALKALINITY
ALKALINITY
¾ Alkalinity titrations define the OH–, HCO3– and CO32– concentrations with the
measurement of the quantity of acid required to reduce the pH.
¾ Alkalinity is the aggregating force of a base measured by the quantity of acid which
can react to form a salt.
¾ Phenolphtalein alkalinity (P) is reported as the number of millimetres of 0,02 N

H2SO4 (water-based mud) required to titrate a millimetre of filtrate (Pf) or mud (Pm),
reducing the pH at 8,3.
¾ The alkalinity of the methylorange filtrate (Mf) measures the acid required to
reduce the pH to 4,3.

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pH AND ALKALINITY
Ratio between the pH and the alkalinity for the distilled water.
• Alkalinity measurements (Pf, Mf and other values) are used to calculate the
concentrations of hydroxide, bicarbonate and carbonate.

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ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
ACIDS
¾ Substances with a sour taste.

¾ Their pH is in the range from 0 to 7.
¾ Effervescence when in contact with bicarbonates.
¾ React with bases and alkalis to form salts.
¾ All the acids contain hydrogen.
¾ Acids are defined “strong” or “weak” according to the concentrations of hydrogen ion (H+).

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BASES
¾ Bases taste sour.

¾ Bases have pH in the range from 7 to 14.
¾ React with the acids to form the salts.
¾ A base is defined strong or weak according to the number of molecules that dissociate
into hydroxide ion (OH–) in the solution.
SALTS
¾ Salts are simply the combination of an anion (negative ion), of an acid with a cation
(positive ion) of a base.
¾ The combination of a weak acid and a strong base form an alkaline salt.
¾ The combination of strong acid and a weak base form an acidic salt.
¾ The combination of strong acid and a strong base in a neutral salt.

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Acids, bases and common salts

Chemical noun Usual name Formula Type
Chloridric acid Muriatic acid HCl Acid (strong)
Sulphuric acid — H2SO4 Acid (strong)
Nitric acid Aqua fortis HNO3 Acid (strong)
Phosphoric acid Ortho-phosphoric H3PO4 Acid (weak)
Carbonic acid Soda (effervescent) H2CO3 Acid (weak)
Citric acid — H3C6H5O7 Acid (weak)
Sodium hydroxide Caustic soda NaOH Base (strong)
Potassium hydroxide Caustic potash KOH Base (strong)
Magnesium hydroxide Magnesium hydrate Mg(OH)2 Base
Sodium carbonate Soda ash Na2CO3 Base (weak)
Calcium hydroxide Slaked Lime Ca(OH)2 Base (strong)
Calcium oxyde Lime CaO Base (strong)
Spdium chloride Salt NaCl Salt
Potassium chloride Muriate of Potash KCl Salt
Calcium chloride — CaCl2 Salt
Calcium sulphate Anhydrite (gypsum) CaSO4 ( • 2H2O ) Salt

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BUFFER SOLUTIONS
¾ Certain solutions called buffer solutions, resist large pH changes when a base or an
acid is added to a solution.
¾ Many drilling liquids and chemical compounds to treat the muds are buffer solutions.
Buffering can be highly beneficial to maintain stable fluid properties.

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ELECTROLYTE
¾ An electrolyte is an element or compound that, when dissolved or melted in water or
other solvent, dissociates into ions and is able to conduct electric current.
¾ All the solutions of ionic compounds are electrolytes.
¾ Acids, bases, and salts are common electrolytes.
¾ Salt: NaCl = Na+ + Cl–
¾ Lime: Ca(OH)2 = Ca2+ + 2OH–
¾ Electrolyts that are excellent conductors, contain high concentration of ions in solution
and are called strong electrolytes. In general, salts are strong electrolytes as well as
some strong acids and hydroxides. Pure water is not a good electrolyte

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OSMOSIS
¾ The process takes place when two solutions of different salinity are reported by a
semi-permeable membrane. There is a movement of solvent (water) from the solution
with the lower salinity to the solution of high concentration of the solute.
¾ Transfer of water through a membrane from a low solute concentration to one of

higher concentration occurs until the two solutions have a similar solute concentration
(salinity).
¾ The ‘activity’ of a solution is a measure of the vapour pressure or ‘relative humidity’

and it is connected to the concentration of the solute (salinity).
¾ In drilling reactive shale it is important to provide similar activity for mud and
formation, to minimize the transfer of water from mud to shales. This is also more
important when drilling with OBM or synthetic base fluids.

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TITRATION
The chemical tests made in the mud are called titrations.
¾ The fundamental equation which refers to this quantitative analysis is:
V2 x N2 = V1 x N1 where N1 is a solution of known concentration and N2 is the

unknown concentration V1 the volume required to reach the end-Point and V2 the
sample of known volume.
¾ Solving this equation N2 will be obtained as follows:
N2 = (V1/ V2) x N1

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TITRATION
INDICATORS
¾ The chemical compounds used to determine the end-Point in the titrations are
called indicators.
¾ The indicators are compounds that change colour when the pH or the
chemical concentration change.
¾ This change in colour happens at a proper pH (particular and exact for every
indicator).

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TITRATION
Indicators
Chemical compound
Indicator Original colour Colour change Titration
for titration
Pink/red: Absence of colour:

Phenolphthalein Pm Pf Pom Sulphuric acid
pH >8,3 pH <8,3
Methyl orange/
Green: pH >4,3 Yellow: pH <4,3 Mf Sulphuric acid
Green bromic cresol
Yellow/orange: pH Rose/red:
Methyl orange Mf Sulphuric acid
>4,3 pH <4,3
Green bromic cresol Blue: pH >3,8 Yellow: pH <3,8 — Sulphuric acid
Absence of colour:
Thymolphthalein Blue: pH >9,5 — Caustic solution
pH <9,5
Rose/Red: Sulphuric acid

Methyl red Yellow: pH >5,4 PHPA
pH <5,4
Red wine: Blue/deep red:

Standard Versenate
Erio Crome T Ca2+ and Mg2+ Ca2+ and Mg2+ Total hardness
(0.01m EDTA)
presence absence
Red wine: Blue/deep red: Standard Versenate

CalVer II or Calcon Calcium
Ca2+ presence Ca2+ absence (0.01m EDTA)
Potassium chromate Orange/red:

Yellow Chlorides Silver nitrate solution
solution AgNO3 excess

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SOLUTIONS CONCENTRATIONS
MOLALITY (m)
¾ A molal solution is a solution which contains a mole of solute per kilogram of solvent.
e.g. 1 m solution of NaOH would be 40 g of NaOH per 1000g of water.
MOLARITY (M)
¾ A solution which contains a mole of solute per litre of solution is called molar
solution.
¾ e.g. 0,1 M solution of HCl would be 1/10 mole=3,646 of HCl per liter of solution.

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NORMALITY (N)
A normal (N) solution 1,0 is defined as a solution with a concentration that contains 1 g-
weight equivalent of a substance per litre of solution. E.g. 1.0 N solution of HCl has 36-
5g of solute per liter of solution.
Molarity = Normality ÷ net positive valence.
If the net positive valence is 1, N and M will have the same numerical value.
MILLIGRAMS PER LITRE (mg/l)

Milligrams per litre is a ratio weight-volume.
100 mg/l solution contains 100 mg of solute per liter of solution.

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PARTS PER MILION (ppm).
- Parts per milion : “ppm”, is a ratio weight/weight. It is the weight fraction times 1 million
or the weight percent times 10.000.
e.g. saturated salt water is 26% salt by weight, therefore it would contain
26x10.000=260.000 ppm salt.
- Mg/l can be converted to ppm (if the fluid density is known) by dividing the mg/l value by
the specific gravity of the solution.

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EQUIVALENT PARTS PER MILLION (EPM).

- The EPM is the unit chemical weight of solute per million unit weights of solution. The
EPM is equal to the ppm divided by the E.W.
Solutions Concentrations.
Concentration* Solute weight Solvent weight Solution Volume Solution Weight
1 m (molal) 1 g mole wt 1.000 g — 1 g mole
1 M (Molar) 1 g mole wt — 1 liter —
1 N (Normal) 1 g equiv. wt — 1 ” —
100.000 mg/l 100.000 mg — 1 “ —
100.000 ppm 100.000 mg 900.000 mg — 1.000 g
* There’s no standard volume of solvent for each of these concentrations of solutions. A

specific weight of solute is added to a specific weight of solvent or a volume of solvent is
added to obtain the final volume of the solution

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Example: Given a solution of sodium chloride of specific weight 1.148 g/cm3 (SG) with a volume of
1.000 cm3 which contains 230 g of dissolved salt, calculate the following ompositions and
concentrations:
a) % composition in weight
b) % composition in volume
c) Molality
d) Molarity
e) Normality
f) mg/l of sodium chloride
g) ppm of sodium chloride
h) EPM
i) Weight ratio between NaCl to H2O, (pounds/pounds)
Total solution weight = 1,000 cm3 x 1.148 g/cm3 = 1.148 g
Water weight = total weight – salt weight = 1.148 - 230 = 918 g

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a) % Composition in weight:
% weight NaCl = (230 ÷ 1.148) x 100 = 20.0%
% weights H2O = (918 ÷ 1.148) x 100 = 80.0%
b) % Composition in volume:
Distilled water specific weight (20°C) = 0,998 g/cm3
Distilled water volume = (918 ÷ 0,998) = 920 cm3
% Volume of water = (920 ÷ 1.000) x 100 = 92%
Volume of sodium chloride = 1.000 - 920 = 80 cm3
% Volume of sodium chloride = (80 ÷ 1.000) x 100 = 8%

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c) Molality — moles of solute per kilogram of solvent:

Molecular weight of the sodium chloride: 58,44
Grams-mole NaCl = (230 ÷ 58.44) = 3,94
Since there are only 918 g of water, not 1 kg (1.000 g), then the number of
grams-mole will have to be calculated for the value of 1 kg.
Molality = 3,94 x (1.000 ÷ 918) = 4,287 grams-mole NaCl per kg
d) Molarity — moles of solute per 1 litre of solvent:

From value c) above, there are 3,94 mole grams of NaCl in the original
solution 1.000-cm3 (1-l).
Molarity = 3,94 grams-mole-per-litre

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e) Normality — equivalent weight in grams per litre of solution:

Since sodium chloride has a net positive valence of 1, the normality has the same
value as molarity.
Normality = 3,94 grams-equivalent weight per litre
f) mg/l of sodium chloride:

Since 230 g (230.000 mg) of sodium chloride are contained in 1.000-cm3 (1-l) of
solution:
mg/l of sodium chloride = 230.000 mg ÷ 1 l = 230.000 mg/l

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g) ppm sodium chloride — ratio weight x 1.000.000:

ppm of sodium chloride = (230 ÷ 1.148) x 1.000.000 = 200.350 ppm
h) EPM — ppm divided per equivalent weight:

EPM sodium chloride = (200.350 ÷ 58,44) = 3.428 EPM
i) Weight ratio between NaCl and H2O :

Grams NaCl ÷ grams H2O = (230 ÷ 918) = 0,2505

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RPW2021A 65
MIXTURES – SOLUTIONS – EMULSIONS - DISPERSIONS
MIXTURES
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances with no consistent composition.
SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
A solution has a consistent composition. A solution can consist of:
¾ solids
¾ liquids
¾ gas

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MIXTURES – SOLUTIONS – EMULSIONS - DISPERSIONS
DISPERSIONS
¾ A dispersion is a two component system in which one component consists of solid

particles of rocks distributed in a second component.
EMULSIONS
¾ An emulsion is a stable misture of immiscible liquids tenuti assieme da un

emulsifier.

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RPW2021A 67

Chapter 02 Basic Chemistry

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BASIC CHEMISTRY

Agip KCO Well Area Operations

Agip KCO Well Area Operations

Agip KCO Well Area Operations

It is possible to separate the pure substances in two categories:

¾ The elements which cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by ordinary

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Element Symbol Atomic Weight Common Valence

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Element Symbol Atomic Weight Common Valence

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Element Symbol Atomic Weight Common Valence

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Diffuse cloud of electrons (-) orbiting

Atoms are made up of three subatomic particles:

Nucleus is compact and dense,

Agip KCO Well Area Operations

¾ The nucleus is spherical in shape, 10-4 angstrom (Å) in diameter.

¾ The nucleus contains only protons and neutrons.

¾ The proton has positive charge.

¾ The neutron has no charge.

Agip KCO Well Area Operations

¾ The electron cloud is also approximately spherical, 1 Å (10-10m) in diameter and

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Certain atoms can acquire or loose electrons = name ion

Ion with positive charge = cation When electron is lost.

Ion with negative charge = anion When electron is gained.

Proton and neutrons mass ≃ atom mass (electron mass is irrilevant)

Particle Charge Mass (g)

Proton Positive (1+) 1,6724 X 10–24

Neutron None (neutral) 1,6757 X 10–24

Elettron Negative (1-) 0,000911 X 10–24

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¾ The average density of the electron cloud is between 2 and 20 g/cm3.

Agip KCO Well Area Operations

Number of protons = (p+)

¾ Isotopics atomic number (z), atomic mass number (a) (azX).

¾ The hydrogen has three isotopes. (11H), (21H) (31H).

Agip KCO Well Area Operations

Most recurrent compounds in the drilling activity

Name Formula Common name

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Name Formula Common name

Hydrogen oxide H2O Water

Sulphuric acid H2SO4

Hydrogen sulphide H2S

Magnesium oxide MgO Mag ox

Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 —

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Name Formula Common name

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Symbols of elements and compounds and their valences

Element Symbol Valence

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Element Symbol Valence

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Ion or group Symbol Valence

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Ion or group Symbol Valence

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Agip KCO Well Area Operations

Electron shells and ionic bonding

Agip KCO Well Area Operations

Atomic weight Fe = 55,85