Wear 268 (2010) 353–360

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Wear
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wear

Effect of intermittent fretting on corrosion behavior in electrical contact

Young Woo Park a , Hyung Goun Joo b , Kang Yong Lee b,∗
a
Stainless Steel Process Research Group, POSCO Technical Research Laboratories, POSCO, Gyeongbuk 790-300, Republic of Korea
b
Stress Analysis and Failure Design Laboratory, School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 120-749, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effect of intermittent fretting on fretting-corrosion of tin-plated electrical contact is studied by con-
Received 26 May 2008 trolling the iterative fretting on/off motion. Comparison between intermittent fretting and continuous
Received in revised form 23 June 2009 fretting indicates that the former is more effective in reducing the contact resistance increasing. The
Accepted 12 August 2009
degradation mechanism of intermittent fretting is compared with that of continuous fretting. When the
Available online 22 August 2009
fretting motion is stopped by intermittent fretting, a thick oxide layer will form on the fretted surface.
When fretting motion is resumed, the thick oxide layer will be remarkably delaminated and a wide bare
Keywords:
surface will be generated. The ratio of “on/off” period is used as intermittent fretting variable and the
Fretting-corrosion
Tin-plated contact
increased “fretting on” period accelerates the degradation of the contact resistance. Surface character-
Contact resistance istics of fretted area are also analyzed by SEM/EDX and LSM. It is clearly revealed that the “fretting on”
Intermittent fretting period give a rise to electrical contact degradation, at a given period. Therefore, the extent of fretting is
Accelerated testing an important factor for electrical contact degradation and the “fretting off” period is related to the delay
of the degradation.
© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
An accelerated surface damage always occurs at the interface
of contacting materials subjected to fretting in many engineering
applications. The main causes of fretting are vibrations and tem-
perature variations inducing different expansion. Such situations
are classically observed not only in airplanes, satellites and trains,
but also in cars. The deleterious effect of fretting on electrical con-
nections is of significant practical importance as it influences the
reliability and system performance. Bock and Whitley [1] demon-
strated the importance of fretting in the degradation of electrical
connections. A comprehensive review of fretting in electrical con-
nections is given by Antler [2,3].
The deleterious effect of fretting has absorbed the attention of
many researchers. Though fretting itself may not result in failure
of an electrical connection, it may produce a thick highly localized
insulating layer of wear debris and oxides in the contact zone. The
layer may further increase the contact resistance rapidly and even-
tually led to a virtually open circuit. Such a phenomenon evolves
with time and is it is not easy to detect.
In recent years, the number of electrical systems in a typical
vehicle continues to increase from headlight, DVD player and body
impact sensors to global-positioning systems. With the inclusion
of every new system, additional connectors are provided. Today’s
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 2 2123 2813; fax: +82 2 2123 2813.
E-mail address: KYL2813@yonsei.ac.kr (K.Y. Lee).
luxury cars have about 400 connectors with 3000 individual ter-
minals that translate into 3000 potential trouble spots. It has been
estimated that more than 60% of the electric problems in cars are
related to fretting contact problems [4].
For electrical contact materials, the brass has been the pre-
ferred choice for the contact manufacturer due to its unique
combination of conductivity, strength, stiffness, formability and
cost. The brass contacts are usually plated with either noble met-
als (gold, palladium and their alloys) or non-noble metals (tin,
tin–lead) to minimize the possibility of corrosion and to improve
the durability. In order to meet the requirements of EU directive
2002/95/EC, also known as RoHS, which restricts the use of lead,
the connector manufacturer have to adopt lead-free plating for
electronic components. Tin-plated contacts have been employed
in many consumer applications as a low-cost alternative to gold
[5]. However, the susceptibility of tin-plated contacts to fretting-
corrosion is a major limitation on its application in automobile
connectors.
Every electrical contact part has its usage time and pause time.
Despite of many researches on electrical degradation, there is no
report regarding their usage time and pause time. Therefore, the
effect of fretting pause has to be also considered in the accelerated
testing of fretting-corrosion on electrical contact. Fretting-
corrosion is a combined behavior of wear and corrosion. When fret-
ting motion is continuous, wear and oxidation occurs simultane-
ously. When fretting motion is stopped, only oxidation is will occur.
The present study focuses on the effect of intermittent fretting
motion on electrical contact resistance during fretting-corrosion

0043-1648/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wear.2009.08.021
354 Y.W. Park et al. / Wear 268 (2010) 353–360

and specifically deals with various “fretting on”/“fretting off” Table 1

ratios.
2. Experimental details
The schematic sketch of the fretting apparatus used in this study
is shown in Fig. 1 (a). The normal load is applied on the balance arm.
One of the contacts is flat and the other is a hemispherical specimen
(Fig. 1b) with the radius being 1.5 mm, supplied by Korea Elec-
tric Terminal Company Ltd., Korea. Both of them are made of brass
(C2600-H grade: Cu, 70%; Fe, 0.05%; Pb, 0.05%; and balance zinc) and
coated with tin of 3 ␮m thickness. The hemispherical and flat con-
tacts are degreased with acetone using an ultrasonic cleaner, dried
and carefully mated in the fretting test assembly so as to create a
point contact in “sphere vs. plane” geometry. The contact geometry
and the circuit used to measure the contact resistance are shown
in Fig. 1(c).
Because the displacement is determined during oscillation,
there exist the maximum and minimum displacements, which are
+25 ␮m and −25 ␮m, respectively. The displacement is measured
by an analog dial gage attached on the lower specimen jig. The
periodic displacement ±25 ␮m, a normal load of 0.5N and an elec-
Details of the experimental conditions.
Temperature 105 and 135 ◦ C
Frequency 3 and 10 Hz
Track length (Amplitude) ±25 ␮m
Humidity 45 ± 3% RH
Normal load 0.5 N
Current load 0.1 A
tric current of 100 mA (direct current) are applied between the
hemispherical and flat contacts. To accelerate the corrosion effect,
temperature is elevated to 105 ◦ C and 135 ◦ C. The details of the
experimental conditions are given in Table 1. The on/off switch of
the motor is controlled by dual-timer CT6S produced by Autonics® .
Since the present study intends to explore the fretting character-
istics of tin coated brass contacts and to characterize the nature of
oxide films formed in the contact zone, the fretting tests are con-
ducted under gross slip conditions [6]. The contact resistance is
continuously measured as a function of time with various “fretting
on”/“fretting off” time ratio. After testing, the samples are stored in
air-tight containers to prevent from further oxidation and are ana-
lyzed within 24 h. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is used to

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic sketch of the fretting apparatus. (b) The hemispherical and flat samples. (c) The geometry of the hemispherical and flat samples and the circuit used to
measure the contact resistance.
 Y.W. Park et al. / Wear 268 (2010) 353–360 355

obtain the image of surface morphology of the fretted contact zone.

The surface characterization of the fretted zone is also assessed by
the EDX, i.e., Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (Oxford instrument:
Link OPAL system) attached with SEM.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Surface characteristics of intermittent fretting

Fig. 2 shows the electrical contact resistance as a function of the

number of fretting cycles between continuous fretting and inter-
mittent fretting (fretting on/fretting off = 60 s/60 s), at 3 Hz, 105 ◦ C.
In both fretting conditions, a hump is observed (Inset of Figs. 2(a, b))
in the initial stage (between 30 and 240 cycles). When tin-plated
finish is used, the hump is always observed in fretting experiments
[7]. The initial hump is due to the presence of a thin film of tin
oxide on the surface of the tin-plated copper alloy contact, which
is removed by adhesive wear in a very short span of cycles. The
size of the contact increases with fretting cycles. At some cycles,
the size of the contact area is fixed and the effect of adhesive wear
disappears in the area [7].
Under the continuous fretting condition (Fig. 2(a)), the low con-
tact resistance maintains before 1100 cycles. The abrasive wear
occurs on the fretting surface and increases the contact resistance.
The contact resistance also increases with the increasing of temper-
ature [8]. Under the intermittent fretting condition with iterative

Fig. 3. Surface morphology of tin-plated contact at continuous fretting condition

(105 ◦ C, 3 Hz) after 3600 s (10,800 cycles): (a) whole area, (b) at the center of the
fretted zone, (c) at the edge of the fretted zone.

fretting on/off = 60 s/60 s (Fig. 2(b)), electrical contact resistance

Fig. 2. Effect of intermittent fretting (105 ◦ C, 3 Hz): (a) continuous fretting motion
(total 10800 cycles for 3600 s), (b) intermittent fretting (fretting on/fretting
off = 60 s/60 s, total 5400 cycles for 3600 s).
maintains about 0.1  up to 2400 cycles, and then gradually
increases to 10  after an instant failure peak at 2540 cycles. It
is found that the intermittent fretting is more effective in reducing
the contact resistance.
The previous work [7] showed that wear motion at contact sur-
face gradually enlarges the contact area and the contact of fresh
bare surface makes the contact resistance stable and low. It seems
that bare surface generates continuously under intermittent con-
dition and the fretting wear motion in the “fretting on” period can
easily wipe out the debris formed during the fretting on period are
thickening and growing due to oxidation mechanism in the “fret-
ting off” period. To clarify the degradation mechanism, the surface
characteristics are investigated.
The surface morphology after 10,800 cycles (3600 s) of con-
tinuous fretting motion is shown in Fig. 3. The fretting direction
is vertical. It is indicated in Fig. 3(a) that the fretted zone is
356 Y.W. Park et al. / Wear 268 (2010) 353–360
Fig. 4. Surface morphology of tin-plated contact at intermittent fretting condition
(fretting on/fretting off = 60 s/60 s, 105 ◦ C, 3 Hz) after 3600 s (5400 cycles): (a) whole
area, (b) at the center of the fretted zone, (c) at the edge of the fretted zone.
oval/elliptical. The wear debris ejected laterally during the fret-
ting motion is observed outside the fretted zone along the fretting
direction. At the center of the fretted zone (Fig. 3(b)), a closer
look at the morphology shows the fine particles. The fine par-
ticles are distributed and nailed into the fretted surface. The
morphology of debris is a loose sheet/flake (indicated by arrow
in Fig. 3(b)) [7,9]. Along the edge of the fretted zone (Fig. 3(c)),
the fine particles formed by adhesive wear are dispersed and dis-
tributed uniformly. These fine bright particles are tin and copper
oxides [7].
The surface morphology after 5400 cycles (3600 s) of intermit-
tent fretting motion (fretting on/fretting off = 60 s/60 s) is shown in
Fig. 4. In the fretted zone, significantly uneven surface is observed
(Fig. 4(a)). At the center of the fretted zone (Fig. 4(b)), a plate-type
coarse debris is mainly observed by massive delamination. The size
and shape of debris are different from the fine debris observed in
Fig. 5. EDX line scan performed across the fretted zone (indicated by the dotted line
in Fig. 4(a)).
continuous fretting. During “fretting off” period, particle-sintering
interaction between the wear debris and the environment produces
an aggregated oxide layer which is subsequently delaminated by
“fretting on” period. At the edge of the fretted zone, the coarse par-
ticles are aggregated on the delaminated coarse debris (Fig. 4(c).
It also substantiates the occurrence of debris aggregation during
“fretting off” period.
Along the dotted line in Fig. 4(a), EDX line scan is conducted
across the fretted zone (Fig. 5) at the end of a “fretting off” period.
The presence of tin, copper, zinc and oxygen element is confirmed.
Generally, within the fretted zone, it is observed that the inten-
sity of tin is decreased whereas the intensities of copper and zinc
are increased, indicating that during fretting, the tin coating is
removed and the base metal is exposed in most areas [7,9]. How-
ever, under the intermittent fretting condition, the presence of
un-oxidized tin zone in the fretted area is observed (arrow in Fig. 5).
The fluctuations of copper and oxygen peaks have a correspondence
which confirms the presence of copper oxides between un-oxidized
tin zones. The spot EDX analysis taken at the delaminated coarse
(plate-type) debris (marked as ‘1’ in Fig. 4(b)) indicates that it is
predominantly copper (62.18 at%) and zinc (26.98at%) with little
amount of oxygen (8.63 at%) and tin (2.21 at%), which reveals that
during fretting the surface of the delaminated coarse (plate-type)
debris is exposed. Spot EDX analysis taken on the bright particles
(marked as ‘2’ in Fig. 4(b)) indicates that it is copper oxide particles
and contains oxygen (30.87 at%) and copper (48.17 at%) with rela-
tively low concentration of zinc (17.69 at%) and tin (3.28 at%). X-ray
dot mapping of fretted zone (Fig. 6) substantiates these observa-
tions of EDX line scanning. In the edge region, the EDX pattern of the
intermittent fretted region taken at aggregated particles (marked
as ‘3’ in Fig. 4(c)) indicates that it is predominantly oxygen (54.09
at%) and copper (28.75 at%) with little amount of zinc (8.18 at%) and
tin (8.01 at%). EDX pattern taken on the bright particles of delam-
inated coarse debris (marked as ‘4’ in Fig. 4(c)) indicates that it is
copper oxide debris which contains oxygen (43.28 at%) and copper
(39.16 at%) with relatively low concentration of zinc (14.76 at%)
and tin (2.80 at%).
3.2. Degradation mechanism of intermittent fretting
From the surface characteristic results of the fretted zone, a sig-
nificant difference in degradation mechanism between continuous
and intermittent fretting is clarified. Fig. 7 shows such a differ-
 Y.W. Park et al. / Wear 268 (2010) 353–360 357

Fig. 6. X-ray dot mapping of oxygen, copper and tin performed across the fretted zone after intermittent fretting (fretting on/fretting off = 60 s/60 s, 105 ◦ C, 3 Hz): (a) SE
image, (b) map of oxygen, (c) map of copper, (d) map of tin.

Fig. 7. The schematic presentation of the different degradation mechanisms between continuous fretting (mechanism A) and intermittent fretting (mechanism B).
358 Y.W. Park et al. / Wear 268 (2010) 353–360

Fig. 8. Effect of intermittent fretting of different on/off ratios (135 ◦ C, 3 Hz): (a) 3:1 (fretting on/fretting off = 180 s/60 s, total 8100 fretting cycles for 3600 s), (b) 1:1 (fretting
on/fretting off = 120 s/120 s, total 5400 fretting cycles for 3600 s), (c) 1:3 (fretting on/fretting off = 60 s/180 s, total 2700 fretting cycles for 3600 s), (d) 1:1 (fretting on/fretting
off = 120 s/120 s, total 2700 fretting cycles for 1800 s), (e) 3:1 (fretting on/fretting off = 180 s/60 s, total 2700 fretting cycles for 1200 s).

ence schematically. Before the fretting tests, tin plating exists at
contact (A-1, B-1). As mentioned above, a common feature of the
initial hump stages is that the tin coating is removed by adhesive
wear (A-2, B-2) [7,9,10]. Adhesive wear makes some extent of cop-
per area exposed under given contact condition. In given area of
exposed copper, abrasive wear occurs by fretting debris and cop-
per oxides [7]. Under continuous fretting (mechanism A), the loose
sheet/flake-like debris and surface crack are generated on the sur-
face (A-3). Fine oxide particles produced by abrasive wear (A-4)
are accumulated/nailed and form the insulation layer (A-5) on the
contact surface, increasing the contact resistance early and steadily
[7,9,10]. Under intermittent fretting, the thick oxide layer is pro-
duced during the “fretting off” period (B-3). The plate-type coarse
debris delaminates massively from the surface under the following
“fretting on” movement (B-4). Thus, the fresh bare contact is made
by “fretting off and on” iteration, which makes low and stable con-
tact resistance. The delaminated coarse (plate-type) debris can also
be fractured and mixed with abrasive particles (B-5).
 Y.W. Park et al. / Wear 268 (2010) 353–360 359

3.3. Effect of various “fretting on/off” ratios

Within a fixed iterative unit time (240 s), various fretting on/off
ratios (on:off = 3:1, 1:1 and 1:3) are conducted during the test
time (3600 s). All the on/off iteration is conducted 8 times dur-
ing 3600 s. The results of various intermittent fretting experiments
(180 s/60 s, 120 s/120 s and 60 s/180 s) are shown in Fig. 8. During
the test time (3600 s), a remarkable increasing of contact resis-
tance is observed in the case of 180 s/60 s (Fig. 8(a)). In the case
of 60 s/180 s, contact resistance varies stably and increases moder-
ately (Fig. 8(c)). In the case of 120 s/120 s (Fig. 8(b), the increasing of
contact resistance is higher than that of 60 s/180 s, but lower than
that of 180 s/60 s. Increasing the “fretting on” time will increase the
contact resistance. Although all the on/off iterations are conducted
8 times in the test time (3600 s), more “fretting on” is conducted in
the case of 180 s/60 s which produces more degradation. Thus, the
“fretting on” time is a key factor in fretting-corrosion degradation
with the same test time. The effect of fretting on the degrada-
tion can be verified by the same fretting number results. From
the viewpoint of the same fretting cycle (2700 cycles), the contact
resistance degradation trend is similar. The results of 60 s/180 s,
120 s/120 s and 180 s/60 s are shown in Fig. 8 (c), (d) and (e),
respectively. In the case of 60 s/180 s, after the 4th on/off iteration
(about 960 s, 720 cycles), contact resistance starts to increase. In
the case of 120 s/120 s, contact resistance starts to increase after
the 2nd on/off iteration (about 480 s, 720 cycles). In the case of
180 s/60 s, contact resistance starts to increase after about the 1st
on/off iteration (about 300 s, 720 cycles). It is noted that con-
tact resistance starts to increase at 720 cycles in all three cases.
All the electrical contact degradation happens at a specific fret-
ting cycles (720 cycles) even if the tests contain various “fretting
off” periods. The “fretting off” period is not an important fac-
tor in the degradation within the same total cycle. Therefore, the
number of fretting cycles is important for various “fretting on/off”
ratios.
The surface morphology of tin-plated contact after 3600 s in the
case of 180 s/60 s intermittent fretting (“fretting on” dominant) is
shown in Fig. 9. In the whole area of fretting (Fig. 9(a)), it is evi-
dent that the fretted zone is oval/elliptical. Compared with the
surface morphology of continuous fretting (Fig. 3(a)), a rough sur-
face covered with coarse debris on the whole surface is observed
in (Fig. 9(a). At the center of the fretted zone (Fig. 9(b)), a closer
look indicates the occurrence of abrasive wear. The fine parti-
cles are distributed and nailed into the surface. The particles are
coarser than those of continuous fretting (Fig. 3(b)). The fine par-
ticles like loose sheets/flakes are observed in continuous fretting Fig. 9. Surface morphology of tin-plated contact in intermittent fretting condi-
tion (fretting on/fretting off = 180 s/60 s, 135 ◦ C, 3 Hz) after 3600 s (8100 cycles):
[7,9]. Antler [11] reported that cracks become nucleated below the
(a) whole area, (b) at the center of the fretted zone, (c) at the edge of the fretted
surface under repeat-pass sliding and it finally result in loosening zone.
of thin sheets of metal which becomes the wear debris. Braunvoic
[12] also reported the flake-like debris at its continuous fretting.
Although it is in intermittent fretting condition, the “fretting on”
effect is dominant for 180 s/60 s. Thus, the sheet/flake-like debris
arrows in Fig. 10(b)). At the edge of the fretted zone (Fig. 10(c)), the
(indicated by arrows in Fig. 9(b)) is also observed. At the edge of
hardened debris layer due to dispersed fine particles is observed.
the fretted zone (Fig. 9(c)), the fine particles generated by abrasive
The hardened debris layer is one of the products of the “fretting
wear are observed. Some particles are aggregated and they are the
off” period at high temperature (135 ◦ C). In case of 60 s/60 s inter-
products of the “fretting off” period at high temperature (135 ◦ C).
mittent fretting (Fig. 4(b, c)), the size of debris particle is coarser
The aggregated particles are not observed under the continuous
than that of 60 s/180 s intermittent fretting (Fig. 10(b, c)) but finer
fretting (Fig. 3(c)).
than that of 180 s/60 s intermittent fretting (Fig. 9(b, c)). In this case,
The surface morphology of tin-plated contact after 3600 s in the
fretting wear and oxidation exert with the middle effect between
case of 60 s/180 s intermittent fretting (“fretting off” dominant) is
those of 60 s/180 s and 180 s/60 s.
shown in Fig. 10. In the whole area (Fig. 10(a)), the fretted zone
From the surface investigation after 3600 s in intermittent fret-
is oval/elliptical and covered with coarse debris. At the center of
ting condition, it is observed that
the fretted zone (Fig. 10(b)), a closer look indicates that the debris
is coarser than that of 180 s/60 s (Fig. 9(b)) and they become hard.
It is an evidence of less abrasive wear under the 60 s/180 s condi- • In the case of 180 s/60 s, the fine debris generates abrasive wear
tions. Some cracks on the surface are also observed (indicated by and increases the contact resistance.
360 Y.W. Park et al. / Wear 268 (2010) 353–360
Fig. 10. Surface morphology of tin-plated contact in intermittent fretting condition
(fretting on/fretting off = 60 s/180 s, 135 ◦ C, 3 Hz) after 3600 s (2700 cycles): (a) whole
area, (b) at the center of the fretted zone, (c) at the edge of the fretted zone.
• In the case of 60 s/180 s, the coarse debris is produced in the “fret-
ting off” period and is delaminated subsequently in the “fretting
on” period. The delaminating and refining process retards the
increasing of contact resistance.
4. Conclusions
The degradation of electrical contact is determined by the num-
ber of fretting cycles though the test contains several non-fretting
period. The intermittent fretting-corrosion provides a degradation
mechanism different from that of the continuous fretting-corrosion
and retard the increasing of contact resistance. Compared with
continuous fretting condition, coarse/thick oxides and debris are
observed under the intermittent fretting condition. During the
“fretting off” period, a coarse/thick layer is formed at the fretted
surface and delaminated to generate the fresh conducting metal
surfaces by the resumed fretting motion. Therefore, accumula-
tion of fine (not coarse) particles is the source of the degradation
which is observed frequently in “fretting on” dominant test con-
taining continuous fretting. From various fretting “on/off” period
tests with fixed iterative unit time, it is also confirmed that the
prolonged “fretting on” period accelerates the increasing of con-
tact resistance. The “fretting off” period is not an important factor
in the degradation. The product of “fretting off” dominant test
is revealed to be effective in retarding the increasing of contact
resistance.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program
through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded
by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (No. 2009-
0076060).
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