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INTRODUCTION

A. General
THe microbiological condition of foods governs their safety and keeping quality, but
the science of food microbiology is not precise. The boundaries of safety and of
keeping quality have been studied by microbiologists all over the world.
It is well known that certain bacterial groups, under particular conditions, are able to
cause food poisoning. Nevertheless, the number of micro-organisms required in the
food to produce symptoms will depend on the susceptibility of the human or animal
subject and the virulence of the micro-organisms involved, and possibly on the
constituents of the food itself. Neither research nor conjecture will provide exact data,
and the situation is aggravated by the fact that laboratory animals may be insensitive
to the toxins or causal agents which affect the human subject.
The significance of a known or suspected pathogen in a food sample not directly
responsible for food poisoning is subject to the judgement of the microbiologist
concerned, who may be influenced by the method of examination used. Nevertheless,
there is general agreement among most microbiologists on certain factors for non-
sterile packs. Organisms of the salmonella group are regarded as undesirable at any
level of contamination. It is recognized that coagulase-positive staphylococci and CL
welchii may be present in small numbers in foods, so that the safety of a product will
depend on its storage temperature during and after manufacture up to the time it is
eaten. The same principles apply to Clostridium botulinum, for there must be
sufficient growth to produce a lethal dose of toxin.
The fact that large numbers of micro-organisms in food are necessary to cause most
bacterial food poisoning does not apply to typhoid and dysentery bacilli, nor
presumably does it apply to viral agents. Viruses are unable to multiply in anything
but living cells, so that the infective dose in food is assumed to be small.
Contamination is likely to occur directly from human carriers to food. Sewage-
polluted water and shell-fish may play a part, and they have been associated
epidemiologically with infective jaundice. The possibility that animals may
contribute food products contaminated by viruses has not yet been investigated.

B. Microbiological Examination
The approximate number of micro-organisms found in raw ingredients and also in the
finished product is important not only for pathogens but for almost any other
organisms.
Too little is yet known about the potential toxicity of metabolic substances produced
when some of the "saprophytic" organisms are growing in large numbers, nor is the
function of the substrate properly understood. Is it possible for a common saprophyte
to become toxic or invasive if ingested in enormous doses? It is suspected that large
numbers of many micro-organisms may be harmful, not only when their presence is
obvious to taste or smell but also when there is no microscopic change in the food.
The practicability of a recommended standard will vary from year to year as hygienic
procedures develop, and varying unofficial standards will be required for different
foods.
The use of so-called "indicator organisms" to measure contamination due to improper
handling, unclean equipment, the use of bacteriologically poor ingredients or other
unhygienic practices, is frequently discussed. Opinions on the relative importance of
indicator organisms differ particularly between medical and industrial bacteriologists.
The three groups of organisms considered for this role are the coliform bacilli, both
coli-aerogenes and E. coli groups, the faecal streptococci and CI. welchii. It seems
that different fields of bacteriological work require different yardsticks of
acceptability. The medical bacteriologist is usually concerned with the safety of food
immediately prior to consumption and nothing buta direct examination for intestinal
pathogens is significant to him. The industrial bacteriologist, on the other hand, is
required to check the cleanliness of plant procedures from beginning to end by the
examination daily, or even hourly, of samples of food at different stages of
production. The plate count and simple tests for well-known intestinal organisms are
considered to be adequate for correcting faults which unavoidably arise from day to
day. Nevertheless, many manufacturers with their own laboratories are searching
finished products for salmonellae and staphylococci. With the growing awareness that
many basic raw ingredients are contaminated, it should be regarded as essential to
investigate the safety of these materials before manufacture by a direct search for
salmonellae, although the object should be to ensure that these materials are safe
before distribution. The industrial bacteriologist may object to working directly with
pathogens because of the close proximity of his laboratory to the manufacturing
premises. Furthermore, many industrial workers have been trained in chemical
laboratories and are unaccustomed to the precautions necessary and taken
automatically in the medical laboratory. Perhaps there is need for better
understanding between microbiologists in the different spheres of food research and
control.

C. Livestock and Raw Materials

The relationship between animal feeds and the symptomless excretion of salmonellae
by animals and birds providing food products for human consumption, represents
another field of investigation. There is little doubt that salmonellae in feeds can
introduce mixed infections into farm stock, and that the spread of infection depends
on a number of factors on the farm, in transit, in collecting centres and markets, and
in the abattoir or meat-packing station The strain and stress of movement, strange
environment, cold, wet, and deprivation of food and drink felt in the creatures
themselves, will increase the danger of spread of infection within the animal body
and the rate of excretion. Evidence is growing that these factors increase salmonella
infections in pigs, calves and even sheep, and the sequence of events may be similar
for cattle, horses and poultry. Thus, raw materials used by manufacturers may be
dependent for their purity on the state of animal husbandry in some country other
than that in which they are received. To produce animal feeds free from salmonellae,
post-processing contamination from raw materials to finished product must be
avoided by attention to plant lay-out, personnel movement and equipment.25 It is
assumed, perhaps wrongly, that the initial processing of contaminated bones, meat
and fish for feeding meals will be carried out at a temperature high enough to destroy
all vegetative cells; thereafter cleanliness of plant, floors and surrounding structures
as well as fly control are all important in the control of the spread of contamination
Similar considerations apply to the manufacture of dried, frozen and other
prepackaged but non-sterile goods. Most of the larger manufacturers rely on their
own laboratories for research and quality control, but there is still a lack of
independent food investigation. Foods subjected to new methods of treatment and
packaging are sometimes marketed before proper attention has been given to the
hazards of microbial growth by harmful organisms, and there is still much to learn
about the incidence and growth of potential pathogens in raw foods of animal and
vegetable origin.

D. Personal Hygiene
The hygiene of the food handler is probably better understood than is the hygiene of
food animals. It is generally accepted that pathogenic staphylococci maintain a
permanent existence in the nose, throat, skin and septic lesions of human beings, and
that carriers of salmonellae may be intermittent faecal excreters without any
manifestation of symptoms. It is obviously impossible to carry out regular
bacteriological tests on every food handler to ensure that from day to day they are
free from potential food poisoning organisms, although it is recommended that new
employees should be examined; but it is possible to reduce opportunities for the
spread of micro-organisms in the kitchen or manufacturing establishment. Provision
for adequate washing facilities both in cloakrooms and in places of work such as
factories, kitchens or shops, constant vigilance to see that they are used, and the
application of bactericidal soaps, lotions or creams, may help to control the spread of
staphylococci, salmonellae and coliform bacilli. It is obvious too, that a greater use of
machinery than of hands, of disposable paper than of cloths, and of hard impermeable
surfaces than of wood, will reduce the chance of contamination from human and
animal sources. Frequent provision of clean overalls and head coverings can be
directly controlled by employers, who are also responsible for the education of their
staff in matters relating to hygiene.
The employers themselves need to keep in touch with the results of research work
and the conclusions drawn from them. The knowledge of their employees will be no
better than their own, and their enthusiasm and definitive actions must be felt and
recognized by the least of their staff.