Injection Molding

Outline
 Facts and figures
 Why injection molding?
 Goals
 Advantages
 Disadvantages
 Overview of the injection molding
process
 Equipment
 Materials consideration
 Critical operation parameters
 Mathematical modeling
 Mold flow analysis
 Commercial software
What is Injection Molding
(IM)?
The process of injecting molten material, most often
plastic, into a mold to form a shape. Once the liquid has
solidified in the shape of the mold, it is ejected from the
mold.
“In essence, injection molding is a
process whereby a solid
thermoplastic material is heated
until it reaches a state of fluidity,
is then transferred under pressure
(injected) into a closed hollow space
(mold cavity), and then cooled in the
mold till it again reaches a solid
state, conforming in shape to the
mold cavity.”

Introduction to Injection Molding

by Clifford I. Weir
Why should I care?
Unless you are Amish, you probably come into direct
contact with injection molded products constantly.
Even if you are Amish, you could very well come in
contact with an injection molded product, such as an
armrest on a bus or train.

I’m plastic.

I’m Amish.
Facts and Figures

In U.S. alone:

 Over 80 million pounds

 Over 1.5 million jobs
 Fourth largest industry in US
 Over $90 billion dollars in sales
 Average rate of growth of 12% over the
past 25 years
Facts and Figures

Thermoplastics:

 Over 70 million pounds

 Processes:

 Injection molding-32% by weight

 Extrusion-36%
 All others-32%
 History
John Hyatt patented the first injection molder in 1872.
Further advances were made in Europe through the 1920s.
In 1951, William H. Willert invented the first molder
machine to use a screw to provide continuous feed of liquid
material. From the 1980s on, the most significant
developments in injection molding have been in the area of
computerization of the process. (Rosato & Rosato)

I also invented the first synthetic material,

Celluloid, which lead to many important
advances in the plastics industry, including
the injection molding industry.

My invention, which allowed

continuous injection, made injection+blow
John Hyatt molding feasible and fast. This is the
method used to create bottles, jars
and many other containers.

William Willert
Goals

 Produce high quality parts in terms of

aesthetic,
 functional, and material properties
 Maximize profits by reducing cycle
time
 Achieve the proper balance between
quality
 and cost
Advantages

 Tight tolerance parts

 Complex geometry
 Various surface textures
 Highly repeatable process
 Low cost in high volume production
 Automated process, low labor cost
 Net shape
 Parts consolidation
Disadvantages

 High initial cost-Mold, Injection

 machine, Auxiliary equipment
 Economical for high volume
production
 High amount of scrap
 High level of competition
Overview

PART
MOLD
DESIGN

EQUIPMENT MATERIAL
Injection Molding
Machine
Equipment
•Injection molding machine

Auxiliary Equipment:

•Drier
•Chiller
•Heater
•Granulator
•Mixer/Blender
•Robots
•Mold change system
Injection Molding Machine

Main Components:

•Injection system
•Mold system
•Clamping system
•Controls
 Process & machine schematics
*

Schematic of thermoplastic Injection molding machine

* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_process.htm
 Injection System

Function
Plastification
Injection (pump)

Types
Conventional
Piston type
Screw type
Reciprocating Screw
 Two Types of Injection Systems

1. Reciprocating Screw System

Plastic is melted through

shearing and external heat,
forced into the mold with a the
screw.

2. Ram Injection Molding

Plastic is pre-melted in the

hopper, fed into a chamber, and
forced into the mold with a
piston.
CYLINDER AND PLUNGER
 Most Machines are Reciprocating Screw
Injection Molding machines because:

-More uniform melting

-Better mixing of resin with additives
-Lower injections pressures
-Faster cycle times
-Fewer stresses in parts
-Larger permissible part area
Clamping System
Important in maintaining the right
pressure when the the polymer is injected

Mechanical Clamp-
Less expensive and faster
clamping/unclamping action

Hydraulic Clamp-
Varying amounts of
pressure can be applied
Clamping System
•Function
•Sizing the clamping unit:

F=PxA
p injection pressure, psi
A cavity projected area, in2
F clamping force, pounds

1 ton = 2000 pounds

Clamping system

Typical machines:
 Small size machines 10-100 tons
 Medium size machines 100-500 tons
 Large size machines 500-10,000 tons

Types
 Hydraulic
 Toggle
Calculate clamp force, & shot size

F=P X A = 420 tons

3.8 lbs = 2245 cm3

=75 oz

Actual ; 2 cavity 800 ton

Clamp force and machine cost
Reciprocating Screw Injection
System

•Function
•Injection cycle
•Shot size
•Screw design
•Processing parameters
Screw Design
pitch

•L/D Ratio, General purpose 20:1

•Helix angle 17.8o
•Compression ratio, range 1.5:1 to 4.5:1
•Screw profile, e.g 10-5-5
•Channel depth in metering section
•Screw tip
Processing
Parameters
Injection Molding Process
Simple Definition:
Plastic is melted and then forced into a closed cavity
mold which gives the cooled plastic shape.

1- Melting 3- Part Cooling

2- Injecting Resin 4- Part Ejection

Processing Parameters
 Screw speed
 Injection speed
 Injection pressure
 Barrel temperature
 Mold temperature
 Back pressure
Process Operation
 Temperature: barrel zones, tool, die zone
 Pressures: injection max, hold
 Times: injection, hold, tool opening
 Shot size: screw travel

Processing window
Temp. Thermal
degradation

Flash

Short-
shot
Melt

Pressure
 Typical pressure/temperature cycle

*
*

Time(sec) Time(sec)

Cooling time generally dominates cycle time

tcool 
half thickness
2


* Source: http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/inj/inj_time.html
  103 cm3 sec for polymers
 Effects of mold temperature and
pressure on shrinkage

0.030 0.030 LDPE

LDPE PP Acetal
0.025 Acetal 0.025 PP with
flow
Shrinkage

0.020
Nylon 6/6 0.020

Shrinkage
0.015 0.015
PP across
flow Nylon
6/6
0.010 0.010

0.005 0.005
PMMA
PMMA
0.000 0.000
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 6000 10000 14000 18000
8000 12000 16000
Mold Temperature (F)
Pressure on injection plunger (psi)
Injection Mold
Overview

PART
DESIGN MOLD

EQUIPMENT MATERIAL
Injection mold die cast mold
Injection Molds

Two Main Sections

Stationary Plate
Movable Plate
Important Systems
Cooling System
Part Ejection System
Mold Detail
Mold Cost: $1,000s to $100,000s depending
on the complexity of the design
Tooling Basics
Nozzle
Sprue

Cavity Plate Core Plate

Moulding
Core
Cavity

Cavity Basic mould consisting of cavity and core plate

Runner
Gate

Melt Delivery
Tooling for a plastic cup
Nozzle

Knob

Runner
Cavity

Part
Stripper plate

Core
Tooling for a plastic cup
Nozzle

Nozzle Knob

Runner

Runner
Cavity
Cavity Cavity
Part

Part Part
Stripper
plate
 Tooling
*

*
*

* **

* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/; ** http://www.hzs.co.jp/english/products/e_trainer/mold/basic/basic.htm (E-trainer by HZS Co.,Ltd.)

Mold Design Considerations
Cavity:
-Single or Multi
The cavity design is dependent upon the design specifications of
your part, the equipment and your budget

Runners:
-Must be the right size and
shape to achieve proper flow
characteristics of the polymer
used

higher viscosity polymer = larger runners

Mold Design Considerations
Edge Gate low cost
Gates:
Entry path Submarine part separation from
between runner Gate runners
and part cavity Tab Gate large parts
Fan Gate intermediate size part
Ring Gate hollow cylinder parts

Most common Tool Steel, grade P20

Mold Material: and P21
Ideal properties vs. High H13 steel
design specs Temperatures
Mirror Finish A2 and A6 steels
Low cost and Aluminum
low Production
Gate Location

Shrinkage
2.0 Direction of flow – 0.020 in/in
60 1.96
Sprue 60.32
Perpendicular to flow – 0.012

2.0 1.976

Before shrinkage After shrinkage

Air entrapment

Gate

Center gate: radial flow – severe distortion Edge gate: warp free, air entrapment

Diagonal gate: radial flow – twisting End gates: linear flow – minimum warping
Where would you gate this part?
 Weld line, Sink mark

Gate

Weld line

Mold Filling Solidified part

Sink mark
Basic rules in designing ribs
to minimize sink marks
* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_design_7.htm
MOLD COST ESTIMATION
 Mold Base Costs

Cb = 1000 + 0.45 Ac*hp^(0.4)

where
Cb = cost of mold base, $
Ac = area of mold base cavity plate, cm^2
hp = combined thickness of cavity and core
plates in mold base, cm
MOLD COST ESTIMATION
 Cavity and core manufacturing costs
Initial cost estimates are based on the
use of a standard two-plate mold.
Decisions regarding more complex molds
can only be made by comparing the
increased cost of the mold system with
the reduced machine supervision
associated with semiautomatic or fully
automatic operation
MOLD COST ESTIMATION
 Cavity and core manufacturing costs
Transform a pre-assembled mold into a
working mold
 deep hole drilling of the cooling channels
 milling of pockets in the plates to receive
the cavity and core inserts
 work on ejector plate and housing to
receive the ejection system
 insertion of extra support pillars where
necessary and the fitting of electrical and
coolant systems
 Formulas to estimate cost
MOLD COST POINT SYSTEM

 A point system for mold cavity and

core cost estimating
 Establishes a point scale for various
attributes of the mold
 These points are added to yield the
Total Points Score
 Total Point Score is then multiplied by
average $/hr for mold manufacturing
Material
Material and Design Considerations
When choosing a material it
is important to consider:
 Design specs of the part

 Mold design

 Material properties

Factors in Material Choice

-Shrinkage
-Thermal Properties
-Viscosity
-Viscoelasticty
Special issues about
injection molding of
reinforced materials
 Microstructure

Fiber orientation Description

Fiber orientation prediction
Fiber orientation measurement
Fiber orientation control
Issues with “long fibers”
Part Design
 Injection Molding
*

* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_design_2.htm
Part design rules
 Simple shapes to reduce tooling cost
 No undercuts, etc.
 Draft angle to remove part
 In some cases, small angles (1/4) will do
 Problem for gears
 Even wall thickness
 Minimum wall thickness ~ 0.025 in
 Avoid sharp corners
 Hide weld lines
 Holes may be molded 2/3 of the way through
the wall only, with final drilling to eliminate weld
lines
Part Design
 Hand out from Steinwall, Inc.
Cost
Cost Analysis
Cost Considerations:

Material and additives

Tooling Cost
Machine Cost
Labor cost
Finishing cost

Injection Molded Parts

Process Modeling
Modeling

 Dissection of the process

 Fundamentals of fluid flow and heat
transfer
 Analytical flow modeling in simple
molds
 Use of Moldflow simulation products
 Fiber orientation modelling
 Reynolds Number
V2
Reynolds Number:  inertia
VL
Re  L 
V
 2 viscous 
L

For typical injection molding

  1 g cm3  103 N m 4 s 2 ; LZ  103 m thickness
1 Re  104
Part length 10
V  ;   103 N  s m 2
Fill time 1s

For Die casting

3 10 3 10 1 10 3
Re  3
 300
10
* Source: http://www.idsa-mp.org/proc/plastic/injection/injection_process.htm
 Viscous Shearing of Fluids
F F/A
v
h  v
1  
h
F v
 v/h
A h Newtonian Viscosity

Generalization:     : shear rate

 Typical shear rate for
  ( )
 Injection molding Polymer processes (sec)-1

Extrusion 102~103
Calendering 10~102
“Shear Thinning” Injection molding 103~104
Comp. Molding 1~10
~ 1 sec-1 for PE 
Viscous Heating

F v F v
2
Rate of Heating P v
= Rate of Viscous Work      
Vol Vol A h h

Rate of Temperature rise 2


2
dT v dT v
  cp    or   
dt h dt   c p h

Rate of Conduction out dT k d 2T k T

 ~
dt   c p dx 2
  c p h2

Viscous heating v 2
 Brinkman number
Conduction kT
For injection molding, order of magnitude ~ 0.1 to 10
Non-Isothermal Flow
Flow rate: 1/t ~V/Lx
v
Heat transfer rate: 1/t ~a/(Lz/2)2

Flow rate V  L2z 1 VLz Lz

~   Small value
Heat xfer rate 4  Lx 4  Lx => Short shot

For injection molding

Flow rate 1 10cm / s  0.1cm 0.1cm
~ 3 2
  2.5
Heat xfer rate 4 10 cm / s 10cm

For Die casting of aluminum

Flow rate 1 10cm / s  0.1cm 0.1cm 2
~   10
Heat xfer rate 4 0.3cm2 / s 10cm
* Very small, therefore it requires thick runners
 Fountain Flow
*

**

* Source: http://islnotes.cps.msu.edu/trp/inj/flw_froz.html ; ** Z. Tadmore and C. Gogos, “Principles of Polymer Processing”

Heat transfer Note; Tool > polymer

1-dimensional heat conduction equation :

 q
qx qx + qx (   c p  T )xy   x xy
t x
T
Fourier’s law q x  k
x
T  2T T  2T
  cp  k 2 or  2
t x t x

Boundary Conditions: 1st kind T ( x  x' )  constant

T
2nd kind k ( x  x' )  constant
x
T
3rd kind k ( x  x' )  h (T  T )
x
The boundary condition of 1st kind applies to injection molding since the
tool is often maintained at a constant temperature
Heat transfer

Tii
Let Lch = H/2 (half thickness) = L ; tch = L2/ ;
t Tch = Ti – TW (initial temp. – wall temp.)
TW
T  TW x  t
Non-dimensionalize:   ;    1; FO  2
-L
x
+L
Ti  TW L L

Dimensionless equation:   2
 2
FO 
Initial condition FO  0  1
Boundary condition  0  0
 2  0

Separation of variables ;  ( , FO )   f (FO ) g ( )

matching B.C.; matching I.C.
 Temperature in a slab
Centerline,  = 0.1, Fo = t/L2 = 1

Bi-1 =k/hL
Analytical Modeling
 Flow simulation in a center gated
round mold
Computer Simulation
Flow Simulation Project

 Use of Part Advisor and MPI software

 Design project for the course
New
Developments
New developments- Gas
assisted injection molding
New developments ; injection
molding with cores
Injection Molded Housing shown in class

Cores used in Injection Molding

Cores and Part Molded in Clear Plastic

Environmental
Considerations
Environmental loads by
manufacturing sector
Carbon Dioxide and Toxic Materials per Value of Shipments

5
4.5
4
Weight/Dollars

3.5
3 CO2 (metric ton/$10,000)
2.5
2
1.5 Toxic Mat'ls (lb/$1000)
1
0.5
0
Primary Metal

Fabricated

Transportation
Plastics and
Petroleum

Machinery
and Coal
Chemicals

Electronic
Metal
Rubber

Manufacturing industries EPA 2001, DOE 2001

 The estimated environmental performance of various mfg

processes (not including auxiliary requirements)

*Energy per wt. normalized ** total raw mat’l normalized

by the melt energy by the part wt.
The problem with plastics is…
What are the solutions?