RUNNING HEAD: Why Torture Should Not Be Used, From a Psychology Standpoint 1

Why Torture Should Not Be Used, From a Psychology Standpoint

Mackenzie Petersen

PSY 490 – Dr. Schilder

Loras College
Why Torture Should Not Be Used, From a Psychology Standpoint 2

The use of torture has been around since the dawn of mankind. Torture has been used in

all aspects of life, but the biggest reasons that torture is used for is the obtainment of information

or a confession, discrimination, and the act of punishment (Williams & Merwe, 2013). Torture

can be instigated by anyone, but according to the 1984 United Nations Against Torture

Convention, it is considered torture when pain and suffering is intentionally inflicted on a person

by a public official or other person acting in an official capacity (Williams & Merwe, 2013).

When thinking of a public official, we often think of police and military, but psychologists can

also fall into this category of public official or other person acting in an official capacity.

Psychologists and other public officials should not resort to the use of torture for

numerous reasons: one being that torture is against the law and the American Psychological

Association, also known as the APA; torture results in negative and long-lasting consequences;

torture often results in false confessions; and the use of torture creates a bad reputation for the

United States and the APA.

Going into the field of psychology, psychologists know full well the importance of

following the APA Code of Ethics. The Code of Ethics is a guideline for psychologists to use

when it comes to making decisions and participating in any aspect of the psychology profession.

According to Gauthier (2005), the guidelines of the APA Code of Ethics are founded on basic

principles and moral imperatives to guide behavior. In addition to a behavioral guideline, the

APA Code of Ethics provides specific codes of conduct which describe what psychologists can

and cannot do, including the use of torture (Gauthier, 2005).

The overall goal of the APA Code of Ethics is to protect civil and human rights and to

preserve the welfare of all individuals and groups of individuals that psychologists may work

with (American Psychological Association, 2002). When psychologists are participating in any
Why Torture Should Not Be Used, From a Psychology Standpoint 3

type of torture, whether it be the physical act of participating in torture, assisting, or overseeing

the use of torture, they are explicitly violating the entire goal of the APA Code of Ethics. Torture

is a direct violation of protecting human rights because it strips the individual whom is being

tortured of any rights and/or power. The use of torture also is a direct violation of preserving the

welfare of the victim because torture often results in negative physical, mental, and emotional

health consequences. The use of torture is the complete opposite of the APA Code of Ethics

overall intentions and goals.

The APA Code of Ethics also explicitly opposes and rejects psychologist involvement in

the use of torture in its ethical standards. Ethical standard 3.04 in the APA Code of Ethics is titled

“Avoiding Harm”. In this ethical standard, psychologists are to take reasonable steps to avoid

harm with all individuals whom they may be working with (American Psychological

Association, 2002). Ethical standard 3.04a also explains to minimize harm when harm in

foreseeable and unavoidable (American Psychological Association). When psychologists

participate in the use of torture, they are directly violating ethical standard 3.04 because torture

results in physical, mental, and emotional harm to the victim.

In 2016 the APA realized the severity of torture and decided to make an amendment to

ethical standard 3.04 in regards to the use of torture. Standard 3.04b specifically forbids

psychologists to participate in, facilitate, assist, or otherwise engage in torture (American

Psychological Association, 2016). In this ethical standard, the APA defines torture as any severe

physical or mental pain and suffering, which is intentionally inflicted on a person, and/or any

cruel and degrading behavior that violates ethical standard 3.04a (American Psychological

Association, 2016). Any kind of participation in torture is a direct violation of the APA Code of

Ethics.
Why Torture Should Not Be Used, From a Psychology Standpoint 4

When psychologists violate the APA Code of Ethics, especially violations of both aspects

of ethical standard 3.04 “Avoiding Harm”, they are purposefully causing harm to not only the

victim whom is enduring the torture, but to all whom are connected to the victim, including the

perpetrator themselves. Furthermore, failure to follow the Code of Ethics can result in serious

consequences for psychologists, including loss of job, removal of licensing, moral guilt, and in

severe enough situations, legal consequences.

Not only is the use of torture a violation of the APA Code of Ethics, it is also a violation

of international law. As a member of the United Nations, the United States, including

psychologists from the United States, are prohibited to use torture under the Universal

Declaration of Human Rights (Costanzo et al, 2007). Under this treaty, torture is defined very

similarly to the APA’s definition of torture, with the exception of the purpose for attaining

information done by a public official or other person acting in an official capacity (Costanzo et

al, 2007). The use of this definition is mainly interpreted for the use of torture during

interrogations done by military officials. When officials and psychologists violate this law, it

creates a distrust among the United States and other members of the United Nations, which can

be detrimental to the safety of the United States and its citizens.

Torture is one of the most extreme forms of human violence and should not be used since

it results in serious negative health consequences for the victim. There are many different forms

of torture, but all forms are invasive and cause an enormous amount pain, both physically and

psychologically. There have been numerous studies and comprehensive reviews that have shown

that torture is directly linked to post-traumatic stress disorder, or also known as PTSD (Costanzo

et al, 2007). PTSD is a disorder in which individuals who have experienced a traumatic event,

including torture, show symptoms of intrusive thoughts, avoidance, negative thoughts and
Why Torture Should Not Be Used, From a Psychology Standpoint 5

feelings, and arousal and reactive symptoms (Parekh, 2017). PTSD can be long-lasting,

sometimes lasting for years after the traumatic event.

PTSD focuses on the trauma that an individual has experienced. Figley (2012) defines

trauma as a sudden and potentially deadly experience, which often results in long-lasting and

troubling memories. Trauma also captures three different aspects. The first aspect is that it is

caused by an external force, meaning it is not inflicted upon oneself. The second aspect is that it

is unwelcomed and violates any aspect of a person’s life. Lastly, victims of trauma do not have

control. By following Figley’s definition of trauma, it is easy to see that torture can be a definite

form of trauma.

Other than PTSD, Turner and Gorst-Unsworth (1990) have identified other common

themes that the use of torture produces. One theme is depression. Depression is often a result of

torture because of the losses that the victim experiences while enduring torture. The losses may

be objects, people, body parts, and self-esteem and dignity. Another theme is physical symptoms,

such as health considerations. Lastly, victims often experience the existential dilemma, which

confirms torture as a reality and often results in the victim questioning the importance and value

of his or her life.

Torture can also result in a number of other consequences to the victim. Chronic pain is a

common consequence of torture (William & Merwe, 2013). Chronic pain can be physical and/or

psychological. Some common physical health problems that survivors of torture experience are

tuberculosis and immune deficiency, due to the lack poor nutrition and stress that victims of

torture generally go through (Williams & Merwe, 2013). Physical health problems can result in

further pain and often results in shorter life spans, which is devastating for human welfare and

human life.
Why Torture Should Not Be Used, From a Psychology Standpoint 6

Psychological symptoms of torture include anxiety, depression, other distress, and

adjustment problems (Williams & Merwe, 2013). In particular, victims of torture often feel guilt

and shame, due to the humiliation that they endured during torture (Williams & Merwe, 2013).

In general, these symptoms of torture can make it hard for survivors to complete day-to-day tasks

because it interferes with how an individual processes different emotions, perceives situations,

expresses feelings, and responds to known and unknown circumstances (Figley, 2012).

Not only does torture negatively affect the victim of torture, but also those connected to

the victim, including family and friends of the victim. When victims experience torture, they

often undergo psychological effects, which can result in social isolation, social withdrawal,

increased aggressiveness and irritability, confusion, and personality changes (Costanzo et al,

2007). All these symptoms can cause relationships to dissipate since the victim no longer feels

safe and distrusts others because of the trauma that he or she has faced. Because of these

symptoms, survivors may also have a harder time holding down a job, which can lead to

financial insecurity and create further stress among families.

Experiencing trauma and PTSD are serious health concerns, not only for the negative

health consequences listed above, but because it can be long-lasting and can alter physiological

aspects of the brain and body. Due to the alterations of stress hormones that results from PTSD,

victims have trouble responding appropriately to stress (Costanzo et al, 2007). Stress also affects

the brain by altering the hippocampus. In a study done by Bremner and colleagues, MRI results

showed that combat soldiers who had experiences trauma had changes in their hippocampus,

which ultimately affected their memory (1995). Victims of torture often respond negatively to

stress and trauma because of the damage done to their brains and bodies, which can negatively

affect their overall health.

Why Torture Should Not Be Used, From a Psychology Standpoint 7

Use for rebuttal: Costanzo talks about perpetrator justification

Use for rebuttal: having healers present

The APA Code of Ethics is only for psychologists to follow. Rebuttal 1

Why Torture Should Not Be Used, From a Psychology Standpoint 8

References

(2016). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychological

Association.

Bremner, J. D., Randall, P., Scott, T. M., Bronen, R. A., Seibyl, J. P., Southwick, S. M., Delaney,

R. C., McCarthy, G., Charney, D. S., & Innis, R. B. (1995). MRI-based measurement of

hippocampal volume in patients with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder.

American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 973-981.

Costanzo, M., & Leo, R. A. (2007). Research and expert testimony on interrogations and

confessions. In M. Costanzo, D. Krauss, & K. Pezdek (Eds.), Expert psychological

testimony for the courts. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Costanzo, M., Gerrity, E., & Lykes, M. B. (2007). Psychologists and the Use of Torture in

Interrogations. Analyses of Social Issues & Public Policy, 7(1), 7–20. https://doi-

org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2007.00118.x

Figley, C. R. (2012). Encyclopedia of Trauma: An Interdisciplinary Guide. Thousand Oaks,

Calif: SAGE Publications, Inc. Retrieved from

http://search.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.loras.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=5

25926&site=ehost-live

Gauthier, J. (2005). Toward a universal declaration of ethical principles for psychologists: a

progress report. In M. J. Stevens & D. Wedding (Eds.), Psychology: IUPsyS Global

Resource. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. Retrieved from:

www.am.org/iupsys/ethprog1.pdf.

Johnson, W. B. (2008). Top Ethical Challenges for Military Clinical Psychologists. Military

Psychology 20, 49–62. doi: 10.1080/08995600701753185

Why Torture Should Not Be Used, From a Psychology Standpoint 9

Parekh, R. (2017). What is posttraumatic stress disorder? American Psychiatric Association.

Suedfeld, P. (2007). Torture, Interrogation, Security, and Psychology: Absolutistic versus

Complex Thinking. Analyses of Social Issues & Public Policy, 7(1), 55–63. https://doi-

org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2007.00125.x

Williams, A. C. C. and Merwe, J. (2013). The psychological impact of torture. Br J Pain7(2),

101-106. doi: 10.1177/2049463713483596

Zimbardo, P., Haney, C., Banks, W. C. and Jaffe, D. (1971). The Stanford Prison Experiment: A

stimulation study of the psychology of imprisonment. Stanford. Retrieved from:

https://web.stanford.edu/dept/spec_coll/uarch/exhibits/Narration.pdf