Chapter-1

Magnetics

▪ Outlines

➢ Introduction
➢ Electromagnetic properties
➢Electromagnetic relationships
➢Magnetic circuits
➢Electromagnetic induction
➢Electromagnetic forces

Introduction to Electrical Machines, ECEg3131 by: Alem T. ADU 2011 E.C 1

 Introduction
• Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every electrical device used today in industry, research, or the
home. Generators, motors, transformers, circuit breakers, televisions, computers, tape recorders, and
telephones all employ magnetic effects to perform a variety of important tasks.
• Anybody which possesses the power of attracting pieces of iron is called a magnet and the property of virtue
of which this attraction takes place is called magnetism.
• Magnets are classified in to two;
▪ Natural magnet
▪ Artificial magnet
• The iron ore like magnetite, lodestone ( naturally magnetized piece of the mineral magnetite) which have
inherent property of attracting iron pieces are called natural magnets. All-natural magnets are permanent
magnets, meaning they will never lose their magnetic power. Natural magnets are comparatively weaker
and hence do not find any practical application. Artificial magnets are made artificially from iron, steel or
alloy materials. They can be prepared either by rubbing iron bars by a magnet or by passing electric current
through a wire wound around an iron piece.
• Magnets prepared by passing electric current through a wire wound around an iron piece are called
electromagnets.
• Artificial magnets can be classified as permanent and temporary magnets.

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 Electromagnetic Properties
• Artificial permanent magnets are extensively used in electrical instruments, earphones, load speaker,
telephone receiver, small dc motors, etc.
• Artificial temporary magnets losses their strength as soon as the magnetizing force is removed. They have
wide application in the field of electrical generator, motor, relay, etc.

▪ Magnetic Field
• Magnets has two poles; North and south poles. A line joining these poles is termed as magnetic axis.
• Magnetism refers to the force that acts between magnets and magnetic materials. for example, magnet
attract pieces of iron, deflect compass needles, attract or repel other magnets, and so on. This force acts at
a distance and without the need for direct physical contact. The region where the force is felt is called the
“field of the magnet” or simply, its magnetic field. Thus, a magnetic field is a force field.

▪ Magnetic Field due to current carrying conductor

• When a conductor carries an electric current, a magnetic field is produced all along its length, the lines of
magnetic flux being concentric circles in a plane at right angle to the conductor. The magnetic field
associated with a current carrying conductor depends upon the magnitude of current and also the direction
of flow of current.

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 Electromagnetic Relationships
• the direction of current flow and the direction of magnetic field are
inter-related. The direction of magnetic field can be found by Right
hand rule. It says, Grip the current carrying conductor in the right
hand, with the thumb pointing in the direction of current as shown in
figure-1 then the fingers encircling the wire points in the direction of
the magnetic field or line of magnetic flux.

Figure 1:magnetic field around a current carrying conductor

▪ Magnetic Flux (Magnetic Lines of Force)

• The "quantity of magnetism" which exists in a magnetic field is the magnetic line of force, or more simply,
the magnetic flux. It is denoted by a symbol 𝜑 (the Greek lowercase letter phi). The unit of magnetic flux
(flux) is weber (Wb).

▪ Magnetic Flux Density: it is defined as the magnetic flux per unit area of a surface at a right
angle to the magnetic field. Its symbol is “B” and measured in weber per square meter or Tesla. Hence,
 Where:
magnetic flux density (B)= 𝐴 Wb/m2 or Tesla.
B = magnetic flux density in Tesla,  = magnetic flux, Wb
A = area through which  penetrates perpendicularly, m2
Introduction to Electrical Machines, ECEg3131 by: Alem T. ADU 2011 E.C 4
 Electromagnetic Relationships
• Example 1: The total magnetic flux out of a cylindrical permanent magnet is found to be 0.032 mWb. If the
magnet has a circular cross section and a diameter of 1 cm, what is the magnetic flux density at the end of
the magnet?
Solution: The total flux = 0.032 x 10-3 Wb, cross-sectional area of magnet:
𝜋D2 𝜋(0.01)2
A= = = 78.53× 102 m2
4 4
 0.032×10−3
B= =78.53×10−6 = 0.407T
A
Note: This magnetic flux density exists only at the immediate end of the magnet. As we move away from the
end of the magnet, the magnetic flux spreads out, and therefore the magnet flux density decreases.

▪ Magneto motive force

• Current through a coil creates magnetic flux. The greater the current or the greater the
number of turns, the greater will be the flux.
• This flux producing ability of the coil is called its magneto motive force (mmf) is defined as:
mmf=f =NI (At) Where:
Mmf=f= magnetomotive force
N= number of turns, I= current
Introduction to Electrical Machines, ECEg3131 by: Alem T. ADU 2011 E.C 5
 Electromagnetic Relationships
• Example 2: The coil in Figure2: has 1000 turns wound on a cardboard toroid. The mean (or average)
diameter D of the toroid is 10 cm, and the cross section is 1 cm. The total magnetic flux in the toroid is 3µWb
when there is an excitation current of 10 mA in the coil.
(a) What is the magnetic flux when the current is increased to 20mA?
(b) What is the magnetic flux density within the coil when the current is 20mA?
Solution: a) If we double the current to 20mA, then f =NI=1000 x 20 x 10-3 = 20At
And  must double to 6 µWb.
b) for a toroid, the magnetic flux is assumed to be uniform across its interior
cross sectional area of the coil.
6 ×10−3
B=/A= π = 76 mT
1×10−4
4

Figure 2: toroid coil

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 Electromagnetic Relationships

▪ Magnetic Reluctance
• The property of magnetic materials, which opposition to the flow of magnetic flux is called reluctance.
m = f/  (At/Wb) where
f= MMF, At  = magnetic flux, Wb
f = m 
m= reluctance of the magnetic circuit, At/Wb
• The magnetic flux is directly proportional to the magneto motive force.
• This equation represents Ohm's law of magnetic circuits.
• The proportionality factor m, is called the reluctance of the magnetic circuit and is obviously, analogous to
resistance in an electric circuit.
• Reluctance depends on the dimensions of the core and the material of which it is made. Like the resistance
of a wire, reluctance is directly proportional to length and inversely proportional to cross-sectional area.

m = L /A = f/  (At/Wb) where L = average or mean length of the magnetic path, m

 = 0r, absolute (or total) permeability of the magnetic path, H/m

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 Electromagnetic Relationships

▪ Permeability
• Permeability is a measure of the ‘willingness’ of the magnetic material to allow magnetic field to exist in it.
• Permeability is the magnetic property that determines the characteristics of magnetic materials and
non-magnetic materials, denoted by “µ” . The permeability of free space and non-magnetic materials is
µ0 = 4π × 10-7 H/m.
• µ is the absolute (total) permeability of any material, µ = µ0 × µr where: µr is relative permeability of any
given material and its value for free space and non-magnetic material is one.
• Example 3: In Figure 2, we assume that the magnetic flux is practically uniform in the cross-sectional area of
the toroid. The mean path length is 0.314 m and the cross-sectional area through which the flux exists is
78.5 x 10-6m2. Calculate the number of ampere-turns required to set up magnetic flux of 1 Wb.
Solution: The reluctance of homogenous magnetic circuit is;
0.314
m= L/A = 4π ×10−7 ×78.5 ×10−6 = 3.18 × 109 At/Wb
f = ℜm  = 3.18 × 109 ×1.0 = 3.18 ×109 At

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 Electromagnetic Relationships

▪ Magnetic field intensity (H)

• It is the mmf per meter length of the magnetic circuit the quantity symbol for magnetic field strength is H,
the unit of measurement being At/ m.
𝑩
H= f/ L = Ni/ L or B = 𝜇H and so H= , where: L is the mean or average length of the magnetic circuit
𝝁
• Thus, if the circuit consists of a circular toroid, then the mean length is the mean circumference.
▪ Magnetization Curve (B-H curve)
• the B-H magnetization curve shows how much flux density results from increasing the flux intensity, it is a
plot of “B” Vs “H”. There is nonlinear relationship between magnetic flux density and magnetic field
intensity.
• From figure-3 it is observed that the magnetic flux density increases almost linearly with an increase in the
magnetic field intensity up to the knee of the magnetization curve. Beyond the knee, a continued increase in
the magnetic field intensity results in a relatively small increase in the magnetic flux density.
• When ferromagnetic materials experience only a slight increase in magnetic flux density for a relatively large
increase in magnetic field intensity, the materials are said to be saturated.
• Magnetic saturation occurs beyond the knee of the magnetization curve.

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 Electromagnetic Relationships

Figure 3: Typical Magnetizations curves.

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 Electromagnetic Relationships

▪ Hysteresis: is a closed curve showing the variation of “B” of a ferromagnetic material with external
field producing it when this field is changed through a complete cycle.
• Hysteresis in magnetic materials results in dissipation of energy.
• The energy dissipated is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop. Hence the following conclusions
can be drawn:
▪ Flux density B always lags with respect to the magnetizing force H.
▪ An expenditure of energy is essential to carry the specimen through a complete cycle of magnetization.
▪ Energy loss is proportional to the area of hysteresis loop and depends upon the quality of the magnetic
material.

Figure 4: Hysteresis loop

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 Magnetic Circuits

▪ Magnetic Circuits
• Practical applications of magnetism use magnetic structures to guide and shape magnetic fields by providing
well-defined path for flux. Such structures are called magnetic circuits. Magnetic circuits are found in
motors, generators, computer disk drives, tape recorders, and so on.
• We can draw useful electrical analogs for the solution of magnetic circuit problems.
• In an electrical circuit the driving force is the voltage, the output is the current, and the opposition to
establishing current is the resistance.
• In the same way, the driving force in the magnetic circuit is the magneto motive force, the output is the
magnetic flux, and opposition to establishing the flux is the reluctance.
Electrical Circuit Magnetic Circuit Table1: Magnetic Vs Electric circuits
E (in volts) f ( NI Ampere-turn)
I (ampere)  (Weber)
R (ohms) m (Ampere-turn/weber)
ρ = 1/δ (conductivity)  (heneris/meter)

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 Magnetic Circuits

▪ Series and Parallel Magnetic Circuits

• Series magnetic circuit contains magnetic flux, which is common throughout the series magnetic elements.
• These series magnetic elements may consist of composite sectors of ferromagnetic materials of different
lengths and cross-sectional areas, and of air gaps.
• The simplest series magnetic circuit would be of a toroid of homogeneous material and the steel core of a
transformer.
• Parallel magnetic circuits are defined by the number of paths that the magnetic flux may follow.

Figure 5: (A) Series magnetic circuit  is same, (B)  is sum of fluxes entering to the node

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 Magnetic Circuits

▪ Ampere’s Circuital Law

• Ampere's circuit law states that the line integral of the tangential component of “H” around a closed path is
the same as the net current Ienc enclosed by the path.

• There is a broad similarity between the analyses of electric and magnetic circuits.
 f = 0 (for magnetic circuits)
• Which, in words, states that the algebraic sum of the rises and drops of the mmf around a closed loop of a
magnetic circuit is equal to zero; that is, the sum of the rises in mmf equals the sum of the drops in mmf
around a closed loop. The above Equation is referred to as Ampère’s circuital law. When it is applied to
magnetic circuits, sources of mmf are expressed by the equation:
f = NI (At)
• A more practical equation for the mmf drop is;
f = HL (At)

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 Magnetic Circuits
• As an example consider the magnetic circuit appearing in Figure 6, constructed of three different
ferromagnetic materials.

Figure 6: Magnetic circuit constructed from three ferromagnetic materials

• Applying Ampère’s circuital law, we have:

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 Magnetic Circuits

▪ Leakage flux and Fringing

• in series magnetic circuit containing an air gap, there is a tendency for the airgap flux to spread out. This
spreading effect, termed fringing, reduces the net flux density in the air gap.
• Leakage flux is that flux in a magnetic circuit which is not useful or effective.
• Magnetic Core (Iron) Losses :Magnetic core losses consist of hysteresis losses and eddy-current losses.

Figure 7: Fringing effect

✓ Do problems related to magnetic circuits from the Text book! (Pg. 18 - 25 )

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 Electromagnetic Induction

▪ Electromagnetic Induction
• The relationship between magnetism and electricity was discovered in 1820 by Oersted.
• As per this relationship, a conductor carrying a current I is surrounded all along its length by a magnetic
field, the lines of magnetic flux being concentric circles in planes at right angles to the conductor.
• This phenomenon of a magnetic field being associated with a current carrying conductor lead to the
question whether the converse of the above is possible, i.e. can a magnetic field generate a current?
• Michael Faraday, on 29 Aug. 1831, succeeded in generating an electric current with the aid of magnetic flux.
• From his experiments, Faraday concluded that a current was generated in a coil so long as the lines of force
bearing through the conductor changed.
• The current thus generated is called the induced current and the emf that gives rise to this induced current
is called the induced emf.
• This phenomenon of generating an induced current in a closed circuit by changing the magnetic field
through it, is called electromagnetic induction.
• The operation of electrical equipment’s like motors, generators, transformers, etc. is mainly based upon the
laws formulated by Faraday.

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 Electromagnetic Induction

▪ Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

• Faraday conducted the following experiment to obtain an electric current with the aid of magnetic flux.

Figure 8: Faradays experiment

• Faraday's first law states that whenever the magnetic flux associated or linked with a closed circuit is
changed, or alternatively, when a conductor cuts or is cut by the magnetic flux, an emf is induced in the
circuit resulting in an induced current. This emf is induced so long as the magnetic flux changes. Faraday's
second law states that the magnitude of the induced emf generated in a coil is directly proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux. These two basic laws discovered by Faraday changed the course of electrical
engineering and led to the development of generators, transformers, etc.

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 Electromagnetic Induction

▪ Direction of Induced EMF

• The direction of induced emf can be determined by two methods namely (a) Fleming's right hand rule and
(b) Lenz's law.
• Fleming's Right Hand Rule: Stretch the forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the right hand in
three mutually perpendicular directions as shown in Figure 9. If the forefinger points in the direction of the
magnetic flux, the thumb points in the direction of motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field,
then the middle finger represents the direction of the induced emf.

Figure 9:Direction of induced emf

• Lenz's Law: The direction of statically induced emf can be obtained with the help of Lenz's law which states:
"the direction of the induced emf is always such that it tends to set up a current opposing the change of flux
responsible for producing that emf.

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 Electromagnetic Induction

▪ Magnitude of Induced EMF in a Coil

• Let a coil consist of “N” number of turns over it. Assume that the flux through the coil changes from its
initial value φ1 to φ2 in an interval t second.
Initial value of' flux linkages = Nφ1
Value of flux linkages after t s = Nφ2
Change of flux linkages in time t s == Nφ1- Nφ2
• The term flux linkages used over here simply means the product of flux in Weber and the number of turns
with which the flux is linked. Now as per Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction, induced emf in the
above coil due to a change of flux is given by,
N φ1 – φ2
Induced emf = v
𝑡
𝑑φ
• the instantaneous value of emf induced in the coil can be represented as, e = -N 𝑑𝑡
• the negative sign in the above signifies that the induced emf generates a current tending to oppose the
increase of flux through the coil. The relation expressed by the above equation can be called Faraday's law.

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 Electromagnetic Induction
▪ Dynamically Induced EMF
• Dynamically induced emf is produced by the movement of the conductor in a magnetic field.
• If l = length of the conductor in meter cutting the field
v = velocity of motion of conductor in m/s
dx = distance moved by the conductor in time dt
• Then area swept by the moving conductor = l  dx
• Hence change in flux, when the conductor moves a distance dx in time dt.
d = B × l dx Wb
• The dynamically induced emf is the rate of change of flux linkages, i.e.
Dynamically induced emf

Bldx
=
dt
dx
= Bl
dt
• Thus dynamically induced emf =Blv Volts

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 Electromagnetic Induction

▪ Statically Induced EMF

• when the conductor or coil remains stationary and the flux linking with these conductors or coil undergo a
change, an emf is induced in the conductors.
• Such an induced emf is termed as statically induced emf.
• Statically induced emf can be further classified as (i) self-induced emf and (ii) mutual induced emf.

▪ Self-Induced EMF
• Any electrical circuit in which the change of current is accompanied by the change of flux, and therefore by
an induced emf, is said to be inductive or to possess self-inductance.
• Thus the property of the coil which enables to induce an emf in it whenever the current changes is called
self-induction.
N
The term I flux linkage/ampere is generally called the self-
inductance of the coil or the coefficient of self-induction and is
denoted by a symbol L. …………………………………………………………….
di N
e = −L L=− H
Figure 10: Self-Induced EMF dt I

Introduction to Electrical Machines, ECEg3131 by: Alem T. ADU 2011 E.C 22

 Electromagnetic Induction

▪ Mutually-Induced EMF
• The phenomenon of generation of induced emf in a circuit by changing the current in a neighboring circuit
is called mutual induction. Consider two coils “P” and “S” such that “P” is connected to a cell through switch
“K” and “S” to a galvanometer as shown in Figure 11.
• When the switch “K” is closed suddenly to start current in the coil “P”, the galvanometer gives a sudden
"kick“ in one direction. Now when “K” is opened, the galvanometer again shows a deflection but in the
opposite direction.
• The coefficient of mutual inductance is
defined as the number of line of forces
passing through the secondary coil S,
when unit current change in the primary
Figure 11: Mutually induced EMF coil is P.
• The above observations indicate clearly that an induced current is set up in the coil S when the current is
changed in the coil P, though the coil S is not connected physically to coil P. Two coils possessing this
property are said to have mutual inductance. The unit of mutual inductance is also henry. It is denoted by M.
di N 2 K1 N 22
es = M  where M= =
dt I I

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 Electromagnetic Induction

▪ Inductance and Energy stored in Magnetic Field

• Capacitors store energy in an electric field, inductors store energy in a magnetic field. Capacitors prevent
voltage from changing instantaneously, inductors, prevent current from changing instantaneously.

The inductance of a coil wrapped around ferromagnetic material

is given by; e = N d  Ni  = N di = L di
2

dt     dt dt

Inductance will be: N2

L= heneries

Figure 12: A coil warped on ferromagnetic core
• Total energy absorbed by the magnetic field when the current increases from zero to I amperes.

• Energy Stored in Magnetic Field in Terms of Volume

of Field;
1
Estored / m3 =  0  r H 2
2
1 B2
or Estored / m3 =
2 0  r

Introduction to Electrical Machines, ECEg3131 by: Alem T. ADU 2011 E.C 24

 Electromagnetic Forces

▪ Electromagnetic Forces
• By the interaction of magnetic fields produced in electromagnetic devices, mechanical forces are developed
which may do useful work.
• Electromagnetic forces fall into two general classifications:
A) The magnetic tractive force(lifting power of magnet), and
B) The force on a conductor.
A) Lifting Power of Magnet (Magnetic Tractive Force)
• let F be the force in Newton between the poles of the magnets and the pole cross-sectional area A in square
meter having a flux density of B tesla. If the upper pole is pulled through a small distance x against the
force F, then;
Work done = Fx J
• Work done as given by above equation is equal to the increase in energy stored in the magnetic field.
1 𝟏 𝑩𝟐
• Energy stored per cubic meter of magnetic field; 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑/𝑚3 = 𝐵𝐻 =
2 𝟐 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓
𝟏 𝑩𝟐
• Since the field is in air, r = 1 Thus energy stored per cubic meter is, = 𝟐 𝝁𝟎

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 Electromagnetic Forces
• Generally the lifting power of magnet is given by;
1 𝐵2𝐴
𝐹=2 𝜇0
𝑁
• Pull in Kg wt.
𝐵2 𝐴
𝐹 = 9.81×2𝜇 𝑘𝑔𝑤𝑡
0

Figure 13: Lifting power of magnet

B)Force on a Conductor
• Ampere demonstrated a conductor carrying current is placed in a transverse magnetic field, this conductor
experiences a force that is proportional to:
❑ The strength of the magnetic field,
❑ The magnitude of current in the conductor, and
❑ The length of the conductor in, and perpendicular to, the magnetic field.
• In SI units, the electromagnetic force developed on the conductor carrying current in a magnetic field B is
given by;
F=BlI newtons

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