LABORATORY MODULE

EBT 251
MATERIALS PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
Semester 1 (2017/2018)

School Of Materials Engineering

Universiti Malaysia Perlis

Dr. Norzilah Abdul Halif

Dr Ho Li Ngee
Dr. Salmie Suhana Che Abdullah

Printed in 2011
Engineering Materials Chemistry
EBT 251

© 2011 Universiti Malaysia Perlis

Published by:
Pusat Pengajian Kejuruteraan Bahan
Universiti Malaysia Perlis
Taman Muhibah,
02600 Arau, Perlis

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted

in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, or otherwise, whether
now or hereafter devised, including photocopying, recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system without express written prior
permission from the publishers.

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CONTENT PAGE

LABORATORY SAFETY MANUAL …4

EXPERIMENT 1: CONCENTRATION POTENTIALS (NERNST

EQUATION) …6

EXPERIMENT 2: MEASURING THE VOLTAGE OF SIMPLE GALVANIC CELLS

… 11

EXPERIMENT 3: HESS’S LAW: DETERMINATION OF ENTHALPY (H)

BY USING A SIMPLE CALORIMETER … 14

EXPERIMENT 4: CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM … 18

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LABORATORY SAFETY

1. Do not perform an authorized experiment.

2. Upon entering the laboratory, note the location of the closest fire extinguisher,
first aid kit, eye wash station and chemical shower. Their location will be
specified on the laboratory door.
3. Do not touch moving components while the machine is in operation.
4. Use a hood for hazardous, volatile and noxious chemicals.
5. A laboratory coat or apron should be worn while working in the laboratory. In
general shorts, skirts, brief tops and sandals are not safe. Further clarification
of clothing requirements should be directed to the person(s) in charge of the
laboratory in which you are working. Confine all loose clothing, ties and long
hair. Leave your jewellery at home.
6. Do not wear contact lenses in the laboratory. Fumes, gasses and vapors can
easily be absorbed by the lenses or trapped between the lenses and eyes
resulting in chemical burns and abrasive injuries.
7. Do not work alone in the laboratory. It is unsafe and not recommended.
8. You are further expected to secure all gas cylinders, to label all containers, to
observe and obey all posted signs.
9. Report all accidents. No accident is too small to report.
10. Always wash your hands thoroughly at the end of the laboratory period.
When handling chemicals, keep your hands away from your face, eyes, and
body, until they have been washed.
11. Do not consume food or water while in the laboratory; never taste chemicals.
12. Keep desk tops clear of all books, clothing, and other personal property
except necessary lab directions and notebooks.
13. Never remove any equipment from the room without the permission of
technician-in-charge.
14. If any equipment should malfunction, or if any damage, always treat your own
and others’ safety with greatest respect and contact technician-in-charge.

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15. Electrical apparatus not in use should be switched off both at the equipment
and at the socket outlet.
16. Always treat moving machinery with greatest respect and never allow
machinery in motion without first making sure that no one is likely to be
injured.
17. Remember to turn off all unused electrical/machinery apparatus, lights, gas,
water supply and lock the door if you are the last person leaving the room.

Students/users should understand and follow all laboratory safety instructions while
using the laboratory. The rules and the regulations will be no used without your
commitment and cooperation.

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EXPERIMENT 1

CONCENTRATION POTENTIALS (NERNST EQUATION)

1. OBJECTIVE

1.1 To demonstrate the concentration-dependence and temperature-

dependence of the potentials of the half cells with different electrolyte
concentrations.
1.2 To demonstrate temperature-dependence of the potentials of the half
cells.
1.3 To understand the concept of Nernst Equation

2. INTRODUCTION (Do not copy this intro, work for it!)

If two half cells, which only differ with respect to the concentration of their
electrolyte solutions, are coupled, there is also a potential difference between
them. The magnitude of the potential difference also depends on the
temperature. The general relationship is given by the Nernst equation:

(4.1)

For temperature of 20oC and monovalent metals (e.g. Ag) this becomes

(4.2)

If the concentrations of the electrolytes in the half-cells differ by one power of ten
(c1(Ag+) = 10c2(Ag+)), then the logarithm of the quotient is 1 and the potential
difference 58mV (20oC) or 59mV (25oC). In the case of bivalent ions, the potential
difference is 58/2 mV = 29mV etc.

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Conversely, when the concentration of one of the electrolytes is known (c 1), that
of the electrolyte of the half-cell can be determined by measuring the potential
(∆E):

(4.3)

The theoretical value can only be determined approximately by experiment in this

case primarily because, for practical purposes, the activity has been substituted
with concentration.

In this experiment the concentration-dependence and temperature-dependence

of the potential of half-cells with different electrolyte concentrations
(concentration cells) will be demonstrated.

Since bivalent ions, such as Cu2+, do not provide such highly-reproducible

results, Ag+ ions must be used here. The value closest to the theoretical value of
58mV can be obtained with the concentration cell 0.01/0.001 M AgNO 3 solution.
Other combinations provide values which deviate slightly.

3. EQUIPMENT/APPARATUS (please update!)

1 Electrochemistry demonstration unit

2 Cells
2 Collecting dishes
Paper diaphragms
2 Ag electrodes
2 Cables, 25 cm
2 Alligator clips
1 Graduated cylinder, 100 ml
2 Erlenmayer flasks, 250ml
1 Beaker, 250 ml
1 Heater
1 wire gauze
1 thermometer

Chemicals
Argentum nitrate solution, 0.1 M

Warning: Argentum nitrate is corrosive. Wear safety goggles and safety gloves!
Do not let argentum nitrate come into contact with hands or clothing!

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4. PROCEDURE

Explain how you prepare 0.1 M stock solution and the dilution to 0.01 M and 0.001
M.

4.1 Approx. 4 cm of the more dilute argentum nitrate solution are filled into one
half cell and immediately afterwards the more concentrated solution is
added to the same level in the other half cell.

4.2 A argentum electrode is inserted into the outermost slot of both half-cells.
The electrodes are connected to the input of the voltmeter.

4.3 The voltage and polarity of the concentration cell are determined and
recorded.

4.4 The experiment can be repeated with 0.1M/ 0.01M and 0.1M/0.001M
solutions.

Further procedure: Temperature-dependence of potentials

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4.5 In order to demonstrate the temperature-dependence of potentials, bring

72ml of water to the boil in a 250ml beaker. Remove the beaker from the
heater and put in on the wire gauze.

4.6 Add 8ml of the 0.1 M AgNO3 solutions and mix with the hot water by shaking
slightly.

4.7 Add to one of the half-cells the hot 0.01 M solution prepared in this way and
add a cold (room temperature) 0.01 M solutions to the other.

4.8 Record the starting (highest) temperature. Take the temperature reading for
every 5oC decrease of temperature until the voltage turned zero.

4.9 Monitor the change in voltage and temperature.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Effect of electrolyte concentrations

Concentration of AgNO3
Voltage, V + pole - pole
solution
0.001M / 0.01M
0.1M / 0.01M
0.1M / 0.001M

5.2 Calculate the theoretical value of the potentials for all combination of solution
concentration: 0.001M / 0.01M, 0.1M / 0.01M, 0.1M / 0.001M using the
Nernst Equation.
5.3 Determine the error between the measured values with the theoretical values.
Discuss the differences.

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5.4 Effect of temperature between the electrolytes: AgNO 3 0.01M / AgNO3

0.01M

Temperature (oC) Voltage

6. LAB QUESTIONS:

6.1 From your observations, for every combination of difference electrolytes

concentrations, does the potential difference decreases with time? Why?

6.2 Compare the measured & theoretical values for these cell potentials.
From your experiment, result which deviate greatly from the
theoretical value may arise, particularly when more concentrated
(1.0M/0.1M) and highly diluted (<0.001M) AgNO 3 solutions are used.
Give your reasons. (Put this in the discussion)

6.3 From your result, what you can say about the influenced of temperature to
the potential between the cell using the same concentration of
electrolytes?

7. DISCUSSION:
Include a discussion on the result noting trends in measured data, and comparing measurements
with theoretical predictions when possible. Include the physical interpretation of the result, the
reasons on deviations of your findings from expected results, your recommendations on further
experimentation for verifying your results and your findings.

8. CONCLUSION:
Based on data and discussion, make your overall conclusion by referring to experiment objective.

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EXPERIMENT 2

MEASURING THE VOLTAGE OF SIMPLE GALVANIC CELLS.

1.0 OBJECTIVES
In this experiment, you will investigate how galvanic cells work, measure the
voltage generated by the galvanic cells and generate your own activity series for a
few metal electrodes.

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Electrochemistry is the study of the relationship between electricity and redox
reactions. There are two types of electrochemical reactions: (1) Chemical reactions
that can produce electricity – also called as galvanic cells and (2) Chemical
reactions that require electricity in order to proceed at all – electrolytic cells. In
galvanic cells, spontaneous redox reactions produce an electrical potential. In
these reactions we can measure the amount of chemical (moles) or concentrations
(moles per liter) by using electrical signal such as voltage or current. In electrolysis
cells, an external source of electricity is applied to force the nonspontaneous
reactions to occur to produce a redox reaction.

Spontaneity reflects the energy of the system. The change of energy in

electrochemical reactions is associated with the driving force of the flow of
electrons. This force is called electromotive force (emf). Thermodynamically,
spontaneous reactions are favored because no external force is required for the
reaction to proceed. A spontaneous redox reaction will have a positive cell potential

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difference, E > 0. A negative cell potential difference, E < 0, indicates a

nonspontaneous reaction. For example, equation 1 has a positive potential
difference, therefore the reaction is thermodynamically favored in the forward
direction. Equation 2 in the other hand has a negative potential difference,
therefore it is a nonspontaneous reaction and not favored.

Cu2+ (aq) + 2 e- → Cu (s) E° = +0.34 V  Eq. (1)

Zn2+ (aq) + 2 e- → Zn (s) E° = - 0.76 V  Eq. (2)

2.1 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions

In a redox reaction, oxidation and reduction occur at the same time. When a
chemical species loses electrons, oxidation occurs. Reduction in the other hand
occurs when a chemical species gains electrons. Oxidation process cannot occur
without the corresponding reduction process and vice versa. This is because the
oxidation process provides the necessary electrons for reduction to occur. Let’s
look at an example. Fe2+ reacts spontaneously with Ce4+ according to the equation
3 below:

loss 1 e-

Fe2+ + Ce4+ → Fe3+ + Ce3+  Eq. (3)

gain 1 e-

Here we found that:

i. There is a loss of electron when the oxidation number of iron, Fe changes

from +2 to +3. Therefore we can say that as a chemical species loses
electrons, the oxidation numbers of the species will also increase.
ii. Cerium,Ce in the other hand, gains an electron. It shows a decrease in
positive value in this reaction, from +4 to +3. Therefore, reduction is
recognized by the decrease in the oxidation number.
iii. Fe2+ is oxidized to Fe3+ by Ce4+ and Ce4+ is the oxidizing agent.
iv. Ce4+ is reduced to Ce3+ by Fe2+ and Fe2+ is the reducing agent.
v. The overall redox reaction can be broken down into two half-reactions, one
for oxidation and one for reduction:

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Fe2+ loses 1e-

reducing
agent

Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e- oxidation  Eq. (4)

Ce4+ + e- → Ce3+ reduction  Eq. (5)

oxidizing
agent Ce4+ gains 1e-

In these half-reactions, we see that:

i. Fe2+ loses an electron (e- appears as a product).

ii. Ce3+ gains an electron (e- appears as a reactant).
iii. In the overall reaction, the number of electrons lost by Fe 2+ is equal to the
number of electrons gained by Ce3+. In this case, the requirement is satisfied.
When the half-reaction equations are added, the electron terms cancel out to
give the overall equation:

Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e-
Ce4+ + e- → Ce3+

Fe2+ + Ce4+ + e- → Fe3+ + Ce3+ + e-

Fe2+ + Ce4+ → Fe3+ + Ce3+

Another example, in silver-tin galvanic cells, the standard half-cell potentials are:
Ag+ (aq) + e- → Ag (s) E° = +0.7996 V
Sn2+ + 2e- → Sn E° = - 0.1364 V
The overall equation is:

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2Ag+ → 2Ag + 2e- E° = +0.7996 V

Sn + 2e -
→ Sn2+ E° = +0.1364 V

2Ag+ + Sn + 2e- → 2Ag + Sn2+ + 2e-

2Ag+ + Sn → 2Ag + Sn2+ E° = +0.9360 V

Take note that the E° depends only on the potential difference between the two
metals. E° values are independent of the multiplication process used with the half-
reactions.

2.2 Electrochemical Cells

A simple galvanic cell (Figure 1) consists of two beakers, two metal electrodes, two
salt solutions, an external wiring, a salt bridge and a voltmeter. The electrode
where reduction occurs is called the cathode, and the electrode where oxidation
occurs is the anode. Reduction always occurs at the cathode; oxidation always
occurs at the anode.

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Figure 1: Schematic of a galvanic cell.

Each electrode is connected to the circuit by metal wiring. The voltmeter measures
the voltage generated by the redox reaction. The voltage reading will be positive
when the electrodes are connected properly for a spontaneous reaction.
Otherwise, the voltage reading will be negative, which means the cathode and
anode have been inverted.

The electrochemical cell for our Zn–Cu example is shown in Figure 1. The direction
of electron flow from the anode to the cathode is also shown. Electrons lost by zinc
(II) at the anode travel through the wire to the cathode, where Cu 2+ is reduced to
Cu. The function of the salt bridge is to maintain electroneutrality in the system as
the electrons are transferred from the anode to the cathode during the reaction.
The salt bridge contains ions that do not participate in the redox reaction but do
migrate in response to the electron flow. As electrons move away from the anode,
positive charge builds up around the anode and causes negative ions from the salt
bridge to flow toward the anode. As electrons move toward the cathode, it
becomes negatively charged and the positive salt-bridge ions flow toward the
cathode.

2.3 The Activity Series of Metals

The strength of this electron-pushing tendency, or emf, varies from metal to metal.
Thus, metals can be ranked according to their ability to give up electrons (that is,
according to their oxidation potential). This ranking is called the activity series for
metals. As part of this experiment, you will measure the oxidation potentials for the
metals selected by your instructor and generate your own mini-activity series.

In today’s experiment, you will measure the potential difference between various
half-reactions. This will give you experimental values that you can use to rank your
metals according to their oxidation potential. Your instructor will tell you what kind of
materials to use in the construction of your electrochemical cell.

2.4 The Nernst Equation

Under standard conditions (1 atm, 1 M solutions), E°cell measures the standard
electric potential difference between the half-cells. For measurements taken under
nonstandard conditions (the usual laboratory situation), the Nernst equation is used
to calculate the different in cell potential, Ecell.

The Nernst equation is

Ecell = E°cell - (RT)/(nF) ln Q  Eq. (6)
where
F = Faraday constant = 96,485 C mol-1
R = gas constant = 8.315 J K-1 mol-1
n = number of electrons transferred

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Q = the reaction quotient.

Sometimes the natural log (ln) is converted to the base ten log by ln x = 2.303 log x,
at temperature, T = 298.15 K, the equation becomes:

Ecell = E°cell - (0.0592V) log Q  Eq. (7)

n

By manipulating this equation, galvanic cells can be used to determine the

concentrations of the metal ions present under conditions other than standard
conditions. Suppose we construct silver-tin galvanic cells. The standard half-cell
potentials are:

Ag+ (aq) + e- → Ag (s) E° = 0.7996 V

Sn2+ + 2e- → Sn E° = 0.1364 V

and the spontaneous reaction that occurs is:

2 Ag+ (aq) + Sn (s) → 2 Ag (s) + Sn2+ (aq)  E °cell = 0.9360 V

For this reaction, the Nernst equation is

Ecell = E°cell – (0.0592 V) log [Sn2+]  Eq. (8)

2 [Ag+]2

Now, if we wish to determine the concentration of Ag+ when E cell = 0.9408 and
[Sn+2] = 0.010 M, then [Ag+] is easily obtained by substituting and solving the
equation.

0.9408 = 0.9360V – (0.0592 V) log 0.010

2 [Ag+]2

-0.16227 = log 0.010 – 2 log [Ag+]2

Solving the above equation, we get

log[Ag+] = -0.9189

Therefore,

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[Ag+] = 0.121 M

There are two things we usually want to know about a redox couple: the overall
balanced chemical equation for the spontaneous reaction that occurs in a galvanic
cell and the E° for the standard cell. The overall reaction is obtained in the
following manner:

i. Choose the half-reaction with the more positive E° value as the reduction
half reaction.
ii. Subtract (reverse) the other half-reaction to make it an oxidation half-reaction.
iii. Adjust both half-reactions so that the electron term has the same coefficient.
iv. Combine the two half-reactions.

Before you start the experiment, you MUST complete the prelaboratory assignment.
The assignment is intended to evaluate your understanding based on your reading.
Therefore, when you answer the questions, you must use your own sentences –
do not copy word by word from this manual. The exercises are due before the
laboratory begins.

3.0 APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS:

3.1 Metal electrodes: Al, Fe, Sn, Zn, Cu, etc
3.2 A double half chambers
3.3 Two electrical leads (jacks at one end and alligator clips at the other)
3.4 A voltmeter
3.5 Diaphragm papers
3.6 Chemicals: Aluminum Sulphate, Copper Sulphate, Iron (III) Nitrate, Zinc
Sulphate, etc

4.0 PROCEDURE
4.1 Chose 3 different metal electrodes and for each metal, prepare 50 mL of
0.2 M it’s salt solution. Use the equation below to calculate the amount of
salt required to prepare the solution:

Molarity, M = number of moles

liter of solute

4.2 Show your calculations to your laboratory instructor before you proceed
with the experiment. Once your calculations have been verified, weight the
required salt and prepare the solutions.
4.3 Use either an analog or digital voltmeter for this experiment. Connect it
properly to obtain direct current measurements. Set up the voltmeter for
voltage measurements using two electrical leads.

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4.4 You will use a double-half chamber instead of beakers to prepare the half
cells. Insert a diaphragm paper in between the half chambers and make
sure both half-chambers are tightly screwed. Place an electrode in each
half chamber as per Figure 2 below:
4.5 Dirty connections and electrodes are the main source of error in this
experiment. Be certain that the electrode and alligator clips are clean using
a sand paper before connecting them to the electrodes.
4.6 Begin at the highest DC–V setting and gradually lower the setting until you
get a reading. If your reading is negative, you have the leads connected to
the wrong outlets; reverse them. The meter reading will be positive when
the cathode is connected to the (+) outlet and the anode to the (-) outlet of
the meter. Record the voltage and label which of the two metal electrodes is
the cathode and which is the anode. Disconnect the alligator clips, clean
them again, and record a second measurement. If these two
measurements do not agree within 5%, repeat the cleaning and
measurements again until you obtain reasonable agreement between
measurements.
4.7 Record the temperature of the solution for each measurement.
4.8 Repeat this procedure for all possible pairings of half-cells.
4.9 Cleanup: Clean and return all metals, meters, and leads. Do not flush any
solutions down the drain. Ask your instructor about how to dispose of them
properly.

Electrode A Electrode B

Diaphragm paper

Figure 2: Schematic of a double half chambers. Screw the diaphragm paper

tightly in between the two half chambers to avoid leakage.

5. RESULT / OBSERVATION

No Galvanic cells Measured Cathode Anode

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(i.e. ZnZn2+  Cu2+ Cu) voltage, V

1

6. LAB QUESTIONS

6.1 Sketch a schematic diagram of your Galvanic cells.

6.2 For each Galvanic cell, show the calculation to obtain the amount of salt
required to prepare the solution.
6.3 For each Galvanic cells, write down the half-cell reactions and standard
half-cell potential and overall equation.
6.4 For each Galvanic cells, calculate the overall cell potential difference, E cell
for each redox reaction using Nernst equation.
6.5 From your data, construct your mini activity series for the tested electrodes.
6.6 State at least two chemical handling safety precautions.

7. DISCUSSION

7.1 Compare the voltage you measured from the experiment to the one you
calculated from the Nernst equation. Calculate the percentage of error for
each cell. Provide explanation for the error.
7.2 A galvanic cell cannot generate electricity forever. Give an explanation for
why a galvanic cell may go ‘dead”.
7.3 Based on the Galvanic cells, explain how you can construct a battery that
can power up a small light bulb (minimum voltage requirement 3.0 V).
Include a labeled drawing of you proposed battery.

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7. CONCLUSION

Based on your data and discussion, make your overall conclusion by referring to
the experimental objectives.

8. REPORT

Write a report based on your experimental objective, step-by-step procedure,

results, discussion and conclusion.

EXPERIMENT 3

HESS’S LAW: DETERMINATION OF ENTHALPY (H) BY USING A

SIMPLE CALORIMETER

1. OBJECTIVE

1.1 To develop a simple calorimeter

1.2 To determine enthalpy of reaction that difficult to be carried out
straight forwardly

2. INTRODUCTION

This principle was first observed experimentally for chemical reactions in 1840 by
G.H. Hess. This law founded that H for a reaction is independent of any
intermediate reactions that occur. The H that accompanies a given chemical
reaction is the same whether the reaction occur in one or several steps.

A simple example that illustrates Hess’s Law is the reaction :

A C H = -50 kJ/mol

It can go in one step as written or in two steps :

(1) A B H1 = 40 kJ/mol

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(2) B C H2 = -90 kJ/mol

The sum of equation (1) and (2) is the equation of interest and therefore its H is
the sum of H1 and H2.

In this experiment, students will determine the enthalpies of these reactions :

(i) Na2CO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) 2 NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Hi

(ii) NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Hii

With the enthalpies of reactions (i) and (ii), the students can determine and
calculate the enthalpy of this reaction (iii) that difficult to be carried out
straightforwardly in the lab.

(iii) 2 NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Hiii

Glass stir stick

Thermometer

Beaker (100 mL)

Towel

Beaker (400 mL)

Figure 1 : A simple calorimeter

3. EQUIPMENT / APPARATUS

Glass stir stick

Beaker (100 mL and 400 mL)
Thermometer
Graduated cylinder

Chemicals:
Hydrochloric acid solution (HCl) 2 M
Natrium carbonate (Na2CO3)
Natrium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3)

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4. PROCEDURE

4.1 Determination of enthalpy for reaction (i)

1) Put 30 mL HCl into the calorimeter. Stir carefully with a glass stir
stick until a constant temperature is reached. Measure and record
this temperature as a starting temperature, T1.

2) Accurately find and record the mass of about 2.00 – 2.40 gram of
Na2CO3.

3) Place the solid Na2CO3 into the HCl in the calorimeter and stir
gently with the glass stir stick.

4) Record the temperatures for every 30 second until the

temperatures are constant.

5) Plot a graph of the temperatures vs times and calculate the

highest temperature, T2.

6) Calculate the enthalpy for reaction (i).

4.2 Determination of enthalpy for reaction (ii)

1) Repeat step (1) to (3) but for step (2) replace the solid Na2CO3
with NaHCO3. Use the mass of NaHCO3 in the range of 2.75 –
3.15 gram.

2) Record the temperatures for every 15 second until the

temperatures are constant.

3) Plot a graph of the temperatures vs times and calculate the

highest temperature, T2.

4) Calculate the enthalpy for the reaction (ii).

5) With using of enthalpy from the reaction (i) and (ii), calculate the
enthalpy for the reaction (iii).

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T = T2 – T1
T2

T1

Figure 2 : Graph of the temperatures vs times (example).

Notes:

Relative Molecule Mass of Na2CO3

qsx x ( Mass of Na2CO3  Mass of HCl ) x T
Mass of Na2CO3
q = - enthalphy

Density,  for HCl is 1.00 g/mL

Heat capacity, s for the solution is 4.18 J g-1 0C-1

Heat capacity for the calorimeter is too small, therefore it can be neglected.

5. LAB QUESTIONS

5.1 What is the Hess’s Law ?

5.2 C  s   2 H 2  g   CH 4  g  H  ?

Calculate the enthalpy of the above reaction and determine the reaction is
exothermic or endothermic. Three equations needed to calculate the
enthalpy are :

C (s) + O2(g) CO2(g) H = -393kJ/mol

2 H2O(l) 2 H2(g) + O2(g) H = 586kJ/mol

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) H = -753kJ/mol

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6. DISCUSSION
Include a discussion on the result noting trends in measured data, and comparing measurements
with theoretical predictions when possible. Include the physical interpretation of the result, the
reasons on deviations of your findings from expected results, your recommendations on further
experimentation for verifying your results and your findings.

7. CONCLUSION
Based on data and discussion, make your overall conclusion by referring to experiment objective.

EXPERIMENT 4

CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM : LE CHATLIER’S PRINCIPLE

1. OBJECTIVE

1.1 To use Le Chatelier's principle for determining changes in equilibrium

systems

2. INTRODUCTION

Many chemical reactions involve an equilibrium process. During a dynamic

equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse
reaction. This means that both reactants and products will be present at any
given point in time. The direction in which the equilibrium shift may be predicted
by using Le Chatlier's Principle.

In 1888, Henri-Lewis Le Chatelier (1850 - 1936) a French industrial chemist

made the observation,

“When a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system will adjust

to relieve the stress.”

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The stresses are concentration, pressure and temperature. At equilibrium, the

rates of forward and reverse reactions are equal. For the general reaction
equation,

aA + bB <======> cC + dD

The equilibrium expression is,

Kc = [C]c [D]d
[A]a [B]b

Kc is the equilibrium constant. Where [A], [B] are the reactant concentrations and
[C], [D] are the product concentrations.

In this experiment, student will determine the effect of concentration and

temperature to the these equilibrium reactions,

2.1 Concentration effect

Equilibrium of Fe (III)-SCN ion complexes

Fe3+ (aq) + (SCN)-(aq) <======> Fe(SCN)2+ (aq)

(yellow) (dark red)

2.2 Temperature effect

2.2.1 Equilibrium of Co (II) ion complexes

Co(H2O)62+ (aq) + 4 Cl- (aq) <======> CoCl42- (aq) + H2O (l)

(red) (blue)

2.2.2 Equilibrium of Cu (II) ion complexes

CuCl42- (aq) + H2O (l) <======> Cu(H2O)62+ (aq) + 4Cl- (aq)

(yellow) (blue)

3. APPARATUS

Beaker
Thermometer
Water bath
Conical flask
Test tube
Graduated cylinder

Chemicals:
Hydrochloric acid

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Kalium thiocyanate solution (KSCN) 0.1 M

Ferum (III) nitrate solution (Fe(NO3)3) 0.1 M
Cobalt (II) chloride solution (CoCl2) 0.2 M
Cuprum (II) chloride solution (CuCl2) 0.2 M
Natrium hydroxide solution (NaOH) 10 %

4. PROCEDURE

4.1 Concentration effect on Fe (III)-SCN ion complexes

4.1.1 Mix 1 ml Fe(NO3)3 and 1 ml KSCN solution in 100 ml beaker.

4.1.2 Add 25 ml distilled water into the mixture and stir the solution.

4.1.3 Prepare and label 4 clean test tubes as A1, A2, A3 and A4.

4.1.4 Divide the solution evenly to all the test tubes.

4.1.5 Add additional 1 ml Fe(NO3)3 into test tube A1, additional 1 ml

KSCN solution into test tube A2 and 8 drops of NaOH solution into
test tube A3.

4.1.6Stir gently all the solution and compare the solution colour with the
solution in test tube A4.
4.2 Temperature effect on Co (II) and Cu (II) ion complexes

4.2.1 Prepare 5 ml CoCl2 and 5 ml CuCl2 in two separate conical flasks.

4.2.2 Add 3 ml HCl into both flasks (prepare the solution in fume
cupboard).

4.2.3 Stir both solutions until cobalt solution turn to purple (red + blue)
and cuprum solution turn to green (blue + yellow).

4.2.4 Prepare and label 6 clean test tubes as B1, B2, B3 and C1, C2,
C3.

4.2.5 Divide the cobalt solution evenly to test tubes B1, B2, B3 and
cuprum solution to C1, C2, C3.

4.2.6 Soak B1 and C1 test tubes in the ice.

4.2.7 Soak B2 and C2 test tubes in hot water (T  90 OC). Let B3 and
C3 test tubes in room temperature.

4.2.8 Compare the entire solution colour after 5 minutes.

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5. RESULTS

5.1 Concentration effect on Fe (III)-SCN ion complexes

TEST TUBE A1 A2 A3

Colour Changes

Reaction Direction*

Reaction Equation**

Species Decrease

Species Increase

Notes: *Indicate the reaction direction (left or right)

**Please use or or

5.2 Temperature effect on Co (II) and Cu (II) ion complexes

TEST TUBE ANSWER

B1

B2
COLOUR
CHANGES
C1

C2

B1

REACTION B2
DIRECTION*

C1

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C2

B1

B2
REACTION
EQUATION**
C1

C2

Notes: *Indicate the reaction direction (left or right)

**Please use or or

6. LAB QUESTION

6.1 Predict equilibrium direction if HCl is used instead of NaOH in A3 test

tube. Please explain your answer.

7. DISCUSSION:
Include a discussion on the result noting trends in measured data, and comparing measurements
with theoretical predictions when possible. Include the physical interpretation of the result, the
reasons on deviations of your findings from expected results, your recommendations on further
experimentation for verifying your results and your findings.

8. CONCLUSION:
Based on data and discussion, make your overall conclusion by referring to experiment objective.

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