Teach Learn PDF

TEACHING AND LEARNING SPANISH
LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

The Philosophy and Principles of Teaching and
Learning Spanish Language and Culture 3
Teaching and Learning in the Spanish Classroom 45
Combined Grades in the Second Language Classroom 105
SENIOR 1 TO SENIOR 4 SPANISH LANGUAGE AND CULTURE • Teaching and Learning
TEACHING AND LEARNING SPANISH

LANGUAGE AND CULTURE
The Philosophy and Principles of Teaching and Learning
Spanish Language and Culture
Second Language Teaching Methodologies*
Theodore Rodgers argues that methodology in second language
teaching has been characterized in a variety of ways. A somewhat
classical formulation suggests that methodology is that which links
theory and practice. Theory statements would include theories of what
language is and how language is learned or, more specifically, theories
of second language acquisition (SLA). Such theories are linked to
various design features of language instruction. These design features
might include stated objectives, syllabus specifications, types of
activities, roles of teachers and learners, materials, and so forth. Design
features in turn are linked to actual teaching and learning practices as
observed in the environments where language teaching and learning
take place. This whole complex of elements defines language teaching
methodology.
Theories of
Instructional Observed
Language
Design Teaching
and
Features Practices
Learning
Language Teaching Methodology
Figure 1. Language Teaching Methodology

(From: Language Teaching Methodology by Theodore S. Rodgers, Professor Emeritus,
University of Hawaii)
Schools of Language Teaching Methodology

Within methodology a distinction is often made between methods and
approaches. Methods are held to be fixed teaching systems with
prescribed techniques and practices, whereas approaches represent
language teaching philosophies that can be interpreted and applied
____________________
* Adapted from Language Teaching Methodology by Theodore S. Rodgers, Professor
Emeritus, University of Hawaii.
Teaching and Learning – 3

Teaching and Learning • SENIOR 1 TO SENIOR 4 SPANISH LANGUAGE AND CULTURE
in a variety of different ways in the classroom. This distinction is

probably most usefully seen as defining a continuum of entities ranging
from highly prescribed methods to loosely described approaches.
The period from the 1950s to the 1980s has often been referred to as
“The Age of Methods,” during which a number of quite detailed
prescriptions for language teaching were proposed. Situational
Language Teaching evolved in the United Kingdom while a parallel
method, Audio-Lingualism, emerged in the United States. In the
middle-methods period, a variety of methods were proclaimed as
successors to the then prevailing Situational Language Teaching and
Audio-Lingual methods. These alternatives were promoted under such
titles as Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Community Language Learning,
and Total Physical Response. In the 1980s, these methods in turn came
to be overshadowed by more interactive views of language teaching,
which collectively came to be known as Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT). Communicative Language Teaching advocates
subscribed to a broad set of principles such as these:
• Learners learn a language through using it to communicate.
• Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of
classroom activities.
• Fluency is an important dimension of communication.
• Communication involves the integration of different language skills.
• Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and
error.
However, CLT advocates avoided prescribing the set of practices
through which these principles could best be realized, thus putting CLT
clearly on the approach rather than the method end of the spectrum.
Communicative Language Teaching has spawned a number of off-
shoots that share the same basic set of principles, but which spell out
philosophical details or envision instructional practices in somewhat
diverse ways. These CLT spin-off approaches include The Natural
Approach, Cooperative Language Learning, Content-Based Teaching,
and Task-Based Teaching.
It is difficult to describe these various methods briefly and yet fairly,
and such a task is well beyond the scope of this document. However,
several up-to-date texts are available that do detail differences and
similarities among the many different approaches and methods that
have been proposed. (See Larsen-Freeman, and Richards and Rodgers.)
Perhaps it is possible to get a sense of the range of method proposals by
looking at a synoptic view of the roles defined for teachers and learners
within various methods. Such a synoptic (perhaps scanty) view can be
seen in the following chart.

Teaching Methods and Teacher and Learner Roles
Method Teacher Roles Learner Roles
Situational Language Context Setter Imitator

Teaching Error Corrector Memorizer
Audio- Language Modeller Pattern Practicer
lingualism Drill Leader Accuracy Enthusiast
Communicative Needs Analyst Improviser
Language Teaching Task Designer Negotiator
Total Physical Commander Order Taker
Response Action Monitor Performer
Community Counsellor Collaborator
Language Learning Paraphraser Whole Person
The Natural Actor Guesser
Approach Props User Immerser
Figure 2. Methods and Teacher and Learner Roles

(From: Language Teaching Methodology by Theodore S. Rodgers, Professor Emeritus,
University of Hawaii)
The Total Physical Response (TPR) teaching method is one in which

students respond with physical activity to an increasingly complex set
of commands. The students’ physical activity responses signal their
comprehension of the command. This is ideally suited for beginning
language students, but can be adapted and made more complex for
higher level students.
The Natural Approach (NA) promotes communicative proficiency by
providing real-world, authentic experiences, and language experiences
with meaningful contexts.
As suggested in the chart, some schools of methodology see the teacher
as an ideal language model and commander of classroom activity,
whereas others see the teacher as a background facilitator and
classroom colleague to learners.
There are other global issues to which spokespersons for the various
methods and approaches respond in alternative ways. For example,
should second language learning by adults be modelled on first
language learning by children? One set of schools (e.g., Total Physical
Response, Natural Approach) notes that first language acquisition is the
only universally successful model of language learning we have, and
thus that second language pedagogy must necessarily model itself on
first language acquisition. An opposed view (e.g., Silent Way,
Suggestopedia) observes that adults have different brains, interests,
timing constraints, and learning environments than do children, and

that adult classroom learning therefore has to be fashioned in a way

quite dissimilar to the way in which nature fashions how first
languages are learned by children.
Another key distinction turns on the role of perception versus
production in early stages of language learning. One school of thought
proposes that learners should begin to communicate, to use a new
language actively, on first contact (e.g., Audio-Lingual Method, Silent
Way, Community Language Learning), while the other school of
thought states that an initial and prolonged period of reception
(listening, reading) should precede any attempts at production (e.g.,
Natural Approach).
A Post-communicative Approach to Teaching and Learning
International Languages
The diversity of methods and approaches that were described above
may seem to suggest that what makes for good practice is a contested
area. However, one finds that there is an increasing integration of ideas
as to what constitutes effective and meaningful second language
teaching and learning. Krashen’s theory that second language learners
“acquire” language skills in many of the same ways that first language
learners develop linguistic knowledge has had an enormous influence
on second language/international language theory and practice.
Proponents of communicative approaches have had an equally
powerful influence. In many ways, the contemporary international
language teacher reflects a “post-communicative” approach to teaching.
That is, their understanding of the teaching and learning draws
significantly on communicative theory but incorporates other
theoretical perspectives, such as multiple intelligences and
constructivist theories.
Communicative Language Teaching*
Renate Schulz provides a historical background and description of
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). In the 1970s and 1980s,
second/international language instruction moved away from an almost
exclusive focus on the components of language—grammar, vocabulary,
and pronunciation—to a focus on the development of communicative
proficiency—the ability to communicate in the target language
(language being studied) in real-life contexts. Communicative language
teaching builds on the understanding that language use is governed
not only by phonological and grammatical rules, but also by
sociolinguistic and discourse rules (Canale and Swain). In other words,
natural language use is a complex, creative activity that takes different
____________________
* Adapted from “Foreign Language Education in the United States: Trends and
Challenges” by Renate A. Schulz.

forms depending on a variety of factors, including the context in which

the interaction occurs, the characteristics of the speaker or writer (e.g.,
age, gender, social status, level of education, and geographic origin),
the characteristics of the listener or reader, and the purpose of the
interaction (Hymes).
Whereas previous second/international language teaching methods—
such as the grammar translation and audio-lingual methods—focused
predominantly on grammatical form within a sentence-level context (or
sometimes without any meaningful context), communicative language
teaching focuses on the meaning of a message within a given situation,
realizing that different cultures may have different ways to perform
different speech acts in different contexts. It is the context that
determines what is said, how it is said, to whom it is said, and why it is
said. Thus communicative language teaching often uses language
functions or speech acts (e.g., asking questions, apologizing,
complimenting, reporting, giving directions, and making requests),
rather than specific grammatical structures, as its organizing principles.
With the communicative language teaching approach, teachers and
students use the target language extensively, if not exclusively. Students
are given information-exchange tasks that they can complete by
working in pairs or small groups. This interactive, situational language
practice requires learners “to interpret, express, and negotiate meaning
in the new language” (Lee and VanPatten 1).
Communicative language teaching also advocates the use of culturally
authentic texts written by native speakers for native speakers instead of
simplified or edited texts developed expressly for second/international
language learners. Effective use of authentic texts includes having the
learners perform interesting and level-appropriate tasks after or while
seeing, hearing, or viewing culturally authentic materials. For example,
it would be inappropriate to give beginning learners a newspaper
editorial and ask them to translate or summarize its content. However,
even beginning learners can find dates and names of persons or places
and can often get the general sense of what is being said.
Although discrete-point grammar instruction, mechanical pattern
practice, and instant and direct error correction—which dominated
second/international language instruction in the past—are generally
frowned upon in the communicative classroom, attention to
grammatical patterns continues to play an important role. This is true
particularly for adolescent and adult learners, who are often intrigued
by—and find it helpful to understand—structural differences between
their own and the target language. The role of grammar is to support
the exchange of meaning, the informational contents, and the
communicative purposes dealt with in the classroom.

Constructivist Theory
Constructivist theory emphasizes the importance of the learner’s active
construction of knowledge and the interplay between new knowledge
and the learner’s prior knowledge. Effective international language
instruction will provide opportunities for students to construct and
create their own understanding of how to make meaning from what
they hear and read, and how they use their understanding to construct
and create their own meanings in speech and writing. Myriam Met
(“Middle Schools”) describes a constructivist approach to the learning
of international languages in the text that follows:
In order to construct knowledge of a new language, students need
exposure to the target language. This exposure makes the
transmission of meaning in second languages accessible and
understandable to students. Internalizing the relationship between
meaning and the forms used to convey it is essential for production;
students cannot spontaneously produce language they do not
understand. In the first phase of internalization, students learn to
understand what is heard by matching meaning with language.
Learners need to notice features in the input (vocabulary, syntax,
discourse markers) to which they can assign meanings. Through a
carefully implemented sequence of instructional activities, students
can be assisted to move through the construction of meaning.
Students should be provided with comprehensible examples of new
structures as used in authentic situations and extended spoken and
written texts, as well as many opportunities to hear, understand,
and match language with meaning.
Characteristics of Effective Programs
It is well known that almost all young children acquire their first
language naturally in the course of normal development and that they
can acquire a second language simultaneously if their second language
environment is similar to that of their first language environment.
Numerous research studies have shown that adolescents and young
adults can be quite efficient language learners (again with the exception
of acquiring native-like pronunciation) in situations in which exposure
to the language is limited to a classroom setting. As Swain and Lapkin
(“Canadian Immersion”) point out, “Older learners may not only
exhibit as much success in learning certain aspects of a second
language as younger learners, but they can also accomplish this
learning in a shorter period of time” (150).
There are several factors or characteristics of effective second/
international language programs. In a review of the international
literature on effective languages programming, Pufahl, Rhodes, and
Christian (Other Countries) identified and summarized a number of
additional factors or characteristics of successful program models.

An Early Start
As can be expected, time is a factor. Many international respondents
reported that beginning language study early promotes achievement of
higher levels of language proficiency. Seven of the countries that were
studied have widespread or compulsory education in
second/international languages by age eight, and another eight
countries introduce second/international languages in the upper
elementary grades. In many cases, a second second/international
language is offered or required in the elementary grades. What is
essential for the development of a lasting and usable competence in a
second/international language is a lengthy, well-articulated, high-
quality instructional sequence. This means that if language proficiency
is the major goal of instruction, then the length of formal language
study needs to be four years or more.
A Well-Articulated Framework
Instruction must be well-articulated in a continuous, sequentially
planned and executed curriculum through which students progress
without interruption from the beginning of their second/international
language study to high school graduation. Several respondents noted
the importance of a well-articulated curriculum framework that
motivates and guides the development of an effective system of
second/international language education. Many European countries
have adapted their second/international language teaching at the
national level to the frameworks and standards articulated by the
Council of Europe’s language policy and activities. A Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages, developed and revised over the
past decade, has had high impact. The Framework is a planning
instrument that provides a common basis and terminology for
describing objectives, methods and approaches, skills, practices, and
assessments in language teaching, and it is used for planning
syllabuses, examinations, teaching materials, and teacher training
programs throughout Europe.
Similar developments have emerged in Canada and the United States.
The Western Canadian Protocol, Common Curriculum Framework for
International Languages (2000) was an attempt to improve the
effectiveness of international language education in western Canada by
providing a common well-articulated framework for the development
of language-specific curriculum.
Rigorous Teacher Education
One of the most often cited factors related to excellence in second/
international language education is a well-trained teaching corps.

Comprehensive Use of Technology

Innovative technologies and media are frequently cited as a way to
increase access to information and entertainment in a
second/international language, provide interaction with speakers of
other languages, and improve second/international language teaching
in the classroom.
Access to Information and Entertainment
Most respondents, in particular those from Canada, Denmark, and
Thailand, highlighted the importance of the Internet and specialized
databases for information retrieval. In smaller countries, many
television shows are broadcast in a second/international language and
subtitled rather than dubbed. In Denmark, where English is
omnipresent through the many American and British television
programs, films, computer games, and music videos, teachers have
developed successful strategies for integrating students’ informal
second/international language exposure into classroom teaching.
Interaction and Collaboration with Speakers of Other Languages
Access to information on the World Wide Web and the use of new
information technologies, especially networked computers, has
contributed to increased communication among second/international
language teachers and students in many countries. Through email,
mailing lists, discussion groups, and chat rooms, the Internet has
increased access to and communication in the second/international
language with both native and non-native speakers.
In addition, improvements in travel and reduced costs have made it
possible for increased direct contact through tourism, education, and
business/work-related activities. Satellite communication and
improvements in telecommunication have brought the “world” into
homes throughout the world, no matter how remote. Multilingual
television channels have increased the linguistic diversity in every
nation.
Effective Teaching Strategies
Respondents mentioned several innovative methods for language
instruction, which fall roughly into the categories highlighted below.

Integration of Language and Content Learning

Learning content-area subjects through the medium of a
second/international language has become increasingly popular in
many of the responding countries. In some cases, a second/
international language is used as the medium of instruction in non-
language subjects, frequently at the secondary school level when
students have acquired sufficient proficiency in the second/
international language. In Luxembourg, for example, both German and
French are used as a medium of instruction throughout students’
school careers to support simultaneous learning of both languages. In
immersion programs, called “bilingual programs” in Europe, primary
school children are taught subject matter almost exclusively in a second
or international language. Similar bilingual and French immersion
programs in Canada have demonstrated the possibilities and
effectiveness of each model.
Communicative Teaching Methods
In Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Peru, and
Spain, a focus on communicative and intercultural learning has not
only stimulated a productive discussion of teaching objectives,
methods, and underlying rationales that are now reflected in curricula
and textbooks, but has also resulted in increased oral and written
proficiency for their students.
Focus on Language Learning Strategies
Several respondents reported that a recent focus on how to learn a
second/international language has been important to the success of
language education in their countries. In Denmark, for example,
teachers focus on raising students’ awareness of various
communication strategies, including strategies to bridge vocabulary
gaps, reading and listening strategies, and general language learning
strategies.
Building on the First or Subsequent Languages
There is increasing awareness and knowledge of the importance of the
students’ first language on second language learning. Successful
approaches consider students’ first languages as a foundation upon
which to build second language proficiency. In Luxembourg, several
projects demonstrate that acknowledging the sociocultural context and
the already developed competencies of children in their first language
will boost learning of subsequent languages.

Other Characteristics of Successful Programs

Other notable methods include the sole use of the second/
international language in the classroom; a modular approach to
teaching in which students are grouped according to proficiency level
rather than age or grade level; and project-oriented learning that
emphasizes the use of authentic materials through technology and
integrates learning about culture and nations with language and
content learning.
The Influence of Contemporary Theory and Practice
The research summarized in the preceding section has informed the
development of the Senior 1 to Senior 4 Spanish Language and Culture: A
Foundation for Implementation. In developing this document, developing
communicative competence has been at the forefront of the enterprise.
Both the curriculum framework and the suggestions for instruction and
assessment included in this document demonstrate an acute awareness
of the importance of meaningful and relevant learning experiences and
tasks, which provide a context for acquiring and using Spanish.
Four Components
Communicative competence is represented by four interrelated and
interdependent components. The “Applications” component deals with
what the students will be able to do in Spanish, the functions they will
be able to perform, and the contexts in which they will be able to
operate. “Language Competence” addresses the students’ knowledge of
the Spanish language and their ability to use that knowledge to
interpret and produce meaningful texts* appropriate to the situation in
which they are used. “Global Citizenship” aims to develop intercultural
competence with a particular focus on Spanish cultures. The
“Strategies” component helps students learn and communicate more
effectively and more efficiently. Each of these components is described
more in the Senior 1 to Senior 4 Spanish Language and Culture: Manitoba
Curriculum Framework of Oucomes and also in this document.
Modes of Communication
Because of the focus on using language to communicate in specific
contexts, with a particular purpose or task in mind, three modes of
communication are used to organize some of the specific learning
outcomes rather than the traditional language arts (reading, writing,
listening, speaking, viewing, representing).
__________________
* See Appendix A: Glossary for definitions of terms.

Interaction is most often direct, face-to-face oral communication. It can

also take the form of written communication between individuals using
a medium such as email where the exchange of information is fairly
immediate. It is characterized principally by the opportunity to
negotiate meaning actively. Negotiating meaning involves working to
make oneself understood and to understand others. Interactive
communication generally requires more speed but less accuracy than
the other two modes.
Interpretation is receptive communication of oral and written messages
in contexts where the listener or reader is not in direct contact with the
creator of the message. While there is no opportunity to ask for
clarification, there is sometimes the possibility of rereading or listening
again, consulting references, or figuring out meaning in other ways.
Reading and listening will sometimes involve viewing and interpreting
visual elements such as illustrations in books or moving images in
television and film. Interpretation goes beyond a literal comprehension
to include an understanding of some of the unspoken or unwritten
meaning intended by the author or speaker.
Production is communication of oral and written messages in contexts
where the audience is not in personal contact with the speaker or
writer, or in situations of one-to-many communication (e.g., a lecture or
a performance where there is no opportunity for the listener to interact
with the speaker). Oral and written presentations will sometimes be
enhanced by representing the meaning visually, using pictures,
diagrams, models, drama techniques, or other non-verbal forms of
communication. Greater knowledge of the language and culture is
required to ensure that communication is successful because the
participants cannot directly negotiate meaning.
Viewing and Representing
It is common in Canada to conceptualize language arts as comprising
six elements (reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing, and
representing). While the six language arts cannot be separated in a real
sense in the classroom, viewing and representing are discussed
separately here because they have been formally identified as language
arts in this curriculum.
Many students are avid and sophisticated consumers of visual media,
and their familiarity with visual forms may facilitate literacy with other
forms. Teachers can make use of this knowledge by creating links
between conventions in visual media and similar conventions in
written texts.

Viewing and representing are language arts in their own right. Students
need to learn the techniques and conventions of visual language to
become more conscious, critical, and appreciative readers of visual
media, and more effective creators of visual products.
Films and video productions increase students’ experiences, much as
written texts do, and they offer similar opportunities for discussion.
Films also provide rich opportunities to explore the similarities and
differences between visual and written language. Students may
enhance their own products and presentations by using visuals with
written text and/or sound.
Students may use visual representation for both informal and formal
expression. Drawing or sketching may, in fact, be the first and most
natural way for some students to clarify thinking and generate ideas.
They may also use tools such as frames, maps, webs, and other graphic
organizers to comprehend parts and their relationships. Visual tools are
especially useful because they can represent the non-linear nature of
thought and show relationships among ideas. For beginning learners of
Spanish Language and Culture, visual tools may be an effective way to
facilitate and demonstrate comprehension.
Students may use representation to express their mental constructs of
the ideas, theories, or scenes in written texts. Events, ideas, and
information may be depicted in graphic organizers, storyboards,
murals, comic strips, or collages. After studying visual media, students
make informed use of design elements in developing charts, slides,
posters, and booklets. Other creative forms of expression, such as
music, drama, dance, or mathematics, can be a means of representing
students’ understanding of a topic or a concept. The inclusion of
representing as a language art extends the means by which students
can communicate and demonstrate their learning in authentic ways.
Three Types of Language Learning
As students actively use the language arts, they engage in three kinds
of language learning:
! Students learn language: Language learning is a social process that
begins in infancy and continues through life. Language-rich
environments enhance and accelerate the learning process.
! Students learn through language: As students listen, read, or view,
they focus primarily on making meaning. Students use language to
increase their knowledge of the world.
! Students learn about language: Knowledge of how language works
is a subject and a discipline in itself and is fundamental to effective
communication.

These three kinds of language learning are integrated in the classroom.

Students may engage in learning tasks principally to make sense of the
world. In the process of learning through language, however, their
facility with language and their knowledge about language increases.
Developing Language Competence
Language competence is a broad term which includes not only
knowledge about the language, but also the ability to use that
knowledge to interpret and produce meaningful texts appropriate to
the situation in which they are used. Language competence is best
developed in the context of activities or tasks where the language is
used for real purposes, in other words, in practical applications. Tasks
involve students in understanding, manipulating, producing, or
interacting in Spanish while their attention is principally focused on
meaning rather than form. Activities or tasks will be chosen based on
the needs, interests, and experiences of students. The vocabulary,
grammar structures, text forms, and social conventions necessary to
carry out the task will be taught, practised, and assessed as students are
involved in various aspects of the task itself, not in isolation.
Teaching the Form of the Language
Teaching the form of a second language has been the topic of much
discussion but there is still a need for more research to clarify many
issues that remain unresolved. However, we can make the following
observations with some certainty:
• Exposing students to the language without explicitly teaching its
structures and formal properties is not enough to enable most
students to become fluent.
• Teaching grammar through exercises that are unrelated to
meaningful communication will not help students improve their
language competence.
• Activities or tasks which focus on the form of the language should
take up a relatively small part of the overall class time. The majority
of classroom time should be spent on communicative activities, in
other words, on activities where the focus is on meaning.
• Students cannot be expected to master a particular structure after a
single lesson on it. They need to be exposed to the structure
repeatedly, in a variety of situations, and have the opportunity to use
it over an extended period of time before it will be learned.
How does the teacher decide when to introduce specific structures or
forms? In programming that takes a task-based or content-based
approach, the choice of grammar structures or forms to work on
explicitly is based on the immediate needs of the students. In other
words, students learn about the structures and forms they will need to
use in order to carry out the task that is the focus of the unit. This way

of ordering the teaching of grammar requires a careful analysis of the

tasks the students will work on to determine which structures are
essential and in which context they will be used. With careful planning,
the teacher can ensure that specific points are revisited regularly in a
variety of contexts.
An effective method of raising the students’ consciousness of particular
structures or rules is to help them discover the rule themselves. Once
they are aware of the structure, they will be more likely to notice it in
texts they are working with and thus have their learning reinforced.
Grammatical problem-solving activities (see page 68) can be used to
help students discover patterns from a number of examples of correct
and incorrect sentences. If students work in pairs or small groups and
are able to do the activity in Spanish, they will also be getting an
opportunity to use the language in an authentic situation, in this case to
learn something new. Even if students do the activity in English and
are guided by the teacher, they will still benefit from the analysis.
Structural exercises can be effective tools for teaching grammar
provided they meet certain criteria:
• Sentences used for the exercises should be taken directly from
students’ own productions or from texts they are using in their
communicative activities.
• Understanding the meaning of the sentence should be necessary in
order to do the exercise.
• Students should have the opportunity to use the structure they have
just analyzed to accomplish the task that is the focus of the unit.
See the section on Instructional Methods for more specific details and
examples of structural exercises (page 51).
Teaching Aural Interpretation
Stephen Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition (Principles and
Practice) emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input. Students
must hear the language spoken in situations which help them
understand what is being said if they are to acquire the language. They
may go through a “silent period” before being willing to try to use the
language themselves, but this does not mean that they are not learning.
To maximize acquisition of the Spanish language, especially in the very
early stages, input should have the following characteristics:
• Texts are as authentic as possible. (Authentic means they were
produced for speakers of Spanish and not for second language
learners.)
• Speech is slower and more clearly articulated, although not
distorted.

• Syntax is simple, sentences short.

• High frequency vocabulary is used.
• The meaning is clarified by the use of gestures, facial expressions,
visuals, or concrete objects.
• The topic is familiar to the student.
• The content is interesting and/or relevant to the student.
As students become more proficient, the language to which they are
exposed can more closely resemble the normal speech of a native
speaker and the non-verbal supports can be reduced. In order for
students to continue to learn, input should always be just a little
beyond their current capabilities.
Since the Spanish classroom may be the only place students are
exposed to the language, it is important that Spanish be used as much
as possible. Students can gradually be taught the vocabulary and
structures needed to carry out classroom routines in Spanish, until the
whole class is taking place in the second language.
Teaching Oral Production
Oral production activities are distinct from activities where there is
interaction (and the possibility of negotiation of meaning) between
individuals. Even though they are not interactive, they must still be
communicative. This means that they will have the following
characteristics:
• The topic is interesting and/or relevant to the students.
• The student producing the text has a real purpose (e.g., sharing
factual information, expressing a personal opinion).
• The text is presented to a real audience (a person or persons other
than a teacher who is listening for the sole purpose of teaching and
assessing the student).
• Real communication takes place; in other words, the audience does
not already know what the speaker is telling them.
• The students presenting the text usually have an opportunity to plan
and prepare what they are going to say beforehand and to rehearse
their presentation. For this reason, greater accuracy, better
pronunciation and intonation, and greater fluency can be expected
than in interactive situations.

Developing Interactive Fluency

Research has shown that students need more than comprehensible
input to learn a second language. They also need output; in other
words, they need opportunities to interact with others and to try to
make themselves understood, if they are to develop accuracy and
fluency. Producing language helps learners to notice gaps in their
knowledge and then to try to find the correct form, in order to be
understood.
Studies have also shown that nearly two-thirds of the talking that goes
on in classrooms is done by the teacher. This is rather alarming when
we know that interaction is essential for learning a language. If the
teacher controls dialogue by asking questions of one student at a time,
each individual student will have very little opportunity to try out new
vocabulary and structures. Students must have the opportunity to
interact in Spanish in authentic situations as much as possible.
Face-to-face interaction is different from other situations (e.g., reading a
story, writing a letter, listening to a song, speaking to a group) in that
negotiation of meaning is possible. The speaker knows more or less
immediately whether or not the message has been understood. The
conversational partner may indicate lack of understanding, ask for
clarification, or simply respond, thinking they have understood. This
back and forth process continues until a mutual understanding has
been reached.
However, interactive activities, if they are to be effective, cannot be left
to chance. They must be carefully planned and structured. Here are
some suggestions:
• By using cooperative mixed-level groups, the teacher provides
students with many opportunities to express themselves, to use the
language in communicative situations, and to test their ability to get
their message across. It is important to teach and assess cooperative
skills related to using the Spanish language in cooperative groups. A
more detailed description of cooperative learning can be found in the
section on instructional methods (page 72).
• Students can be taught strategies for making themselves understood,
without having recourse to English, when they don’t know or cannot
remember a word or phrase. Strategies include using gestures,
synonyms, paraphrasing, looking at word lists posted in the
classroom, and so on. See the list of interactive strategies in
Appendix E, page Appendices – 35.

• Students often need to be encouraged to be a little more precise, a

little more accurate. However, in interactive activities the focus
should remain on the meaning the student is trying to convey. It is
possible to respond to the message and yet push students to improve
their language. If they are using a general word, for example,
respond to what they are saying while at the same time using a more
precise word. If they make a mistake in grammar or pronunciation,
respond to the content (the meaning) of their message, but
incorporate the correct structure or pronunciation into your response.
If the idea is vague or very general, ask students to provide more
details, justify their opinion, or be more precise.
• Students can learn to use similar techniques in their interactions with
their fellow students. This involves strategies like asking questions to
get more information or a clearer answer, indicating when one has
not understood, or repeating what was said in a different way to
check for understanding.
• None of these suggestions will work unless the classroom provides a
safe environment for students, an environment where they know
they can make mistakes without being ridiculed or punished.
Students need to understand that taking risks (trying out new
vocabulary and structures, using language that they are not quite
sure of, trying to say things they want to say but have not yet
learned fully) and making the inevitable mistakes are part of the
process of effective language learning.
Teaching Written Interpretation
Students learning to read Spanish at the middle or secondary level
have the advantage that they already know how to read in their first
language and can transfer many of their skills and strategies to the task
of reading Spanish, their second or additional language. The alphabet is
the same. Students already understand that a written text has a
message and that it is made up of individual words. They know that
they don’t always have to understand every word, they can read ahead
and come back, or they can just guess at the meaning of words they
don’t know, and so on.
Since written language is a source of comprehensible input in the same
way that oral language is, much of what was said about aural
interpretation above is true of written interpretation as well. Written
texts used in the early stages of learning Spanish should have the
following characteristics:
• They are as authentic as possible. (Authentic means they were
written for speakers of Spanish and not for second language
learners.)

• Syntax is simple, sentences are short, texts are also short or made up
of short sections.
• High frequency vocabulary is used.
• The meaning is clarified by the use of illustrations and other
contextual clues.
• The topic is familiar to the student.
• The content is interesting and/or relevant to the student.
As students become more proficient, the written texts to which they are
exposed can more closely resemble the normal language of a native
speaker with fewer visual supports. In order for students to continue to
learn, input should always be just a little beyond their current
capabilities.
The term “written interpretation” is a reminder that the objective of
reading is to interpret the meaning of the text. Activities such as
reading aloud, while they have their place in the second language
classroom, are more suited to practising good pronunciation or learning
the correlation between sounds and spelling than to developing
comprehension. For beginning readers of Spanish it is difficult to attend
to the meaning of a text at the same time as the sound-symbol system.
Teaching Written Production
Research on teaching writing shows that student achievement is higher
when the teaching approach emphasizes writing as a process, rather
than writing as a product.
In the traditional product-oriented approach, form and correctness are
the focus of attention. The teacher provides drills on specific skills,
makes many of the major decisions for the students (e.g., topic, length,
what form the text will take), and is the only audience. Students are
asked to concentrate on following rules, to work alone, and to
constantly pay attention to technical matters such as grammar and
spelling. They usually write only one version of the text, which the
teacher corrects. Because no one else will read the writing, students
often pay little attention to the teacher’s comments.
Research has clearly shown that a concentration on grammar actually
slows students’ development as writers because the insistence on
correctness reduces their willingness to experiment and invent.
Grammar instruction that relates directly to students’ writing, and is in
response to their needs, is effective in improving writing.

The experience of classroom teachers and research conducted during

recent years shows that a process-oriented approach to teaching
writing is more successful. In this approach, students are led through a
series of stages in their writing and gradually learn to use this process
independently.
Strategic Learning in Spanish Language and Culture
Fostering strategic learning in the Spanish Language and Culture
classroom is essential for ensuring effective and lifelong learning. To
develop high levels of language skills, including literacy, students need
instruction in the strategies that skillful learners use in approaching
language tasks. Students need to be taught learning strategies through
demonstration, explicit instruction, guided practice, and independent
practice with feedback and support. Therefore, students enrolled in the
Senior 1 to Senior 4 Spanish Language and Culture are encouraged to
acquire and apply a wide range of strategies to enhance their learning
and their ability to communicate effectively.
Strategies are systematic and conscious plans, actions, and thoughts
that learners select and adapt to each task. Strategies are often
described as knowing what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and why
it is useful. The Spanish Language and Culture curriculum includes
clusters of specific learning outcomes designed to promote three types
of strategic learning in the Spanish Language and Culture classroom:
language learning strategies, language use strategies, and general
learning strategies.
Language learning strategies refer to actions taken by learners to enhance
their own language learning. These strategies are subdivided into three
categories: cognitive, metacognitive, and social/affective.
Cognitive language learning strategies operate directly on the language.
These include such strategies as using different techniques for
remembering new words and phrases, deducing grammar rules or
applying previously-learned rules, guessing at the meaning of
unknown words, and using a variety of ways to organize new
information and link the new information to previously-learned
language.
Metacognitive language learning strategies are higher order skills that
students use to manage their own learning. These include planning for
their language learning, monitoring their own language learning, and
evaluating their success in language learning.

Social language learning strategies are actions learners take that involve
interactions with native speakers of the Spanish language or
interactions with other learners of Spanish in order to assist or enhance
their own language learning. For example, asking another student for
help to understand a text written in Spanish, or asking a native speaker
for an unknown vocabulary item would be social language learning
strategies.
Affective language learning strategies are methods students use to
regulate their emotions, motivation, and attitudes to make themselves
more conducive to learning.
Language use strategies are actions taken to enhance communication.
These strategies are often used with no intention of trying to acquire
language, but instead with the intention of improving communication.
The language use strategies in Senior 1 to Senior 4 Spanish Language and
Culture: Manitoba Curriculum Framework of Oucomes are organized
according to the three communicative modes: interaction, interpretation,
and production.
General learning strategies refer to actions taken by learners to enhance
their own general learning. As with language learning strategies,
general learning strategies are divided into three sub-categories:
cognitive, metacognitive, and social/affective. There is a distinctive
similarity between language learning strategies and general learning
strategies; the determining difference, however, is whether the purpose
of the application of the specific strategy is the learning of the language
or of other concepts. Often, the other concepts include subject-area
concepts, such as social studies or health concepts.
The strategies that students choose depend on the task they are
engaged in as well as on other factors, such as their preferred learning
style, personality, age, attitude, and cultural background. Strategies that
work well for one person may not be effective for another person or
may not be suitable in a different situation. For this reason it is not
particularly useful to say that students should be able to use specific
strategies at a particular grade level. The goal is to help students
become more active, more self-directed, more autonomous, and more
expert in choosing the strategies that work best for them. Effective
language learners tend to use more strategies and to apply them in a
more appropriate fashion than less effective learners. A global list of
strategies that will benefit students can be found in Appendix E of this
document.

Strategies should be introduced as they are needed. When strategies are

introduced and explained in terms of their value to the learner and are
demonstrated and practised over time, they can produce long-lasting,
significant improvements in the students’ ability to construct meaning,
acquire language, and achieve the Spanish Language and Culture
learning outcomes. All students benefit from strategic instruction, but
individual students need varying degrees of support in learning and
using strategies.
Inclusive Teaching Approaches
Every classroom is a diverse classroom. Students bring with them a rich
array of cultural backgrounds, learning styles, personal interests, and
characteristics. It is important for teachers to consider the needs of all
the learners in the classroom. The charts that follow provide an
overview of points to consider and useful strategies for adapting
instruction for diverse students.
Balanced Instruction in Spanish Language and Culture
Planning for balance while ensuring sufficient instruction and practice
in all the learning outcomes defined for a particular grade is a
particularly challenging task. Teachers strive to incorporate a variety of
instructional strategies and teaching and learning activities in their
classrooms. This includes varying instructional groupings and methods
to meet the learning needs of a wide range of students.
Teachers also strive to ensure balance in their delivery of the curricular
learning outcomes. They are attentive to the need for integrating the
Application, Language Competence, Strategies, and Global Citizenship
learning outcomes to achieve balanced instruction. They are careful to
provide instruction in linguistic elements, such as grammar or
vocabulary, within the context of concrete applications.
Themes, integrated units, and learning sequences provide opportunities
for explicit instruction in many learning outcomes. Instructional
activities such as mini-lessons are necessary to introduce, develop, or
reinforce particular skills. In every planning decision, reflective teachers
ask:
• What is an appropriate balance for my students?
• Am I achieving that balance in my classroom, both in the short term
and the long term?
• Is my instruction helping students to achieve the appropriate
learning outcomes of the Spanish Language and Culture curriculum?

Teachers strive for balance in their classrooms. A communicative

approach requires the teacher to be a guide and a language model. One
of the main functions of the teacher is to discover or invent ways of
encouraging students to communicate meaningfully with each other.
Instead of actively directing and controlling all activities, the teacher
will set up conditions for meaningful practice, and then take on roles
such as observer, facilitator, resource person, catalyst, challenger, and
encourager.
Teachers also endeavour to provide a range of learning materials and
resources. It is important to provide many opportunities for students to
interact with a wide range of oral, literary, and media texts, from varied
sources. See Sample List of Text Forms in Appendix B.
A balance between classroom-centred experiences and real-life,
authentic applications of the Spanish language focused outside the
classroom is essential in preparing Spanish Language and Culture
students for the world beyond the Spanish classroom. This can be
achieved through a wide range of activities, such as interactions with
guest speakers and other visitors from outside of the school
community, pen pal experiences, exploring Internet sites, viewing
Spanish television or film productions, etc. Similarly, students must be
provided with a wide range of opportunities for using the Spanish
language in meaningful ways.
Adaptation Strategies
“Differentiating the curriculum” refers to adjustments in content,
teaching strategies, expectations of student mastery, and scope and
sequence. The students work at different paces. Gifted students are
more likely to develop study and production skills, experience success,
and feel challenged by instruction that encourages learners to master
information more quickly. General adaptation strategies to ensure
success with these learners are found on page 35.
Strategies for the International Language Classroom
Suggested student adaptation strategies for the international language
classroom may include, but are not limited to, the following:
! researching and discussing cultural issues/perspectives in more
depth
! posing questions that involve inferencing and focusing on complex
cross-curricular themes or global problems
! explaining reasons for taking a certain position or making a specific
decision both orally and in writing in Spanish

! creating original songs, stories, short plays, poems, designs, etc.,

showing multicultural perspectives of a specific theme or having a
futuristic twist
! being held accountable for additional listening comprehension tasks
! creating experiences and performances that reflect the results of
research, interviews, or surveys in the target language
! retelling a story or experience from other content areas in the target
language
! writing editorials, letters, etc. to Spanish newspapers in the United
States
! emailing articles, commentaries, reviews, etc. to Spanish schools,
publications, organizations, newspapers, or magazines
! being given assignments involving more sophisticated computer
research and reporting in the target language
! receiving handouts, information for web searches, etc. in the target
language
! processing a greater volume of any given print material
! being given the option of independent world language projects of
choice
Adaptation Strategies For Selected Scenarios
“Making Connections”
! Based on the scenario interview, write an essay in Spanish
projecting the guest speaker’s future. Focus on further development
of vocabulary related to that career. Present orally as a commentary
on the guest’s class visit.
! Write a prospective business plan for the guest based on knowledge
of the speaker’s current business and the Spanish-speaking culture.
Email the plan to the speaker.
“You Are What You Eat”
! Create a catering business in a Spanish-speaking country. Plan
meals for business conferences and typical celebrations in the
Spanish culture. Include prices and optional services offered.
! Create a new recipe for a Spanish-speaking culture that satisfies
certain criteria (e.g., seasonal dishes, diet dishes, or a dish that
might appeal to target culture teens).
! Do an independent project in related areas (e.g., manners for a
changing society, diseases related to food consumption, or emotions
associated with certain foods in a Spanish-speaking culture/
country).

“Dare to Say No”

! Create a perfect teen/parent for a Spanish-speaking culture. The
“ideals” will be based on what the student considers to be the best
resolutions to the problems identified as a result of the scenario
activity.
! Create a support group for teens based on problems identified and
act as “facilitator” for the group.
! Direct and produce a TV talk show entitled “Parents & Teens
Around the Globe.” Students role-play parent and teen guests.
Types of Adaptations
Three types of adaptations for exceptionally able learners—acceleration,
enrichment, and grouping—are described in this section.
Acceleration
Acceleration involves grade-skipping or changing the rate of
presentation of the general curriculum to enable the student to
complete the course in less time than usual. Prescribed seat-time is not
necessary for achievement of the learning outcomes. Acceleration can
occur in any subject area. Middle school students should be able to take
high school courses; high school students take college courses with
appropriate credit accrued. Some provision must be made for
continued acceleration or high-level enrichment. Unless the student has
a pre-identified problem, social or emotional development should not
inhibit acceleration.
The following are some examples of accelerated types of programs:
! Flexible Pacing: Assignment to classes should be based on the
ability to be challenged and handle the work, not on age.
! Content Acceleration: Superior performance in some areas may be
addressed with placement in a higher grade level for the areas
warranting it.
! Multi-Age Classes: Classes can be formed in which two or more
grade levels are combined. Students can accelerate through self-
pacing.
! Compacting (also known as telescoping): This refers to a form of
acceleration in which part of the curriculum is addressed in a
shorter period of time than is usual. Previously mastered content
material is determined through pre-evaluation and eliminated.

! College Course Work: Qualified students take college courses for

college credit while completing high school requirement (concurrent
enrollment). College courses may be taken in the summer.
! Early College Admission: Once all high school graduation
requirements are met, early admission to college is an option.
! Advanced Placement: The advanced placement program (APP),
administered by the College Entrance Examination Board, enables
high school students to obtain both high school and college credit
for demanding course work offered as part of the school
curriculum.
Enrichment
Enrichment is another way to meet the differentiated needs of
exceptionally able students. Well-articulated assignments that require
higher cognitive processing, in-depth content, and alternate modes of
communication can be effective and stimulating.
The following are some examples to consider when differentiating
classroom instruction to meet the needs of academically or artistically
talented students:
! Alternate Learning Activities/Units: Opportunities to pursue
alternate activities permit students to engage in new learning and
avoid the boredom of repeating instruction or unnecessary practice
in skills already mastered.
! Independent Study: Students conduct well planned, self-directed
research projects carefully monitored by the teacher. Prerequisites
include instruction in field-based and library research skills, the
scientific method, and other authentic types of inquiry.
! Advanced Thinking Processes: Assignments in all curriculum areas
should emphasize higher-level thinking skills such as synthesis,
analysis, and evaluation.
! Guest Speakers: University faculty, parents, business and industry
leaders, or other teachers in specific fields can provide information
on topics beyond the teacher’s expertise.
! Mentors/Internships: Both mentors and internships allow students
to interact with adult experts in fields of mutual interest and
increase awareness of potential careers. Mentors act as role models.
! Alternate Resources: This category may include materials from a
higher grade level or access to business, university, and community
resources such as laboratories, libraries, and computer facilities.

! Exchange Programs: Students attend schools in a different

community or country to enrich educational experiences.
Grouping
Grouping involves placing students of like ability together in
homogeneous arrangements such as special classes or clustering in the
same classroom. Grouping allows for more appropriate, rapid, and
advanced instruction and challenges students without isolating them.
Students may be grouped using the following arrangements:
! Pullout Programs: These programs combine regular class
integration and homogeneous grouping on a part-time, regular
basis. Pullout programs require careful coordination and
communication between the teachers of both classes.
! Cluster Grouping in the Regular Classroom: This type of grouping
permits homogeneous and heterogeneous grouping according to
interests and achievement.
! Cluster Scheduling: Schedules are arranged so that exceptionally
able students can take their required core courses together to
enhance rapid pacing and provide greater depth and breadth to
course content.
! Honours and Enriched Classes: These classes provide
opportunities for practicing higher-level thinking skills, creativity,
and exploration of in-depth course content.
! Seminars: Aimed at research, interdisciplinary studies, visual and
performing arts, academic subjects, or other areas of interest,
seminars provide interaction with specialists who can give guidance
in specific areas.
! Resource Centres: A district can establish a resource centre
available to all students, but reserve it at times for exceptionally
able students from a broader geographical area (e.g., inter-district).
Additional Adaptations
The following charts outline various strategies for adapting learning
activities to accommodate students with diverse talents, exceptionally
able students, and students with specific learning needs. Teachers may
wish to refer to these during their instructional planning and as a check
to be sure that they are using inclusive classroom practices.

STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH DIVERSE TALENTS
Intelligence Students learn Planning questions Learning activities

best by for teachers
Linguistic Verbalizing, hearing, How can I use the Creative writing

and seeing words spoken or written word? Formal speech
Humour or telling jokes
Impromptu speaking
Journal or diary keeping
Oral debate
Poetry
Storytelling
Words—used in reading,
writing, speaking
Logical-Mathematical Conceptualizing it, How can I bring in Abstract symbols,

quantifying it, thinking numbers, calculations, formulas
critically about it logic, classifications, or Calculation
critical-thinking skills? Counting
Deciphering codes
Finding patterns
Forcing relationships
Graphic organizers
Number sequences
Outlining
Problem solving
Syllogisms
Spatial Drawing it, sketching it, How can I use visual Active imagination
visualizing it aids, visualization, Colour schemes
colour, art, or Designs and patterns
metaphor? Drawing guided imagery
Mind mapping
Painting pictures
Pretending
Sculpture/models
Bodily-Kinesthetic Dancing it, building a How can I involve the Body language
model of it, doing a whole body or use Dancing—folk or creative
hands-on activity hands-on experience? Drama/acting
related to it Inventing
Martial arts
Mime
Physical gestures
Physical exercises
Playing sports and games
Role-playing
Adapted from the Nebraska K-12 Foreign Language Frameworks

STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH DIVERSE TALENTS (CONTINUED)
Intelligence Students learn Planning questions Learning activities

best by for teachers
Music Singing it, chanting it, How can I bring in Creating music
finding music that music or environmental Environment sounds
illustrates it, putting on sounds, or set key Humming
background music while points in a rhythmic or Listening to music
learning it melodic framework? Music performance
Music composition,
creation
Percussion vibrations
Rhythmic patterns
Singing
Tonal patterns
Vocal sounds and tones
Interpersonal Working on it with How can I engage Collaboration skills

another person or group students in peer-sharing, Cooperating
of people cooperative learning, or Cooperative learning
large-group simulation? Empathy practices
Giving feedback
Group projects
Intuiting others’ feelings
Listening
Person-to-person
communication
Receiving feedback
Sensing others’ motives
Talking to others
Teamwork/division of
labour
Intrapersonal Relating to a personal How can I evoke Being alone

feeling or inner personal feelings or Complex guided imagery
experience memories, or give “Centring” practices
students choices? Emotional processing
Focusing/concentration
skills
Higher-order reasoning
“Know thyself” practices
Metacognition techniques
Mindfulness practices
Silent reflection methods
Telling about feelings
Telling about thinking
Thinking strategies
Naturalist-Physical World Observing it, classifying How can I relate the Discovering, uncovering
it, appreciating it student’s learning to Observing, watching
the physical world? Forecasting, predicting
Planting
Comparing
Displaying
Sorting and classifying
Photographing
Building environments

Multiple Intelligences Grid of Ideas

The Olympic Games or Games of Life
Verbal Logical Spatial Bodily Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist
Biographies Graphic arts Greek Fitness National Teamwork Individual Nutrition

architecture songs achievement
Writing about Biochemistry Pottery Sports Raps Cooperation Pride Health

heroes
Historical Laws of Painting Practice Practising Competition Sense of Wellness

fiction physics music accomplish-
ment
Myths Statistics Posters Routines Relaxation Sportsman- Logs Biochemistry

music ship
Literature Percentages Photos Regimens Mediation Coaching Journals Climate
News Logical Graphic Physical Composing Mentoring Psychology Culture

reporting thinking organizers therapy of peak
performance
Expository Sequences Graphs Conditioning Performing Global Biofeedback

writing relationships
Features Cause/effect Visualization Experiences Selecting Conflict Endurance Attitudes

techniques appropriate management
music
Multiple Intelligences Grid of Life (Fogarty)


PLANNING MODEL USING BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a model that focuses on six levels of thinking. The six levels roughly
form a two-tiered arrangement that represents levels of complexity in thinking. Knowledge
and comprehension are the lower or more concrete levels of thinking. Analysis, evaluation,
and synthesis represent higher or more complex levels of thinking. The application level,
which falls between the lower and higher levels, can be very complex depending on the
task.
A variety of instructional strategies and products may be categorized for each level of
thinking. Teachers who design a variety of learning activities that require different levels of
thinking will provide appropriate opportunity for the diverse number of students whose
thinking levels range throughout the spectrum.
The following chart provides a model for instructional planning based on Bloom’s
taxonomy of thinking. Also see International Languages and Bloom’s Taxonomy on
page 34.
Level Definition Instructional Strategies Activities, Tasks,

& Products
Students recall • ask • define • describe • books • diagrams • events

information, recite, • discover • identify • exams • facts in isolation
or write • label • list • listen • films • film strips
Knowledge
• locate • match • memorize • magazine articles • models

• name • observe • newspapers • people • plays
Lower, less complex, more concrete levels
• recite • recognize • quiz • radio • recordings/records

• remember • research • tapes • tape reading • vocabulary
• select • state • tell • workbook pages
Students restate • ask • change • compare • causal relationship

the information in • convert • defend • discover • comparison of like/unlike items
their own words • distinguish • edit • explain • conclusion/implication based on data
Comprehension
• express • extend • generalize • diagrams • films • filmstrips • graph

• give example • identify • magazines • models • newspapers
• illustrate • infer • interpret • outline • own statement • people
• listen • locate • match • photograph • radio
• observe • paraphrase • response to questions • revisions
• predict • relate • research • skit • speech • story • summary
• restate • rewrite • tape recording • television
• show symbol • summarize
• transform • translate

STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH DIVERSE TALENTS (CONTINUED)

PLANNING MODEL USING BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
Level Definition Instructional Strategies Activities, Tasks,

& Products
Students apply the • apply • build • change • artwork • collection • crafts

information in one • choose • classify • construct • demonstration • diagram • diorama
complexity of task
Level depends on
or more contexts • cook • demonstrate • discover • diary • drama • forecasts

Application
• dramatize • experiment • illustration • list • map • meeting

• interview • list • manipulate • mobile • model • paint
• modify • paint • prepare • photographs • project • puzzle
• produce • record • report • question • recipe • scrapbook
• show • sketch • solve • sculpture • shifting smoothly from
• stimulate • teach one gear into another • solution
• use guides, charts, maps • stitchery
Students • advertise • analyze • argument broken down • chart

understand • categorize • classify • compare • commercial • conclusion • checked
component parts • contrast • differentiate • diagram • graph • parts of propa-
Analysis
to be able to • dissect • distinguish ganda statement identified • plan

compare and • infer • investigate • point out • prospectus • questionnaire
contrast or • select • separate • solve • report survey • report • solution
categorize • subdivide • survey • survey • syllogism broken down
information • word defined
Students judge • combine • compose • construct • advertisement • article • book

what they have • create • design • estimate • cartoon • experiment • formation of
analyzed and • forecast • hypothesize a hypothesis or question • game
support their • imagine • infer • invent • invention • lesson plan • machine
opinions • predict • produce • magazine • new game • new product
Synthesis
• rearrange parts • role-play • new color, smell, taste • news article

Higher, more complex, more abstract levels
• write • pantomime • play • poem

• puppet show • radio show • recipe
• report • set of rules, principles, or
standards • song • speculate on or
plan alternative courses of action
• story structure • television show
Students create • appraise • choose • compare • conclusion • court trial • critique

and/or gather • consider • criticize • critique • debate • decision • defense/verdict
pieces of • debate • decide • discuss • discussion • editorial • evaluation
Evaluation
information to form • editorialize • evaluate • group discussion • group • letter

a novel thought, • give opinion, viewpoint • news item • panel • rating/grades
idea, product, or • judge prioritize • recommend • recommendation • self-evaluation
perspective • relate • summarize • support • standard compared
• weigh • standard established • survey
• valuing


INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGES AND BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
Knowledge/ Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation

Comprehension
What students will do: What students will do: What students will do: What students will do: What students will do:
• Write telegrams • Dub cartoons, TV • Identify elements of • Write an alternative • Prioritize solutions to
• Arrange lines of shows a particular literary ending to a story cultural dilemmas
dialogues • Command others form • Predict • Express and justify
• Fill out authentic step-by-step to • Analyze the lyrics of consequences if opinions on creative
forms for the target prepare a typical popular songs to other historical products of the
country cultural dish compare both events would have culture
• Explain proverbs, • Produce questions cultures’ resulted differently • Give and support
slang with correct perspectives • Write titles for a opinions about issues
• Listen for sequence pronunciation • Compare points of play, story, or article • Evaluate TV shows,
• Explain the “What? • Apply a cultural view found in two • Write headlines in movies, cartoons
Who? Where? How? custom to a real-life editorials newspaper style on • Write an editorial
Why?” situation in the • Analyze a story, current issues in the giving and supporting
• Give description of target country poem, and other target country own opinion
scenes from a video • Interview classmates authentic materials • Predict future • Express the pros and
presentation on their daily • Analyze a scene in events cons of policies
• Describe pictures activities the target culture • Write a diary of an • Give and support the
from the target • Plan a menu for • Find evidence to imaginary trip decision in a mock
country occasions typical of support opinion • Extend a story trial
• Define words the target culture • Compare students’ • Hypothesize the • Write an ambassador
• Listen and • Make shopping lists customs with the reaction to different with suggestions for
paraphrase in English for various cultural, target culture’s situations based on the resolution of a
a conversation heard social events • Conduct a survey the cultural beliefs real-world problem
in the target • Apply rules of and analyze the • Compose a poem, • Justify decisions of
language correct cultural results skit, role play, sites to visit in the
• Draw picture from protocol while • Analyze the typical advertisement target culture
verbal information dining in the target foods of the target • Create hypothetical • Read an editorial in a
of a target culture’s country country for real-world situations target-country
scene or object • Classify words, nutritional value found in the target newspaper; respond
poems, authentic • Identify the best culture and send response
materials, genre route to a historic • Create an • Evaluate best World
• Apply gestures site in the target infomercial Wide Web pages for
learned to an country source of current
authentic situation • Play the role of a events in the target
• Apply reading tourist who bargains country
strategies to for merchandise in
understand authentic the target country
texts

STRATEGIES FOR EXCEPTIONALLY ABLE (GIFTED) STUDENTS
To ensure success with exceptionally able students ...
! allow for choice within ! use open-ended ! allow for concrete or real-
assignments and projects. questioning strategies. life investigations and
explorations.
! use compacting. ! use interdisciplinary units.
! teach coping skills.
! allow students to make ! allow in-depth enrichment
independent plans for learning. ! allow students to suggest
independent learning. modifications in the
! allow time with like- content of their learning,
! provide mentoring or intellectual peers. the process which they
apprenticeship with use to learn, and the
professionals. ! use accelerated pace of
instruction. product they produce to
! teach entrepreneurship. show their learning.
! allow dual enrollment or
! use theory of multiple early admission ! clearly communicate
intelligences. opportunities. criteria and parameters to
avoid students taking
! use tiered assignments ! remove time and space unacceptable risks or
which are more complex restrictions to allow for a creative detours.
or abstract. long-term integrated plan
of study.
! use Socratic questioning.
! provide more difficult or
! use critical and creative abstract resources.
questioning strategies.

STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH SPECIFIC LEARNING NEEDS

CONSIDERATIONS FOR MEETING SPECIFIC LEARNING NEEDS
IN SKILL AND INSTRUCTIONAL AREAS
To ensure success with speaking ...

! give sentence starters. ! use cues and prompts to ! use choral reading or
! use graphic organizers to help the student know speaking.
organize ideas and when to speak. ! use rhythm or music.
relationships. ! use partners. ! allow practice
! use visuals. ! phrase questions with opportunities for speaking.
! allow extra response time choices embedded in ! practice role-playing
for processing. them. activities.
To ensure success with assessment ...
! use a variety of authentic ! allow adequate time for ! give choices.

assessments. test taking. ! assess learning
! establish criteria and ! allow paper-and-pencil continuously over time, not
expectations prior to tests to be taken in a just at the end of a unit of
instruction. different space. study.
! teach test-taking ! allow a variety of ways to ! use rubrics.
strategies. respond (e.g., orally, ! use self-assessment tools.
! teach the format of an pictorially, tape
upcoming test. recordings).
To ensure success when working in groups ...

! teach group rules and ! post rules and ! teach a signal for getting
expectations. expectations. attention of all groups.
! teach skills of ! give adequate time but ! practice and assess
independence (e.g., not “fooling around” time. students’ behaviors in
bridging phrases, ! be in close proximity to small-group settings.
disagreeing agreeably, groups as they work. ! use cooperative learning
voice level). strategies.
! teach students to self-
! teach manageable monitor group progress. ! use a wide variety of
strategies for moving in groupings (e.g., flexible,
and out of groups within ! assign student roles or
responsibilities in the cluster, skill).
the classroom setting.
group.

STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH SPECIFIC LEARNING NEEDS (CONTINUED)

To ensure success with reading ...

! use pre-reading and post- ! teach self-questioning. ! explain idioms that appear
reading activities to pre- ! paraphrase key points in reading passages.
teach or reinforce main and/or have students ! allow silent pre-reading.
ideas. paraphrase key points. ! allow partner reading.
! use before, during, and ! summarize key points
after reading strategies ! use computer programs or
and/or have students games.
(e.g., before—preview summarize key points.
questions; during—pausing ! allow students to quietly
to reflect; after—self- ! label main ideas. read aloud
evaluation, summary). ! label 5Ws—Who? What? (subvocalization).
! provide advanced When? Where? Why? ! use graphic organizers.
organizers when showing ! allow highlighting of ! use preparatory set (i.e.,
videos. texts, passages, key talk through what a
! use peer tutoring. words, or concepts. reading passage is about
! provide audiotaped ! use visual imagery. using new vocabulary and
materials (text or study concepts).
guides).
To ensure success with writing ...
! shorten writing ! provide a structure for the ! narrow the choice of

assignments. writing. topics.
! require lists instead of ! allow collaborative ! grade on the basis of
sentences. writing. content; do not penalize
! dictate ideas to peers. ! provide a model of the for errors in mechanics and
writing. grammar.
! provide note takers.
! allow use of different ! allow choices of
! allow students to use a manuscript, cursive,
tape recorder to dictate writing utensils and paper.
keyboarding.
writing. ! use a flow chart for
writing ideas before the ! allow different positions of
! allow visual representation writing paper and/or
of ideas. student writes.
surfaces.
! provide a fill-in-the-blank ! brainstorm a word bank of
form for note taking. possible words that would
be needed prior to the
! allow students to use a writing activity.
computer for outlining,
wordprocessing, spelling,
and grammar check.


To ensure success with visually-impaired learners ...

! describe what you are ! use black-and-white ! be aware of lighting
doing. printed hand outs. requirements.
! provide preferential seating. ! use audiotaped books. ! stand away from window
! provide material in large or ! use tactual materials to glare when talking to the
braille print. represent concepts— student.
! give student an individual contact a vision ! allow extra time to
copy of visual information consultant to assist with complete a task.
presented to the group. the design.
To ensure success with hearing-impaired learners ...

! provide preferential seating. ! highlight text and study ! show videos or visuals
! use visual cues (overheads, guides. before presenting
drawings maps, ! provide note-taking information to provide a
demonstrations, visual assistance during lectures knowledge base for
samples of new vocabulary). to allow hearing-impaired students.
! face student directly when student to concentrate on ! use alternative testing
speaking. the teacher. methods.
! emphasize key points; don’t ! use peer tutoring. ! minimize background
overload with information. ! use study sheets to noise.
! repeat or rephrase what organize information. ! simplify vocabulary.
other students say—hearing ! pre-teach vocabulary. ! use preprinted outline of
what other students say is ! use captioned videos, materials.
often difficult for hearing- films, etc.
impaired students.
To ensure success when working in groups ...

! use multi-modalities ! show relationships among ! teach visual imagery.
(visual, auditory, tactile) concepts through graphs, ! use rhythm, music, and
to teach the same outlines, and webbing. movement.
concept. ! use color coding to show ! use lists.
! teach vocabulary in concepts and
context. relationships. ! use matrix to organize
information; allow students
! use cues, prompts. ! use peer tutors. to construct some of their
! use graphic organizers. ! highlight important own.
! use frequent repetition of information. ! use pictographs
key points. ! teach mnemonics as a
! break down instructional memory tool.
units into smaller steps.


To ensure success with understanding new concepts ...

! pre-teach new concepts. ! use multiple means of ! use multiple intelligences
! identify priority learning learning the same information to deliver
from less important material (visual, auditory, material in a variety of
material. tactile). ways.
! provide adequate time. ! have student set personal ! use cooperative learning
goals. and small groups.
! provide meaningful
practice, review, ! use peer tutors. ! provide cues.
repetition.
! use flow charts.
! connect previous learning
to new information.
Adapted from the Nebraska K-12 Foriegn Language Frameworks
To ensure success with attention deficit learners ...

! surround students with peers who are good role models. Encourage peer tutoring and
cooperative, collaborative learning.
! maintain eye contact with students during verbal instruction.
! make directions clear and concise. Be consistent with daily instructions.
! simplify complex directions. Avoid multiple commands.
! make sure that students comprehend before beginning the task.
! repeat in a calm, positive manner, if needed.
! help students to feel more comfortable seeking assistance. (Most ADD students won’t ask for
help.)
! assign only one task at a time.
! monitor frequently. Use a supportive attitude.
! modify assignments as needed. Special education personnel can identify specific strengths and
weaknesses of students.
! make sure you test knowledge and not attention span.
! give extra time for certain tasks. Students with ADD may work more slowly. Don’t penalize for
needed extra time.
! require a daily assignment notebook if necessary. Make sure students write down all assignments
each day. Parents and teachers may sign the notebook on a daily basis and use this as an
additional form of communication with one another.
Adapted from the list compiled by members of CH.A.D.D. (Children with Attention Deficit Disorders) in
Meeting The Special Needs of Students. Mission Hills, CA: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill 1997, p. 10.

Developing Intercultural Competence

Intercultural competence is a combination of knowledge, skills, and
attitudes which enable individuals to communicate and interact across
cultural boundaries. In the Spanish Language and Culture curriculum,
these include the skills of finding information about Spanish-speaking
cultures, interpreting it in order to understand the beliefs, traditions,
and cultural values of Hispanic people, relating one’s own culture to
cultures of Spanish-speaking peoples, and interacting with members of
these cultures. In the process of developing these skills, language
learners will acquire knowledge of various aspects of these cultures, a
heightened awareness of their own, as well as knowledge of the
processes of interaction between the two cultures. They will also work
towards an attitude of increased openness, curiosity, and willingness to
look at the world from the point of view of others.
Culture in this curriculum is broadly defined as the general context and
way of life, the behaviours and beliefs of a community of people whose
history, geography, institutions, and commonalities are distinct and
distinguish them to a greater or lesser degree from all other groups
(Leblanc 44). The historical and contemporary elements of the culture
from which the content is drawn may include
• historical and contemporary events
• significant individuals
• emblems or markers of national identity such as myths, cultural
products, significant sites, and events in the collective memory
• public institutions
• geographical space (regions, landmarks, borders, climate)
• social distinctions
• conventions of behaviour
• beliefs, taboos, perceptions, and perspectives
Choices about which elements to include should reflect the importance
of the element within the culture, and the interests and developmental
level of the students.
Although cultures exert pressure on their members to conform to a
variety of norms, most cultures are not homogeneous. Within each one,
there are groups of people who have beliefs, values, and practices that
are different from the majority or mainstream culture. These differences
may be based on religion, national or ethnic origin, social class, race, or
colour. A number of learning outcomes in this curriculum are aimed at
making students aware of the diversity within a particular culture in
the Spanish-speaking world as well as differences between them and
Canadian cultures.

The development of intercultural competence can take place in three

contexts: in the classroom, as fieldwork, or as an independent
experience. In the classroom, activities are planned and structured by
the teacher and usually take the form of a rehearsal for interaction in
real time. In the classroom, students have the opportunity for discovery
and analysis of the culture along with reflection on their learning
without the pressure of real time. In other words, they do not have to
respond immediately. In fieldwork, activities are still planned and
structured, but the interaction is now in real time. Independent
experiences are those carried out by students outside of the structure of
the course. This curriculum guide will deal principally with classroom
activities, but with some comments on fieldwork.
Resources
Finding resources for students at a beginner level of second language
learning is a challenge. Authentic documents, in other words,
documents created for native speakers of Spanish and not for language
learning, are useful in that they provide students with actual contact
with the culture. However, finding authentic documents in which the
language is appropriate for beginners can be difficult. Documents that
have a high level of visual support (pictures, charts, maps, etc.) and a
minimum of text are the easiest to use. Students can be taught
interpretation strategies for dealing with so-called “difficult” texts. See
the Sample List of Text Forms in Appendix B for ideas on the kinds of
documents to look for.
Other kinds of resources are also useful for different kinds of activities.
Outdated textbooks with stereotyped representations of the culture, for
example, can be used to make students aware of such stereotypes.
Resources can also take the form of cultural artifacts (costumes, food,
music, everyday objects, crafts, etc.). These materials, which are
concrete and appeal to the physical senses, are especially useful for
younger students as a bridge to more abstract ideas. The greater the
variety of resources, the more the students will become aware that
culture is expressed through various forms, not just classical literature
and fine arts.
Discovery
Students at the middle level may be very diverse in their level of
cognitive and affective development. Some may be ready to handle
abstract concepts such as “culture” while others are not. Some may be
able to take another’s perspective, while others may be very
ethnocentric in their attitudes. For this reason, initial experiences
should be concrete and should involve as many of the physical senses
as possible.

Interpretation
As students begin to use authentic texts, they will need to be taught
skills for delving beyond the literal meaning.
Relating
“Whenever we encounter the unknown we attempt to understand it in
terms which are part of our familiar world and our understanding of it.
[…] Comparison therefore needs to be part of the teacher’s explicit
methods…” (Byram and Zarate). By exposing students to experiences
of other modes of behaviour, either in the form of real-life experiences
(e.g., food) or through media (e.g., television programs), and then
having them compare these experiences with their own modes of
behaviour, they will begin to understand that their own way is not the
only way, but just one of many ways that are influenced by culture. If
students in the class are from a variety of cultural backgrounds, this
understanding will be reinforced even more.
Reflection
Personal experience of elements of another culture is not, in itself,
enough to counteract the tendency to reject that which is different. It is
through a process of reflection and discussion following the experience
that students can become aware of the process of socialization, of the
natural tendency to stereotype, to reject that which is different and to
see it as a threat to one’s identity. In early stages of learning, this
discussion may take place in English until students have the
vocabulary and structures to begin to express their feelings and
thoughts in Spanish.
The experience of contact with a new cultures, reflection on that
experience, and the varied responses of other students in the class who
may be from different cultural backgrounds can take students one step
further than just knowledge of that culture. Ideally they will come to
understand the concept of culture and the phenomena (e.g.,
ethnocentrism, empathy, stereotyping, exoticism, discrimination,
culture shock) that are characteristic of the relationship with other
cultures.
Integration with Other Subjects
Intercultural competence can be developed in courses other than
second language courses. Social studies and language arts are the
subject areas where integration is most easily achieved. A process of
collaborative planning between the Spanish teacher and the social
studies or language arts teachers can be fruitful for both. In addition,
students benefit from seeing the links between areas of study,
transferring knowledge from one domain to another, and making
connections that might otherwise have gone unnoticed.

The collaborative planning can take a variety of forms, from simply

keeping each other informed of units of study that might provide
opportunities for reinforcement of learning, to actually planning units
together.
A Model for Spanish Language and Culture Courses at the Secondary Level
As the preceding discussion demonstrates, there are many factors and
aspects of teaching and learning that must be considered in developing
an effective instructional program and classroom. We can conceptualize
this as being the interplay of six factors: learner, teacher, course content,
learning environment, pedagogy, and assessment.

A MODEL FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING

(SECONDARY LEVEL)
Learner
L2
T
N
PE
(second language)
ME
best practices
DA
ON
current research
GO
personalized approach
VIR
school and community

GY
EN
learner-centred classroom
lesson plans that reflect the
WCNP Common Curriculum Framework
for Spanish Language and Culture
variety of assessments • inclusive practices
teacher expectations • diversity • technology
professional activities • ethical conduct and
professionalism
meaningful learning experiences
integration of the target culture
connection with other disciplines
Teacher ASSESSMENT Content

Adapted from New Jersey World Languages Curriculum Framework, Winter 1999

Teaching and Learning in the Spanish Classroom

Instructional Strategies
Effective teachers know they are teaching students as well as content.
They also know that, in every class, there will be a diversity of
students, each of whom will bring to the activity environment different
perceptions, prior knowledge, attitudes, and learning styles. It is the
teacher’s responsibility to make use of a variety of instructional
approaches to ensure that all types of students and their various needs
are being met.
Decision-making regarding instructional strategies requires teachers to
focus on curriculum, the prior experiences and knowledge of students,
learner interests, student learning styles, and the developmental levels
of the learner. Such decision-making relies on ongoing student
assessment that is linked to learning objectives and processes.
The following diagram shows the five instructional strategies that are
most effective in developing communicative competence in second
language classrooms. They have been grouped according to the
categories outlined in Instructional Approaches: A Framework for
Professional Practice (Saskatchewan Education, available online at
<http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/policy/approach/index. html>).
A more detailed description of some of these strategies follows.
Direct
Instruction
Interactive
Instruction
Indirect
Instruction
Independent
Study
Experiential
Learning
Figure 3. Instructional Strategies
Direct Instruction
Direct instruction is highly teacher-directed and is historically one of
the strategies most commonly used. It is used for providing
information or developing step-by-step skills. This strategy works well
for introducing other teaching methods or actively involving students
in knowledge construction.

Direct instruction is usually deductive; that is, the rule or generalization

is presented and then illustrated with examples. While this strategy
may be considered easy to use, effective direct instruction is often more
complex than it would first appear.
Indirect Instruction
Indirect instruction is mainly student-centered and seeks a high level of
student involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences
from data, or forming hypotheses. It takes advantage of students’
interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to generate alternatives
or solve problems. It is flexible, in that it frees students to explore
diverse possibilities and reduces the fear associated with the possibility
of giving incorrect answers. Indirect instruction also fosters creativity
and the development of interpersonal skills and abilities.
Interactive Instruction
Interactive instruction relies heavily on discussion and sharing among
participants. Discussion and sharing provide learners with
opportunities to “react to the ideas, experience, insights, and
knowledge of the teacher or of peer learners and to generate alternative
ways of thinking and feeling” (Seaman and Fellenz 119). Students can
learn from peers and teachers to develop social skills and abilities, to
organize their thoughts, and to develop rational arguments. The
interactive instruction strategy allows for a range of groupings and
interactive methods.
Experiential Learning
Experiential learning is inductive, learner-centred, and activity-
oriented. Personalized reflection about an experience and the
formulation of plans to apply learning to other contexts are critical
factors in effective experiential learning. The emphasis in experiential
learning is on the process of learning, and not on the product.
Experiential learning occurs when learners
• participate in an activity and critically look back on the activity to
clarify learning and feelings
• draw useful insights from such analysis and put learning to work in
new situations
Independent Study
Independent study refers to the range of instructional methods which
are purposefully provided to foster the development of individual
student initiative, self-reliance, and self-improvement. While
independent study may be initiated by student or teacher, the focus
here will be on planned independent study by students under the
guidance or supervision of a classroom teacher.

In addition, independent study can include learning in partnership

with another individual or as part of a small group. Independent study
encourages students to take responsibility for planning and pacing
their own learning.
After deciding on appropriate instructional strategies, a teacher must
make decisions regarding instructional methods. As is the case with
strategies, the distinctions between methods are not always clear-cut,
although they are categorized for the purpose of this document. The
following checklist illustrates how various methods relate to the five
broad categories of strategies. It should be noted that the methods
appearing in the checklist are examples only, and are not intended to be
inclusive of all instructional methods.
Instructional Methods Checklist
Direct Instruction
" Compare and Contrast
" Demonstration
" Didactic Questions
" Drill and Practice
" Guides for Listening, Reading, and Viewing
" Mini-lecture
" Password/Language Ladders
" Read and Retell
" Structural Exercises
Indirect Instruction
" Author’s Chair
" Case Studies
" Cloze Procedure
" Graphic Organizers
" Discussions
" Grammatical Problem Solving
" Reflective Discussions

Interactive Instruction
" Brainstorming
" Categorizing
" Circle of Knowledge
" Cooperative Learning
" Cultural Presentations
" Information Gap
" Interactive Language Tasks
" Language Experience
" Learning Cycle
" Surveys and Interviews
" Debate
" Problem Solving
Experiential Learning
" Field Trips
" Focused Imaging
" Games
" Role Play
Independent Study
" Computer-Assisted Instruction
" Logs and Journals
" Free Writing
" Personal Dictionaries
" Learning Contracts
" Research Projects
Direct Instruction Methods
Direct instruction methods are highly teacher-centered. They are often
used in the following situations:
! daily, weekly, and monthly review
! presenting new material
! conducting guided practice
! providing feedback and correctives

Compare and Contrast

This method involves looking for similarities and differences, for
example, between an aspect of a Spanish-speaking culture and the
students’ own culture.
Students
! observe details and develop criteria
! identify similarities
! search and sort out differences based on criteria
! summarize
The four components of compare and contrast, as listed above, can be
used in assessment as criteria in the templates for anecdotal records,
checklists, and rating scales.
Demonstration
This method refers to teacher activities and talk that show students
how. Demonstrations apply primarily to skills and processes, and are
useful for helping students acquire procedural knowledge. Teachers
might, for example, take students step by step through the writing
process, or demonstrate a particular learning strategy.
Didactic Questions
These are questions that tend to be convergent (they tend to focus on
one topic) and factual. They often begin with “qué,” “dónde,” “cuándo,”
“adónde”, or “cómo.”
The teacher is able to observe the degree of student acquisition of
knowledge of content and process through this activity. A written
assignment or an oral presentation or interview (live or taped) may be
the ongoing student activity used for assessment. The teacher will
record student progress using a rating scale, checklist, or anecdotal
records.
Drill and Practice
This method refers to the structured, repetitive review of previously
learned concepts to a predetermined level of mastery. It tends to focus
on skills. Care should be taken to ensure that these exercises are
directly related to the context in which the student will use the
language being practised and that they require the student to focus on
the meaning as well as on the form. To assess the level of skill, teachers
will need to use performance assessments or performance tests.
Teachers need to establish criteria indicating what students are to do.
The criteria are inserted into the templates for anecdotal records, rating
scales, and checklists.

Guides for Listening, Reading, and Viewing

Students’ comprehension of a selection is guided and developed by
teacher-prepared questions or graphic organizers. As students gain
practice and confidence in using this method, the teacher will monitor
or confer with small groups or individuals.
Mini-lecture
The mini-lecture is a one-way type of communication. It is an efficient
way of providing a small amount of information in a short period of
time. The purpose of a mini-lecture is to impart knowledge about an
aspect of culture, for example, or a grammatical structure.
Mini-lectures are effective when they are
! 10–15 minutes in duration, and never longer than 20 minutes
! mixed with group discussion and demonstrations
! accomplished with such visual aids as overhead transparencies and
posters.
The most appropriate way of assessing understanding is a combination
of test items such as essay, short-answer, multiple-choice, and
true/false.
Password/Language Ladders
This is a method in which students learn to speak sentences or phrases
(“passwords”) that are associated with desired activities.
The teacher introduces a series of phrases in Spanish that the students
must speak in order to do a desired activity, such as “¿Puedo ir al baño?”
“¿Puedo sacarle punta a mi lápiz?” “¿Puede ayudarme?” The students learn
new passwords of increasing complexity in subsequent classes.
Password/language ladders are effective when they
! engage students’ active participation
! give an authentic experience of using Spanish
! develop oral comprehension as a continuum within authentic
situations

Read and Retell

This all-purpose method involves students retelling a passage in
Spanish as they remember it.
The teacher asks the students to read a passage. Students can be
working together as a class, in small groups, in pairs, or working alone
with the teacher. Then, the teacher asks the students to retell the
passage as they remember it, either orally or in writing using Spanish.
Read and retell is effective when it
! provides practice in a range of literacy skills in the target language
including listening, speaking, reading, writing, interacting,
comparing, matching, selecting, remembering, comprehending, and
organizing the information
! provides an index of growth and development in a wide range of
literacy learning
! provides opportunities to use the target language
Structural Exercises
Definition
Structural exercises are exercises that focus the attention of the students
on the form or structure of the language. Research has shown that
students learn better from these kinds of exercises if there is a direct
connection with their own productions. Structural exercises can take a
variety of forms depending on the structures and vocabulary that need
to be practiced. Some examples are
• adding words or phrases to a short sentence
• taking words or phrases out of a long sentence
• substituting words or phrases for other ones in a sentence
• moving words or phrases around in a sentence
• changing elements of a sentence.
Procedure
The basic procedure is similar for all types of exercises.
1. Begin with sentences taken from texts written by the students.
Choose structures that are giving problems to a number of students.
2. Write the sentences on strips of paper and cut them up. When
doing this for the first time with students, write on large strips so
that the whole class can see what you are doing. Later, when
students are able to do these exercises on their own or in small
groups, the sentences can be written on smaller strips of paper.
Have some blank strips of paper ready for new words.

3. Ask students for suggestions depending on the type of exercise you

have chosen (add, take away, substitute, move, change, etc.).
Analyze the new sentence that is formed, by asking questions such
as, “Does this new sentence make sense?”, “How has the meaning
changed?”, “Do we have to make any other changes so that the
sentence is still grammatically correct?”
4. Repeat these steps a number of times as a whole group, then have
students do more individually or in small groups.
5. Students should have opportunities to use the same structures and
vocabulary in their own speech or writing as soon as possible after
doing the exercises.
Tips
The analysis and discussion that follow each change in the sentence is
particularly important to make students aware of changes in the
meaning. Exercises where students make changes to sentences without
having to reflect on the meaning are not effective in teaching and
reinforcing structures.
In some cases structural exercises can be based on or can be
transformed into songs or cumulative stories (stories in which a part of
the story is repeated with a new element added on each time).
Applications
1. Add a word or phrase. Use this exercise to encourage students to
expand their vocabulary, to provide more detail and to use more
complex sentence structures. An example follows:
Aquí está mi casa.
Aquí está mi casa pequeña.
Aquí está mi casa pequeña y blanca.
Aquí está mi casa pequeña y blanca de ladrillo.
2. Take away a word or phrase. This exercise helps students
understand which elements are necessary for the syntax of the
sentence. An example follows:
Las/os niñitos aprenden poemas infantiles de su madre.
Las/os niños aprenden poemas infantiles de su madre.
Los niños aprenden poemas infantiles de su madre.

Los niños aprenden rimas de su madre.
Los niños aprenden rimas.

3. Substitute one word or phrase for another in the sentence. This

form of exercise helps students understand which elements in the
sentence perform the same function. The following exercise focuses
attention on the possessive pronouns as per the following chart.
Singular Plural Singular Plural
el mío los míos el nuestro los nuestros

la mía las mías la nuestra las nuestras
el tuyo los tuyos el vuestro los vuestros
la tuya las tuyas la vuestra las vuestras
el suyo los suyos el suyo los suyos

la suya las suyas la suya las suyas
Este es tu coche/carro.
Este es el tuyo.
Este es nuestro coche/carro.
Este es el nuestro.
Aquí está la tarea.
Aquí está la mía.
Aquí están sus deberes.
Aquí están los suyos.
4. Move a word or phrase to another place in the sentence. Moving
elements around in the sentence encourages students to use a
variety of different sentence structures and to recognize the limits
imposed by normal word order. It also sensitizes students to subtle
changes in meaning communicated by changes in word order. An
example follows:
Rápidamente cruzó la calle corriendo.
Ella cruzó la calle rápidamente corriendo.
Ella cruzó la calle corriendo rápidamente.
Students may find another way of changing the sentence.

5. Change an element of the sentence. Once again, this type of exercise

encourages students to vary their sentence structure and to practise
different sentence types. Examples follow:
Me gustan los perros calientes. # No me gustan los perritos calientes.
Use the same words to present different ways to structure
language:
noun — pronoun
statement to question
Isabel va a la escuela. # ¿Va Isabel a la escuela?
Language Development
Specific exercises can be devised to work on the most common errors
that students make. For example, take sentences from the rough drafts
of student writings, do appropriate structural exercises, and then have
students correct their own productions. The repetition involved in
doing the exercises helps to make common structures automatic for
second language students.
Indirect Instruction Methods
Indirect instructional methods are student-centered. These methods are
very effective when the instructional goals include
! thinking outcomes
! attitudes, values, or interpersonal outcomes
! process as well as product
! personalized understanding and long-term retention of concepts or
generalizations
! lifelong learning capability
Author’s Chair
During this procedure, students read aloud their written drafts or
compositions to others. Listeners provide positive comments and
constructive feedback to the “author” to assist future writing efforts.
Writing is usually shared with the entire class, but occasionally authors
could read to small groups. One particular chair or area of the
classroom may be designated for this activity.

Case Studies
Case studies are usually descriptions of real or imaginary situations
that are either unresolved or have a controversial theme. They are used
for group discussion and for the generation of ideas and solutions. Case
studies are a useful strategy for looking at misunderstandings between
people of different cultural groups. They can be used as individual
assignments or as small group assignments. Discussion of what has
been learned is a valuable follow-up to a case study approach.
Cloze Procedure
The Cloze Procedure is an open-ended method in which a selected
word or phrase is eliminated from a written or oral sentence or
paragraph.
The teacher eliminates a word or phrase from the sentence. Students
complete the sentence with a word that “makes sense.” The teacher
may select random words or a specific part of speech. This can be
expanded to the more difficult task of finding a word that makes sense
when only the initial letter of the word is provided.
Cloze is effective when it
! provides opportunities for creativity
! develops the use of precise vocabulary
! focuses on the use of precise and correct communication
! increases comprehension skills
! provides opportunities to use Spanish
Procedure
The cloze procedure is most often used with written texts and is
particularly effective if done with groups of students rather than
individually.
1. Choose a written text (or write a text) appropriate to the students’
level. Leave the first sentence untouched, then delete a number of
words from the rest of the text, leaving the last sentence untouched
as well. There are a number of ways of deciding which words to
delete:
• delete every seventh word (fewer for beginner level students,
more for more advanced students)
• delete key words related to the topic of the sentence
• delete words that have a particular grammatical function (such as
all the adjectives, or all the pronouns).
Replace the words with blanks of equal length so that there is no
clue as to the length of the words that have been deleted.

2. Ask the students to read the text and try to fill in the missing
words. They can use any clues they can find in the text, or any
knowledge they have of the topic or the language to try to discover
what the missing words might be. The text must make sense when
it is complete.
3. Ask the students to explain why they think a particular word fits
the blank in the sentence. If there is more than one suggestion, the
students can discuss their reasons for each choice and decide which
is the best. The sharing of ideas and interpretation strategies is an
important aspect of this instructional method.
Tips
If the students have never done this kind of exercise before, do several
together with the whole class before having them work independently
in small groups. Model the process of looking for clues in the text by
“thinking aloud” as you go through the text with the students.
The object of the activity is not necessarily to find the original word. If
the students are able to fill the blank with a word that makes sense and
fits the sentence grammatically, it does not need to be the word
originally in the text.
Make a list of the strategies used to fill in the missing words and post it
in the classroom. Add to the list as new strategies are introduced.
Applications
The cloze procedure can be used on the opening paragraphs of a longer
text that the students will be reading to help them focus on key words
for the reading and to encourage them to use their background
knowledge of the topic to improve comprehension.
This procedure can also be used orally to encourage students to predict
what is to come. While reading aloud, stop and have students listen
carefully to predict the next word or phrase in the sentence.
The cloze procedure can also be employed to assess the students’ use of
a variety of interpretation strategies and their awareness of particular
language patterns and structures.
The cloze technique helps students become aware of interpretation
strategies they are using and learn new strategies by listening to the
explanations of their fellow classmates. It helps them learn to use the
context and their prior knowledge to make intelligent guesses about
unknown words they may encounter in their reading.

Graphic Organizers
Definition
Graphic organizers are visual representations of texts or groups of
related ideas, words or thoughts. They can take a variety of forms,
some of which have a specific name, depending on what they are
representing and how they will be used. Some examples are frames,
mind maps, webs, concept or semantic maps, story maps, Venn
diagrams, and flow charts.
The teacher provides a specific format for learning, recalling, and
organizing linguistic or cultural concepts learned through Spanish.
Graphic organizers are beneficial when they are used to
! help students visualize abstract concepts
! help learners organize ideas
! provide a visual format for study
Consequence Diagram/Decision Trees—A graphic organizer method in
which students use diagrams or decision trees to illustrate real or
possible outcomes of different target cultural actions or situations.
Students visually depict outcomes for a given problem by charting
various decisions and their possible consequences.
Consequence diagrams/decision trees are effective tools to
! help in transferring Spanish-language learning to application
! aid in predicting with accuracy
! develop the ability to identify the causes and effects of decisions
! aid in clarifying positive and negative statements
PROBLEMA
POSIBLE SOLUCIÓN POSIBLE SOLUCIÓN POSIBLE SOLUCIÓN
Ventajas Desventajas Ventajas Desventajas Ventajas Desventajas

Concept Mapping—A graphic organizer method that shows the

relationships among concepts. Usually the concepts are circled and the
relationships are shown by connecting lines with short explanations in
Spanish or graphical depictions of the objects or concepts.
The teacher selects a main idea. Using Spanish, the teacher and
students then identify a set of concepts associated with a main idea.
Concepts are ranked in related groups from most general to most
specific. Related concepts are connected and the links labeled with
words, pictures, or short phrases.
Concept mapping is an effective tool to
! help students visualize how ideas are connected, and understand
linguistic relationships and how knowledge is organized
! improve oral communication, comprehension, and problem-solving
skills
TEMA

K-W-L (Know-Want to Know-Learned)—An introductory method that

provides a structure for recalling what students know regarding a
target language or cultural topic, noting what students want to know,
and finally listing what has been learned and is yet to be learned.
Before engaging in an activity, reading a chapter, listening to a lecture,
or watching a film or presentation, the teacher lists on the board under
the heading What We Know all the information students know or
think they know about a topic. Then, the teacher lists all the
information the students want to know about a topic under What We
Want to Know.
While engaging in the planned activity, the students research and read
about the topic, keeping in mind the information they had listed under
What We Want to Know.
After completing the activity, the students confirm the accuracy of what
was listed and identify what they learned, contrasting it with what they
wanted to know. The teacher lists what the students learned under
What We Learned.
K-W-L strategies are effective tools to
! build on prior knowledge
! develop predicting skills
! provide a structure for learning
! develop research skills
! develop communication skills in cooperative groups
! strengthen teamwork skills
! provide opportunities to use Spanish reading, writing, listening,
speaking, and viewing
S Q A
Lo Lo que Lo
que queremos que
sabemos saber aprendimos

Learning Log—A method to develop structured writing in Spanish. An

excellent follow-up to K-W-L.
During different stages of the language learning process, students
respond in written form under three columns:
What I Think/Lo que pienso
What I Learned/Lo que aprendí
How My Thinking Has Changed/
Cómo ha cambiado mi opinión
Learning logs are effective tools to
! bridge the gap between prior knowledge and new content
! provide a structure for translating target language concepts into
written form.
Webbing—A graphic organizer method that provides a visual picture of
how target language words or phrases connect to a content-based or
cultural topic.
The teacher lists a topic and builds a web-like structure of target
language words or phrases that students call out as being connected to
a topic. Students can also use this method individually in planning,
writing, or in studying for a test.
Webbing is an effective tool to
! provide opportunities for the visual learner to “recall” the
connections for later use
! help students use and share their prior linguistic knowledge
! help students identify patterns of information
TEMA

Venn Diagram—A graphic organizer method, derived from

mathematics, for creating a visual analysis of information representing
the similarities and differences among, for example, Spanish language
concepts or Spanish culture objects, events, animals, and people.
Using two overlapping circles, students list unique characteristics of
two items or concepts (one in the left part of circle and one in the right);
in the middle they list shared characteristics. More than two circles can
be used for a more complex process.
Venn Diagrams are effective tools to
! help students organize ideas, and Spanish language and culture
concepts
! help students develop a plan for writing
! allow students to focus on the similarities and differences within
and among languages and cultures
! develop the ability to draw conclusions and synthesize
! stimulate higher cognitive thinking skills
Características Características
individuales Características individuales
compartidas

Flowchart—A graphic organizer method used to depict a sequence of

events, actions, roles, or decisions.
Students structure a sequential flow of events, actions, roles, or
decisions graphically on paper.
Flowcharts are effective tools to
! foster logical and sequential thinking
! focus on cultural connections
! develop the ability to identify details and specific points
! develop organizational skills
! aid in planning
! provide an outline for writing in the target language

T-Chart*
Purpose: To clarify central concepts or ideas; to collect specific
examples for an idea or behavior.
Thinking Skills: Specifying, categorizing
How to use: In the Looks Like column, list all the behaviors or
observable characteristics related to a topic; in the Sounds Like
column, list all the sounds or audible characteristics, including possible
verbal messages.
*As described and illustrated in Bellanca
ACUERDO
Looks Like / Se ve como Sounds Like / Parece como
nodding head / asentir con la cabeza “I can live with it.” / “Puedo vivir con ello.”
eye contact / contacto visual “Good idea.”/ “Buena idea.”
smile / sonrisa “That will help us.” / “Eso nos ayudará.”
attention / atención “I see your point.” / “Te entiendo.”
Name(s) / Nombre(s) ________________________ Topic / Tema _________________________
T-CHART / CUADRO T
Title / Titulo ______________________________________________________________________
Looks Like / Se ve como Sounds Like / Parece como

Procedure
When introducing graphic organizers for the first time, model their use
in a simple situation, going step by step through the process,
explaining what you are doing at each step and why. Use the same
graphic organizer on several occasions, getting more and more student
input each time. As students gain more understanding and skill, they
can be given more opportunity for discussion about how different
elements should be represented and what they should be linked to.
Once students are accustomed to using a particular type of graphic
organizer, they can begin to use it independently in small groups. The
form of familiar graphic organizers can be posted in the classroom as a
resource for students as they work.
Second language learners may need some preparation before working
on a graphic organizer to build their vocabulary on the topic. They
might watch a short film, read a text (or listen to someone else read), or
brainstorm ideas and categorize them. Throughout the preparatory
activity and the development of the graphic organizer, the teacher can
supply any vocabulary that the students are lacking.
Tips
For beginners or younger students, pictures can be used instead of, or
in addition to, words.
Use different colours and shapes to add more meaning to the graphic
organizer. For example, use wool or string of different colours to show
links between words or ideas.
Prepare labels of the words associated with a theme or topic and have
students organize them, showing the connections they think are
important. When they are happy with their arrangement, they can glue
the labels on a large sheet of paper or attach them to a bulletin board
with tacks or staples.
Applications
People construct knowledge based on what they already know. Graphic
organizers are used to organize and represent knowledge, and help the
learner construct new meanings in a subject. The goal of this method is
not to find the “right answer” or the “correct” graphic organizer. It is to
improve understanding of texts or to explore how ideas or words relate
to each other.
Understanding can be expanded by discussing different visual
representations and seeing how others’ interpretation is different from
one’s own.

The following is a partial concept map based on weather which could

be used to summarize vocabulary introduced in a unit on that topic or
to prepare for a listening activity using weather reports.
nublado
despejando
llovizna frío/congelación
parcialmente nublado lluvia
lluvia helada
sol
nieve
condiciones atmosfércas
despejado precipitaciones
tiempo
The following graphic organizer is a story map that shows the principal
elements that are present in most fiction. Story maps can be used to
help students understand the structure of a story, to see common
patterns from one story to another, to assess their understanding of a
specific story, to make predictions before beginning to read or listen to
a story, or as a planning tool when preparing to write a story.
¿Quién? (¿Quiénes son los personajes?) __________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________
¿Cuándo? (¿Cuándo ocurre la historia?) ________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
¿Dónde? (el escenario) ________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Al comienzo/principio (¿Cuál es la situación?)

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

La parte principal (¿Cuáles son los acontecimientos?)

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
El fin/la conclusión (¿Cómo termina el cuento/la novela/la historía?)

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Different kinds of graphic organizers can be used to represent

expository texts. The most common structures for these kinds of texts
are
• description
• enumeration or listing
• comparison and contrast
• cause and effect
• problem and solution
At the same time as students are made aware of how these different
kinds of texts are organized, they can learn the key words and phrases
used to structure the texts. A Venn diagram is an example of a graphic
organizer for comparison and contrast. Differences are recorded in the
outer parts of the circles, similarities in the area where they overlap.

Canadá • tiene bosque/ El Salvador

• tiene un selva • tiene
clima frío • tiene montañas clima cálido
• es un país • linda con el • es un país
grande océano pequeño
pacífico
Semejanzas
• vegetación, costa, terreno
Diferencias
• clima, tamaño
Graphic organizers are used for a wide variety of purposes in the
second language classroom. They can help students
• organize information they have heard, viewed, or read
• remember vocabulary by making connections with words or phrases
they already know
• plan an oral or a written text
• better understand the way texts of different types are structured and
organized
• prepare for a listening, reading, or viewing activity by anticipating
what they might hear or see
• learn new concepts by relating them to what they already know
• represent what they know about a topic.
Discussions
A discussion is an oral exploration of a topic, object, concept, or
experience. All learners need frequent opportunities to generate and
share their questions and ideas in small and whole class settings.
Teachers who encourage and accept students’ questions and comments
without judgement and clarify understandings by paraphrasing
difficult terms motivate students’ interest in using the Spanish
language and the exchange of ideas.

The teacher or student initiates the discussion by asking a question that

requires students to reflect upon and interpret films, experiences, read
or recorded stories, or illustrations. As students question and recreate
information and events in a film or story, they clarify their thoughts
and feelings. The questions posed should encourage students to relate
text content to life experiences and to other text. Interpretations will
vary, but such variances demonstrate that differences of opinion are
valuable.
Grammatical Problem Solving
Definition
A method often used to teach grammar is to present students with a
rule, provide them with examples, and then have them do exercises to
determine if they understand the rule and to help them learn through
repetitive drill. Grammatical problem solving involves having students
use deductive reasoning to discover rules and understand grammatical
concepts on their own. Instead of working from the rule to the
examples, students work from the examples to the rule.
Procedure
1. Provide students with a number of examples that illustrate a
particular grammar rule that you want them to learn. Ask them to
look at the examples and try to determine what the rule might be. It
is useful for students to work in pairs or small groups, and discuss
their reasoning.
2. If their first attempt at deducing the rule is not successful, provide
more examples that are designed to lead them in the right direction.
It is also helpful to provide contrasting examples to guide the
thinking of students. Continue in this way until they have
discovered what the rule is.
3. Once students have figured out the rule, ask them to provide their
own examples to check for understanding.
Tips
It is not important that students use the proper grammatical
terminology as long as they are able to explain what they mean. Often
if students formulate the rule in their own words, they will be able to
remember it better.
Start with a fairly simple rule if students are not used to this method. It
may take some practice for them to be able to formulate rules of their
own.

Applications
This method can be used to teach almost any language rule. Here are
some examples:
1. Pronunciation (hard sound versus soft)
cien casa gana gira
cuenta guante general
circo cola gol
2. Grammar (singular/plural)
el libro los libros
la casa las casas
3. Spelling
inteligente intelligent
artista artist
acción action
4. Verb Tenses
Ayer estudié mañana estudiaré
hablé
miré
Having students discover or deduce the rule themselves usually leads
to a better understanding of the grammatical rule or concept. It also
develops their ability to learn language independently. Being able to
deduce rules from multiple examples is an effective language learning
strategy.
Reflective Discussions
Reflective discussions encourage students to think and talk about what
they have observed, heard, or read.
Reflective Thinking—A method in which students reflect on what was
learned after a lesson is finished, either orally or in written form.
Two possible approaches to reflective thinking are (1) students can
write in a journal in their own words: the concept learned, comments
on the learning process, questions, and interest in further exploration;
(2) students can answer an oral questionnaire addressing such
questions as “Why did you study this? Can you relate it to real life?”
Reflective thinking strategy is an effective tool to
! help students assimilate what they have learned
! help students connect concepts to make ideas more meaningful
! foster additional opportunities to use the target language in a
meaningful setting

Interactive Instruction Methods

Interactive instruction methods employ groups of learners. Before the
group members get to work, it is important for them to be aware of
what they are to accomplish, how much time they have, and what the
recording or reporting procedures are.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a strategy for eliciting ideas from a group and
communicating them in Spanish in oral or written form.
Students contribute ideas related to a topic. All contributions are
accepted without initial comment. After the list of ideas is finalized,
students categorize, prioritize, and defend selections.
Brainstorming is an effective tool to
! reveal background information and knowledge of a topic
! disclose misconceptions
! help students relate existing knowledge to content
! strengthen Spanish communication skills
! stimulate creative thinking
Brainstorming is a technique for producing the greatest possible
number of ideas around a question or a topic. Originally developed to
stimulate creativity, this technique is now commonly used in
classrooms to encourage students to explore what they know or want
to know about a topic.
Brainstorming is most effective when
! all statements are accepted
! quantity rather than quality is emphasized
! no criticism is given, anything goes (no matter how outrageous or
far-fetched)
! no discussion or judgments except for clarification purposes
! people can build on other ideas
! a fixed time is allocated
! once ideas have been generated, they can be combined or ordered
Teachers may decide to assess brainstorming when it is used in the
context of cooperative learning groups. Anecdotal records may be the
preferred method of recording data.

Brainstorming is particularly useful in the following situations:

• to explore possible solutions to a problem
• to get ideas for a writing project
• to explore what students know about a topic
• to explore questions or topics for further research
This technique may not seem well suited to the second language
classroom at first, since students will sometimes have difficulty
expressing their ideas in the second language. It is, however, very
useful for developing vocabulary and structures at the beginning of a
unit. Here are a few ideas to make it more successful in second
language classrooms:
• Before using brainstorming on a topic that is unfamiliar to students,
have them read a text, view a film, or do an activity that will
introduce them to some of the vocabulary and expressions they will
need.
• Encourage students to use gestures, illustrations, and paraphrasing if
they cannot think of the exact word they need.
• If students use English to express their idea, give them the
equivalent word or expression in the second language and write it
down with the other ideas, adding a drawing or brief explanation so
that they can remember what it means.
• If you can’t think of the word, do not be afraid to admit it and use a
dictionary to find the correct term or spelling.
Categorizing
Categorizing involves grouping objects or ideas according to criteria
that describe common features or the relationships among all members
of that group.
This procedure enables students to see patterns and connections; it
develops students’ abilities to manage or organize information.
Categorizing is often used to organize the information produced during
a brainstorming activity.
Assessment might include monitoring students’ ability to understand
relationships among items, categorize items using more than one
criteria or category, and categorize items independently.
Circle of Knowledge
This method involves each student in thinking and discussing a topic
with peers before sharing ideas with a large group. Students take turns
going around the circle. The circle of knowledge method is used in the
same manner as reflective discussion.

Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is a method in which students work together in
small groups to achieve a common goal, while communicating in
Spanish. Cooperative learning involves more than simply putting
students into work or study groups. Teachers promote individual
responsibility and positive group interdependence by making sure that
each group member is responsible for a given task. Cooperative
learning can be enhanced when group members have diverse abilities
and backgrounds.
After organizing students into groups, the teacher thoroughly explains
a task to be accomplished within a time frame. The teacher facilitates
the selection of individual roles within the group and monitors the
groups, intervening only when necessary, to support students working
together successfully and accomplishing the task.
Cooperative learning is an effective tool to
! foster interdependence and pursuit of mutual goals and rewards
! develop leadership skills
! increase the opportunities to use Spanish in authentic,
communicative situations
! increase participation of shyer students
! produce higher levels of student achievement, thus increasing self-
esteem
! foster respect for diverse abilities and perspectives
Cooperative learning embraces a number of interactive instruction
methods that involve students working in small groups to complete a
task or project. The task is structured in such a way that involvement of
each group member contributes to completion of the task. Success is
based on the performance of the group rather than on the performance
of individual group members.
Cooperative learning stresses interdependence and promotes
cooperation rather than competition. Establishing and maintaining
cooperative group norms develops the concept of a community of
learners. Cooperative learning activities are carefully structured to
include five basic elements:
Positive Interdependence: Each member of the group is concerned
about the performance of other group members as well as their own.
All individuals must succeed for the group to succeed.
Individual Accountability: Each member of the group is responsible
for the work of the group.
Face-to-face Interaction: Students work in environments that facilitate
communication and cooperation.

Social Skills: Students are directly taught the human interaction skills
that enable groups to function effectively.
Group Processing: Group members have opportunities to receive
feedback on how their group has been functioning and make plans to
improve.
Cooperative learning activities can be structured in many ways (see
applications below), but these five elements should be present in some
form or other.
Procedure
1. Positive interdependence can be structured into group activities in
a number of ways:
• Students have a common goal (e.g., every member must
contribute to making a single product or all members of the
group must improve their score on a quiz).
• Students receive the same reward for completing the task (e.g.,
their group project is displayed in the school or each group
member receives bonus points to add to their individual score).
• Students share one set of materials or information (e.g., the group
gets one large sheet of paper, one set of coloured pencils, one
ruler, and one eraser to produce a map).
• Each member of the group is assigned a complementary and
interconnected role (e.g., in a group of two, one person cuts and
the other glues; or in a group of four, students share the roles of
reader, writer, timekeeper, and noise monitor). Direct teaching of
different roles within the group may be necessary. Rotate the
roles so that all students have the opportunity to develop their
skills in different roles.
• Each member of the group is responsible for carrying out one
step of an overall task that needs to be done in step-by-step order
(e.g., when preparing a dish, one group member is responsible
for gathering ingredients, another for measuring, another for
mixing; or when producing the final copy of a letter, one student
checks the spelling, another checks the grammar, another checks
the page layout, and another checks for capitalization and
punctuation).
• Students work together against an outside force or constraint
(e.g., team members try to beat their previous team score on a
quiz or they try to find the most words related to food in a set
period of time).
• Members of the group choose a group name, motto, logo, flag,
song, or chant to help establish a feeling of identification with the
group.

2. Individual accountability is created when any member of the

group may be called upon to present the work of the group, defend
a decision taken by the group, or answer questions about the
project the group has been working on.
3. Face-to-face interaction is facilitated when the conditions of work
allow the students to work together easily. They can, for example,
be grouped around a small table if they need a work surface, or on
chairs in a circle if they are just talking. Sometimes pulling desks
together means that students are too far apart to talk in soft voices
and still be heard by each other.
4. Learning social skills is essential if cooperative learning activities
are to work well. There are basically two kinds of cooperative skills,
those which students use to complete the task (e.g., asking
questions, listening actively, staying on task), and those they use to
build and maintain the working relationship of the group (e.g.,
disagreeing in an agreeable way, encouraging others, keeping
things calm). Students need to be taught specific skills before they
begin their group activity:
• Decide which skills to work on. Concentrate on one or two at a
time, depending on the age of the students and their previous
experience in cooperative groups.
• Help students understand why they are learning the skill, what
the skill is (by modelling it, for example), how they can practise
it, how well they use the skill, and how they can improve.
• Students learning a second language, in particular, need to be
taught specific vocabulary and structures for working in groups.
For this reason, some of the specific learning outcomes deal with
language functions involved in managing group actions.
• Students need a variety of opportunities to practise the skill. This
encourages them to transfer the skill to new situations.
• In addition to providing feedback yourself, ensure that students
evaluate their use of the skill both individually and as a group.
• Assessment of the social skill should be part of the overall
assessment of the activity.
• Monitoring the groups as they work will show which cooperative
skills are lacking and might become the focus in future lessons.

5. Group processing usually takes place at the end of the activity.

Students discuss how well their group is functioning and how they
may improve the group’s effectiveness. This self-assessment may be
done individually (e.g., “How did I contribute to the effectiveness
of the group?”) as well as in the group, and then shared with the
rest of the class. Alternatively, one of the roles assigned in the group
can be to monitor the use of a specific skill and report back to the
group.
6. The kinds of roles assigned to group members depend on the task
they are doing and on the skills they have already developed.
Individual role cards, outlining the specific behaviours of each role,
may be prepared as references for students while working in
groups. Some examples of general roles are facilitator, recorder,
encourager, observer, and summarizer. Some examples of roles that
might be needed for specific tasks are materials handler,
timekeeper, reader, and summarizer.
Tips
If students have little experience working in cooperative groups, start
small with groups of two or three students. As they gain more
experience and skill, they will be able to handle larger groups. The size
of the group will also depend on the nature of the task.
When introducing cooperative learning, begin with a clear, concise task,
simple roles, and basic social skills like talking with quiet voices.
It is usually better to group students with different levels of ability,
different aptitudes, or different backgrounds. Each student’s strong
points will be different and each will be able to make a contribution to
the group as well as learn from the others.
Students can stay in the same group for varying amounts of time,
sometimes for only a few minutes, sometimes for a whole unit if they
are working together on a particular task.
The teacher’s role while groups are working is to observe student
progress, record observations to provide feedback, and to intervene if
necessary. When intervening, try to find ways to turn the problem back
to the group members for a solution.
Students need time, practice, and explicit instruction to become good at
working together cooperatively. Don’t expect students to develop
interpersonal skills automatically.

Applications
1. Informal Groups
Informal groups are usually small (two or three students) and
short-term (a single activity or class). Groups can be formed very
quickly by asking students to turn to their neighbour and do
something together for a few minutes. Some examples of what
students can do in informal groups are
• guided exercises such as practising dialogues and cloze activities
• brainstorm or come up with lists of words, ideas, and so on
• express a personal opinion on a film, a song, a current event
• give a brief report on strategies they have been trying, Internet
sites they have visited, and so on
2. Home Groups
Home groups are often small as well, but are usually maintained
for a long period of time, often throughout the whole course. It is
important that members of a home group feel at ease with each
other since they will be working together over an extended period
of time. Students can be asked to name three or four other students
they would like to work with and these suggestions can be used to
constitute the home groups.
A home group provides on-going support, both socially and
academically, for every member of the group. Learning a second
language can be stressful for some students, but they will learn
better if they are relaxed and confident.
Home groups can provide support to students in a number of
ways:
• checking homework
• correcting notes
• studying for exams
• discussing strategies
• exchanging information about opportunities for using the
language outside the classroom
• discussing problems

3. Jigsaw
The jigsaw method is a way of organizing cooperative learning
groups to share the workload on larger projects. It involves several
steps and two different kinds of groups.
• The students start in their home group or base group. The
teacher explains how the project will be organized, outlines what
the students’ responsibilities are, teaches the social skills that will
be worked on throughout the project, discusses assessment, and
so on. Within the home groups, each student accepts to work on
a particular aspect of the project, to become the “expert” on that
part of the project for their group.
1 2 1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4 3 4
• Students from each home group who will be the “expert” for
their group on the same topic come together to form expert
groups. In their expert groups, they work on the particular aspect
of the project they are responsible for, and decide how they will
present this or teach it to the other members of their home group.
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
1 2 3 4
• Once students have finished the work in their expert groups,

they return to their home groups, where they use what they have
learned in their project, teach it to the others in the group, and
remain the “expert” for their group on this particular topic.
1 2 1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4 3 4
• The jigsaw technique is particularly useful for some of the tasks

that students will be doing in a task-based language learning
class.

The language needed to work effectively in small groups can become
an important component of a second language class, provided the time
is taken to explicitly teach the vocabulary and structures necessary.
Almost all of the functions set out in the Applications component of the
curriculum guide will be necessary at some time or other in cooperative
group activities.
It is important to make clear to students that communicating in Spanish
is an expectation of their work in cooperative groups. Making it part of
the assessment, assigning a language monitor as one of the roles, and
teaching ways of helping each other are different ways of doing this.
Cultural Presentations
A cultural presentation is an exhibit that is focused on aspects of the
target culture.
Students work in groups to create exhibits that represent a particular
aspect of the target culture.
A cultural presentation is an effective tool to
! develop critical thinking skills
! develop the ability to select important high points
! encourage creativity and individuality
! deepen specific knowledge of the target culture
Ideas for Spanish Cultural Participation and Research Projects
If you like to draw, paint, build, cut, paste, or if you like the visual arts,
consider the following:
• Make a map of a Spanish-speaking country or region. It should
focus on a special topic such as agricultural products, manufactured
items, costumes, geography, etc.
• Make a poster about a famous Spanish-speaking person (artist,
scientist, political/historical person, athlete). Include a short
biography and describe highlights of his/her career, when he/she
lived, why important, etc.
• Imitate a famous Hispanic artist’s painting or style in a painting of
your own creation. Include a paragraph about the artist, which
highlights his or her style of art and time period (Picasso,
Velazquez, Goya, Miró, Rivera, Zurbarán are just a few starters).
• Make your own reproduction of a painting by a famous Hispanic
artist. Include a paragraph about the artist, which highlights his or
her style of art and time period (Picasso, Velazquez, Goya, Miró,
Botero are just a few starters).

• On a map of North America, find concentrations of cities or natural

features with Spanish names. Make a map, research the Spanish
history of the area and include translations of names.
• Visit an online art museum (see web resources in the Appendices),
and document Hispanic artists on display, giving titles of works,
and writing your reactions to them. (If you like to sketch, quick
sketches of a couple of the pieces you view would make great
evidence!)
• Draw a comic strip to tell about an important historical event,
famous person, or cultural practice.
• Visit a local or online gallery or exhibit featuring Hispanic artists,
and document the art you saw there. Ideas for how to document the
art include your own sketch of a piece of art which you like, videos,
or photos (if you get permission from the exhibit managers before
going there), a critique of what was good, bad, or interesting about
the art you viewed, etc. (Check the entertainment sections of local
newspapers and magazines to see what exhibits are available.)
If you like to cook or eat, consider the following:
• Go to a Spanish (or Guatemalan, or Peruvian, etc.) restaurant or café
and order in Spanish. (Make sure someone speaks Spanish! Call to
ask before you go!!) Get a signature on the menu or a business card.
Document with video or photographs. Sample Spanish food you've
never tasted before.
• Research what a typical dinner would be in a Spanish-speaking
country. Make at least three courses for your family and/or friends.
Document with copies of the recipes, and you must have photos or
video.
• Cook a typical main dish of a Spanish-speaking area and bring
samples to class. Remember to bring utensils, napkins, etc. (You’ll
bring this on a pre-arranged day and present it to the class.) You
will need to sign up with the instructor prior to your presentation
day. Just salsa and chips is not acceptable.
• Interview a Spanish speaker about customs at table such as how to
hold utensils while eating, where to place hands while eating, what
it’s okay to eat with fingers, etc. Demonstrate to class.

If you can sew or use your hands well, consider the following:
• Sew a regional or historic Spanish costume. Document when and
where the costume is from and who would wear this type of
clothing. Model the costume for the class if it's full size. Bring the
doll if you dress a doll.
• Build (using kits if you like) models of a famous building or
monument of a Spanish-speaking country. Include a brief report
about the monument or building. What is it called? When was it
built? What was its purpose? Who had it built? What is it used for
today if it has changed from its original purpose?
If you like to read or write, consider the following:
• Read a Spanish magazine or newspaper article (Yes, in Spanish!).
Summarize the main points you learned in an outline or a graphic
organizer. (See your teacher for magazines you can use. You can
also find newspapers and magazines online.)
• Read a Spanish novel in translation.
• Read a Spanish children’s book. Write a short plot summary in
English and a list of new words learned. (There are lots in the
library!)
• Read up on some aspect of Spanish culture (e.g., family, table
manners, manners when visiting someone else, participating in
sports, etc.), and then write a letter to a friend as though you were
living in a particular Spanish-speaking culture and describing to
your friend what life was like for you living there. There are great
books available to use as resources. See your teacher for ideas.
• Read up on an aspect of a Spanish-speaking country’s history and
write a series of journal entries as though they were written by a
person who had lived through them.
• Write to the tourist offices of various cities in a Spanish-speaking
country requesting information. Submit a copy of your letter,
materials received, and a write-up. Use these materials to decide
where you would go on your ideal Spanish vacation, and present it
visually (e.g., in a poster, an ad campaign to convince someone else
to visit there, an “infomercial” video to be used as advertising for
the area, etc.). Let your creativity be your guide for how to present
what you learn.

• Using tourist resources such as guidebooks, travel agencies, and the

Internet, plan your ideal vacation in Spanish-speaking parts of the
world. Where would you go? What would you see? What kind of
money would you pay in? What would there be to eat in the places
you visit? What recreational activities? You may present this
information as a travel journal pretending you’ve already
completed the trip, as a travel agent's suggested itinerary for a
customer, as though you're a travel writer telling people what to do,
etc.
• After researching him or her, “become” a world leader of a Spanish-
speaking country and tell the class who you are, why you're
important, what you have accomplished, etc.
• Visit the Spanish section of an international bookstore. Describe
what types of publications are available.
• Read up on an important event in the history of a Spanish-speaking
country, and then write a news article as it might have appeared in
the press at the time of the event. (This could be a scientific
discovery, a battle, an invention, the defeat of the Spanish Armada,
etc. Let your own interests be your guide.)
• Collect and read news articles about a Hispanic country in which
you are interested, and then write an article yourself using the
collected articles as resources.
If you like television, movies, or performing arts, consider the
following:
• “Become” a famous Spanish speaker for the class. Wear an
appropriate costume and introduce yourself to the class as that
character. Explain what you did that caused you to become famous
and when you did it, etc.
• Watch a Spanish movie with subtitles, summarize the plot, keep a
list of words you figured out from the movie, and note the things
you learned about Spanish culture from watching the movie.
• Memorize and perform a Spanish poem (or make a video of
yourself performing the poem).
• Go see a Spanish play (classic or modern) or other musical or
theatrical production. Summarize the plot, tell who the playwright
or composer was, when (s)he wrote, etc.
• Learn to play or sing a Spanish song. Perform it, teach it to the
class, or videotape it.
• Learn and teach a Hispanic dance to the class.
• Make a video to teach an aspect of the culture of a Spanish-speaking
country or an aspect of Spanish grammar or vocabulary, or to
reenact a scene from literature or history.

• Learn about various Spanish gestures and body language and make
a video of yourself using those gestures with appropriate comments
in appropriate situations or present them live to the class.
• Perform a scene from a Spanish play for the class in Spanish or
English, but identify the playwright and time period.
• Read up on an important event in the history of a Spanish-speaking
country, and then write a skit based on that event. (This could be a
scientific discovery, a battle, a beheading, an invention, the defeat of
the Spanish Armada, etc. Let your own interests be your guide.)
• Attend a concert or performance featuring Hispanic music or
dancing.
• Visit a record store that carries a large selection of Hispanic music.
Listen to songs available to listen to. Read about the songs. Report
on what you learned, what you liked, etc.
• Listen to a mariachi band and talk to the band members. List the
songs they played. Find out the names of their instruments in
Spanish. Get an autograph from them.
• Watch MTV International with Daisy Fuentes, record or videotape
songs in Spanish for the class, and complete a teletarea form
(viewing log) for the viewing.
• Watch two hours of Spanish programming on local TV and fill out
teletarea forms (viewing logs) for what you watched.
• Watch the news five times in Spanish and summarize the headlines
on a teletarea form (viewing log).
If you like sports, consider the following:
• Learn the Spanish vocabulary for a sport commonly played in a
Spanish-speaking region or country. Present your knowledge in a
poster that includes illustrations and Spanish terms for key
vocabulary, or teach the class the basics of the game in Spanish.
• Make a video for a sport with a narration in Spanish. (You may use
a game from television and create your own narration for a five-
minute period of the game.)
• Watch an hour of sports such as lucha libre or boxeo on Spanish-
speaking TV, and complete a teletarea form (viewing log).
• Learn the Spanish vocabulary for a sport commonly played in
Spanish-speaking countries. Teach the class the key vocabulary you
learned.

Other possibilities include the following:

• Interview a native speaker about his or her country, using video or
audiocassette.
• Make up a game for the class which requires the use of Spanish and
knowledge of a Spanish-speaking country's culture for the game to
be played. (Schedule a time with the teacher for it to be played in
class.)
• Visit Hispanic stores in South Sacramento and summarize your
activities, what you saw, what Spanish you got to speak, etc.
If you like computers, consider the following:
• Exchange five letters or emails with a native speaker of Spanish,
and turn in copies of correspondence.
• Check out the weather on the Internet in several Spanish-speaking
cities around the world. Show the locations of those cities on a map,
and show what the weather was, using appropriate meteorological
symbols and a map legend in Spanish.
• Make a list of cool Spanish-language websites you discover that can
be duplicated for classmates. Give a brief description of what each
site is about.
• Work with a language-learning program in Spanish and print out
the lessons you have done as your evidence.
• Discover, read, interact with, and react to three Spanish-language
web pages. (Include information you download from those pages as
part of your documentation.) Your write-up will be crucial in
convincing your teacher that you learned a lot and that this was a
valid project.
• Design your own project based on something you discover on the
Internet. Discuss your ideas in advance with your teacher to be sure
it is acceptable. (The project must cause you to use Spanish and/or
learn about a Spanish-speaking country’s culture, not just print out
what you find online).
• Visit a Spanish language catalog web site and put together your no-
holds-barred holiday wish list. What are the names of the items you
want? How much do they cost? In what currency? Is it something
you’d find here?

If you are interested in business or in career opportunities using

Spanish, consider the following:
• Interview a manager of a business operating in Manitoba that has
its home or affiliated offices in a Spanish-speaking country. Learn
what is involved in doing business between the two countries.
Prepare your questions in advance and record your interview.
• Visit a post-secondary institution offering Spanish courses such as
the Department of French, Spanish, and Italian, University of
Manitoba, or a private Spanish-language institute where learning
other languages to use in “the real world” is the focus.
• Research a career in which command of Spanish will be useful. (See
your counsellor, a research librarian, or your teacher to discuss how
to research this project.)
• Research a specific Hispanic business. In your write-up, profile the
company (product, location, size of work force, gross sales, etc.) Try
to contact someone working for the company you select (phone,
email) and see whether he or she is willing to discuss with you how
Spanish is useful to employees.
• Research the use of Spanish in an overseas business or nonprofit
organization (e.g., health organizations, religious organizations, etc.)
by interviewing someone who has used Spanish while living and
working in a Spanish-speaking country. Also include questions to
your interviewee about what it was like to live there and adjust to
that culture.
• Job shadow someone who uses Spanish in the workplace for two
hours.
• Interview Spanish translators who work for a translation company.
(See the yellow pages to look for possibilities.)
• Visit the international sales department of a Manitoba-based export
or international services business and learn how it conducts its
international marketing and the steps and processes involved in
international sales and in shipping product overseas.
• Interview an employee of a Spanish-speaking business about the
challenges of doing business across cultures.
• Research and report on international management degree programs
at schools such as the Monterey Language Institute, the American
Graduate School of International Management, or the university of
your choice. What career opportunities will such a degree bring
you? What language requirements does the program have? What is
their job placement rate for graduates, etc.?

• Interview people who use Spanish in their jobs, such as radio or

television personalities, journalists (available through the Bee and La
Voz), health care workers, law enforcement workers, etc. Find out
why Spanish is useful to them. How good does their Spanish have
to be to be helpful to them? How did they learn it? Why?
If you like to travel, consider the following:
• Photograph street and shop signs on a trip to Mexico; report on
their significance. (You could do something similar with
architecture, churches, types of stores, etc.)
• Visit Mexico and compare Spanish influences to Indian influences.
• Pretend to be a travel agent and plan an imaginary trip through a
Spanish-speaking area. Use illustrations, maps, and texts to present
this itinerary to your “client.”
• Visit a Spanish-speaking area and document your visit through
videos or photographs to share with the class.
• Keep a travel log if you travel to a Spanish-speaking area.
If you like history and geography, consider the following:
• Visit a Spanish mission in California and learn about its history and
architecture.
If you want to practice your Spanish, consider the following:
• Interview someone from a Spanish-speaking country about
customs, traditions, holidays, attitudes, etc. in his/her country.
• Attend a quinceañera, boda, or fiesta in a Hispanic community.
• Attend a church service that is conducted in Spanish.
• Exchange three letters with a Spanish-speaking pen pal.
• Write a children’s book with illustrations and text in Spanish. The
book should be based on something you have learned about
Spanish culture, not American culture. (Alphabet and numbers
books are not accepted.) See the teacher for ideas about an aspect of
culture to incorporate into the story. It should be a story simple
enough to tell in Spanish. (Don’t write it first in English!)

Information Gap
Definition
In an information gap activity, each person has certain information that
must be shared with others in order to solve a problem, gather
information, or make decisions.
Questions asked in second language classes are often “display”
questions. In other words, the person asking the question already
knows the answer and is, in effect, simply prompting his or her partner
to demonstrate that they know the vocabulary in question. No real
communication takes place. Information gap activities involve a real
exchange of information, although the situation might be an artificial
one.
Information gap activities are often done in pairs, although they can be
teacher-led or involve groups of students.
Procedure
Information gap activities can be highly structured or fairly open-
ended. In either case, they are most often used for reinforcement of
previously learned vocabulary and structures.
• Explain the activity to the students. Make sure they understand that
they cannot show the information to their partner. They must
communicate verbally.
• If necessary, review the vocabulary and structures that will be
needed to complete the activity.
• Once students have completed the activity, they can assess the
accuracy of their communication by comparing the information
they have.
Tips
When preparing the information gap activity, try to make the situation
as realistic as possible so that the questions asked and the answers
given are the same as or similar to what might happen in real-life
situations.
Make sure that the students have a purpose for exchanging
information, for example, a task to complete, a puzzle to solve, or a
decision to make.
The first time you involve students in information gap activities,
demonstrate in front of the whole class, so that students understand
that they cannot just show their information to their partner.

Applications
Information gap activities can be organized in many different ways.
The following are a few examples of activities involving pairs of
students:
• Ask students to draw the same picture (e.g., a house)
simultaneously. (Drawings may be done on adjacent computers
using a drawing program.) Students must together choose where to
draw the house, its size, what colour different parts are, and so on.
• Student A has a chart showing results of a survey (e.g., what time
different people get up and go to bed), but some of the information
is missing. He or she must ask student B, who has the missing
information, in order to answer a question—who sleeps the longest?
• Student A has a map showing the location of a number of buildings.
Student B must ask questions to find out how to get from where he
or she is to the building they need to find (e.g., the post office [el
correo]).
Communication gap activities can also involve groups of students:
• Students are asked to write a short text (e.g., a description of a
family member). After they have gone through the usual process of
drafting, writing, and editing, and the teacher has corrected the text,
they rewrite the text with some information left out (e.g., Francisco
has blue eyes and ______ hair. [Francisco tiene los ojos azules y el pelo
______.]). Other students read the altered text and ask questions to
fill in the missing information.
• Jigsaw activities are also information gap activities. For example,
each student in the home group is given part of a text on the topic
of the unit. The information in the text will usually be needed to
complete a specific task. Together they have the whole text, but no
single student has all the information. Students regroup with other
students from different home groups who have the same part of the
text, and they work together to understand all the information.
They then return to their home group to share the information with
the others and complete the task together.
Teacher-led information gap activities can involve the teacher asking
questions for which he or she does not already know the answer.
Alternatively, they might take the form of guessing games (e.g., Guess
which classroom object is in the bag. Is it a pencil? Is it a notebook?).
Information gap activities provide students with opportunities to
practise vocabulary and grammar structures in more interesting ways.
Motivation is usually high because forms and functions are used for a
real, although contrived, exchange of information.

Interactive Language Tasks

In Interactive Language tasks, at least two students work together to
accomplish a meaningful Spanish language activity.
The teacher organizes the class into small groups or pairs that then
perform a specific task using language. Examples of tasks include
finding differences and similarities, identifying objects or persons,
arranging things, giving and following directions, interviewing,
surveying, choosing, explaining, and solving problems.
Interactive language tasks are effective tools to
! foster interdependence and pursuit of mutual goals
! develop communication skills
! strengthen listening skills
! provide opportunities to use the target language
Language Experience
Definition
When using the Language Experience method, students experience
something together, and have the opportunity to discuss it in detail.
They then dictate sentences about the experience to the teacher who
writes them down word for word. The text thus created is corrected,
reread, and used for a variety of reading and writing activities.
Procedure
Begin with an activity or experience in which the students are all
involved. It can be anything that the students do as a large group—a
field trip, a shared story, baking something, doing a role play. Discuss
the experience orally, encouraging students to recall and describe the
event in as much detail as possible.
Then each student dictates a sentence about the common experience as
the teacher writes it on large sheets of chart paper. The teacher models
excellent writing skills, leaving space between the words, using upper
and lower case letters appropriately and correct punctuation. It is
helpful to go back frequently and reread what has been written. Ask
students if there is anything they want to change. After everyone is
happy with the content, go back and point out any errors and correct
them together.
The text can then be used for a variety of reading and writing activities:
• The text can be typed and copies sent home to be shared with the
family.
• The original text on chart paper can be posted in the classroom for
the students to reread. It can also be rewritten as a book to be kept in
the reading centre.

• Students can use words from the text in their own writing or to make
personal dictionaries or word banks.
• Students can copy their own sentence or the whole text. They can
add illustrations to help them recall the meaning.
• Cut the words apart and have the students put them back in the
correct order.
Tips
It is important to accept the contributions of all students and to use
their own words in the text. Errors can be corrected by the whole group
together after the text is complete.
During the process of correcting the text, model the use of appropriate
strategies such as using references to check spelling and grammar.
Keep the texts fairly short, especially for younger students.
This method can also be used with small groups or individuals, and is
suitable for students of all ages.
Use this method to write texts of all kinds, including fiction.
Applications
This method is particularly effective for students who have some oral
fluency, but have not learned to read or write the language. Students
find the text easy to read because it is written in their own words. This,
in turn, increases their self-confidence and their motivation to read
more.
Students are motivated by this method because their own language and
life experiences are valued. They can show the texts with pride because
they have written them and are able to read them.
Use the Language Experience method to reinforce oral language and to
teach reading. It is not suitable for introducing new concepts.
This method is also a way of producing texts for reading in situations
where it is difficult to find texts that are at the appropriate level for
students or on topics that are relevant and of interest to them.
The Language Experience method is one of the most effective for
teaching reading and for second language acquisition in general.
• It integrates listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The students
are exposed to the vocabulary and structures in both written and oral
form.
• By beginning with texts that the students themselves have
composed, the reading and writing process is directly connected to
the experiences and previous knowledge of the students.

• Students are able to build language skills such as word recognition

using texts that are meaningful to them.
• Less proficient students benefit from working with texts that more
proficient students have created about topics they are familiar with
because they have shared in the experience.
The Learning Cycle
The Learning Cycle includes a sequence of lessons designed to have
students engage in exploratory investigations, construct meaning out of
their findings, propose tentative explanations and solutions, and relate
Spanish language and culture concepts to their own lives.
The teacher engages the learners with an event or question to draw
their interest, evoke what they know, and connect with new ideas. The
students explore the concept, behaviour, or skill with hands-on
experience. They explain the concept, behaviour, or skill and define the
terms, then use the terms to explain their exploration. Through
discussion, the students expand the concept or behaviour by applying
it to other situations.
The Learning Cycle is an effective tool to
! encourage students to construct their own understanding of
Spanish language and culture concepts
! promote empathy and understanding for people of other cultures
! provide hands-on experience to explore concepts, behaviours, and
skills
! develop the ability to share ideas, thoughts, and feelings
Surveys/Encuestas and Interviews/Entrevistas
Surveys and Interviews are methods for gathering information and
reporting.
Students prepare a set of questions and a format for the interview. After
conducting the interview, students present their findings to the class.
Surveys and interviews are effective tools to
! foster connections between ideas
! develop the ability to interpret answers
! develop organizational and planning skills
! develop problem-solving skills

Definition
Students collect information from a sample of people to determine the
frequency of particular responses. They then analyze the data and
prepare a report on the results. Using surveys as an instructional
method can also develop students’ numeracy as well as their creative
and critical thinking.
Procedure
The first time students do a survey, it is helpful to go through the
procedure at least once as a whole class. After they have more
experience, they will be able to plan and carry out a survey in small
groups.
There are basically four steps to a survey: planning, collecting the data,
organizing and displaying the data, and summarizing and interpreting
the data.
1. The planning stage involves deciding which questions to ask,
formulating the questions, deciding whether the questions will be
asked orally (interview) or in writing (questionnaire), choosing the
sample of people to survey, and dividing up the work among the
students involved. It is at this step that explicit teaching or review
of structures for asking questions may be needed.
2. The survey is then carried out in the agreed way. Students can
survey other students in the class or school, people in the
community, or even people in another community via email or
telephone.
3. Once the data have been collected, they must be organized and
displayed. The usual method for displaying survey results is some
kind of graph. With a little planning in advance, a survey activity in
the Spanish class can be integrated with what students are learning
in mathematics class. Looking at a variety of different kinds of
graphs and interpreting them will provide students with examples,
ideas, and models of language to use.
4. Interpreting the findings of a simple factual survey is relatively
easy. However, if the survey has gathered information about
opinions or values, there is much more room for interpretation.
Students may present their findings orally or in writing. In either
case, they may benefit from analyzing other reports of the findings
of surveys such as might be found in newspapers or magazines.
Tips
The language for reporting results of surveys is somewhat different
from ordinary conversation. Students need to see and analyze reports
on survey results to discover typical ways of organizing texts of this
type, typical sentence patterns, as well as some specialized vocabulary.

Applications
A survey can be carried out on almost any topic. The information
gathered can be strictly factual (e.g., month and year of birth, number
of people in the family), or it can be more subjective (e.g., likes and
dislikes, opinions on a specific topic).
The kind of graph used to represent the results can vary with the age
and level of mathematical understanding of the students.
Surveys are useful for language development because they provide an
opportunity for repetition in an activity where there is a focus on
meaning and a purpose. They also provide a natural context for asking
questions, using numbers, and making comparisons. If graphs or other
visual representations of the results are prepared by students, learning
outcomes for viewing and representing can also be achieved.
Debate
A debate is a discussion in which arguments are presented for and
against a statement or resolution. The debate topic begins with “Que se
tome la resolución de . . .” Debates can take place between two people, or
two teams, or can involve an entire class. One side defends the
resolution by taking the affirmative view, while the other side (the
opposition) argues against the resolution.
Problem Solving
Problem Solving is a learning method in which students apply
knowledge to solve problems.
The students discover a problem; problems can be constructed by the
teacher or can be real-world problems suggested by the students. The
students define the problem, ask a question about the problem, then
define the characteristics of possible solutions, which they research.
They choose a promising solution that best fits the criteria stated in the
definition of solutions, and then test the solution. Finally, they
determine if the problem has been solved.
Problem solving is an effective tool to
! allow students to discover relationships that may be completely
new to them
! adapt easily for all grade levels and special needs students
! develop the ability to construct new ideas and concepts from
previously learned information, skills, and strategies
! promote communicative competence in Spanish

Independent Study
Students should be able to continue to learn after they have left the
structured learning environment of the school. If the knowledge,
abilities, attitudes, and processes associated with independent learning
are to be acquired, they must be taught and enough time must be
provided for students to practise.
Independent study is very flexible. It may be initiated by student or
teacher; it can include learning in partnership with another individual
or as part of a small group. It can be used as the major instructional
strategy with the whole class, in combination with other strategies, or it
can be used with one or more individuals while another strategy is
used with the rest of the class.
It is important to assess the abilities students already possess. Specific
skills and abilities may then be incorporated into assignments tailored
to the capabilities of individual students.
Computer-Assisted Instruction
This method refers to any instructional program in which the computer
performs, manages, or supports some or all of the teacher functions.
Logs and Journals/Diarios de registro o Diarios
Logs and journals can be used as a way to hold private conversations
in Spanish with the teacher. Dialogue journals are vehicles for sharing
ideas and receiving feedback in Spanish. This dialogue can be
conducted by email where it is available.
Students write on topics on a regular basis, and the teacher responds
with oral or written advice, comments, and observations in a
conversation. In the early stages of learning a language, students can
begin by adding a few words and combining them with pictures.
Logs and journals are effective tools to
! develop communication and writing skills
! create a positive relationship between the teacher and the student
! increase student interest and participation
! allow the student to direct his or her own learning
! provide opportunities to use Spanish
Definition
A journal is a notebook in which students record their personal
reflections, questions they are wondering about, ideas, words or
expressions they want to remember, or feelings they have about
experiences in class. Logs are usually more objective, for example,
observations on learning activities, lists of books read or films watched,
notes on learning strategies, and so on.

Procedure
If students have little or no experience using a log or journal, it is a
good idea to model the process by doing a collective journal on large
chart paper. Begin by discussing the reasons for keeping a journal and
ways it can be used, so that they can better understand the process and
the purpose.
• Always begin by noting the date of the entry.
• Specific questions can be asked, especially when students are new to
journal writing, to give them some guidance about the kinds of
things to write about.
• Provide regular opportunities for students to write in their journals,
for example, a few minutes before or after an activity depending on
what they are writing about.
• Students choose whether or not to share their journal entries with the
teacher or their fellow students.
• If students do decide to share parts or all of their journal, teachers
can respond individually with questions or comments to extend
thinking. Since the primary purpose of the journal is not to practise
writing, teachers should not correct the grammar, spelling, or
punctuation in student journals.
• Encourage students to regularly reread what they have written in
their journals and reflect on it.
Tips
When doing a collective journal, be sure to go though all the steps of
journal writing, including reflection on previous entries, so that
students have a model at all stages.
Some students need more guidance in journal writing. They can be
given specific questions to answer or sentence stems (e.g., Mi parte
favorita del día es ...) to get them started.
Although journals are not usually evaluated, they can be a source of
useful information and can help the teacher guide the student’s
learning.
If students are having difficulty expressing their thoughts in words,
suggest that they add drawings or other visual representations to
express their meaning.

Applications
The different types of journals and logs have different purposes and are
used in different contexts.
1. Personal Journals/Diario personal
• Personal journals are often used for students to record their
emotional reactions to learning the language and experiencing
the culture, and to note their aspirations for travel, education, or
other personal uses of their knowledge about the language and
culture.
• Students should be reassured that their writing will remain
private if they so wish.
• The personal journal can be particularly effective for reflection on
experiences with a new culture, since reactions to different ways
of doing things are often of an emotional nature rather than
intellectual.
2. Dialogue Journals/Diario comunicativo
• Dialogue journals are for journal writing in situations where
another person, often the teacher, responds to what the student
has written. The resulting journal resembles a conversation in
written form.
• The teacher’s response to what the student has written should
focus on the content rather than the language. The response can
be in the form of comments or questions which encourage the
student to extend their thinking or reflect on their experience.
• Respond regularly to journals. Other students, parents, or other
interested persons can also respond to dialogue journals. Make
sure they understand the purpose of the journal and are able to
respond in a respectful and thoughtful manner.
3. Learning Logs/Diario de aprendizaje
• Learning logs are very useful for increasing the students’
awareness of how they learn (metacognitive learning strategies)
and thus developing their strategic competence.
• Students benefit from discussion about what they are learning,
why they need to know specific aspects of the language or
culture, and how they are learning. The discussion helps them
develop the language they need to write effectively about their
learning and problem-solving processes.

• Some questions that might be used include the following: What

do you know now that you did not know before? What was most
difficult about today’s class? Why was it difficult? Have you had
this problem before? If so, what did you do to resolve it last time?
What could you try in future? What do you want to concentrate
on in the next class?/¿Qué sabes ahora que ne sabías antes? ¿Qué fue
lo más difícil en la clase de hoy? ¿Por qué fue difícil? ¿Antes tenido este
problema antes? Si es así, ¿que hiciste para resolverlo la última vez?
¿Qué podrías tratar de hacer en el futuro? ¿En qué quieres concentrarte
la próxima clase?
4. Reading Logs/Diario de lectura
• Reading logs are used to help students learn to think about and
respond to what they are reading, make connections between
their own experience and the story, and generally develop a love
of reading.
• Beginners or young readers may simply draw a picture of one of
their favorite scenes from the story and add a simple caption.
• As students become more skilled readers and writers, they can
write about what they think the story will be about, based on the
cover and illustrations, their first impressions when they start
reading, and then their reactions as they discover whether or not
their hypotheses were correct.
• They can also comment on the language, for example, new
words, things they do not understand, interesting words or
phrases, aspects of the style (figurative speech, colloquial
expressions, etc.).
• Some questions that might be asked include the following:
— Si tú hubieras escrito esta historia, ¿hay algo que cambiarías?
— ¿Qué te gustó más de este libro?
— ¿Te ha sucedido algo parecido alguna vez?
— ¿Has leído alguna vez otros libros sobre el mismo tema (por el
mismo autor)? ¿Cuál prefieres?
Although the primary goal of journal writing is not to teach the
language directly, there can be many benefits of this method for
language development. In their journals and logs, students have an
opportunity to use language in a different context, as a personal tool for
learning. It is also very useful for developing strategic competence and
intercultural competence.

Free Writing
Free Writing is a method for encouraging students to express ideas by
writing in Spanish.
After reflecting on a topic, students respond in writing for a brief time
to a Spanish prompt, a quote, or a question.
Free writing is an effective tool to
! develop the ability to link previous knowledge and experience to a
topic
! develop creative and critical thinking skills
! provide opportunities to express and share ideas in written form
! encourage students to value writing in the target language
Personal Dictionaries/Diccionarios personales
Personal dictionaries consist of words that are familiar and significant
to students. These words, which students use frequently in oral
contexts, can form the basis of reading and writing vocabularies. Word
sources included dictated stories and captions, journals and other
writing efforts, as well as students’ own oral vocabulary. For language
learning, personal “banks” or collections of key words are valuable
resources. Students may compile word collections to expand their
reading and writing vocabularies.
Learning Contracts/Contratos de aprendizaje
Students and teacher work together during the designing, running, and
evaluation of personal contracts. Learning contracts may be used to
guide students as they work towards learning outcomes related to
using Spanish for fun and personal enjoyment, for example, or the
development of metacognitive strategies.
Research Projects/Proyectos de búsqueda
Students may be involved in research projects individually, as partners,
or as members of small groups. Research projects are effective in
developing and extending language skills. While doing research,
students practice reading for specific purposes, recording information,
sequencing and organizing ideas, and using language to inform others.
A research model provides students with a framework for organizing
information about a topic. Research projects frequently include these
four steps:
• determining the purpose and topic
• gathering the information
• organizing the information
• sharing knowledge

Experiential Learning Methods

Experiential learning methods are student-centered. The emphasis is on
process, not product.
Experiential instruction strategies are very useful because
• they greatly increase understanding and retention
• students are more motivated because they actively participate and
teach one another by describing what they are doing
• they are inductive—illustrations or examples are given and a rule,
concept, or generalization is then formulated
• they are activity oriented
• students reflect about an experience, and apply what they have
concluded to other contexts
There are five phases:
• experiencing (an activity occurs)
• sharing (reactions and observations are shared)
• analyzing (patterns are determined)
• inferring (concepts are developed)
• applying (plans are made to use learning in new situations)
TPR Storytelling
Based on the Natural Approach, TPR Storytelling combines the
effectiveness of TPR with the power of storytelling. TPR Storytelling
teaches students to use the vocabulary they have learned in the context
of entertaining, content-rich stories. Language production goes beyond
the imperative into the narrative and descriptive modes.
The following is a brief outline of the sequence of steps for TPR
Storytelling:
Step One: Use TPR Practice and Scenarios to Teach Vocabulary

The teacher uses TPR to teach a small group of words. After
introducing a word and its associated action, she “plays with” the
vocabulary in TPR practice to provide more comprehensible input.
Using gestures, manipulatives, pictures, and familiar vocabulary,
she then further reinforces new vocabulary by giving students a
series of commands to execute and short scenarios to act out.

For example, in a beginning-level story from textbook ¡Cuéntame más!

(Marsh and Anderson), the following vocabulary items are taught via
TPR: the coyote, sees, the bird, wants to eat, grabs, offers. Sample
commands might include the following:
Come.
Come un plato grande de espinacas. (¡Aj!)
Come cuatro barquillos de helado. (¡Oh, qué rico!)
Come un pájaro pequeño y un coyote grande.
Agarra al coyote.
Ofrécelo a los estudiantes a tu derecha.
Ofrece un pájaro grande a ese estudiante.
Agarra un coyote y ponlo encima de la cabeza de ese estudiante.
Etc.
After practice with short commands, a sample scenario, which students
act out while the teacher narrates, might look like this:
There is a tiny bird. (El “estudiante pájaro” hace una reverencia y saluda
“pío, pío.”) There is a big coyote. (El “estudiante coyote” hace una
reverencia y “aulla.”) The big coyote had four sandwiches. The tiny bird
wants to eat the sandwiches, so the coyote offers the bird two
sandwiches. Yum!
Step Two: Students Produce and Practise Vocabulary Words

Once students have internalized vocabulary words through TPR
practice and scenarios, the class divides into student pairs to
practice the words. One student in the pair reads the word and the
other gives the corresponding gestures, then vice versa. Next, one
student does the gesture and the other says the corresponding
word.
Step Three: Teacher Presents a Mini-Story that Students Then

Retell and Revise
Using student actors, puppets, or pictures from the text, the teacher
then narrates a mini-story containing the targeted vocabulary
words.

The mini-story and illustrations corresponding to the above vocabulary

words are as follows:
There is a big coyote. There is also a tiny bird. The coyote sees the bird.
The coyote wants to eat the bird. The coyote grabs the bird. Oh no! But
the bird offers the coyote a peanut butter sandwich. What a relief! The
teacher uses a variety of techniques to increase exposure to the story
and to help the students start telling it:
1. She pauses in the story to allow students to fill in words or act out
gestures.
2. She makes mistakes and lets the students correct her.
3. She asks short-answer and open-ended questions. (Is the coyote
long or little? Who does the coyote grab? What is the coyote’s
name? Where does he live?)
Once the story is internalized, students then retell it to a partner.
Students may tell the story from memory or may use illustrations or
guide words written up on the board as cues. The class then reconvenes
and student volunteers retell the story for other students to act out. The
teacher may also help the class revise the story, changing a few details
about the plot or characters to create a new revision to the original
story line.
Step Four: Teacher Presents a Main Story that Students Retell and
Revise
Small groups of mini-stories are designed to prepare students to
narrate, read, and write a larger main story that uses the vocabulary
from the mini-stories. When the entire group of mini-stories has
been mastered by the class, the teacher then repeats Step Three to
introduce the main story. Once the main story has been presented
and acted out, it is reinforced with readings and exercises from the
textbook. As with mini-stories, students build upon the main story,
using their existing language skills to embellish the plot, personalize
the characters, and create revisions.
Step Five: Students Use New and Old Vocabulary to Create

Original Stories
Capitalizing on their creativity, students are given opportunities to
write, illustrate, act out, and share original stories. Activities may
include drama, essays, videotaping, creating student booklets,
contests, group/pair work, illustration exercises, back-to-back
communication activities, etc.

These are the simple steps at the heart of a complete and

comprehensive methodology that allows students to rapidly acquire,
internalize, and produce sophisticated language in a fully
communicative approach.
Field Trips/Excursiones
This activity allows students to use their language skills in a realistic
setting outside the classroom.
A field trip is a planned learning experience for students to observe,
study, and participate in expressions of the target culture(s) in a setting
off the school grounds, using the community as a laboratory.
Before the field trip, teachers and students plan and structure
communicative activities to engage in during the visit and engage in
follow-up activities after the trip.
Field trips are an effective tool to
! develop organizational and planning skills
! develop observational skills
! give students an authentic experience of communicating in a
foreign language
Focused Imaging/Enfoque imaginativo
This method is the process of internally visualizing an object, event, or
situation. It enables students to relax and allow their imaginations to
take them on journeys, to experience situations vicariously, and to
respond with their senses to the mental images formed.
Games/Juegos
Games are structured or contrived learning or training activities that
include conflict, control, and rules for winning and terminating the
activities.
Role Play and Simulation/Dramatizaciones y simulaciones
Definition
Children naturally use make-believe to explore a whole variety of roles
and situations that, as children, they cannot experience directly. Role
play and simulation are methods that use this natural learning strategy
to explore different aspects of school subjects. Role play and simulation
are both related to drama, but they resemble improvisation more than
play-acting or other theatrical performances. Students assume a role (a
character, a real-life or imaginary person, sometimes even an animal)
and are put in a situation or context. When they assume roles, they are
acting “as if” they are someone else. They are experimenting with what
it feels like to be in someone else’s shoes and developing empathy with
those other lives.

Although some props may be used, generally there is no set, no

costumes or makeup, and no script. Students do not try to physically
resemble the person they are playing, but they do behave the way they
think that person would behave. Role play does not involve writing a
skit, and then reading or memorizing it and performing it before an
audience. Students are given a role, placed in a situation, and required
to act as that person would act in real life. Simulation differs from role
play in that it is a more extended and more complex activity and may
involve a variety of activities including role-play.
Procedure
Although the kinds of situations used in role plays and simulations are
very diverse, the basic procedure is the same. This method is best used
at the reinforcement or review stage of learning, when students have a
fairly good command of the vocabulary and structures, but need some
practice using them in relatively unstructured situations.
Begin by outlining the situation. As students gain more experience in
role play, they can take a more active role in planning and guiding the
situation. There is usually a problem of some kind that needs to be
solved, a conflict that needs to be resolved, or a situation that involves
an unforeseen element.
Students may need a period of time for research before they actually do
the role play in order to properly play their role. This does not mean
writing out a dialogue to deliver. It simply means knowing the
background, experiences, beliefs, and opinions of the characters they
are playing.
During the role play itself, sometimes everyone is in role, even the
teacher. The role assumed by the teacher will vary depending on the
amount of guidance the students need. At first, assuming roles such as
chairperson of a committee or meeting, spokesperson for a group of
protesters, or chief investigator for an enquiry will allow the teacher to
guide the role play and encourage students to participate. As the
students become more familiar with this method, they can take on
some of the more dominant roles in the situation. There should be a
clear distinction between being “in role” and “out of role.” A signal can
be pre-arranged (for example, the teacher puts on and takes off a hat) to
indicate the beginning and the ending of the role play.
The period of reflection which follows the role play is just as important
as the role play itself. At this stage students describe what they
experienced and how they felt. The teacher guides the discussion by
asking questions and making comments, encouraging the students to
think about their experience. Students may also respond by drawing
pictures to express their experience.

Tips
Students need to do a variety of activities before the role play in order
to acquire the vocabulary and structures they will need to communicate
in the situation they are given. The role play itself provides an
opportunity to practise using this vocabulary and these structures in
realistic situations, in other words, to bring together and fine tune their
previously acquired knowledge.
It is often helpful to incorporate an element of tension into the
situation. This “pressure for response” can take the form of a challenge,
a surprise, a time constraint, or the suspense of not knowing. Tension is
what works in a drama to impel the students to respond and take
action.
Applications
Role play is a natural extension of the traditional methods of reading or
memorizing dialogues, or of writing skits consisting of short
conversations. The advantage of role play is that it places students in a
situation which more closely resembles real life, situations where they
do not know exactly what the other person is going to say. Role play
also provides opportunities to develop other knowledge, skills, and
attitudes, depending on the situation. The following examples are only
meant to suggest some of the possibilities:
• Begin by role-playing fairly routine situations like asking for
directions using a map, ordering a meal in a restaurant from a menu,
or buying something in a store. The students must play their roles
without a script or a pre-determined dialogue. Gradually introduce
variations into the situations; for example, the customer in the
restaurant wants something that is not on the menu, or the store
clerk is very insistent.
• Students work in pairs, one playing the role of interviewer, the other
the person being interviewed. The person being interviewed may be
a real person, a character from a story, or a person in a particular role
such as the mayor of a large city. The interviewer should have a
specific focus for the interview, a particular event to discuss, or a
point of view on a particular topic. Both students will need time to
prepare for the role play, but they should not write out the interview
in advance.
• Imagine a situation, typical of those experienced in the country of
origin, which provided the impetus to emigrate to Canada. Role-play
a family discussion where some members of the family want to leave
and others want to stay. This could be followed by another role play
of the same family five years later, after they have moved to Canada.
Is the experience what they expected?

• Present students with a case study of a cultural misunderstanding.

The source of the misunderstanding could be anything from
misinterpretations of gestures, inappropriate use of informal forms of
address, or politeness conventions to more fundamental differences
based on underlying values or common experiences. Have students
role-play the situation, trying to find ways to resolve the
misunderstandings. It is also useful for students to experience the
same situation more than once but in different roles.
• Situations can be purely whimsical, for example, a meeting to plan
for the first voyage to colonize the moon. Students would play the
role of colonists, each with individual characteristics, and would
have to decide what to take with them, given specific restrictions for
volume and weight.
Role play is an interactive instructional method and is very effective in
developing interactive fluency. Simulation, because it is a more
extended and more complex activity, can also involve oral and written
interpretation and production. Part of the development of interactive
fluency is the acquisition of interactive language use strategies.
Discussion of the use of strategies can form part of the reflection
process that follows the role play.
Role play allows students to use the Spanish language in a variety of
sociocultural contexts that they would not normally encounter in the
classroom. This would provide practice interpreting and using
language in different registers (different levels of formality),
incorporating appropriate methods of non-verbal communication and
different social conventions.
The situations and functions (applications) that students can experience
during role play and simulation can include conflict situations, problem
solving, expressing strong emotions, and other situations that may not
arise naturally in classroom interaction. Students have the opportunity
to practise their ability to deal with these situations in a safe
environment.
Role play and simulation also offer unique opportunities for
developing intercultural competence if the situations involve exploring
cultural differences, adapting to new situations and ways of doing
things, and taking a variety of perspectives. Students can, for example,
experience the same situation several times, playing a different role
each time.

Combined Grades in the Second Language Classroom

Combined grades is defined as grouping more than one grade level at
the same time with one teacher. This situation in the second language
classroom is common, especially when the program is new and
becoming established within a school program. The term “split grade”
is sometimes used interchangeably with “combined grade”or
“multigrade.” It is important to note, though, that the term split grade
implies separate grades which are taught separately without a
connection to the other grade. In a combined grade classroom it is
possible for the students to be taught parts of the curriculum together.
Are There Benefits to a Combined Class?
Teachers may feel uncomfortable with teaching a combined class.
However, there are many benefits to teaching a combined grade class.
There have been educational studies done documenting combined
grade classrooms. Studies consistently show that there is no significant
achievement difference between students in a one grade classroom and
students in a combined grade classroom.
There are other benefits to combined grade classrooms:
• There is social interaction between students of different ages.
Through this, the older students develop a sense of responsibility,
and the younger students can be challenged and given the
opportunity to move ahead.
• It enables students to work at different levels in a way that is not
obvious to the other students. For example, an older student with
weaker skills can participate effectively and contribute to the group.
• It helps develop independent learning skills and self motivation in
students.
• Older students are able to review and internalize their learning
through participation in cooperative learning groups.
• The curriculum is taught in a more contextual and thematic manner.
This gives the students a more wholistic approach to language
learning.
• It increases student confidence in their abilities.
• When a new concept is introduced to one grade level, it is practised
or reinforced by the other grade level.

Planning for the Combined Grade

The key to a successful combined grade experience is the process of
using effective strategies for instruction and effective planning. The
following are successful strategies which will effectively organize
planning for instruction.
Thematic Planning
For thematic planning strategies see Planning for Instruction and
Assessment, pages 9–11.
Cycling Areas of Experiences
Cycling areas of experiences means that the teacher covers different
areas of experience each year for the class as a whole. For example, the
Senior 1 Spanish class will cover certain themes one year and different
ones the following year. This will work well if you know that your
combined grade class will continue together for a few years.
Combining Concepts
This strategy means that the teacher will combine areas of the
curriculum which have similarities and overlap from one grade to the
other. The students work together in a variety of activities because
curricular learning outcomes are combined.
When the grammatical elements or certain concepts do not match and
the teacher needs to spend time with a particular group there are
certain modifications in instructions which may be done. For example,
one group may be given a task to do while the teacher is focused on
instructing the other grade. The teacher may have a long term project
for each grade which may be worked on independently while the
teacher instructs the other grade.
Organizational Strategies for the Combined Grade Classroom
Use Cooperative Learning Groups
A combined grade classroom lends itself very well for cooperative
learning groups. When organizing these groups the teacher will often
put the different grades together (i.e., Senior 1 students will sit together
in a group). This way the students work together in a mutually
beneficial manner. It is this interdependence that is the key to success in
a cooperative learning group.
For interactive instruction methods that involve students working in
small groups, see pages 76–77 of this section.

Build an Inviting and Positive Atmosphere

The teacher will create a learning environment which is accepting of
differences. Students of all levels need to feel that their opinions are
valued and that they have an important place in the class. One way the
teacher builds a sense of community in the class is through activities
which help students work as a team and encourage student
participation.
See pages 72–78 of this section.
Assessment and Evaluation in the Combined Grade Classroom
Whether it be in a single grade or a combined grade class, effective
assessment practices do not differ. When evaluating a student, it is
vitally important that the teacher understand the learning outcomes
and the philosophy of the curriculum. When assessing and evaluating
students in a combined grade the teacher may need to adapt certain
methods used. The teacher will still need to teach concepts separately
and monitor student progress accordingly. Also, the teacher will need
to evaluate each student according to the particular curricular outcome
for the student´s grade.
See Classroom Assessment, pages 9–26, for Assessment and Evaluation
strategies.
The situation of having different levels in one classroom is not new.
Every teacher has this situation in the classroom. Therefore, effective
teaching strategies in the single grade classroom are not different from
these strategies in a combined grade classroom.
However, it is critical that that the teacher have access to resources for
the range of students in the classroom. The teacher needs appropriate
planning time to adapt lessons or units in cases where the concepts are
similar to the different grades in the class.
A useful resource for planning and assessment in combined grade or
multilevel classrooms is Independent Together: Supporting the Multilevel
Community.

Notes

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TEACHING AND LEARNING SPANISH

LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

TEACHING AND LEARNING SPANISH

Language Teaching Methodology

Figure 1. Language Teaching Methodology

Schools of Language Teaching Methodology

Teaching and Learning – 3

in a variety of different ways in the classroom. This distinction is

Teaching and Learning – 4

Teaching Methods and Teacher and Learner Roles

Method Teacher Roles Learner Roles

Situational Language Context Setter Imitator

Figure 2. Methods and Teacher and Learner Roles

The Total Physical Response (TPR) teaching method is one in which

Teaching and Learning – 5

that adult classroom learning therefore has to be fashioned in a way

Teaching and Learning – 6

forms depending on a variety of factors, including the context in which

Teaching and Learning – 7

Teaching and Learning – 8

Teaching and Learning – 9

Comprehensive Use of Technology

Teaching and Learning – 10

Integration of Language and Content Learning

Teaching and Learning – 11

Other Characteristics of Successful Programs

Teaching and Learning – 12

Interaction is most often direct, face-to-face oral communication. It can

Teaching and Learning – 13

Teaching and Learning – 14

These three kinds of language learning are integrated in the classroom.

Teaching and Learning – 15

of ordering the teaching of grammar requires a careful analysis of the

Teaching and Learning – 16

• Syntax is simple, sentences short.

Teaching and Learning – 17

Developing Interactive Fluency

Teaching and Learning – 18

• Students often need to be encouraged to be a little more precise, a

Teaching and Learning – 19

Teaching and Learning – 20

The experience of classroom teachers and research conducted during

Teaching and Learning – 21

Teaching and Learning – 22

Strategies should be introduced as they are needed. When strategies are

Teaching and Learning – 23

Teachers strive for balance in their classrooms. A communicative

Teaching and Learning – 24

! creating original songs, stories, short plays, poems, designs, etc.,

Teaching and Learning – 25

“Dare to Say No”

Teaching and Learning – 26

! College Course Work: Qualified students take college courses for

Teaching and Learning – 27

! Exchange Programs: Students attend schools in a different

Teaching and Learning – 28

STRATEGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH DIVERSE TALENTS

Intelligence Students learn Planning questions Learning activities

Linguistic Verbalizing, hearing, How can I use the Creative writing

Logical-Mathematical Conceptualizing it, How can I bring in Abstract symbols,

Adapted from the Nebraska K-12 Foreign Language Frameworks

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