Dr. Viktor P.

Astakhov, Tool Geometry: Basics

Basics of Cutting Tool Geometry

Viktor P. Astakhov

For many years there were different systems used to define a great variety of
angles of faces and edges of cutting tools. Although ISO Standard ISO 3002.1977
“Geometry of the Active Part of Cutting Tools - General Terms, Reference Systems,
Tool and Working Angles” has partially resolved this situation by definition of a system
of planes and a number of angles, a number of deficiencies in definition of certain
angles have been noted. The many angles defined by the standard are not necessarily
independent, and many trigonometric relations describing the various angles are
different from those usually developed for an acute angle of orientation of the cutting
edge.
The following systems for identifying cutting tool geometry were introduced in [1]:
1. Tool-in-Hand System: Definitions of the basic reference planes (the main
reference plane; the assumed working plane; the tool cutting edge plane; the tool
back plane; the orthogonal plane; the cutting edge normal plane) for each of the
cutting edges. A system of tool angles (the tool cutting edge angle; the tool
minor (end) cutting edge angle; the tool approach angle; the rake angles; the
clearance (flank) angles; the wedge angles; the cutting edge inclination angle),
their definitions, meaning, and interrelationships among them.
2. Tool-in-Machine System (Setting System) of Angles and Planes.
3. Tool-in-Use System.

The following is to provide the definitions of some basic plane and angles in the
Tool-in-Hand system.

1. Planes
The working part of the cutting tool basically consists of two surfaces intersecting
to form the cutting edge. The surface along which the chip flows is known as the rake
face or more simply as the face, and that surface which is ground back to clear the new
or machined surface is known as the flank surface or simply as the flank. In the
simplest yet common case the rake and flank surfaces are planes.
Figure 1 shows the definition of the main reference plane Pr as perpendicular to
the assumed direction of primary motion and the tool-in-hand coordinate system. In this
figure, vf is the assumed direction of the cutting feed. Because angles of the cutting tool
are defined in a series of reference planes, the standard defines a system of these
planes in the tool-in-hand system, as shown in figure 2. The system consists of five
basic planes defined relative to the reference plane Pr. Perpendicular to the reference
plane Pr and containing the assumed direction of feed motion is the assumed working
plane Pf. The tool cutting edge plane Ps is perpendicular to Pr , and contains the side
(main) cutting edge (1-2 in Fig. 1). The tool back plane Pp is perpendicular to Pr and Pf.
Perpendicular to the projection of the cutting edge into the reference plane is the
orthogonal plane Po. The cutting edge normal plane Pn is perpendicular to the cutting
edge.

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 Dr. Viktor P. Astakhov, Tool Geometry: Basics

Figure 1. Definition of the main reference plane Pr.

Figure 2: Standard system of reference planes in the tool-in-hand system (major cutting
edge).

Similarly, an additional system of planes can be attributed to the minor cutting

edge and contains the following planes: P’s, P’o, P’n as shown in figure 3.

2. Angles
The geometry of a cutting element is defined by certain basic tool angles and
thus precise definitions of these angles are essential [1]. A system of tool angles is
shown in figure 4. Rake, wedge and clearance (flank) angles are specified by γ, β, and

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 Dr. Viktor P. Astakhov, Tool Geometry: Basics

Figure 3: Standard system of reference planes in the tool-in-hand system (minor cutting
edge).

α, respectively, and these are identified by the subscript of the plane of intersection. The
definitions of basic tool angles in the tool-in-hand system are as follows:

• κr is the tool cutting edge angle; it is the acute angle that Ps makes with Pf and is
measured in the reference plane Pr . It can be also defined as the acute angle
between the projection of the main cutting edge into the reference plane and the
x-direction (Fig. 1). κr is always positive and it is measured in a counter-
clockwise direction from the position of Pr.
• κr1 is the tool minor (end) cutting edge angle; it is the acute angle that P’s makes
with Pf and is measured in the reference plane Pr . It can be also defined as the
acute angle between the projection of the minor (end) cutting edge into the
reference plane and the x-direction (Fig.1). κr1 is always positive (including zero)
and it is measured in a clockwise direction from the position of Pr.
• ψr is the tool approach angle; it is acute angle that Ps makes with Pp and is
measured in the reference plane Pr as shown in figure 4.
• The rake angles are defined in the corresponding planes of measurement. The
rake angle is the angle between the reference plane (the trace of which in the
considered plane of measurement appears as the normal to the direction of
primary motion) and the intersection line formed by the considered plane of
measurement and the tool rake plane. The rake angle is defined as always being
acute and positive when looking across the rake face from the selected point and
along the line of intersection of the face and plane of measurement. The viewed
line of intersection lies on the opposite side of the tool reference plane from the
direction of primary motion in the measurement plane for γf, γp, γo, or a major

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 Dr. Viktor P. Astakhov, Tool Geometry: Basics

Figure 4: Tool angles in the tool-in-hand system.

component of it appears in the normal plane for γn. The sign of the rake angles is
well defined (Fig. 4).
• The clearance (flank) angles are defined in a way similar to the rake angles,
though here if the viewed line of intersection lies on the opposite side of the
cutting edge plane Ps from the direction of feed motion, assumed or actual as the
case may be, then the clearance angle is positive. Angles αf, αp, αo, αn are
clearly defined in the corresponding planes. The clearance angle is the angle
between the tool cutting edge plane Ps and the intersection line formed by the
tool flank plane and the considered plane of measurement as shown in figure 4.
• The wedge angles βf, βp, βo, βn are defined in the planes of measurements. The
wedge angle is the angle between the two intersection lines formed as the

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 Dr. Viktor P. Astakhov, Tool Geometry: Basics

corresponding plane of measurement intersects with the rake and flank planes.
For all cases, the sum of the rake, wedge and clearance angles is 90o, i.e.

γ p + β p + α p = γ n + β n +α n = γ o + β o + α o = γ f + β f + α f = 90 o (1)

• For the minor (side) cutting edge, the flank angle αo1 is specified as the angle
between the tool minor (side) cutting edge plane P’s and the intersection line
formed by the tool minor flank plane and the plane of measurement P’o as shown
in figure 4.
• The orientation and inclination of the cutting edge are specified in the tool cutting
edge plane Ps. In this plane, the cutting edge inclination angle λs is the angle
between the cutting edge and the reference plane. This angle is defines as
always being acute and positive if the cutting edge, when viewed in a direction
away from the selected point at the tool corner being considered, lies on the
opposite side of the reference plane from the direction of primary motion. This
angle can be defined at any point of the cutting edge. The sign of the inclination
angle is well defined in figure 4.

Simple relationships exist among the considered angles in the tool-in-hand

system. These relationships have been derived assuming that the tool side rake angle
γf, the tool back rake angle γp, and the tool cutting edge angle κr are the basic angles for
the tool face, and the tool side clearance angle αf, the tool back clearance angle αp, and
the tool cutting edge angle κr are the basic angles for the tool flank [2,3]:

tan λs = sin κ r tan γ p − cosκ r tan γ f (2)

tan γ n = cos λs tan γ o (3)
tan γ o = cosκ r tan γ p + sin κ r tan γ f (4)
cosα n = cos λs cot α o (5)
cot α o = cosκ r cot α p + sin κ r cot α f (6)

It must be stated, however, that some of these relationships apply only when the
cutting edge angle κr is less than 90o. Nowadays, it is becoming common practice to
use cutting tools having κr greater than 90o. For these tools, the following relationships
are valid:
tan λs = − sin κ r tan γ p − cos κ r tan γ f (7)
tan γ o = cos λs tan γ o (8)
tan γ o = − cosκ r tan γ p + sin κ r tan γ f (9)
cot α n = cos λs cot α o (10)
cot α o = − cosκ r cot α p + sin κ r cot α f (11)

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 Dr. Viktor P. Astakhov, Tool Geometry: Basics

3. The Application Of Vector Analysis To The Study Of Cutting Tool Geometry

As a first step in the application of vector analysis to cutting tool geometry
problems, consider the determination of the cutting edge inclination angle in the tool-in-
machine system. Figures 5 shows a single-point tool having a zero inclination angle
(λs = 0) in the tool-in-hand system (i.e., its side cutting edge1-2 is horizontal). In tool-in-
machine system, the tool in installed so that its tip 1 is shifted relative to the reference
plane on distance h. The problem is to determine the resultant cutting edge inclination
angle due to this shift.

h
0

RC v

1
x r
r z
2
r
r
Nr
p

y y

Figure 5: Geometry of a single-point tool when the cutting edge, having a zero inclination angle
in the tool-in-hand system, is shifted above the reference plane through the axis of rotation.
Note that the tool cutting edge angle κr <π/2.

In figure 5, a point r is selected on the side cutting edge 1-2 to be a current point
in our consideration. The right-hand (x, y, z) coordinate system with the origin in point r
is set up as follows:
1. The x-axis along with the feed motion.
2. The y-axis is chosen to be perpendicular to the x-axis with sense as shown in
Fig. 5.
3. The z-axis is perpendicular to the x- and y-axes, with sense as shown in Fig. 5.
Let p be a vector along the cutting edge 1-2 then in the selected coordinate
system this vector is represented as:
p = i + j tan κ r (12)

Let h be a distance between point r and the horizontal plane passing through the center
of rotation 0; Rc be the radius of rotation of point r then the angle µ between the z-axis
and the vector of the cutting speed at point r is calculated as
h
sin µ = (13)
Rc

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 Dr. Viktor P. Astakhov, Tool Geometry: Basics

Let v be a vector along the direction of the cutting speed. This vector can be
determined easily because it is perpendicular to 0r, hence
v = − j tan µ + k (14)

The angle between vectors p and v is then calculated as

π  ν⋅p
cos(ν ⋅ p) = cos + λ sp  = − sin λ sp = (15)
2  ν ⋅ p
Expressing the scalar product and vector modules through the vectors’ coordinate (Eqs.
12 and 15), we obtain
− tan µ tan κ r
sin λ sp = = ∓ sin κ r sin µ
(1 + tan µ )(1 + tan )
(16)
± 2 2
κr

Using Eq. (16) one can calculate the inclination angle for any given point of the
cutting edge 1-2.
Two important conclusions may be drawn from Eq. (16). First, the inclination
angle is negative (as expected according to Fig. 4) and it varies along the cutting edge
due to the variation of angle µ. As seen, the maximum λsp is in point 1 and the minimum
is in point 2. Second, if the tool would be installed below the discussed reference plane
then angle µ would be negative. As such, λsp is positive changing from its maximum in
point 1 to its minimum at point 2.
It was shown in [3] that the rake and clearance angles, defined in the orthogonal
plane in the tool-in-hand system, change in the tool-in-machine system if a tool is
shifted with respect to the reference plane. This is due to the fact that the plane of cut
(which is defined as to be tangent to the surface of cut at the considered point of the
cutting edge) ceases to be perpendicular to the reference plane. The angle between
this plane and the cutting edge plane is denoted as τ1 and measured in the orthogonal
plane. When λs = 0 and a cutting tool is installed as shown in Fig. 5, the rake and relief
angles in the tool-in-machine system are calculated as [3]
α op = α o − τ 1 (17)
γ op = γ o + τ 1 (18)
To determine τ1, consider normal Nr, which is perpendicular to the cutting edge in
point r and lies in the reference plane through the cutting edge (Fig. 5). As seen
N r = −i tan κ r + j(19)
Normal N2 to the plane of cut is determined as the vector product of vectors v
and p located in this plane

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 Dr. Viktor P. Astakhov, Tool Geometry: Basics

i j k
N 2 = v × p = 0 − tan µ 1 = i (− tan κ r ) + j + k tan µ (20)
1 tan κ r 0

Because angle τ1 is the angle between the plane of cut and the cutting edge plane, it
can be calculated as the angle between normals to these planes as follows
N r × N2
tan τ 1 = (21)
(N r ⋅ N 2 )

The vector product of N1 and N2 is calculated as

i j k
N r × N 2 = − tan κ r 1 0 = i(− tan µ ) + j tan κ r tan µ (22)
− tan κ r 1 tan µ

and so its module is equal to

tan µ
N r × N 2 = tan 2 κ r + tan 2 κ r tan 2 µ = (23)
cos κ r
The scalar product of Nr and N2 is calculated as
1
N r ⋅ N 2 = tan 2 κ r + 1 = (24)
cos 2 κ r
Substituting Eqs. (23) and (24) into (21), one can obtain
tan µ
cos κ r
tan τ 1 = = tan µ cos κ r (25)
1
cos 2 κ r
Analysis of Eq. (25) shows that angle τ1 varies along the cutting edge because it
depends on angle µ, which is a function of the radius of rotation (Eq. (13)). As a result,
the rake and relief angles also vary along the cutting edge (Eqs. (17) and (19)). The
maximum γop and the minimum αop are in point 1 while opposite is true in point 2.
Moreover, γop > γo while αop < αo. If the tool would be installed below the discussed
reference plane, angle µ is negative. In effect, γop < γo while αop > αo and the maximum
γop and the minimum αop are in point 2 while opposite is true in point 1.
Consider Fig. 6, which shows a single-point tool having angle κr > π/2 while other
parameters and designations are kept the same. This model represents the outer

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 Dr. Viktor P. Astakhov, Tool Geometry: Basics

h
0

RC v
Nr
1

r
r z
2

r
p

y y

Figure 6: Geometry of a single-point tool when the cutting edge, having a zero inclination
angle in the tool-in-hand system, is shifted above the reference plane through the axis of
rotation. The tool cutting edge angle κr > π/2.

cutting edge of a gundrill having angle ϕ1 = κr – 90o. This angle will be used in our
considerations.
Following the same methodology as discussed for Fig. 5, we can write:
Normal Nr, which is perpendicular to the cutting edge in point r and lies in the reference
plane through the cutting edge, is represented as
N r = −i tan ϕ 1 − j(26)
Vectors along the cutting speed and the cutting edge, respectively
v = − j tan µ + k (27)
p = −i + j tan ϕ 1 (28)
As before, normal N2 to the plane of cut is determined as the vector product of vectors v
and p located in this plane
i j k
N2 =v× p = 0 − tan µ 1 = −i − j tan ϕ 1 − k tan µ tan ϕ 1 (29)
− tan ϕ 1 1 0

The vector product of N1 and N2 and its module are calculated as

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 Dr. Viktor P. Astakhov, Tool Geometry: Basics

i j k
N r × N 2 = − tan ϕ 1 −1 0 =
(30)
−1 − tan ϕ 1 − tan µ tan ϕ 1

= i tan µ tan 2 ϕ 1 − j tan ϕ 1 tan µ

tan µ tan ϕ 1
N r × N 2 = tan 2 µ tan 2 ϕ 1 + tan 2 ϕ 1 tan 2 µ = (31)
cos ϕ 1

The scalar product of Nr and N2 is calculated as

1
N r ⋅ N 2 = 1 + tan 2 ϕ 1 = (32)
cos 2 ϕ 1
Finally
tan µ tan ϕ 1
cos ϕ 1
tan ϕ 1 = = tan µ sin ϕ 1 (33)
1
cos 2 ϕ 1

Analysis of the second case (Fig. 2.14) results in the following conclusions:
1. Equations (17) and (18) are no longer valid when κr > π/2, i.e., when κr = π/2 +
ϕ1. This follows from Eq. (25) where cos κr = cos (π/2 + ϕ1) = - sin ϕ1. It can also be
seen from Eq. (29) according to which normal N2 to the plane of cut goes ‘down’ (since
k is negative) with respect to the horizontal normal Nr (compare with the first case
where this normal goes up (Eq. 22) since k is positive). As a result, Eqs. (17) and (18)
should be re-written for the considered case as
α op = α o + τ 1 (34)
γ op = γ o − τ 1 (35)

Equation (34) and (35) are of extreme importance in the considerations of the geometry
of all kinds of drills because currently the opposite result (as per Eqs. (17) and (18) is
used in the analysis of the rake and relief angle of twist and gun drills. The location of
the cutting edge above the reference plane through the drill rotation axis leads to the
increased rake and decreased flank angles if and only if κr < π/2. When κr > π/2 (and
this is the common case for most drills) such a location leads to the decreased rake and
increased relief angles. When the drill’s cutting edge is located below the mentioned
reference plane, the opposite is true. For gundrills, it leads to the increased rake and
decreased relief angles on the outer cutting edge and to the decreased rake and
increased relief angles on the inner cutting edge.
2. Because angle τ1 varies along the cutting, the rake and relief angles also vary
along the cutting edge. The maximum γop and the minimum αop are in point 2 while the
opposite is true in point 1.

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 Dr. Viktor P. Astakhov, Tool Geometry: Basics

To explain the obtained results graphically, figure 7 shows a graphical summary

of the considered cases. As seen from figure 7a, when the surface of cut
is convex, any shift of the tool above the reference plane results in increase rake and
decreased relief (flank) angles. However, the opposite is true when the surface of cut is
concave. The latter is the case in all kinds of drilling and boring operations while the
former is the case for common turning operations. As seen from figure 7b, when the
surface of cut is convex, any shift of the tool below the reference plane results in
decreased rake and increased relief (flank) angles. However, the opposite is true when
the surface of cut is concave. When the surface of cut is plane, there is no influence of
the tool vertical location on the rake and relief angles.

Surface of cut Plane of cut Surface of cut

z z
Normal to Plane of cut
the plane of cut

0 y y
0

Normal to
the plane of cut
R R
op 0 op 0

op 0 op 0

(a) (b)

Figure 7. Influence of the tool location on the rake and relief (flank) angles: (a) tool is
shifted above the reference plane through the axis of rotation, (b) tool is shifted below the
reference plane through the axis of rotation.

To complete the analysis, consider a special case when κr = π/2 as shown in

figure 8. Following the same methodology as discussed for figures 5 and 6, we can
write:
Normal Nr, which is perpendicular to the cutting edge in point r and lies in the reference
plane through the cutting edge (Fig. 8), is represented as
(36)N r = −i
Vectors along the cutting speed and the cutting edge, respectively
v = − j tan µ + k (37)
(38) p= j
As before, normal N2 to the plane of cut is determined as the vector product of vectors v
and p located in this plane
i j k
N 2 = v × p = 0 − tan µ 1 = −i (39)
0 1 0
The vector product of N1 and N2 and its module are calculated as

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 Dr. Viktor P. Astakhov, Tool Geometry: Basics

h
0

RC v

1
x Nr
r
2 r z

90°
r
p

y y

Figure 8: Geometry of a single-point tool when the cutting edge, having a zero inclination
angle in the tool-in-hand system, is shifted above the reference plane through the axis of
rotation. The tool cutting edge angle κr = π/2.

i j k
N r × N 2 = −1 0 0 = 0 (40)
−1 0 0

Nr × N2 =0 (41)
The scalar product of Nr and N2 is calculated as
N r ⋅ N 2 =1 (42)
Finally
0
tanτ 1 = = 0 thus τ 1 = 0 (43)
1
It follows from Eq. (43) that when κr = π/2, the vertical shift of a tool (with respect
to the reference plane through the workpiece axis of rotation) does not affect the rake
and flank angles of the cutting edge. The reason for this is rather simple and follows
from figure 8. As seen, the surface of cut is a plane that coincides with the plane of cut
and it does not change it orientation when a tool shifts along this plane.

References:
1. Astakhov V. Mechanics of Metal Cutting, CRC Press, 1998/1999.
2. Watson A.R., , “Geometry of Drill Elements,” Int. J. Mach. Tool. Des. Res., Vol.
25, No. 3, 1985, pp. 209-227.
3. Granovski G.I. and Granovski V.G., Metal Cutting, (in Russian), Vishaja Shcola,
Moscow, 1985.

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