1958
and the generator revolutions given on the counter. By
suitable calibration and selection of constants, the
meter and counter are calibrated in terms of volt-sec-
onds, watt hours, etc.
For long periods of time, such as 10 minutes or more,
the volt-seconds stored in the capacitor at the end of a
cycle do niot have to be read on the voltmeter. This is
because the counter indication is large and the small
amount of volt-seconds indicated on the voltmeter can
be neglected. For shorter periods of time, the sum of
the voltmeter and counter readings should be added to-
gether to give the total volt-seconds.
The basic accuracy for normal periods of time (10
minutes or more) is completely dependent upon the
stability of the generator. This stability has been ob-
tained by good design practice and 0.1 per cent accuracy
is maintained.
For short periods of time, the accuracy of the instru-
ment and readability of the counter are a factor and
must be considered. A more complete description of the
precision integrator is given by Gilbert.6
The combination of Inductronic Wattmeter and in-
tegrator has been tested under actual field conditions
to determine its suitability for measuring turbine effi-
ciencies. This test was performed by the Engineers of
6 R. W. Gilbert, "The Weston Model 1473 Precision Integrator," and provides a dc output which can be measured or
Weston Eng. Notes, vol. 10, pp. 6-9; December, 1955. used for control.
The Precise Measuremient of Small Capacitances
INTRODUCTION
)HE practical electrical units are based on the
2I electromagnetic system, and the starting point of
most "absolute" determinations has been the con-
struction of an inductor and the calculation of its in-
ductance from its mechanical dimensions. If a capacitor
is used as the starting point the capacitance is calculated
directly in electrostatic units, and a knowledge of the
velocity of light is necessary to convert to the practical
units. Recent determinations of the velocity of light are
considered to be accurate to the order of 1 in 106 which
is much better than has been claimed for absolute de-
terminations of the electrical units. This fact, together
with the very much simpler geometry of some calculable
capacitors, suggests that a determination based on a
* Manuscript received by the PGI, August 14, 1958.
t Electrotechnology Div., National Standards Laboratory, Chip-
pendale, Australia.
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Thompson: The Precise Measurement of Small Capacitances 245
the Long Island Lighting Company at their Barrett
Power Station.
Five tests were run with indicating wattmeters in
each of three phases and with one Inductronic Watt-
meter and integrator in phase A. The test time varied
from one to three hours. The integrator was read at the
beginning and end of each test and the wattmeters were
read every minute.
The largest difference between the two watt-hour
readings by each method was 0.12 per cent. The average
difference for all five tests was 0.08 per cent. It is be-
lieved that using Inductronic Wattmeters in the other
two phases and feeding the outputs to three integrators
would have provided total generator output in kilowatt
hours to an accuracy of approximately 0.1 per cent. The
output of the three wattmeters can also be connected to
one integrator to provide the total three-phase energy.
This may not be convenient where transformer connec-
tion factors must be applied for each phase and where it
is desirable to know the load balance.
IX. CONCLUSIONS
The product resolver can be used for the measurement
of volts, amperes, watts, and watt hours when used in
conjunction with a precision integrator. It offers 0.1
per cent accuracy over a wide power frequency range
A. M. THOMPSONt
capacitor might provide values for the ohm and related
units more accurate than those obtained by a direct
electromagnetic determination.
An examination of a number of possible calculable
capacitors shows that they have one thing in common:
the mechanical problem becomes easier as the capaci-
tance is reduced; and optimum dimensions would give
only a few picofarads. Considerable progress has al-
ready been made with techniques for the measurement
of small capacitances, and it has been considered that
these can be refined sufficiently to enable a 1-ohm re-
sistance standard to be related to a capacitance of the
order of 1 pF to an accuracy of 1 in 106. Accordingly, an
electrostatic determination of the ohm based on a new
type of calculable capacitor' is being made, and much of
the development work has been completed.
1 A. M. Thompson and D. G. Lampard, "A new theorem in elec-
trostatics and its application to calculable standards of capacitance,"
NVature, vol. 177, p. 888; May, 1956.
246 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION December
In its present fornm the value of the calculable capaci- C12
tor is only 0.25 pF. In this paper we propose to describe 11
some of the techniques which enable a standard of this
small value to be used for the measurement of capaci- ' C
tance to an accuracy of 1 in 106 or better. These meas-
urements are made at audio frequencies and are based 3
on the use of 3-terminal capacitors and bridges with
transformer ratio arms. The principles involved are not Fig. 1-Eqtuivalent circuit of 3-terminal capacitor.
new, but it is necessary to review these briefly if the
limitations of the system are to be appreciated. C12
2
THREE-TERMINAL CAPACITORS
The capacitance between two conductors is only
I
X ~~~~2-
definite if one conductor completely surrounds the other.
If there are exposed terminals the capacitance is de-
pendent on the posi-tion of neighboring objects and vari- 3 3
ations may be of the order of 1 pF. This lack of defini- GAS DIELECTRIC
tion may be eliminated by introducing a third conductor
so that at least one of the conductors is completely sur- I I
rounded. With three conductors the equivalent electri-
cal circuit is indicated in Fig. 1, and the separate capac-
itances are known as the direct capacitances between SMALL SMALLER
the pairs of conductors.2 The capacitor is called a 3S
terminal capacitor and may be so constructed that one Fig. 2-Construction of 3-terminal capacitors.
of its direct capacitances is definite. The general princi-
ple~~~~~ cntutoisilsrednFg.
suc of construction
ple of such iS illustrated in Filg. 2.
2.Cnnc the hole. Both fixed and variable capacitors have been
Connec- dsge nti rnil.
tions to the two ac-tive conductors (1 and 2) are made designed on this printciple.
at points which are effectively shielded from each other For capacitances up to about 10,000 pF a gas di-
by the third conductor. The direct capacitances are de- electric may be used, and, by a suitable construction,
pendent on the positiOnS of all three of the conductors losses in the solid dielectric supports may be confined
and only one of them (C12) is definite, since the other to the ground capacitances. Under these conditions the
two involve the capacitances of the leads. When for defined capacitance is practically loss free.4 The capaci-
simplicity we refer to the capacitance of a 3-terminal tormustbesealed toeliminatethe effectsof atmospheric
capacitor, we mean the definite direct capacitance. The variations.
other two are sometimes called the ground capacitances. MEASUREMENT OF DIRECT CAPACITANCE
It should be emphasized that the capacitances in the
equivalent circuit are independent of the potential dis- Any method for the measurement of direct capaci-
tribution and are not limited to any particular distribu- tance must make allowance for the presence of the
tion which may simplify the computation of direct ground capacitances. Bridged-T and twin-T null but cir-
cuits are not affected by the ground capacitances
capacitance.
Three-terminal capacitors may be switched in such a the balance conditions are frequency sensitive, and such
way that no switch capacitances affect the defined direct circuits do not seem to be suitable for the measurement
capacitances, and since these are strictly additive this of very small capacitances. Most bridge methods can be
offers many advantages. For example, a switch capaci- adapted to 3-terminal measurements by the addition of
tance decade may be produced in which the units may components to balance the ground admittances, but
also be selected individually for calibration by substi- since the balance conditions for this and the main bridge
tution. are interdependent, the balancing process can become
A decade box of this type has a true zero. This follows very tedious.
from another important property of 3-terminal capaci- Campbell2 suggested a simple ratio device for a com-
tors, in that the capacitance may be made as small as parison bridge, which would eliminate the effects of the
we wish by extending the third conductor as an electro-grudamtncswhotdiinlblnig.H
stti scee bewe the suggested a T network as shown in Fig. 3. The operation tw1ciecnutr.Ih
scee is comlet th.aaiacszr.Asalhl of such a ratio device is most easily appreciated by
in the screen gives a correspondingly small value of considering the mesh equivalent.
capacitance. The thicker the screen, the less effective
3F. K. Harris, "Electrical Measurements," John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York, N. Y., p. 682; 1952.
2 G. A. Campbell, "Direct capacity measurement," Bell Sys. 4A. V. Astin, "Nature of energy losses in air capacitors at low fre-
Tech. J., vol. 1, pp. 18-38; July, 1922. quencies," J. Res. NBS, vol. 22, pp. 673-695; June, 1939.

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1958 Thompson: The Precise Measurement of Small Capacitances 247
Y' Y2 y'12 Z12 Zll 2 22 12 Z

Y23 22 - - -z,1Z22
z22-z122Z2a
+

IF '1 + Y2+ Y3=O Y12 =z11Z22-z12

Y13 3_ b Z11 +Z,2
2 3 2 = z
Fig. 3-Campbell's ideal ratio network.
Fig. 4-Equivalent circuit of 2-winding transformer.

Since l

v1
l Y3 z12 Kii
Y2 + Y2± Z3 - \"l
( ~~~~= P'2

123 = V1 +V2 Y23 + 13_ ~ 13

zl22t
Fig. 4-Equivalent circuit of 2-winding tranisformer.

the effective bridge ratio is Y1/Y2 and this is independ- IDEAL TRANSFORMER
ent of the value of Y3. However, if Y3 is varied so that RATIOS 1 ' P2 P1 ~2-
the sum Y1+ Y2+ Y3-*O the equivalent admittances z 2
Yn, Y23-x and the bridge ratio becomes independent >1 = 112 12 12
of additional admittances shunting the ratio arms. 52 = Z2 - p2 Z12
Campbell pointed out that a transformer with two Fi. 5-qivln cirui of2wndn. rnsomr
closely coupled windings was very nearly equivalent to
his ideal ratio network.
Tranlsformer ratios with more than two windings may
be used, and these also may have such a low effective _ El
impedance that the effect of admittances shunting the
ratio arms is in most cases negligible and no balancing z, z2 =
of the ground admittances is necessary. In addition, j A1 P P
transformers can give ratios of extraordinary precision, |i
and with multiple windings there is considerable fiexi- Z11 Z22 3 i 92 l2
bility in the design of measuring circuits. Some of the
possible configurations of transformer ratio arms and IDEAL TRANSFORMER
their properties are outlined in the next section. RATIOS 1 Pp3 P2p3l
Pt
TRANSFORMER RATIO ARMS d j2 P2Z3 3Z1
The simplest case consists of two windings. If these z1, z13
have a common connection the equivalent circuit shown = 2 Z
in Fig. 4 may be used. If there is no common connection, z2p
z11
anl equivalent circuit based on an ideal transformer is }2= 2
sometimes useful. This is shown in Fig. 5, but there is
no unique circuit of this type and one of the two leakage z Z" i
impedances or the ratio may be chosen to suit a particu-
lar application. Fig. 6-Equivalent circuit of 3-winding transformer.
For three windings there is a unique equivalent circuit
based on an ideal transformerwhich is very useful. This nected in series. The simplest circuit of this type is
is shown in Fig. 6. For more than three windings there shown in Fig. 7. If the windings have the same resistance
is no simple equivalent circuit. per turn and are wound to be symmetrical with respect
There are two types of bridge circuit in which a to a high permeability core, then multiratio windings
transformer may be used to give very precise ratios. The can be produced such that no ratio departs from the
first type is obtained when the supply or detector is con- turns ratio by more than 1 in 1O5, and where close inter-
nected across all the windings of the transformer con- leaving of the windings is possible this departure may

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248 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION December
RATIO WINDINGS

Y,

P l= p)2Y
Fig. 7-Bridge circuit with 2-winding transformer. PERMALLOY,=V
C
STRIP-WOUND
TOROIDAL CORE

l
P1 X
V
1lll
Il = p2'2YI SUPPLY OR DETECTOR WINDING
P2 VY2
Fig. 9-Cross section of electromagnetically
screened ratio transformer.

r 5 NWhichever type of circuit is used, transformer ratios

best specified by the ratios obtained without any ex- lp511 are
=ternal loading and by a set of effective impedances from T ) | |' 3L 1
P1 Pa, = P2 PF 'Y which the change in the ratios due to external loading
|2 \// l g ; l l C Tmay be calculated. Such a specification only applies to
the particular method of connection, and it may vary
slightly with frequency and with the level of excitation.
Fig. 8-Bridge circuits with 3-winding transformers. If a transformer has a large number of windings it is not
practicable to compute and apply corrections for the
be as low as 1 in 106. Close interleaving also reduces the effects of the separate loads on each winding, but the
effective impedances, and to keep these low a small num- effective impedances must be determined to confirm
ber of turns should be used. that the loading errors are within the desired tolerance.
The other type of bridge circuit which gives precise This is best done by setting up the desired bridge circuit
ratios is derived frorn the first by the addition of a sepa- and then determining the change in the balance caused
rate winding for the supply or detector. The simplest by shunting a winding with a known admittance.
circuits of this type are shown in Fig. 8. This type of
circuit has some advantages, but is best suited to the TRANSFORMER BRIDGES FOR THE MEASUREMENT
comparison of small admittances as the effective im- OF SMALL CAPACITANCES
pedances of the ratio arms appear in series with the Sinice ratio transformers are made to have a low ef-
components being compared. As before, the ratio wind- fective impedance to minimize loading errors, they do
ings should be svmmetrical with respect to a high per- not match the high impedances in the bridge when small
meability core and also to the additional supply or de- capacitors are being compared. In this case it is found
tector winding, but in this case the resistances of the that the maximum sensitivity results from the use of a
windings do not affect the open circuit ratios. By elec- voltage transformer only. A bridge of this type, for the
tromagnetically screening the ratio windings from the comparison of two direct capacitances, is shown in Fig.
core and the third winding it is possible to obtaini ratios 10. The third terminal of the capacitors is connected to
which are the same as the turns ratios to 1 in 107. The the ratio side of the detector. One of the ground capaci-
cross section of such a transformer is shown in Fig. 9, tances is a shunt on the ratio arms which must be of
where the screening is provided by alternate copper and low effective impedance if this shunt is to have a neg-
permalloy C screens. ligible effect on the ratio. The other ground capacitance
Transformer ratios which are connected to the supply is a shunt on the detector so that it does not alter the
produce knlown voltage ratios. They may operate with balance conditions but will have an effect on the sensi-
quite high flux density, and are referred to as voltage tivity. The equivalent circuit of this bridge derived from
transformers. Transformer ratios connected to the de- Fig. 6 is shown in Fig. 11. The balance conditions of such
tector define a current ratio and at balance operate at bridges may be analyzed in terms of the voltage distri-
very low flux density, and are referred to as current bution referred to the ratio side of the detector. This
transformers. gives for the voltage at the detector.

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1958 Thompson: The Precise Measurement of Small Capacitances 249
C. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Vi

Fig. 10-Transformer bridge for the measturement vx

of small direct capacitances. (a)

V,
Vi
Vi

Cl

VlYl+V2+V2 cx
Yo + Y1 + Y2 Vx
(b)
Y2 Yb ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~V2
vz ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2
Fig. 11I-Equivalent circuit of bridge shown in Fig. 10. Kr 3

Vlyl + V2y2 Cx
V0 = Vx
YO + Vi + Y2
At balance V0 = 0 and (c)
Fig. 12-Transformer bridges for small capacitances (a) Variable
Y, V2 capacitor. (b) Variable ratio. (c) Multiple ratio fixed capacitors.
Y2 V1
There are a number of ways by which the separate
capacitance and conductance balances may be obtained, P2/P1
if zi and Z2 are both zero. Small corrections due to finite and some of these are described in the next section.
values of zi and Z2 are given with sufficient accuracy by Capacitance Balance
the relations
V, = pjE[1 - zi(ya + Y1) There are three main practical forms of the general
bridge, and these are illustrated in Fig. 12 for the
V2 = - p2E[1 -Z2(Yb + Y2)] capacitance balance. In the first of these a subdivided
so that capacitor is used with a single fixed ratio. The capacitor
may be of the switched decade type and there is no
-= - V2 P2 [ limit to the subdivision which may be continued by
- [I + Z1(ya + yl) - Z2(yb + Y2)I.
V2
- -
VI Pi adding further decades. However, this requires ten
separate capacitors per decade if they are to be indi-
More complicated bridges may be analyzed in the same vidually intercompared by substitution, so that such a
way, since in all cases capacitor becomes bulky and expensive. In the second
Z
V/ vE Yn, form a single fixed capacitor is used and the ratio is ad-
-utbe Th sudvso avial on asinl trans-
>'1 former is limited by the number of turns, and additional
and the bridge is balanced when transformers are necessary if subdivision beyond 1 in
n-j
V *~=0 ~~~~~~~1000
divisionis required. In the third form there is a limited sub-
of the ratio, and a number of fixed capacitors -O

In general, the corrections due to finite transformer im- are switched separately among these subdivisions. The
pedances are of the same form as for the case above, but equivalent of a decade capacitor is obtained by sub-
more terms are necessary since all the ratios are affected dividing one of the ratio windings into ten equal parts
by a load on one winding, and switching a single fixed capacitor for each decade.

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250 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION December
Combiniations of the above techniques may be used G2 yl2
to obtain the best solution to a particular measurement G 2
problem. I AAA-2 =
Conductance Balance cn C2
A conductanice balance may be provided by tech- 3
niques similar to those used for capacitance, but since IF G = G2
the phase angles of the capacitors and of the transformer C, C2
ratios that we are considering are very small, a four-dial _G C2
voltage divider and a fixed conductance standard are Ci+C2
usually adequate. It is difficult to obtain a very small Fig. 13-T network for a small direct conductance
coniductance of good phase angle as a single component. of good phase angle.
If a relatively large conductance is used then the sensi-
tivity may be reduced considerably. The equivalent of L
a small direct conductance of good phase angle may be X I- 2
obtained by the use of a T network such as the one
shown in Fig. 13. In practice G1 is a large conductance TC
of good phase angle and Ci such that GK<<coCj. Under 3
these conditions the magnitude of the direct conduct- IF L (c +G, 2) = = G C2
ance 1 2
tG C2
VICl + C22 (G1 ~~~~~~1+~~~~2) ~~2G, ,, 2G, C2
is to a first order independent of the very small con-
ductance G2 whose function is to provide a small phase Cl
angle correction. For operation at a fixed frequency G2 3 ,T
may be dispensed with and the small phase angle correc-
tion may be obtained in a number of ways, two of which 2 3
are illustrated in Fig. 14. In this case the voltage on the IF C= 4 = G1C2
capacitor C2 must be in quadrature with that of the (c1C 2) 2 +C2 C3
main ratios. A source of quadrature voltage obtained Fig. 14-Direct conductance networks for fixed
from an amplifier with appropriate feedback may be frequency operationi.
used to replace the rest of the network, and this has ad-
vantages in some cases.5 cies it is usually better to evaluate the loading errors of
the latter. A good ratio transformer has an effective im-
ACCURACY pedance of less than 100 mQ, so a variation in the ground
In considering the accuracy with which two capaci- capacitances of 100 pF would produce an error of only
tors may be compared, the two cases of most interest 1 in 107 for a supply frequency of 1592 cps.
are when the capacitances are equal and when they have With 3-terminal capacitors it is necessary to consider
a ratio of 10 to 1. The most accurate method for the the effect of the leads which are used to connect the
comparison of two nominally equal capacitances is by capacitor to the terminals of the bridge. A simplified
substitution, and in this case very little is required of case is illustrated in Fig. 15 where a single impedance
the bridge other than adequate sensitivity and stability has been added to represent the impedance of the con-
for the short time required to substitute one capacitor nection between the ground terminal of the capacitor
for the other. This substitution should be accomplished and the bridge. If the T network formed by Ca, Cb, and
by switching the detector ends either to ground or to z is replaced by its mesh equivalent we obtain an addi-
the detector so that the load on the transformer remains tional admittance of approximately -W2Ca,Cbz at the
constant. When measuring incremental values this may bridge terminals. If C1= C2 = 100 pF and z = 1 AiH then
not be possible. The effect of load variatio-is may be for w = 104 the capacitance error would amount to 1 ApF.
eliminated by choosing a bridge circuit in which the This type of error may be avoided by providing the
supply is connected across the same ratio arm as the capacitor with two sets of coaxial connlections and using
capacitors being substituted.fi However, such ratios are the bridge arrangement shown in Fig. 16. However, this
not as stable as those obtained by using a separate ex- bridge does not solve the problem of the direct addition
citation winding, and for precise work at low frequen- of what are now the transfer admittances of two-
6A. M. Thompson, "<A bridge for the measurement of permit- terminal pair networks. The analysis given in the Ap-
tivity,"' Proc. lEE, vol. 103, pt. B, pp. 704-707; November, 1956. pendix shows that two such networks may be connected
hA. C. Lynch, "A br-idge network for the precise measurement of in parallel so that the transfer admittances add directly,
direct capacitance," Proc. IEE, vol. 104, pt. B, pp. 363-366; July, prvddteipdneo tegon opiag
1957. s 'poie h meac ftegon opi ag

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1958 Thompson: The Precise Measurement of Small Capacitances 251
C Y
02

CI2
D

Fig. 15-Three-terminal capacitor with

on the separate two-e
one
Ca 0b

finite lead i fpedance

Fig. 16-Comeparison grou-nd leads.
~ ~ ~ ~ separationi ofofthe3-terminal capacitors with
anid approxim-Fate equivalen-it circuit.

enyough. The ground loop impedance may be increased

considerably by threading the coaxial leads through a G
high permeability core, and this should have no effect
on the separate two-terminal pair parameters. The addi- -____________
tional admittance that results from the completion of a Fig t circuitfor a sml unane
ground loop is given in the Appendix as Ya Ybrrrb/Zo. If of a capacitance bridge.
reasonable values are substituted in this expression,
namely, The noise produced by G at room temperature may be
to 109 pF =nd isnot dtectale i a lo voltge brdgev ent crren 1Eqivalen for1
amp
cici Thsml shuiaal e mae
ma Yib = 100 pF ra = rb =Mn 10 represented by an equivalent current generator whose
root mean square value is rmsi= 1.3 X10i10 (Guf)t2. If
and Zo = 1 mH, this additional admittance is equivalent G = 10bi mho and the bandwidth Af= 1 cps this equiva-
to 10r9pF and is not detectable in a low voltage bridge, lent current is 4 X -15 amp. This should be compared
The impedance of each separate lead gives rise to the with a current of 10-14 amp produced by 1 volt across
same type of error as the impedance of the ratio arms. 1 ppF at a frequency of 1592 cps.
This is a relative error which is only significant when A thermionic tube amplifier connected directly to
measuring large capacitances and does not set a lower the bridge is the best detector for the measurement of
limit to capacitance measurements. small capacitances. If a grid resistor is used to control
For the comparison of unequal capacitances, the error the grid bias it should be of the order of t0 ohms. oThe
in the ratio of the transformer must be determined. If amplifier should be tuned and the usual precautions
the nominal-ratio is n toi the error can be determined taken against microphony and interference. A very nar-
by intercomparing n +1 equal capacitors by substitu- row bandwidth may be obtained by the use of a phase
tion and then using n in parallel against the remaining sensitive detector and low-pass filter or integrating cir-
one to form a known capacitance ratio of n to 1. The cuit. The measured noise characteristic of an amplifier
accuracy of this process requires the capacitances to be with selected tubes is shown in Fig. 18 as a function of
strictly additive, and is limited by the stability of the the total capacitance at the input. It should be noted
relative capacitances. With similar capacitors and reason- that there are noise limitations to both the current and
able temperature stability, an accuracy of1i in 106 is the voltage sensitivity. When large capacitances are
readily obtained. Small capacitors 10-100 pF are most being compared the voltage sensitivity is usually ade-
convenient and with these the loading errors are small. quate, but greater sensitivity may be obtained by using
A shielded ratio transformer of the type shown in Fig. 9 a suitable coupling network between the bridge and the
may be used as a standard to calibrate other ratios bY detector amplifier. The most direct way of increasing
using the ratio of a pair of capacitors as a transfer. the sensitivity is to increase the voltage supplied to the
SENSITIVITYt c ene
thrh l c obridge. Voltages up to about 100 are easily obtained, but
SENoITIVITY t c is c u cabove this level the transformers become rather cumber-
If the type of bridge shown in Fig. 12 is initiallY some or their effective impedances are increased, and
balanced and then unbalanced by a small change in C, their loading errors become significant. The improve-

ofynisel inathis ciruit iste conductmhoance G=This mapiaFlmttin.h teh isue aboutbe ofpFw
sensitivitylimitasuin

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252 IRE TRANSACTIONS ON INSTRUMENTATION December
-13 4mm
10 _o
~~10

E V E X E REFERENCE A 0. Im m

O8
o
1IC4 Fig. 19-Three-terminal capacitanice probe for the nmeasurenmelnt
I-:, of mechanical displacements.

0- , 1 *,*.-EIo1 Y 2B

100 1000 10 A
B
INPUT CAPACITANCE pF 3
Fig. 18-Noise charaLcteristics of a thermionic tube amplifier; EO= Lo
frequency 1592 cps, bandwidth 1 cps. I

applicatioiis become practicable.

applications Apart from measure-
ments where the capacitance itself is of primary interest, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ with
separaterepresenting
Fig. 20-Network 3-terminal
coaxial leadsa and ground admittance
loop.
there are numerous possibilities for the application of
3-terminal capacitance transducers to measurement circuited) the voltage drop in the input lead is (Y+ Ya)za
problems. As an example, consider the sensitivity that and in the output lead YZb. The resulting current con-
could be obtained with a capacitance probe for the tribution to i2 would be
measurement of mechanical displacement. The probe -(Y + Ya)Zay - YZb(Y + Yb).
could take the form of a small disk with guard as shown
in Fig. 19. A disk diameter of 4 mm spaced 0.1 mm from Hence
the reference surface would give a direct capacitance of i2
1 pF. The gap would easily support 100 volts giving a YAB = -
E
= Y[1 - Y(Za + Zb) - YaZa - YbZb] (1)
sensitivity of 10-7 pF. This corresponds to a change of
only 10-1 mm in the separation of the surfaces. Capaci- and this is the equivalent transfer admittance as an iso-
tance probes of this type and others with spherical ends lated two-terminal pair network. The potential appear-
have been particularly useful in the assembly of a pre- ing between terminals A' and B' is approximately
cise calculable capacitor where measuring sensitivities jira +t2rb where ra and rb are the resistances of the outer
of a few microinches were required. They have the great conductors, since there is very little inductive coupling
advantage that they do not contact the reference to an external circuit including the outers, provided
surface. these are not too thick. Hence VA'B'W- (Y+ Ya)ra+ Yrb. If
the external circuit is now closed and Eo=0, the current
APPENDIX in the ground loop is io = VA'B'jZO where Z0 is the im-
A 3-terminal admittaince defined at terminals 1, 2, pedance of the ground loop. The voltage drops in the
and 3 is connected by coaxial leads to separate coaxial leads due to this current in the outers only are iora and
terminations AA' and BB'. It is required to find the iorband the resulting addition to i2 is ioraY+iorb( Y+ Yb).
transfer admittance YAB and the effect on this admit- Hence, the additional admittance due to connecting
tance of an additional circuit joining A' and B'. This A'B' is
network, shown in Fig. 20, may be solved in terms of 1
the loop currents indicated and associated loop im- - [Y(r(, + rb) + Yara][Y(r. + rb) + Ybrb]
pedances, but there is some effort involved in reducing Zo
the result. Because of the very small effect of the lead /ra + rb\ Y
impedances (usually < 106),e a first approximation to = - [Y( +r)+Yr+Yr l-YrYr.
the correction is all that is necessary. This can be ob-°°
tamned by approximating the current distribution and By threading the coaxial leads through a high perme-
hence the potential drops in the leads, and super- ability core, Zo can be made »>ra+rb and the first term
imposing the current distribution that such potential is much smaller than the leads corrections given by
drops would give in the rest of the network. For 1 volt (1). The term Ya Ybrarb/Zo is independent of Y and must
applied to AA' andl for io =0 the lead currents are be considered when very small capacitances are being
ii~ Y+ Ya and i2~ Y. If the lead impedances are za and compared.
Zb (as measured from one end with the other end short When two admittances are joined in parallel so that

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1958 McGregor, et al.: New Apparatus at the NBS for Absolute Capacitance Measurement 255
the ground leads form a loop, the current in this grounid iniduced in the ground loop from stray fields, the result-
loop is due to the difference between the two separate ing current in the ground loop would contribute the
values of VA'B' that would be obtained before making equivalent of an additioilal admittance
the parallel connection. In this case, the additional ad-
mittance independent of Y and Y' is z- [ Y(r, + rb) + Ybrb].
If the error aYbrbJZo is not to be detected, then the
-[Yara - Ya'ra'F[Ybrb -Yb rb']
voltage induced in the ground loop should be less than Z6
aind in some cases it may be worthwhile to balailce the about Zo/rbtimes the voltage senisitivity of the detector.
leads and the ground admittances. If there is a voltage With a few turns oli a high permeability core Z0orb> 100.

New Apparatus at the National Bureau of Standards

for Absolute Capacitance Measurement*
M. C. McGREGORt, J. F. HERSH$, R. D. CUTKOSKY§, F. K. HARRIS§, AND F. R. KOTTER§

INTRODUCTION work of Thompson and his group at the National

T HE use of tightly coupled inductive ratio arms Standards Laboratory of Australia. By combining the
rather than resistive ratio arms in a 4-arm bridge best techniques for constructing ratio transformers,
for the comparison of impedances was suggested completely shielded 3-terminal capacitors and detec-
by Blumlein' in 1928, and the use of a 3-winding trans- tors of high sensitivity, together with a cylindrical cross
former in such a bridge circuit was described by Starr2 capacitor as a calculable standard, there is now promise
in 1932. Other bridges using Blumlein's principle have of being able to assign values to capacitance standards
been described by several workers3 in the past 30 years. comparable with, or perhaps even better than, the ac-
Historically, it is of interest to note that conjugate curacy assigned to our present standards of electro-
bridges making use of 3-winding transformers were de- motive foree and resistanee.
scribed by Elsas4 in 1888 for resistance comparison and The present paper deseribes a transformer bridge eon-
by Trowbridge5 in 1905 for capacitance and inductance structed at the National Bureau of Standards for meas-
comparisons. uring the direct capacitance of 3-terminal capacitors
Thus the basic principle of operation and the general ranging in values up to 1 yf and having a least count of
arrangement of transformer bridges have been known 1 lspf. Although the transformers and network com-
for many years. However, the possibilities of such ponents described below were designed specifically for
bridges for the precise comparison of very low value operation at 1 kc, the operation is by no means limited
capacitors had never been fully exploited before the to this frequency. Voltage output of the ratioat trans-
formers constitutes the most serious limitation lower
frequencies, but it is reasonable to suppose that, with
* Manuscript received by the PGJt,AUlUNsn,
Auustr14,i1958 relatively minor modificationls, satisfactory operation
t National Standards Lab., Chippendale, N.S.W., Australia. reailymnr odfctos,aifcoyopain
$ General Radio Co., Concord, Mass. should be possible over the audio-frequency range to at
§ National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. least 10 kc.
IBritish Patent No. 323037.
2 A. T. Starr, "A note on impedance measurement," W. Eng. and While some of the present bridge components differ
Exp.3 W., vol. 9, pp. 615-617; November, 1932. sbtnilyfromtercutrat
C H. Young, "Measuring inter-electrode capacitances," Bell substantially om their counterparts attNL
NSL ittsol
should
Labs. Rec., vol. 24, pp. 433-438; December, 1946. be understood that no more is involved generally than
H. A. MI Clark and P. B. Vanderlyn, "A. C. bridges with induc- modifications and in some cases improvements of de-
tively coupled ratio arms," Proc. lEE, vol. 96, pp. 365-378; May,
1949. signs already proven by Thompson and his group
C. XV1. Gatley and J. G. Yates, "Bridges with coupled inductive in Sydney.
ratio arms for the comparison of standards of resistance or capaci- Thr a enltl eaie ulse
nomto
tance," Proc. IEE, vol. 101, pp. 91-100; March, 1954. Teehsbe itedtie nomto ulse
tVA. ,M.OThompson, "A ,bridgBe for 7the measuroembent of pemt- up to now concerning these components, and the present
4A. Elsas, "Ueber Widerstandsmessungen mit demn Differential- paper must be considered primarily as a discussion of
ind5uctor," Ann.riPhys., vnol. 3e5,dipfp. 82n8-a83t3r;ar18f8o8.mr
vol. 20, pp. 65-76; 1905.trnfme-aibid.
e the constructional details and performance of the NBS

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